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The Fall of the Umayyads & the Rise of the Franks Introduction In 750, the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II dies after fleeing defeat in the Battle of the Zab by the rival Islamic family of the Abbasids. Fifty years Later Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of the Romans or, as he preferred it, most serene Augustus crowned by God, the great, peaceful emperor ruling the Roman empire. These events might not seem to have much in common, but at one time it seemed, at least to the people living in that time that it would be an Islamic empire that came to rule over Europe, just as it came to rule over Syria, North Africa, and Iberia. So, what happened? How was the destiny of the Umayyads thwarted? How was it Franks and not Arabs that come to define the Middle ages and Europe? Setting the Stage and Introducing the Players This paper will focus on a period of roughly three decades in which the fortunes of the Umayyads wane and the fortune of the Frankish Carolingians rise. Leading this tale is a figure well known for his victories over the Muslims, but leaves little in the way of sources about him. Charles Martel comes to us through his successes Charles Figure 1: Frankish Kingdoms upon Charles’ Ascension to Martel and his campaigns Mayor of the Palace more then anything he (most of the time), reigning over the largest empire wrote or was written of in human History to that point. Figure 2 helps show him by those who knew the explosive expanse of the Islamic Caliphate under him. Charles was born the Umayyads and their immediate predecessors. to nothing, a bastard When Charles Martel Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi son of the Mayor of the was fighting his Palace in Austrasia. The rivals in Austrasia, Kingdoms of the Franks the Umayyads were were perennially split campaigning in India and reforged and split and Spain. Under again and power had, the Umayyads, Most for the last hundred of North Africa, years, passed from the hands of the reigning Afghanistan and kings into their mayors of the palace. As Figure 1 parts of Central Asia, shows, Austrasia was hardly the greatest of these Most of Iberia, and kingdoms, long since eclipsed by the unified thrones parts of northwest of Neustria and Burgundy, with the Frankish dukes India fell under of Aquitaine defying both kingdoms and their puppet Islamic rule. The foes kings. Nor was Charles accepted easily in Austrasia that Charles Martel either. It took the young Frankish leader five years and the Franks faced were the Islamic governors to defeat his rivals in Austrasia and a further five of Al-Andalus, a title that was not hereditary, and to subdue Neustria, and the nobles of Burgundy did change rapidly, and did change rapidly, though resisted his leadership for another 15 years. After the most famous and prominent governor would be defeating the Neustrians, he immediately turned to Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. expanding his rule over other Germanic (or perhaps slavic) tribes like the Bavarians. Thus, we have a A third side is represented in this story, that of brief picture of the man who would build a dynasty, Duke Odo ‘the great’ of Aquitaine. An independent forged in battle, not particularly well liked by the Frankish ruler, Odo opposed the ascension of church for his bastardy and his habit of confiscating Martel until his allies’ defeat in 718, and it was Church lands to pay his soldiers. Odo who first fought, and defeated the Muslims for a time. Odo’s realm was squished between The Umayyads do not have as easy a figure to draw these two extremely ambitious empires, and he out of history for their clashes with the Franks. was already under invasion before Charles even The reigning Caliph ruled from far away Damascus secured his own realm, and the Frankish Mayor Figure 2: Comparative sizes of the major powers of the Mediteranean courtesy of http://gohighbrow.com/the-umayyad-ca- liphate/ rebuffed his southern counterpart when asked led by Charles Martel, the Frankish realm of for aid. The Islamic conquerors were halted in the Aquitaine, and the rough location of the battle of Battle of Toulouse in 721, where the besieging Tours (The precise location is not known) overlayed Islamic forces ended up ambushed by Odo leading over modern geographic boundaries. The Frankish a relief force against the Muslims under the Arabic kingdom at this time was very large, and while governor Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, who died some still resisted Martel’s rule. Charles has had shortly thereafter in Narbonne in Muslim controlled seventeen years since he first rose to prominence Septimania of his wounds. to solidify his rule, and almost the entirety of that time was spent in battle unifying the Franks. He is The Battle that Everyone Thinks Saved the one of the most tested battle commanders in the World (but Probably Didn’t) world leading on of the most battle hardened and This grievous defeat would help keep keep the well trained armies in the world, paid for largely in Umayyads out of Aquitaine for the next nine years, Figure 3: Charles Martel’s realm, Aquitaine, and tours with the clever alliance made with a rebellious overlayed over modern Berber leader in northern Iberia. In 731, though, borders, courtesy of it was Martel’s turn to attack, marching an army http://www.classichistory.net/ar- into Aquitaine, defeating Odo, and sacking the chives/battle-of-tours city of Bourges before returning to his realm to the north. At the same time the Umayyads under the most famous of their generals and governors, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, defeats the rebel Berber and subsequently moves a large raiding army into Aquitaine, sacking the city of Bordeaux and engaging Odo on the banks of the river Garonne, where Odo is decisively defeated, forcing the Aquitaine leader to retreat and ultimately accept Charles’ overlordship, setting the stage for the one of the most celebrated battles in European history. Figure 3 shows us the primary Frankish kingdom land and thus likely highly motivated. On the other to aid against Charles, who was at this time likely side we have the Umayyad armies of Al-Andulus campaigning against Duke Odo’s heir, Hunald, in led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. The two forces Aquitaine. Shortly after that, Arles was also taken. met on the banks of a river. Contemporary sources The loss at Tours was barely even a speed bump for like the Chronicle of Isadore and the Mozarabic the aggression of the Umayyads, and in 737 a large chronicle give us a rough picture of the battle, “Near force was being gathered by the new governor of Al- the river Owar [Loire], the two great hosts of the Andalus, Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj. Charles responded by two languages and the two creeds were set in array sending his brother Childebrand to besiege Avignon, against each other. The hearts of Abderrahman, while Charles raised more forces to join him. his captains and his men were filled with wrath When Charles arrived, he assaulted the city and and pride, and they were the first to begin to fight. destroyedthe Muslim forces therein before retaking The Moslem horsemen dashed fierce and frequent Arles, destroying another Muslim army outside its forward against the battalions of the Franks, who walls, and both forces continue into Septimania, resisted manfully, and many fell dead on either sacking a great number of towns and cities and side, until the going down of the sun. Night parted destroying their Islamic Garrisons before settling in the two armies: but in the grey of the morning the for a brief siege. Here Uqba sent a large relief force Moslems returned to the battle. Their cavaliers had to the city, which was intercepted and destroyed soon hewn their way into the center of the Christian on the river Berre, though Charles retreated soon host. But many of the Moslems were fearful for the after to return to Frankia, now fully unified under safety of the spoil, which they had stored in their his rule. Again, it would seem that by force of arms tents, and a false cry arose in their ranks that some Europe was saved from the Umayyads, in several of the enemy were plundering the camp; whereupon battles eclipsing the importance of Tours. Yet, in several squadrons of the Moslem horsemen rode 739 Charles was again campaigning against Muslim off to protect their tents. But it seemed as if they forces in Provence, barely two years after crushing fled; and the entire host was troubled. And while the relief force of Ubqa in a campaign that we know Abderrahman strove to check their tumult, and to relatively little about. lead them back to battle, the warriors of the Franks came around him, and he was pierced through with The Limits of Empire and Concluding thoughts many spears, so that he died. Then all the host fled So, why did the Umayyads stop? Four major before the enemy, and many died in the flight” campaigns and a fifth army gathered south of the Pyrenees, but 739 would be the last date for For his victory in battle, Charles earn the name Muslim forces attacking into Frankish territory in Martel, though it is possible that this was a later any numbers. Figure 5 reveals perhaps the real 9th century appellation. This battle has a massive answer. In 740 the Berbers revolted. The Berbers effect on both the psyche of Christian Europe and were a north African people that have likely been the Muslim Umayyads.

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