The Trouble We’re In: Privilege, Power, and Difference Allan G. Johnson   Thetroublearounddifferenceisreallyaboutprivilegeandpower—theexistenceofprivilege andthelopsideddistributionofpowerthatkeepsitgoing.Thetroubleisrootedinalegacyweall inherited,andwhilewe’rehere,itbelongstous.Itisn’tourfault.Itwasn’tcausedbysomethingwedid ordidn’tdo.Butnowit’sallours,it’suptoustodecidehowwe’regoingtodealwithitbeforewe collectivelypassitalongtothegenerationsthatwillfollowours.  Talkingaboutpowerandprivilegeisn’teasy,whichiswhypeoplerarelydo.Thereasonforthis omissionseemstobeagreatfearofanythingthatmightmakewhitesormalesorheterosexuals uncomfortableor“pitgroupsagainsteachother,”1eventhoughgroupsarealreadypittedagainstone anotherbythestructuresofprivilegethatorganizesocietyasawhole.Thefearkeepspeoplefrom lookingatwhat’sgoingonandmakesitimpossibletodoanythingabouttherealitythatliesdeeper down,sothattheycanmovetowardthekindofworldthatwouldbebetterforeveryone.  Difference Is Not the Problem   Ignoringprivilegekeepsusinastateofunreality,bypromotingtheillusionthedifferenceby itselfistheproblem.Insomeways,ofcourse,itcanbeaproblemwhenpeopletrytoworktogether acrossculturaldividesthatsetgroupsuptothinkanddothingstheirownway.Buthumanbeingshave beenovercomingsuchdividesforthousandsofyearsasamatterofroutine.Therealillusionconnected todifferenceisthepopularassumptionthatpeoplearenaturallyafraidofwhattheydon’tknowor understand.Thissupposedlymakesitinevitablethatyou’llfearanddistrustpeoplewhoaren’tlikeyou and,inspiteofyourgoodintentions,you’llfinditallbutimpossibletogetalongwiththem.  Forallitspopularity,theideathateveryoneisnaturallyfrightenedbydifferenceisacultural myththat,morethananything,justifieskeepingoutsidersontheoutsideandtreatingthembadlyif theyhappentogetin.Themerefactthatsomethingisneworstrangeisn’tenoughtomakeusafraidof it.WhenEuropeansfirstcametoNorthAmerica,forexample,theyweren’tterriblyafraidofthepeople theyencountered,andthetypicalNativeAmericanresponsewastowelcometheseastonishingly “different”peoplewithopenarms(muchtotheirlaterregret).Scientists,psychotherapists,inventors, novelists(andtheirfans),explorers,philosophers,spiritualists,anthropologists,andthejustplain curiousarealldrawntothemysteryofwhattheydon’tknow.Evenchildren—probablythemost vulnerableformthatpeoplecomein—seemtolovetheunknown,whichiswhyparentsarealways worryingaboutwhattheirtoddlerhasgottenintonow.  Thereisnothinginherentlyfrighteningaboutwhatwedon’tknow.Ifwefeelafraid,itisn’twhat wedon’tknowthatfrightensus,it’swhatwethinkwedoknow.Theproblemisourideasaboutwhat wedon’tknow—whatmighthappennextorwhat’slurkingbehindtheunopeneddoororinthemindof the“strange”lookingguysittingacrossfromusonthenearlyemptytrain.Andhowwethinkabout suchthingsisn’tsomethingwe’rebornwith.Welearntodoitlikewelearntotieourshoes,talk,and justabouteverythingelse.Ifwetakedifferenceanddiversityasreasonsforfearandoccasionsfor trouble,it’sbecausewe’velearnedtothinkabouttheminwaysthatmakeforfearandtrouble.  Mapping Difference: Who Are We?

 1“White,MaleandWorried,”BusinessWeek,January31,1994,pp.55   Issuesofdifferencecoveralargeterritory.Ausefulwaytoputitinperspectiveiswiththe “diversitywheel”developedbyMarilynLodenandJudyRosener.2Inthehubofthewheelaresixsocial characteristics:age,race,ethnicity,gender,physicalabilityandqualities(left/righthandedness,height, andsoon),andsexualorientation.Aroundtheouterringareseveralothers,includingreligionmarital status,whetherwe’reparents,andsocialǦclassindicatorssuchaseducation,occupationandincome.  Anyonecandescribethemselvesbygoingaroundthewheel.Startinginthehub,I’mmale, EnglishǦNorwegian(asfarasIknow),white(alsoasfarasIknow),fiftyǦfouryearsold,heterosexual,and physicallyable(sofar).Intheouterring,I’mmarried,afather,andamiddleǦclassprofessionalwitha Ph.D.I’velivedinNewEnglandformostofmylife,butI’vealsolivedinothercountries.Ihavea vaguelyChristianbackground,butifIhadtoidentifymyspirituallifewithaparticulartradition,I’dlean moretowardZenBuddhismthananythingelse.IservedabriefstintintheArmyreserves.  ItwouldbeusefulifyoustoppedreadingforamomentandowhatIjustdid.Goaroundthe diversitywheelandgetasenseofyourselfintermsofit. 

  Asyoureflectontheresultsofthisexercise,itmightoccurtoyou(asitdidtome)thatthewheel doesn’tsatmuchabouttheuniqueindividualyouknowyourselftobe,yourpersonalhistory,the contentofyourcharacter,whatyoudreamandfeel.Itdoes,however,sayalotaboutthesocialreality thatshapeseveryone’slifeinpowerfulways.  Imagine,forexample,thatyouwokeuptomorrowmorningandfoundthatyourracewas differentfromwhatitwaswhenyouwenttobed(theplotofa1970moviecalledWatermelonMan).Or imaginethatyourgenderorsexualorientationhadchanged(ashappenedtothecentralcharacterin VirginiaWoolf’snovelOrlando).Howwouldthataffecthowpeopleperceiveyouandtreatyou?How woulditaffecthowyouseeyourself?Howwoulditchangethematerialcircumstancesofyourlife,such aswhereyouliveorhowmuchmoneyyouhave?Inwhatwayswouldthechangemakelifebetter? Worse?

 2BasedonTheDiversityWheel.FromWorkforceAmericabyM.LodenandJ.Rosener,McGrawǦHill,1991.  Inansweringthesequestions,trytogobeyondtheobviousconsequencestoseetheonesthat areperhapsmoresubtle.Ifyou’reheterosexualnow,forexample,andwakeupgayorlesbian,your sexualfeelingsaboutwomenandmenwouldbedifferent.Butwhatabouthowpeopleperceiveyou andtreatyouinwaysunrelatedtosex?Wouldpeopletreatyoudifferentlyatschoolorwork?Would friendstreatyoudifferently?Parentsandsiblings?Wouldyoufeellessincludedamongfriends?In similarways,whatchangeswouldyouexperienceinswitchingfromfemaletomaleorfrommaleto female,fromwhitetoAfricanAmerican,fromAsianorLatino/atoAnglo,orfromphysicallyabletousing awheelchair?Again,focusonthesocialconsequences,onhowpeopleperceiveyouandtreatyouif suchathinghappenedtoyou.Whatopportunitieswouldopenorclose?Whatrewardswouldor wouldn’tcomeyourway?  Formostpeople,shiftingonlyafewpartsofthediversitywheelwouldbeenoughtochange theirlivesdramatically.Eventhoughthecharacteristicsinthewheelmaynottelluswhoweas individualsareintheprivacyofourheartsandsouls,theymatteragreatdealinoursocietybecause theylocateusinrelationtootherpeopleandtheworldinwaysthathavehugeconsequences.  Thetroublearounddiversity,then,isn’tjustthatpeopledifferfromoneanother.Thetroubleis producedbyaworldorganizedinwaysthatencouragepeopletousedifferencetoincludeorexclude, rewardorpunish,creditordiscredit,elevateoroppress,valueordevalue,leavealoneorharass.  Thisisespeciallytrueofthecharacteristicsinthecenterofthewheel,whichhavetheadded qualityofbeingalmostimpossibletochange.It’struethatsexǦchangesurgeryisavailableandthatits possibleforsomepeopleto“pass”foraraceorsexualorientationthatisotherthanwhattheyknow themselvestobe.Butthisisquitedifferentfrombeingmarriedonedaydivorcedthenext,orgettinga newjobthatsuddenlyelevatesyourclassposition.Unliketheouterportionofthewheel,theinner portionconsistsofcharacteristicsthat,onewayoranother,wemustlearntolivewithregardlessof howwechoosetorevealourselvestoothers.  People’sperceptionsaredifficulttocontrol,however,fortheytendtoassumetheycanidentify characteristicssuchasraceandgendersimplybylookingatsomeone.Weroutinelyformquick impressionsofrace,gender,age,orsexualorientation.Sometimestheseimpressionsarebasedon blanketassumptions—thateveryone,forexample,isheterosexualuntilprovenotherwise.Orifthey look“white,”theyarewhite.Peopleusuallyformsuchimpressionswithoutthinking,andtheyrelyon theminordertoseetheworldasanorganizedandpredictableplacefromonemomenttothenext.  Wemaynotrealizehowroutinelyweformsuchimpressionsuntilwerunintosomeonewho doesn’tfitneatlyintooneofourcategories,especiallygenderorsexualorientation.Passsomeoneon thestreetwhomyoucan’tidentifyasclearlymaleorfemale,forexample,anditcanjoltyourattention andnagyouuntilyou’vefigureditout.Ourcultureallowsforonlytwogenders(comparedtoother culturesthatrecognizeseveral),andanyonewhodoesn’tfitclearlyoneortheotherisinstantly perceivedasanoutsider.Thisiswhybabiesbornwithamixtureofsexcharacteristicsareroutinely alteredsurgicallyto“fit”theculturallydefinedcategoriesoffemaleandmale.Mostofourwaysof thinkingaboutsexualityarealsobasedonsocialconstruction.Whetherhomosexualbehavioris regardedasnormalordeviant,forexample,dependsontheculturalcontext,asdoesthelarger questionofwhethersexualorientationisperceivedasdefiningthekindofhumanbeingyouareandthe wayyouliveyourlife.  Sothecharacteristicsatthecenterofthewheelareveryhardtochange,aretheobjectofquick andfirmimpressions,andcanprofoundlyaffectourlives.Clearly,diversityisn’tjustaboutthe“variety” thatthewordsuggests.Diversitycouldjustbeaboutthat,butonlyinsomeotherworld.3 

 3ThesectionsthatfollowareorganizedaroundtypesofbehaviorthatarediscussedintermsofracismbyJoeR.Feaginand MelvinP.Sykes,LivingwithRacism:TheBlackMiddleǦclassExperience(Boston:BeaconPress,1994)pp21Ǧ22.Iapplythem morebroadly. The Social Construction of Difference   ThegayAfricanAmericannovelistJamesBaldwinoncewroteanessayinwhichheofferedthe provocativeideathatthereisnosuchthingaswhiteness,orforthatmatter,blacknessor,more generally,race.“Nooneiswhitebeforehe/shecametoAmerica,”hewrote,“Ittookgenerationsanda vastamountofcoercion,beforethisbecameawhitecountry.”4  WhatdidBaldwinmean?Inthesimplestsense,hewaspointingtoabasicaspectofsocial reality:mostofwhatweexperienceas"real"isaculturalcreation.Inotherwords,it'smadeup,even thoughwedon'texperienceitthatway.  Takerace,forexample.Baldwinisn’tdenyingtherealitythatskinpigmentationvariesfromone persontoanother.Whatheissayingisthatunlessyouliveinaculturethatrecognizesthose differencesassignificantandmeaningful,theyaresociallyirrelevantandthereforedonotexist.A “blackwoman”inAfrica,therefore,whohasnotexperiencedwhiteracism,doesnotthinkofherselfas blackorexperienceherselfasblack,nordothepeoplearoundher.African,yes;awoman,yes.Butnot asablackwoman.  WhenshecomestotheUnitedStates,however,whereprivilegeisorganizedaccordingtorace, suddenlyshebecomesblackbecausepeopleassignhertoasocialcategorythatbearsthatname,and theytreatherdifferentlyasaresult.Insimilarways,aNorwegianfarmerhasnoreasontothinkof himselfaswhitesolongashe’sinNorway.ButwhenhecomestotheUnitedStates,oneofthefirst thingshediscoversisthesignificanceofbeingconsideredwhiteandtheprivilegesthatgoalongwithit. Andsoheiseagertoadopt“white”aspartofhisidentityandtomakesurethatothersacknowledgeit.  SoBaldwinistellingusthatraceandallitscategorieshavenosignificanceoutsideofsystemsof privilegeandoppression,anditisthesesystemsthatcreatedthem.5Thisiswhatsociologistscallthe “socialconstruction”ofreality.  Onewaytoseetheconstructednatureofrealityistonoticehowthedefinitionsofdifferent “races”changehistorically,byincludinggroupsatonetimethatwereexcludedinanother.TheIrish, forexample,werelongǦconsideredbythedominantwhiteAngloǦSaxonProtestantsofEnglandandthe UnitesStatestobemembersofanonǦwhite“race,”aswereItalians,Jews,andpeoplefromanumber ofEasternEuropeancountries.Assuch,ImmigrantsfromthesegroupstoEnglandandtheUnited Stateswereexcludedandsubjugatedandexploitedinmuchthesamewaytheblackswere.Thiswas especiallytrueoftheIrishinIrelandinrelationtotheBritish,whoforcenturiestreatedthemasan inferiorrace.Notehowever,thattheirskincolorwasindistinguishablefromthatofthoseconsideredto be“white.”Ifanything,theskinofmostpeopleofIrishdescentis“fairer”thanthatofothersof Europeanheritage.Buttheiractualcomplexiondidn’tmatter,becausethedominantracialgrouphas theculturalauthoritytodefinetheboundariesaround“white”asitchooses.  Whatmakessociallyconstructedrealitysopowerfulisthatwerarely,ifever,experienceitas that.Wethinkthewayourculturedefinesraceorgenderorsexualorientationissimplythewaythings areinsomeobjectivesense.Wethinktherereallyissuchathingas“race”andthatthewordsweuse simplynameanobjectiverealitythatis“outthere.”Thetruthis,however,thatoncehumanbeingsgive somethinganame—whetheritbeskincolororwhomyouliketosleepwith—thatthingacquiresa

 4JamesBaldwin,“OnBeing‘White’ andOtherLies”Essence,1984.ReprintedinDavidR.Roediger(ed.),BlackonWhite: BlackWritersonWhatitMeanstoBeWhite,pp.177—80(NewYork:SchokenBooks,1999) 5Formoreonthesocialconstructionofwhiteness,seeTheodoreW.Allen,TheInventionoftheWhiteRace,vol.1:Racial OppressionandSocialControl(NewYork:Verso,1994);vol.2:TheOriginofRacialOppressioninAngloǦAmerica(NewYork, Verso,1997);CharlesGallagher,“WhiteRacialFormation:IntotheTwentyǦFirstCentury,”inRichardDelgadoandJean Stefancic(eds.)CriticalWhiteStudies(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1997),pp.6Ǧ11;ReginaldHorsman,“Raceand ManifestDestiny:TheOriginsofAmericanRacialAngloǦSaxonism,”inDelgadoandStefancic,pp.139—44;andKathleenNeal Cleaver,“TheAntidemocraticPowerofWhiteness,”inDelgadoandStefancic,pp157—63. significanceitwouldnototherwisehave.Moreimportant,thenamequicklytakesonalifeofitsownas weforgetthesocialprocessthatcreateditandstarttreatingitas“real”inandofitself.  Thisprocessiswhatallowsustobelievethatsomethinglike“race”actuallypointstoasetof clearandunambiguouscategoriesintowhichpeoplefall,ignoringthefactthatthedefinitionofvarious raceschangesallthetimeandisriddledwithinconsistenciesandoverlappingboundaries.Butwhenthe stakesareprivilegeandpower,dominantgroupsarequitewillingtoignoreinconsistenciessolongas theresultisacontinuationoftheirprivilege.  What Is Privilege?  Nomatterwhatprivilegedgroupyoubelongto,ifyouwanttounderstandtheproblemof privilegeanddifference,thefirststumblingblockisusuallytheideaofprivilegeitself.Whenpeople hearthattheybelongtoaprivilegedgrouporbenefitfromsomethinglike“raceprivilege”or“gender privilege,”theydon’tgetit,ortheyfeelangryanddefensiveaboutwhattheydoget.Privilegehas becomeoneofthoseloadedwordsweneedtoreclaimsothatwecanuseittomaneandilluminatethe truth.Denyingthatprivilegeexistsisaseriousbarriertochange.Butfornow,It’simportanttogeta senseofwhatthewordmeansbeforewegoanyfurther. AsPeggyMcIntoshdescribesit,privilegeexistswhenonegrouphassomethingofvaluethatis deniedtootherssimplybecauseofthegroupstheybelongto,ratherthananythingthey’vedoneor failedtodo.6IfpeopletakememoreseriouslywhenIgiveaspeechthantheywouldsomeoneofcolor sayingthesamethingsinthesameway,forexample,thenI’mbenefittingfromwhiteprivilege.Thata heterosexualblackwomancanfeelfreetotalkaboutherlifeinwaysthatrevealthefactshe’smarried toamanisaformofprivilegebecauseLesbiansandgaymencannotcasuallyrevealtheirsexual orientationwithoutputtingthemselvesatrisk. Noticethatinalltheseexamples,it’srelativelyeasyforpeopletobeunawareofhowprivilege affectsthem.WhenPeoplecomeuptomeafterIgiveaspeech,forexample,itdoesn’toccurtome thatthey’dprobablybemorecriticalandlesspositiveifIwereLatinoorawomanorgay.Idon’tfeel privilegedinthatmoment.IjustfeelthatIdidagoodjob,andIenjoytherewardsthataresupposedto gowithit. Theexistenceofprivilegedoesn’tmeanthatIdidn’tdoagoodjobofcourse,orthatIdon’t deservecreditforit.WhatitdoesmeanisthatI’malsogettingsomethingthatotherpeoplearedenied, peoplewhoarelikemeineverywayexceptforthegender,race,andsexualorientationcategoriesthey belongto.Inthissense,myprivilegedstatusdoesn’tdeterminemyoutcomes,butitisdefinitelyan assetthatmakesitmorelikelythatwhatevertalent,abilityandaspirationsIhavewillresultin somethinggoodforme.7Inthesameway,beingfemale,orofcolor,orhomosexualdoesn’tdetermine people’soutcomes,buttheyareturnedintoliabilitiesthatmakeitlesslikelythattheirtalent,abilityand aspirationswillberecognizedandrewarded. Theeaseofnotbeingawareofprivilegeisanaspectofprivilegeitself,whatsomecall“the luxuryofobliviousness”(orwhatphilosopherscall“epistemicprivilege”).Awarenessrequireseffort andcommitment.BeingabletocommandtheattentionoflowerǦclassindividualswithouthavingto giveitreturnisakeyaspectofprivilege.AfricanAmericans,forexample,havetopaycloseattentionto whitesandwhitecultureandgettoknowthemwellenoughtoavoiddispleasingthem,sincewhite controljobs,schoolsthepolice,andmostotherresourcesandsourcesofpower.Raceprivilegegives whiteslittlereasontopayalotofattentiontoAfricanAmericansortohowwhiteprivilegeaffects

 6Forhernowclassicstatementoftheconceptofprivilege,seePeggyMacIntosh,“WhitePrivilegeandMalePrivilege:A PersonalAccountofComingtoSeeCorrespondencesThroughWorkinWomen’sStudies”widelyreprinted. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_McIntosh 7Ibid. them.Inotherwords,“TobewhiteinAmericameansnothavingtothinkaboutit.”8Wecouldsaythe samethinaboutmalenessorheterosexualityoranyotherbasisforprivilege.Sostrongisthesenseof entitlementbehindthisluxurythatmales,whites,andotherscanfeelputuponinthefaceofeventhe mildestinvitationtopayattentiontoissuesofprivilege.“weshouldn’thavetolookatthisstuff,”they seemtosay,“itisn’tfair.”  Two Types of Privilege  AccordingtoMacIntosh,privilegecomesintwotypes.Thefirstisbasedonwhatshecalls “unearnedentitlements,”whicharethingsthatallpeopleshouldhave,suchasfeelingsafeinpublic placesorworkinginaplacewheretheyfeeltheybelongandarevaluedforwhattheycancontribute. Whenanunearnedentitlementisrestrictedtocertaingroups,however,itbecomesaformofprivilege shecalls“unearnedadvantage.” Insomecases,it’spossibletodoawaywithunearnedadvantageswithoutanyonehavingtolose out.Iftheworkplacechangessothateveryonewasvaluedforwhattheycouldcontribute,forexample, thatprivilegewoulddisappearwithoutthedominantgroupshavingtogiveuptheirownsensethat theyarevaluedfortheircontributions.Theunearnedentitlementwouldthenbeavailabletopalland, assuch,wouldnolongerbeaformofunearnedadvantage. Inmanyothercases,however,unearnedadvantagesgivedominantgroupsacompetitiveedge theyarereluctanttoevenacknowledge,muchlessgiveup.ThisisparticularlytrueoflowerǦ,workingǦ, andlowerǦmiddleǦclasswhitesandmaleswhoknowalltowellthepricetheypayforalackofclass privilegeandhowharditistoimprovetheirlivesandhangontowhatthey’vemanagedtoachieve. Theirlackofclassprivilege,howevercanblindthemtothefactthattheculturalvaluingofwhitenessor malenessovercolorandfemalenessgivesthemanedgeinmostsituationsthatinvolveevaluationsof credibilityorcompetence.Togiveupthatadvantagewoulddoubleoreventripletheamountof competition.Thiswouldespeciallyaffectwhitemales,whoareashrinkingnumericalminorityoftheUS population.Alossofraceandgenderprivilegewouldleveltheplayingfieldtoadmitwhitewomenand peopleofcolor,acombinedgroupthatoutnumberswhitemalesbyalargemargin. Theotherformofprivilege—whatMacIntoshcalls“conferreddominance”—goesastepfurther bygivingonegrouppoweroveranother.Thecommonpatternofmencontrollingconversationswith women,forexample,isgroundedinaculturalassumptionthatmenaresupposedtodominatewomen. Anadolescentboywhoappearstoowillingtodefertohismotherrisksbeingcalleda“mama’sboy,”in thesamewaythatahusbandwhoappearsinanywaysubordinatetohiswifeisoftenlabeled “henpecked”(orworse).Thecounterpartforgirlscarriesnosuchstigma.“Daddy’sgirl”isn’t consideredaninsultinthisculture,andthelanguagecontainsnospecificinsultingtermsforawoman whoisunderthecontrolofherhusband. Conferreddominancealsomanifestsitselfinraceprivilege.InhisbookTheRageofaPrivileged Class,forexample,theAfricanAmericanjournalistEllisCosetellsthestoryofanAfricanAmerican lawyer,apartnerinalargefirm,whogoestotheofficeearlyoneSaturdaymorningtocatchuponsome workandisconfrontedneartheelevatorbyarecentlyhiredwhiteattorney. “CanIhelpyou?”thewhitemansayspointedly. Thepartnershakeshisheadandtriestopass,butthewhitemanstepsinhiswayandrepeats whatisnowachallengetotheman’sverypresenceinthebuilding:“CanIhelpyou?”Onlythendoes thepartnerrevealhisidentitytotheyoungmanwhothenstepsasidetolethimpass.Theyoungwhite manhadnoreasontoassumetherighttocontroltheoldermanstandingbeforehim,exceptthereason

 8RobertTerry,“TheNegativeImpactofWhiteValues,”inBenjaminPBowserandRaymondHunt(eds.),ImpactsofRacismon WhiteAmericans(NewburyPark,California:SagePublications,1981),p.120 providedbytheculturalassumptionofwhiteracialdominancethatcanoverrideanyclassadvantagea personofcolormighthave.9 Themilderformsofunearnedadvantageusuallychangefirstbecausetheyaretheeasiestfor privilegedgroupstogiveup.Overthelastseveraldecades,forexample,nationalsurveysshowasteady declineinthepercentageofwhitesintheUnitedStateswhoexpressovertlyracistattitudestoward peopleofcolor.Thistrendisreflectedindiversitytrainingprogramsthatusuallyfocusonappreciating oratleasttoleratingdifferences—inotherwords,extendingunearnedentitlementstoeveryone insteadofthedominantgroupalone. It’smuchharder,howevertodosomethingaboutpowerandtheunequaldistributionof resourcesandrewards.Thisiswhyissuesofconferreddominanceandthestrongerformsofunearned advantagegetmuchlessattention,andwhy,whentheyareraised,theyoftenprovokehostile defensiveness,especiallyfromthosewhostrugglewithalackofclassprivilege.Perhapsmorethanany otherfactor,thisreluctancetocometotermswithmoreseriousandentrenchedformsofprivilegeis whymostdiversityprogramsproducelimitedandshortǦlivedresults.  What Privilege Looks Like in Everyday Life  Inonewayoranother,privilegeshowsupinthedailydetailsofpeople’slivesinalmostevery socialsetting.Considerthefollowingexamplesofraceprivilege.10 Thisisalonglistbecausethe detailsofpeople’slivesaremanyandvaried.Resistthetemptationtogothroughitquickly.Takeyour timeandtrytoidentifysituationsinwhicheachmightoccur.  o Whitesarelesslikelythanblackstobearrested;oncearrested,theyarelesslikelytobe convictedand,onceconvicted,lesslikelytogotoprison,regardlessofthecrimeor circumstances.Whitesforexample,constitute90percentofthosewhouseillegaldrugs,but lessthanhalfofthoseinprisonondrugǦusechargesarewhite. o Althoughmanysuperstarprofessionalathletesareblack,ingeneralblackplayersareheldto higherstandardsthanwhites.Itiseasierforagood,butnotgreat”whiteplayertomakea professionalteamthanitisforasimilarblack. o Whitesaremorelikelythancomparableblackstohaveloanapplicationsapproved,andless likelytobegivenpoorinformationortherunaroundduringtheapplicationprocess. o Whitesarechargedlowerpricesfornewandusedcarsthanpeopleofcolorare,andbecauseof residentialsegregation,whiteshaveaccesstohigherǦqualitygoodsofallkindsatcheaperprices. o Whitescanchoosewhethertobeconsciousoftheirracialidentityortoignoreitandregard themselvesassimplyhumanbeings. o Whitesaremorelikelytocontrolconversationsandbeallowedtogetawaywithit,andtohave theirideasandcontributionstakenseriously,includingthosethatweresuggestedpreviouslyby apersonofcoloranddismissed. o Whitescangenerallyassumethatnationalheroes,successmodels,andotherfiguresheldupfor generaladmirationwillbeoftheirrace. o Whitescangenerallyassumethatwhentheyareoutinpublic,theywon’tbechallengedand askedtoexplainwhatthey’redoing,norwilltheybeattackedbyhategroupssimplebecauseof theirrace.

 9EllisCose,TheRageofaPrivilegedClass:WhyDoProsperousBlacksStillHavetheBlues?,HarperPerennial,1995 10MuchofwhatfollowsisdrawnfromJosephBarndt,DismantlingRacism:TheContinuingChallengetoWhiteAmerica (Minneapolis:Augsburg,1991);Cose,TheRageofaPrivilegedClass;FeaginandSikes,LivingWithRacism;PaulKivel,Uprooting Racism:HowWhitePeopleCanWorkforRacialJustice(Philadelphia:NewSocietyPublishers,1996);McIntosh,“WhitePrivilege andMalePrivilege”;andDavidT.Wellman,PortraitsofWhiteRacism,2nded.,(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1993) o Whitescanassumethatwhentheygooutshopping,they’llbetreatedasseriouscustomers,not aspotentialshopliftersorpeoplewithoutmoneytomakeapurchase.Whentheytrytocasha checkoruseacreditcard,theycanassumetheywon’tbehassledforadditionalidentification andwillbegiventhebenefitofthedoubt. o Whiterepresentationingovernmentandtherulingcirclesofcorporations,universities,and otherorganizationsisdisproportionatelyhigh. o Mostwhitearenotsegregatedintocommunitiesthatisolatethemfromthebestjob opportunities,schoolsandcommunityservices. o Whiteshavegreateraccesstoqualityeducationandhealthcare. o Whitesaremorelikelytobegivenearlyopportunitiestoshowwhattheycandoatwork,tobe identifiedaspotentialcandidatesforpromotion,tobementored,tobegivenasecondchance whentheyfail,andtobeallowedtotreatfailureasalearningexperienceratherthanasan indicationofwhotheyareandtheshortcomingsoftheirrace. o Whitescanassumethatracewon’tbeusedtopredictwhetherthey’llfitinatworkorwhether teammateswillfeelcomfortableworkingwiththem. o Whitescansucceedwithoutotherpeoplebeingsurprised. o Whitesdon’thavetodealwithanendlessandexhaustingstreamofattentiontotheirrace. Theycansimplytaketheirraceforgrantedasunremarkabletotheextentofexperiencing themselvesasnotevenhavingarace.UnlikesomeofmyAfricanAmericanstudents,for example,Idon’thavepeoplecominguptomeandtreatingmeasifIweresomeexotic“other,” gushingabouthow“cool”ordifferentIam,wantingtoknowwhereI’m“from,”andreaching outtotouchmyhair. o Whitesdon’tfindthemselvesslottedintooccupationsidentifiedwiththeirracelikeblacksare slottedintosupportpositionsorAsiansintoengineering,forexample. o Whitesaren’tconfusedwithotherwhites,asifallwhiteslookalike.They’renoticedfortheir individuality,andtheytakeoffensewheneverthey’recharacterizedasmembersofacategory (suchas“white”)ratherthanbeingperceivedandtreatedasindividuals. o Whitescanreasonablyexpectthatiftheyworkhardand“playbytherules,”they’llgetwhat theydeserve,andtheyfeeljustifiedincomplainingiftheydon’t.Itissomethingotherracial groupscannotrealisticallyexpect.  Inthefollowinglistforgenderprivilege,notehowsomeitemsrepeatfromthelistonrace,but thatotheritemsdonot.  o InmostprofessionsandupperǦleveloccupations,menareheldtoalowerstandardthan women.Itiseasierfora“goodbutnotgreat”malelawyertomakepartnerthatitisfora comparablewoman. o Menarechargedlowerpricesfornewandusedcars. o Ifmendopoorlyatsomethingormakeamistakeorcommitacrime,theycangenerallyassume thatpeoplewon’tattributethefailuretotheirgender.Thekidswhoshootteachersand schoolmatesarealmostalwaysboys,butrarelyisthefactthatallofthisviolenceisbeingdone bymalesraisedasanimportantissue. o Mencanusuallyassumethatnationalheroes,successmodels,andotherfiguresheldupfor generaladmirationwillbemen. o Mencangenerallyassumethatwhentheygooutinpublic,theywon’tbesexuallyharassedor assaulted,andiftheyarevictimized,theywon’tbeaskedtoexplainwhattheyweredoing there. o Malerepresentationingovernmentandtherulingcirclesofcorporationsandother organizationsisdisproportionatelyhigh. o Menaremorelikelytobegivenearlyopportunitiestoshowwhattheycandoatwork,tobe identifiedatpotentialcandidatesforpromotion,tobementored,tobegivenasecondchance whentheyfail,andtobeallowedtotreatfailureasalearningexperienceratherthanas indicationofwhotheyareandtheshortcomingsoftheirgender. o Menaremorelikelythanwomentocontrolconversationsandtobeallowedtogetawaywithit, andtohavetheirideasandcontributionstakenseriously,eventhosethatweresuggested previouslybyawomananddismissedorignored. o Mostmencanassumethattheirgenderwont’beusedtodeterminewhetherthey’llfitinat workorwhetherteammateswillfeelcomfortablewiththem. o Mencansucceedwithoutothersbeingsurprised. o Mendon’thavetodealwithanendlessandexhaustingstreamofattentiondrawntotheir gender(forexamplehowsexuallyattractivetheyare). o Mendon’tfindthemselvesslottedintoanarrowrangeofoccupationsidentifiedwiththeir genderlikewomenareslottedintocommunityrelations,humanresources,socialwork, elementaryschoolteaching,librarianship,nursing,clericalandsecretarial. o Mencanreasonablyexpectthatiftheyworkhardand“playbytherules,”they’llgetwhatthey deserve,andtheyfeeljustifiedincomplainingiftheydon’t. o Thestandardsusedtoevaluatemenasmenareconsistentwiththestandardsusedtoevaluate theminotherroles,suchasoccupations.Standardsusedtoevaluatewomenaswomenare oftendifferentfromthoseusedtoevaluatetheminotherroles.Forexample,amancanbe botha“realman”andasuccessfulaggressivelawyer,whileanaggressivewomanlawyermay succeedasalawyerbutbejudgedasnotmeasuringupasawoman.   Inthefollowinglistregardingsexualorientation,noteagainitemsincommonwiththeother twolistsanditemspeculiartothisformofprivilege.  o Heterosexualsarefreetorevealandlivetheirintimaterelationshipsopenly—byreferringto theirpartnersbyname,recountingexperiences,goingoutinpublictogether,displayingpictures ontheirdesksatwork—withoutbeingaccusedof“flaunting”theirsexualityorrisking discrimination. o Heterosexualscanrestassuredthatwhetherthey’rehired,promoted,orfiredfromajobwill havenothingtodowiththeirsexualorientation,anaspectofthemselvesthattheycannot change. o Heterosexualscanmoveaboutinpublicwithoutfearofbeingharassedorphysicallyattacked becauseoftheirsexualorientation. o Heterosexualsdon’truntheriskofbeingreducedtoasingleaspectoftheirlives,asifbeing heterosexualsummedupthekindofpersontheyare.Insteadtheycanbeviewedandtreated ascomplexhumanbeingswhohappentobeheterosexual. o Heterosexualscanusuallyassumethatnationalheroes,successmodels,andotherfiguresheld upforgeneraladmirationwillbeassumedtobeheterosexual. o Mostheterosexualscanassumethattheirsexualorientationwon’tbeusedtodetermine whetherthey’llfitinatworkorwhetherteammateswillfeelcomfortableworkingwiththem. o Heterosexualscanmarrytheircompanionofchoice,andautomaticallyreceiveallofthelegal rightsandprivilegesthataccompanymarriage,forexample,filingjointtaxes,community propertyrights,medicaldecisionǦmakingrights,survivorshiprights,etc. o Heterosexualsdon’thavetoworrythattheirsexualorientationwillbeusedasaweaponagainst them,tounderminetheirachievementsorpower. o Heterosexualscanturnonthetelevisionorgotothemoviesandbeassuredofseeing characters,newsreports,andstoriesthatreflecttherealityoftheirlives. o Heterosexualscanlivewheretheywantwithouthavingtoworryaboutneighborswho disapproveoftheirsexualorientation. o Heterosexualscanchooseamongawidevarietyoffamilylifestylesincludingcomplete reproductionrightsandadoption,andthelawsandsocietywillsupporttheirdecisionsas personalrights. o Heterosexualscanliveinthecomfortofknowingthatotherpeople’sassumptionsabouttheir sexualorientationarecorrect.   Regardlessofwhichgroupwe’retalkingabout,privilegegenerallyallowspeopletoassumea certainlevelofacceptance,inclusionandrespectintheworld,tooperatewithinarelativelywide comfortzone.Privilegeincreasestheoddsofhavingthingsyourownway,ofbeingabletosetthe agendainasocialsituationanddeterminetherulesandstandardsandhowthey’reapplied.Privilege grantstheculturalauthoritytomakejudgmentsaboutothersandtohavethosejudgmentsstick.It allowspeopletodefinerealityandtohaveprevailingdefinitionsofrealityfittheirexperience.Privilege meansbeingabletodecidewhogetstakenseriously,whoreceivesattention,whoisaccountableto whomandforwhat.Anditgrantsapresumptionofsuperiorityandsocialpermissiontoactonthat presumptionwithouthavingtoworryaboutbeingchallenged.  Tohaveprivilegeistobeallowedtomovethroughyourlifewithoutbeingmarkedinwaysthat identifyyouasanoutsider,asexceptionalor“other,”tobeexcluded,ortobeincludedbutalwayswith conditions.AsPaulKivelpointsout,“IntheUnitedStates,apersonisconsideredamemberofthe loweststatusgroupfromwhichtheyhaveanyheritage.”11Thismeansthatifyoucomefromseveral ethnicgroups,theonethatlowersyourstatusistheonethatlowersyourstatusistheonethatyou’re mostlikelytobetaggedwith,asin“She’spartJewish,”or“He’spartVietnamese,”butrarely,“She’s partwhite.”Infacthavinganyblackancestryisstillenoughtobeclassifiesasentirelyblackinmany people’seyes(inaccordancewiththe“onedroprule”thathasbeenastrikingfeatureofracerelations intheUnitedStatesforseveralcenturies).PeoplearetaggedwithotherlabelsthatpointtothelowestǦ statusgrouptheybelongto,asin“womandoctor”or“blackwriter,”butnever“whitelawyer,”or “malesenator.”Anycategorythatlowersourstatusrelativetootherscanbeusedtomarkus;tobe privilegedistogothroughlifewiththerelativeeaseofbeingunmarked.12  Ifyou’remaleorheterosexualorwhiteandyoufindyourselfshakingyourheadattheforegoing descriptionsofprivilege—“thisisn’ttrueforme”—itmightbeduetothecomplexandsometimes paradoxicalwaythatprivilegeworksinsociallife.  Privilege as Paradox   Individualsaretheoneswhoexperienceprivilegeorthelackofit,butindividualsaren’twhatis actuallyprivileged.Insteadprivilegeisdefinedinrelationshiptoagrouporsocialcategory.Inother words,raceprivilegeismoreaboutwhitepeoplethanitisaboutwhitepeople.I’mnotraceprivileged becauseofwhoIamasaperson.Whitenessisprivilegedinthissociety,andIhaveaccesstothat privilegeonlywhenpeopleidentifymeasbelongingtothiscategory“white.”Idoordon’treceiverace privilegebasedonwhichcategorypeopleputmeinwithouttheirknowingasingleotherthingabout me.  Thismeansthatyoudon’tactuallyhavetobewhiteormaleorheterosexualtoreceivethe privilegeattachedtothesecategories.Allyouhavetodoisconvincepeopleyoubelongtothe appropriatecategory.ThefilmShakespeareinLoveforexample,issetinElizabethanEngland,where  11PaulKivel,UprootingRacism,pp112 12SeeRuthFrankenberg,TheSocialConstructionofWhiteness:WhiteWomen,RaceMatters(Minneapolis:Universityof MinneapolisPress,1993) actingonthestagewasaprivilegereservedformen.ThecharacterViola(thewomanShakespearefalls inlovewith)wantsmorethananythingtoactonthestage,andfinallyrealizesherdreamnotby becomingaman,butbysuccessfullypresentingherselfasone.That’sallittakes.  Insimilarways,youcanloseprivilegeifpeoplethinkyoudon’tbelongtoaparticularcategory. Mysexualorientationisheterosexual,forexample,whichentitlesmetoheterosexualprivilege,but onlyifpeopleidentifymeasheterosexual.IfIweretoimmediatelyannouncetoeveryonethatI’mgay, Iwouldimmediatelylosemyaccesstoheterosexualprivilege(unlesspeoplerefusedtobelieveme), eventhoughIwouldstillbe,infact,aheterosexualperson.AsCharlotteBunchputit,“ifyoudon’thave asenseifwhatprivilegeis,Isuggestthatyougohomeandannouncetoeverybodythatyouknow—a roommate,yourfamily,thepeopleyouworkwith—thatyou’reaqueer.Trybeingqueerforaweek.”13 Whenitcomestoprivilege,then,itdoesn’treallymatterwhowereallyare.Whatmattersiswhoother peoplethinkweare,whichistosay,thesocialcategoriestheyputusin.  Severalimportantconsequencesfollowfromthisparadoxofprivilege.First,privilegeisrooted insocietiesandorganizationsasmuchasit’srootedinpeople’spersonalitiesandhowtheyperceiveand reacttooneanother.Thismeansthatdoingsomethingabouttheproblemofprivilegetakesmorethan changingindividuals.AsHarryBrodwroteaboutgenderprivilege:  Weneedtobeclearthatthereisnosuchthingasgivingupone’sprivilegetobe“outside”thesystem. Oneisalwaysinthesystem.Theonlyquestioniswhetheroneispartofthesysteminawaywhich challengesorstrengthensthestatusquo.PrivilegeisnotsomethingItakeandwhichIthereforehavethe optionofnottaking.Itissomethingthatsocietygivesme,andunlessIchangetheinstitutionswhichgive ittome,theywillcontinuetogiveit,andIwillcontinuetohaveit,howevernobleandegalitarianmy intentions.14  Societiesandorganizationspromoteprivilegeincomplicatedways,whichwe’lllookatinlater chapters.Fornow,it’simportanttobeawarethatwedon’thavetobespecialorevenfeelspecialin ordertohaveaccesstoprivilege,becauseprivilegedoesn’tderivefromwhoweareorwhatwe’ve done.Itisasocialarrangementthatdependsonwhichcategorywehappentobesortedintobyother peopleandhowtheytreatusasaresult. Theparadoxicalexperienceofbeingprivilegedwithoutfeelingprivilegedisasecond consequenceofthefactthatprivilegeismoreaboutsocialcategoriesthanwhopeopleare.Ithastodo primarilywiththepeopleweuseasstandardsorcomparison—whatsociologistscall“reference groups.”Weusereferencegroupstoconstructasenseofhowgoodorbad,highorlowweareinthe schemeofthings.Todothis,weusuallydon’tlookdownwardinthesocialhierarchybuttopeoplewe identifyasbeingonthesamelevelorhigherthanourown.Sopointingouttosomeonetosomeonein theUnitedStateswholivesinpovertythatthey’rebetteroffthanimpoverishedpeopleinIndiadoesn’t makethemfeelmuchbetter,becausepeopleintheUnitedStatesdon’tuseIndiansasareference group.Instead,theywillcomparethemselveswiththosewhoseemliketheminkeyrespectsandseeif they’redoingbetterorworsethanthem. Sincebeingwhiteisvaluedinthissociety,whiteswilltendtocomparethemselveswithother whites,notwithpeopleofcolor.Inthesameway,menwilltendtocomparethemselveswithother menandnotwithwomen.Whatthismeans,however,isthatwhiteswilltendnottofeelprivilegedby theirracewhentheycomparethemselveswiththeirreferencegroup,becausetheirreferencegroupis alsowhite.Inthesameway,mendon’tfeelprivilegedbytheirgenderincomparisonwithothermen, becausegenderdoesn’televatethemaboveothermen.Apartialexceptiontothishierarchythatexists amongmenbetweenheterosexualsandhomosexuals:Heterosexualmenaremorelikelytoconsider  13CharlotteBunch,“NotforLesbiansOnly”:Quest11no2(Fall1975) 14HarryBrod,“WorkClothesandLeisureSuits:TheClassBasisandBiasoftheMen’sMovement”inMichaelKimmeland MichaelA.Messner(eds.),Men’sLives(NewYork:Macmillan,1989),p280.Italicsinoriginal. themselves“realmen”andthereforesociallyvaluedabovegaymen.Butevenhere,themerefactof beingmaleisn’texperiencedasaformofprivilege,becausegaymenarealsomale. Anexceptiontothesepatternscanoccurforthosewhoareprivilegedbygenderorracebut findthemselvesrankedlowintermsofsocialclass.Toprotectthemselvesfromfeelingandbeingseen onthebottomoftheladder,theymaygooutoftheirwaytocomparethemselvestowomenorpeople ofcolorbyemphasizingtheirsupposedgenderorracialsuperiority.Thiscanappearasanexaggerated senseofmasculinity,forexample,orasovertattemptstoputwomenorpeopleofcolor“intheir place,”includingbyharassment,violence,orbehaviorthatisopenlycontemptuousordemeaning. Acorollarytobeingprivilegedwithoutknowingitistobeontheothersideofprivilegewithout necessarilyfeelingthat.Forexample,Isometimeshearawomansaysomethinglike,“I’veneverbeen oppressedasawoman.”Oftenthisissaidtochallengetheideathatmaleprivilegeexistsatall.Butthis confusesthatsocialpositionoffemalesandmalesassocialcategorieswithonesubjectiveexperience ofbelongingtooneofthosecategories,Theyaren’tthesame.Forvariousreasons—includingsocialǦ classprivilegeorsubmissiontoareligionoranunusualfamilyexperienceorsimplybeingyoung—she mayhaveavoidedadirectconfrontationwithmanyoftheconsequencesofbeingfemaleinasociety thatprivilegesmaleness.Orshemayhavemanagestoovercomethemtoadegreethatshedoesn’tfeel hamperedbythem.Orshemaybeengagingindenial.Orshemaybeunawareofhowsheis discriminatedagainst(unaware,perhaps,thatbeingawomanisthereasonherprofessorsignoreherin class)ormayhaveinternalizedhersubordinatestatusthatshedoesn’tseeitasaproblem(thinking, perhaps,thatwomenareignoredbecausetheyaren’tintelligentenoughtosayanythingworthlistening to).Regardlessofwhatherexperienceisbasedon,itisjustthat—herexperience—anditdoesn’thave tosquarewiththelargersocialrealitythateveryone(includingher)mustdealwithonewayoranother. It’slikelivinginarainyclimateandsomehowavoidingbeingrainedonyourself.It’sstillarainyplaceto beandgettingwetissomethingmostpeoplehavetodealwith.  The Paradox that Privilege Doesn’t Necessarily Make You Happy   Ioftenhearmendenytheexistenceofmaleprivilegebysayingtheydon’tfeelhappyorfulfilled intheirownlives.Theyreasonthatyoucan’tbebothprivilegedandmiserable,or,asonemanputit, “privilegemeans‘havingallthegoodies,’”soifyoudon’tfeelgood,thenyoumustnotfeelprivileged.  Thisisacommonreactionthatisrelatedtothedifferencebetweenindividualsonthatonehand andsocialcategoriesontheother.Knowingthatsomeonebelongstooneormoreoftheprivileged categories,“white,”or“heterosexual,”or“male,”doesn’tnecessarilytelluswhatlifeislikeforthem. Belongingtoaprivilegedcategoryimprovestheoddsinfavorofcertainkindsofadvantagesand preferentialtreatment,butitdoesn’tguaranteeanythingforanygivenindividual.Beingbornwhite, male,andupperǦclass,forexample,isapowerfulcombinationofprivilegedcategoriesthatwould certainlyputapersoninlineforallkindsofvaluedthings.Bttheycouldstillwinduplosingitallinthe stockmarketandlivingunderabridgeinacardboardbox.Nonetheless,eventhoughtheprivilege attachedtorace,gender,andsocialclassdidn’tworkoutforthem,theprivilegeitselfstillexistsasa factofsociallife. Anotherreasonprivilegeandhappinessoftendon’tgotogetheristhatprivilegecanexactacost fromthosewhohaveit.Tohaveprivilegeistoparticipateinasystemthatconfersadvantageand dominanceattheexpenseofotherpeople,andthatcancausedistresstothosewhobenefitfromit. Whiteprivilege,forexample,comesatahugecosttopeopleofcolor,andonsomelevelwhitepeople muststrugglewiththisknowledge.That’swherealltheguiltcomesfromandthelengthstowhich whitepeoplewillgotoavoidfeelingandlookingatit.Insimilarways,maleprivilegeexactsacostas mencompetewithothermenandstrivetoprovetheirmanhoodsothattheycancontinuetobe countedamong“realmen”whoareworthyofbeingsetapartfrom—andabove—women.Itshould comeasnosurprisethatmenoftenfeelunhappyandthattheyassociatetheirunhappinesswiththe factofbeingmen.  Oppression: The Flip Side of Privilege  Foreverysocialcategorythatisprivileged,oneormoreothercategoriesareoppressedin relationtoit.Theconceptofoppressionpointstosocialforcesthattendto“press”uponpeople,and holdthemdown,tohemtheminandblocktheirpursuitofagoodlife.Justasprivilegetendstoopen doorsofopportunity,oppressiontendstoslamthemshut.15  Likeprivilege,oppressionresultsfromthesocialrelationshipbetweenprivilegedandoppressed categories,whichmakesitpossibleforindividualstovaryintheirpersonalexperienceofbeing oppressed(“I’veneverbeenoppressedasawoman”).Thisalsomeans,however,thatinordertohave theexperienceofbeingoppressed,itisnecessarytobelongtoanoppressedcategory.Inotherwords, mencannotbeoppressedasmen,justaswhitescannotbeoppressedaswhitesorheterosexualsas heterosexualsbecauseagroupcanbeoppressedonlyifthereexistsanothergroupthathasthepower tooppressthem.  Aswesawearlier,peopleinprivilegedcategoriescancertainlyfeelbadinwaysthatresemble oppression.Men,forexample,canfeelburdenedbywhattheytaketobetheirresponsibilitytoprovide fortheirfamilies.Ortheycanfeellimitedandevendamagedbytherequirementthat“realmen”must avoidexpressingfeelingsotherthananger.Butbelongingtoaprivilegedcategorycoststhem somethingthatmayfeeloppressive,tocallitoppressiondistortsthenatureofwhatishappeningto themandwhy.  Itignores,forexample,thefactthatthecostofmaleprivilegeisfaroutweighedbythebenefits, whiletheoppressivecostofbeingfemaleisnotoutǦweighedbycorrespondingbenefits.Misapplying thelabelof“oppression”alsotemptsusintothefalseargumentthatifmenandwomenareboth oppressedbecauseofgender,thenoneoppressionbalancestheotherandnoprivilegecanbesaidto exist.Sowhenwetrytolabelthepainthanmenfeelbecauseofgender(orthatwhitesfeelbecauseof racism,andsoon)whetherwecallit“oppression”orsimply“pain”makesahugedifferenceinhowwe perceivetheworldandhowitworks.  Thecomplexityofsystemsofprivilegemakesitpossible,ofcourse,formentoexperience oppressioniftheyalsohappentobepeopleofcolororqueerorinalowersocialclass,butnotbecause theyaremale.Inthesameway,whitescanexperienceoppressionaswomen,homosexuals,or membersoflowerclasses,butnotbecausethey’rewhite.  Notealsothatbecauseoppressionresultsfromrelationsbetweensocialcategories,itisnot possibletobeoppressedbysocietyitself.Livinginaparticularsocietycanmakepeoplefeelmiserable, butwecan’tcallthatmisery“oppression”unlessitarisesfrombeingonthelosingendinasystemof privilege.Thatcan’thappeninrelationtosocietyasawhole,becauseasocietyisn’tsomethingthatcan betherecipientofprivilege.Onlypeoplecandothisbybelongingtoprivilegedcategoriesinrelationto othercategoriesthataren’t.  Finally,it’simportanttopintoutthatbelongingtoaprivilegedcategorythathasanoppressive relationshipwithanotherisn’tthesameasbeinganoppressivepersonwhobehavesinoppressiveways. Thatwhitesasasocialcategoryoppresspeopleofcolorasasocialcategory,forexample,isasocial fact.Thatdoesn’t,however,tellushowaparticularwhitepersonthinksorfeelsaboutparticular peopleofcolororbehavestowardsthem.Thiscanbeasubtledistinctiontohangonto,buthangonto itwemustifwe’regoingtomaintainaclearideaofwhatoppressionisandhowitworks.   15Foraclassicdiscussionofthemeaningofoppression,seeMarilynFrye,ThePoliticsofReality:EssaysinFeministTheory (Trumansburg,NY:CrossingPress,1983)pp.1ǦǦ16   Allan G. Johnson