Islamophobia-cover-manifestations.qxp 07.12.2006 11:00 Seite 1 EUMC Mission Statement The European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC) is a thinking, TK-75-06-429-EN-C acting and challenging network organisation, working in all sectors of society forfor equalityequality andand diversitydiversity,, andand againstagainst racismracism andand xenophobiaxenophobia inin thethe EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion -- as a network of knowledge, a bridge-builder and a service organisation. MUSLIMS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION DISCRIMINATION AND ISLAMOPHOBIA EUMC Rahlgasse 3, A-1060 Viennaienna Tel. (43-1) 580 30-0 Fax (43-1) 580 30-691 E-mail: [email protected] Internet:Internet: http://eumc.europa.euhttp://eumc.europa.eu Muslims in the European Union Discrimination and Islamophobia EUMC 2006 Muslims in the European Union - Discrimination and Islamophobia Foreword The disadvantaged position of Muslim minorities, evidence of a rise in Islamophobia and concern over processes of alienation and radicalisation have triggered an intense debate in the European Union regarding the need for re-examining community cohesion and integration policies. A series of events such as the September 11 terrorist attacks against the US, the murder of Theo van Gogh in the Netherlands, the Madrid and London bombings and the debate on the Prophet Mohammed cartoons have given further prominence to the situation of Muslim communities. The central question is how to avoid stereotypical generalisations, how to reduce fear and how to strengthen cohesion in our diverse European societies while countering marginalisation and discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion or belief. European Muslims are a highly diverse mix of ethnicities, religious affiliation, philosophical beliefs, political persuasion, secular tendencies, languages and cultural traditions, constituting the second largest religious group of Europe’s multi-faith society. In fact Muslim communities are no different from other communities in their complexity. Discrimination against Muslims can be attributed to Islamophobic attitudes, as much as to racist and xenophobic resentments, as these elements are in many cases inextricably intertwined. The first part of the report provides contextual information on the situation of Muslims in key areas of social life, such as employment, education and housing, as well as a discussion of key issues and debates. The second part contains a comprehensive overview of the available information and data on manifestations of Islamophobia in all EU Member States. It also examines the quality of data and identifies problem areas and gaps. Finally, the report takes stock of existing government and civil society initiatives targeting Muslims and concludes with a number of opinions for policy action by EU Member State governments and the European institutions to combat Islamophobia and to foster integration and community cohesion. This report is complemented by a qualitative study into “Perceptions of discrimination and Islamophobia”, based on in-depth interviews with members of Muslim Communities in ten Member States. The interviews indicate that Islamophobia, discrimination, and socio-economic marginalisation have a primary role in generating disaffection and alienation. Muslims feel that acceptance by society is increasingly premised on ‘assimilation’ and the assumption that they should lose their Muslim identity. This sense of exclusion is of particular relevance in the face of the challenges posed by terrorism. Muslims feel that since 9/11 they have been put under a general suspicion of terrorism. Terrorism puts our democracy and fundamental principles to a test. Muslims in general want to be seen as partners who have much at stake in ensuring community safety. Security measures are needed, but they must be weighed against their impact on all communities and their human rights implications. Policy responses for 3 Muslims in the European Union - Discrimination and Islamophobia community cohesion and integration risk being based not on the promotion of equality and fundamental rights, but on the prevention of terrorism. It is important that Muslim communities do not become double victims – first of terror attacks and then of policy responses to these attacks. There is a need for more dialogue, social inclusion and non-discrimination policies in support of minority groups, which will ultimately have benefits for the entire society. Many Muslims acknowledge that they themselves also need to do more to engage with wider society, to overcome the obstacles and difficulties that they face and to take greater responsibility for integration. However, engagement and participation need also encouragement and support from mainstream society that needs to do more to accommodate diversity and remove barriers to integration. Political leaders and the institutions have a particular responsibility to send a clear message of respect to all communities and provide convincing answers. Now more than ever they must establish meaningful intercultural dialogue and promote practical initiatives to bring communities together and tackle prejudice, disaffection and marginalisation. Policy responses need to acknowledge that Muslim communities in general have experienced long-standing discrimination, whether direct or indirect, which has impacted on employment opportunities, education standards and social marginalisation. Policy responses need to react to the diversity of Muslim communities and be complemented by supporting action in communication, awareness-raising, capacity building and outreach. It is imperative that all Member States of the European Union apply the anti-discrimination Directives and make fuller use of their potential and provisions to address discrimination and promote equality. Also the media can play an important role in enhancing mutual understanding between communities of different religions and beliefs, cultures and traditions. The media has much to gain from working more closely with civil society and faith- based organisations, to counter stereotyping. The EUMC will for its part follow-up on this report updating the available data and providing advice to key stakeholders on how to turn equality principles into practice. I hope that the report will contribute to an open public debate on ways in which we can live peacefully together while respecting fundamental rights and cultural, ethnic and religious diversity without denying the existence of problems. It is also my hope that this report will be used by EU Institutions, governments, faith leaders, civil society organisations and the media as a constructive contribution to an inclusive Europe, which values its diversity while addressing the inherent challenges. Finally, I would like to take the opportunity to thank the EUMC staff and the National Focal Points for their thorough research for this report. I would also like to thank the Management Board of the EUMC for their comments and feedback. Beate Winkler EUMC Director 4 Muslims in the European Union - Discrimination and Islamophobia Contents FOREWORD............................................................................................................................................3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................7 HISTORY OF THE REPORT.................................................................................................................21 PART I – THE SOCIAL CONTEXT .......................................................................................................22 1. EUROPEAN MUSLIM COMMUNITIES – THE BACKGROUND...........................................22 1. 1. The demographic situation ...........................................................................................24 1. 2. The legal status of Islam ..............................................................................................30 1. 3. Muslim organisations ...................................................................................................31 2. ISSUES AND DEBATES .......................................................................................................31 2. 1. Marginalisation and alienation.......................................................................................32 2. 2. Muslim women............................................................................................................38 2. 3. The cartoon controversy...............................................................................................42 3. THE SITUATION IN EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION AND HOUSING ...................................44 3. 1. Employment................................................................................................................44 3. 2. Education ...................................................................................................................50 3. 3. Housing......................................................................................................................54 PART II – MANIFESTATIONS OF ISLAMOPHOBIA ...........................................................................60 1. DEFINING ‘ISLAMOPHOBIA’ ...............................................................................................60 2. FOCUSING ON RACIST VIOLENCE AND CRIME ...............................................................62 3. DATA COLLECTION.............................................................................................................63