Problems of the GLD Cultural History

VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND DIPLOMACY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

Marius Sirutavičius

DIDACTICAL GUIDELINES

Kaunas, 2013 Reviewed by Prof. Dr. Vaida Kamuntavičienė

Approved by the Department of History of the Faculty of Humanities at Vytautas Magnus University on 30 November 2012 (Protocol No. 3–2)

Recommended for printing by the Council of the Faculty of Humanities of Vytau- tas Magnus University on 28 December 2012 (Protocol No. 8–6)

Translated and edited by UAB “Lingvobalt”

Publication of the didactical guidelines is supported by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Project title: “Renewal and Internationalization of Bachelor Degree Programmes in History, Ethnology, Philosophy and Political Science” (project No.: VP1-2.2-ŠMM-07-K-02-048)

Introduction ...... 5 Topic 1. Religious and Cultural Transformations of the Lithu- anian Pagan Society in the Period from the End of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 16th Century 7 Topic 2. Factors of the Cultural Change and Ways for the Spread of Cultural Innovations in the GDL in the Period from the 15th Century to the First Half of the 16th Century ...... 12 Topic 3. The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisa- tion in the GDL in the 16th century ...... 21 Topic 4. Cultural Innovations and Their Relationship with the Reformation in the Period from the Second Half of the16th Century to the Beginningof the 17th Century. 30 Topic 5. The Catholic Reformation and Its Influence on the Cultural Development of the GDL(the Period from the Sec- ond Half of the 16th Century to the First Half of the 17th Cen- tury) ...... 36 Topic 6. Ways of Spread of Elements of the Baroque Artistic Culture in the GDL and Their Functioning in the Society of That Time. The Period from the End of the th16 Century to the 17th Century 41 Topic 7. Development of theVisual Culture during theGDL Ba- roque Period ...... 46

3 Topic 8. Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas and Cultural Changes in the GDL in the Second Half of the 18th Century 50 Topic 9. Nobles of the GDL in the Period from the 16th Century to theFirst Half of the 18th Century:Life Style and Ideals . . 56 Topic 10. Peculiarities of Cultural Development in the Urban Environment of the GDL ...... 61 Topic 11. Peasantry Communities of the GDL: Features of So- ciocultural Development ...... 67 Topic 12. Non-Christian Communities in the GDL Culture . . 73 Expanded bibliography: 79 Introduction

The culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is a multilayer structure; its studies are related to many complicated and heterogeneous cultural processes and phenomena that marked different phases of cultural development during one or another period of time. The object of studies – problems of cultural history in the GDL – is intended for discussion and analysis of different phenomena of the history of the Lithuanian culture, which had a unique significance for the development of the society. The initial chronological margins of the study object are related to the turning point – the Christianisation of a pagan country that started in the 16th century, and the final margin reaches the end of the 18th century – a period of the statehood collapse. Even though the layout of the topics of the course basically reflects the principle of the chronological sequence, it is not focused on the reproduction of consistent cultural development. Many topics over- lap chronologically and in some cases they include almost the whole period of the time studied. Fundamental processes of the cultural change or cultural phenomena that had a unique significance were selected and linked with a specific context of historical development through the analysis of political, social, economic, religious, and ethnic factors that determined cultural changes. Adequate attention is paid to links with regional cultural development tendencies. Even though the cultural history problems in the GDL studied during the course attracted sufficient attention in the historiography of Lithuania and other countries, works generalizing and synthesis- ing specific researches are still missing, and a very small number of research results have been published in the English language. There- 5 Problems of the GLD Cultural History fore, the main purpose of these didactical guidelines is to present basic information on each topic, which would lay the foundation for the analysis of separate problems and would help to orientate one- self in complex processes and phenomena of the GDL culture. The arrangement of the material is organized by dividing separate topics into smaller parts whose titles reflect essential problematic questions of a specific topic. A brief list of scientific publications is provided for each topic if research results published in them were used for the preparation of the study material. References to the specific scientific literature are also presented to students willing to deepen knowledge in one or another problematic area independently. An expanded bibliography of the study object focused on students analysing the topic of GDL cultural history in independent paper works is provided at the end of the didactical guidelines. However, in case of a major interest in one or another topic, the best way is to consult the lecturer who will always be able to advise on how to select the scientific publications necessary for the paper or where to find additional literature. Topic 1. Religious and Cultural Transformations of the Lithuanian Pagan Society in the Period from the End of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 16th Century

We can assume the baptism of Lithuania and the accompanying process of the Christianization that started at the end of the 14th century to be a turning point that brought essential changes in the life of the state and the society. Political and social changes were followed by cultural changes that radically altered not only the worldview, world outlook, values, but also behavioural norms and the daily life of the former pagan society. During a historically short period of time, elements of the Christian culture that emerged in Europe during the late Middle Ages were transferred to the cultural environment of Lithuania. Obviously not all forms of the Christian culture have been developed there; a different content would often be adapted to the forms overtaken during the reception process. According to many researches, a classic European model of the medieval culture did not form. In order to understand the nature of the new cultural model, it is necessary to look at different circumstances of the Lithuanian process of the Christianization – a relationship of paganism and Chris- tianity before baptism, the campaign of baptism and reactions of the pagan society to the on-going changes, the course of the Christian- ization and the destiny of the old faith, the functioning of structures initiating and supporting the spread of cultural elements..

Relationship between Paganism and Christianity in Pre-Christian Lithuania Researchers often raise a question why Lithuanians that had preserved paganism for quite a long time did not fight against a new faith in a more serious manner, and, of course, under several conditions we can assume that the campaign of baptism that started in 7 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

Vilnius in 1387 was peaceful and painless, which did not divide the society. In a way, that could be explained by the fact that a system of beliefs hostile to Christianity did not exist in the Lithuanian paganism. By being a part of an illiterate culture, the pagan faith was not closed to different influences, as well as Christianity. Paganism coexisted in one country together with the Chris- tian Orthodox faith for a long time. Even though the nuclear of the GDL comprised ethnical lands of Lithuania from the very beginning, this state was multicultural and was based on more than one culture. Its residents differed by religion: the most important groups of residents were pagan Lithuanians and Easter Orthodox Slavs. The number of the latter constantly increased after the GDL was spreading to the East. The members of the dynasty that left to manage the lands connected would often accept the Orthodox faith and would become dukes for local residents. Therefore, a part of the branches of the ruling dynasty was Christian. The spread of Orthodoxy among dukes of Slavic lands and their environment familiarized them with a Slavic written language, Orthodox liturgy and ecclesiastical art. Slavic lands can be considered a source providing knowledge about Christianity, an example of the former model of the Christian culture. Taking into consideration that an area of constant contacts with Orthodox people prophesying Christianity existed in the state, it should not be forgotten that in the west Lithuania bordered with Catholic countries, and the Latin Christianity was faced not only in the international environment through diplomatic contacts but also during the missions of the faith dissemination. On the side of Catho- lics we can see determined attempts to announce religious truths regardless of vital threats. In this area the members of the Francis- can Order distinguished themselves most in the 16th century. It can be said that Franciscans contributed most actively to Evangelism of Lithuanians both before baptism of Lithuanians in 1387 and imme- diately after it. Besides, constant attempts of Poland to expand its own influence as well as the influence of the Catholic Church in the east can be mentioned from the times of the reign of the Polish King Casimir the Great. It can be supposed that at least the elite of the society was familiarized with Christianity.

8 Religious and Cultural Transformations of the Lithuanian Pagan Society… Baptism Campaign: Factor of the Ruler’s Authority and Discredit of Paganism

An important factor that positively biased the pagan society to accept baptism was participation of Lithuanian rulers Jogaila, Vytautas and other dukes of the Gediminid Dynasty in the spread of Christian- ity. Of course, such a position of the Dynasty was primarily determined by political interests of the Dynasty and the state of Lithu- ania. Baptism that was initiated in the capital of Lithuania during February-March of the year 1387 was a part of political propaganda: this campaign had to mean refusal of paganism by all Lithuanians. The beginning of this process was marked by privileges announced together with the baptism campaign the most important whereof were establishment of Vilnius Bishopric and approval of Lithuanian noblemen’s patrimonial rights. Based on the privilege of 17 February 1487 to the church, an equipped Vilnius Bishopric was established and a privileged church land ownership and grand duke’s patronage were formed. This date can be assumed to be the beginning of an institutional Catholic Church. Lithuanian noblemen also received par- tial immunity rights under the privilege. However, only noblemen who accepted Catholic religion could use new rights and possibilities. It is one of the reasons why Catholicism spread in superior layers of the society most quickly – from the social point of view paganism lost the support of the noblemen. Since the beginning of baptism pagan temples were actively de- stroyed, eternal fires were extinguished, trees considered sacred were cut and adders honoured at home were killed. This had to serve the proof of helplessness of pagan gods. A religion researcher G. Beresnevičius sees a certain psychological moment in the destruction of cult centres and sanctities that contributed to establishment of Christianity. When talking about baptism of Samogitia, he em- phasizes that at the order of the elder of Samogitia Samogitians themselves cut their sacred groves and turned them into a farmland. A man that did this with his own hands must have experienced a strong psychological, moral and religious trauma if by all means he was not a zealous convert. However even though he had no support in the new religion after he raised his hand against a sanctity, against

9 Problems of the GLD Cultural History a grove where he prayed and he and his ancestors sacrificed, he was no longer able to communicate with his gods, and this was another incentive to turn to Christianity. Catholicism was not aggressively implemented. During the initial phase of Christianity, sacred fires were not extinguished everywhere. Other practices of a pagan confession were not drastically prohibited as well, even though there was pressure. As for later baptism of Samogitians, it does not seem that it was carried out by force. The rulers most probably felt well how much can be pressed: eventually, they themselves, as well as their parents, used to confess the old religion not so long ago. Apparently, the time factor was often just allowed to work. In many cases the generation of people of the transition period was allowed to leave naturally by taking paganism as a belief system with them. Certain residues of paganism continued living already in a Christian society. Whole pagan villages performing community rites remained in more remote locations, however, paganism was already of a local nature. Public pagan rites turned into family, relative, neighbour holidays. Eventually, the land of pagan gods was occupied by abstract images. In this case, a case of a religious syncretism can be mentioned. Paganism was disappearing by leaving its traces in practices of the new Catholic religion. Rural communities continued celebrating calendar holidays, however, they were validated as Chris- tian through the mediation of the church.

Different Social Levels of the New Religiousness Christianisation was taking place fastest in the centre of Lithuania’s state political life. First of all, Christianity prevailed in the cities. Many Christians, local Orthodox and newcomers from other countries lived in them before baptism. In the province, the process was much slower due to the lack of priests ready to spread Catholicism, and it was often left forlaissez-faire . Therefore, in locations remote from the centres of the state the old paganism and the new Christian faith lived close to each other for quite a long time. Certain elements of a religious tradition existed until its last confessors died. However a religious situation is not defined as “pagan” or similar in written sources of the 15th century. In the area of religion, most attention is paid to baptism that 10 Religious and Cultural Transformations of the Lithuanian Pagan Society… recently took place, and the old Lithuanian religion is just mentioned. Paganism was not assumed to be a problem anymore. Different phases of separate layers of Christianisation of the society existed; therefore, an integral definition cannot be applied to all residents at the same time. The main different layers which were also reached by the truths of faith at different time were nobles, townspeople, noblemen, and peasants. The research of religiousness of these public groups is determined not only by different chronology but also by different sources. And we can learn about the position of nobles and a part of rich noblemen from the foundation of Catholic churches and testaments; however, they do not say anything about religious understanding of small noblemen, townspeople, and peasants. We can judge from the sources of that time that rulers and nobles of the GDL rapidly overtook the use of the faith practice and became an example for local noblemen. The remaining decorations of rulers’ chapels, prayer books, and rulers’ accounts witness a wide and deep religious practice of the rulers. The nobles actively followed the rulers. The first churches were funded by rulers in all dioceses, however, soon private initiatives started to double the rulers by number. The number of foundations cannot be used to assess the level of townsmen’s piety. There is a shortage of townsmen’s records, even though undoubtedly their religious understanding could not be any worse. It should be remembered that the announcement of Christianity in the GDL cities had older traditions than acceptance of baptism in the GDL. Piety of townsmen was still very little researched; however, when assessing their activeness, in fact most attention should be paid to religious practices rather than foundations. It is highly probable that all inhabitants must have heard the truths of Christianity in the GDL until the middle of the 16th century. However not a question “did they hear” but a question “what did they hear” and “how many times” should be raised. Both the level of education and different levels of dissemination of the faith truths differentiated religiosity of different layers a lot.

11 Problems of the GLD Cultural History Catholic Church – Establisher and Disseminator of New Cultural Elements

By introducing the foundation of the new religion, the Catholic Church became the most important institutional structure together with a belief that it transferred elements of culture developed in the West to the Lithuanian society. Buildings of the church became an architectural centre of attraction of a city, town or village. Founders of the churches – rulers and noblemen – took care of the splendour of cult buildings – their spaces had to psychologically affect the visi- tor, cause respect to the majesty of God, form understanding of the world, beauty, and harmony. Therefore, experienced masters would be called for construction of churches, best materials would be taken, and complicated forms would be used. The architecture of Gothic churches distinguished from the environment, and their interior dé- cor had to introduce the content of the new faith. Both works of art and church wooden sculpture prevailing in the Middle East Europe had to serve the establishment of the new faith. Most probably the first works of art and sculptures were imported from abroad. Howev- er, they became an example for masters working in the Grand Duke’s manor and church establishments. Travelling masters from Germa- ny, Poland, Russia and other countries would stay in Lithuanian cities and clerics. Local creators learned mastery from the newcomers. When talking about expensive and splendid gifts made to churches as a measure which had to encourage establishment of the new faith authority in the society, it is important not to forget that all visitors during solemn ceremonies in the church could see church objects, most often real works of art. This not only developed religiousness of neophytes but also formed a new understanding of culture. Catholicism granted forms of lifestyle that were not known to the daily life of the Lithuanian society before and encouraged to discover new values. Following of the Christian calendar was one of the essential foundations on which the Christian lifestyle was based. How- ever, we almost do not have any specific knowledge about the early period. Specific calendars are not known – it is not known which days are mentioned, which days were particularly celebrated. Exam- ples of the Western Europe showed that there was no consistency – a

12 Religious and Cultural Transformations of the Lithuanian Pagan Society… unique calendar of festivals would be formed in different places depending on the saints that were respected. In the GDL, calendars of different parishes would often be determined by titles of churches and indulgences granted, which would form their regional festivals. Indulgences performed a very important role in daily practices of faith. Therefore, the practice of indulgence granting in the GDL was live since the establishment of the first churches. Indulgences encouraged more frequent participation in religious festivals, even in pilgrimages. During them not only religious festivals and processions, but also fairs would often be organized. A liturgical calendar practically did not differ from other practices existing in Western European countries. The sources witness that already in the first half of the 16th century religious practices formed in the GDL and existed in different layers. However, a religious understanding and traditions differed a lot in different layers.

For further reading: Beresnevičius G. Pagonybė // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 441–453. Kiaupienė J., Petrauskas R. Lietuvos istorija, IV tomas. Nauji horizon tai: dinastija, visuomenė, valstybė. Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikš tystė 1386–1529 m. Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 2009, P. 117–139. Krikščionybės Lietuvoje istorija, sud. V. Ališauskas. Vilnius: Aidai, 2006, P. 33–56. Topic 2. Factors of the Cultural Change and Ways for the Spread of Cultural Innovations in the GDL in the Period from the 15th Century to the First Half of the 16th Century

Changes in public and cultural forms of life, as well as spread of different novelties and ideas depended on the information received. The process of the spread of cultural novelties directly depended on the functioning of the information transference channels, and their nature determined the possibilities of the spread of information in different layers of the society, paces of information transference and acceptance, the level of perception of novelties and adaptation. We can see the methods of information spread to be the essential factors of the change in culture that performed an important role in the formation of the new model of culture. We could assume writing to be one of the main new tools of cultural communication. The use of writing in the internal life of the state after adoption of Christianity was important not only to the spread of information; it significantly changed administration forms and communication methods of the state. Other cultural communication structures – functioning of the educational system and circulation of information with the help of books – are also related to the problem of writing. Therefore, first of all it would be worth discussing the formation of the practices of writing and the problems of the use of written languages related to it, as well as the nature of written production and attitude towards written communication. In this context the development of the elementary education system, forms of home teaching and studies in foreign universities can be deemed another important problem. Functioning of books as a channel of knowledge transference and spread related to the questions of the nature of books, their promotion, reading, accumulation of sets of books and libraries also belong to the problem of literacy.

14 Factors of the Cultural Change and Ways for the Spread of Cultural Innovations… Formation of Practices of the Use of Writing

Baptism of Lithuanian, needs of the Christian monarchy being created, a more intense relationship with the European countries opened a way for the dissemination of a new writing culture. Until the end of the 14th century, writing used by a ruler, for public needs and in a relationship with Christian countries did not change the situation. Cru- cial changes in the medieval writing of Lithuania started from baptism. In the baptised Lithuanian society the written culture spread through institutions of the Church, apparatus of the ruler and local administration, city offices, courts. The new culture of writing was developing in several directions, the literacy centres supervised by the clergy and laymen were being established. Recordkeeping centres were located next to dioceses, chapters, churches, and monasteries being established and spread the Latin document preparation and book rewriting tradition in the society. However, the chancery of the Grand Duke of Lithuania was the biggest place for global gathering of scribes, rewriters, and translators at the junction of the 14–15th centuries; the nature of its activities was expanding and became more varied. Already the first privileges of the Lithuanian rulers that accepted baptism and acts of granting gifts were made in a form of a written document. In the life of the state this was a real revolution caused by written culture. However, this writing functioned in narrow, closed groups of the society in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century, often without any response, e. g. recipients of a document issued on behalf of the ruler were often illiterate. From the point of view of writing languages, the writing of Lithu- ania developed originally from the very beginning. Several writing languages – Ruthenian and Latin, as well as German, were used for the needs of internal life in the cities. But still the Ruthenian language prevailed quantitatively in the production of chanceries. Dur- ing the course of quick establishment and development of chanceries people writing in the Ruthenian language were attracted as well. This had a crucial influence on the practice of the use of the Lithu- anian language. Since the Ruthenian writing language was also a spoken language, this determined that Lithuanian scribes prepared in chanceries also overtook it as a means of communication. Such 15 Problems of the GLD Cultural History a situation did not allow the Lithuanian language to turn into the writing language since at the domestic level in order to use writing it was enough to learn the Ruthenian language. Therefore, it was not taken care of adjusting characters to the Lithuanian language. The latter process was disturbed by a sudden emergence of the need for writing. In the 15th century and at the beginning of the 16th century the written culture was spreading not only in the environment of rulers and nobles closely related to the palace but also in the layers of noblemen and townsmen. This is witnessed by a noticeably increasing number of documents since the beginning of the 16th century. In the 15th century the social and economic life became more varied, the sphere of scribes’ activities was expanding; a group of literate persons special- izing in this area was forming, a number of documents prepared by them were increasing, and they were becoming of a more complicated content and form. Since Lithuanians did not have enough schools, there were no many literate people in the country. But even its small percentage already determined the life of the society at the beginning of the 16th century. The spreading literacy changed the society, its legal and political culture, as well as encouraged different creative expressions. But still even in the second half of the 16th century many literate people understood writing as an auxiliary, independent measure of communication, necessary only when it was not possible to transfer information by using voice and memory.

Genesis of the Educational System In the 15th century and the first half of the 16th century, a systematic introduction of elementary rather than secondary education can be observed in the Lithuanian society. Elementary education was provided by the so called schola (“Latin school”), and both in West- ern Europe and Lithuania it is most often identified with a parish school of the Catholic community that satisfied the needs for parish education. Parish schools appeared in THE GDL after 1387, after the beginning of a parish network creation. A network of parish schools was establishing quite slowly; it is difficult to define their number because it is not clear whether parish schools operated con- 16 Factors of the Cultural Change and Ways for the Spread of Cultural Innovations… tinuously. Constant renewals of foundations show that they operated with interruptions. Most often this was determined by the lack of finances. The course of Basics of Faith is emphasized in parish school programmes, and it was different for beginners and elder students who were most often seeking for priesthood. Younger students were taught in a local language, later teaching was continued in the Latin language and chanting played an important role during studies. Even though teaching methods of spoken culture based on repetition and memorization of vowels were strictly followed at schools, the very discovery of the school and a professional teacher changed the previous spoken culture. The need for written (later also printed) texts was still growing even though most often they were used within the frame of spoken culture. A teacher of the parish school can be assumed to be a factor of quicker and more intense information circulation. Innovations could penetrate to Lithuania through liberated people coming to the GDL. It is guessed that they most often would come from Polish and German lands and would learn at schools of those countries. (There was a movement towards a contrary direction). Home teachers performed even a more important function of cultural communication. Since until 1539 there were no secular middle level schools in Lithu- ania, literate noblemen, rich nobles and townsmen occupying state positions had to hire home teachers. Teachers of these homes could be carriers of different information and also organizers of the basis for deeper communication. The content and concepts of teaching, method of thinking and the information transferred created a space for the development of new ideas. Besides, the church did not control teachers who were invited to manors or homes by noblemen, nobles, and townsmen. Foundation of schools transformed the Lithuanian society even more than the penetration of writing. Not only letters, but also reading, writing, and Christian faith was taught in them. It can even be stated that the main purpose of parish schools was to teach more basic subjects – Christian Faith and Life rather than letters. A traditional institution of the society – the family – had to help sharing the right and task to transfer values with a school.

17 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

The basics of cultural communication were also granted by studies abroad. Information would spread to the GDL through students travelling to the European universities to seek for higher education. The majority of them went to Krakow University for studies until the middle of the 16th century (188 out of 204 Lithuanians that studied in the 15th century studied in Krakow). Only individual persons studied in Prague, Leipzig, Erfurt, Rostock universities in German lands. At the junction of the 15–16th centuries, Lithuanians also appeared in Italian universities, first of all, in Bologna and Padua. It can be said that essentially during that period Krakow University formed the content and volume of higher education of educated people in the GDL. The spreading ideas of humanism had influence on Lithu- anians who studied there.

Spread of Books as a Channel of Information Circulation in the GDL Books were another channel of communication through which new elements spread to the GDL culture. Books started spreading in Lithuania after GDL rulers chose the Catholic Church in 1386–1387 and started disseminating the Christian faith. During the expansion of a parish network, the number of churches increased, and the need for books necessary for Catholic liturgy grew as well. Rulers and hierarchs of the Church would gift religious and secular books to churches established and their libraries. At least books necessary for elementary education had to be present in these libraries besides books intended for church matters. Quite little is known about the beginning of libraries of Catholic monasteries. It is possible that they emerged with the arrival of the first monks still before baptism of Lithuania. During the initial phase of establishment of Christian- ity, libraries of monasteries were quite small since in general at that time development of monasteries was suspended by paying the main attention to establishment of parishes. A new phase in the history of monastery libraries and in general in the history of manuscript books can be talked about after the Order of Bernardines settled in the GDL (1469, 1471). Bernardines organized a scriptorium in Vil- nius where books were rewritten and illuminated. It is believed that

18 Factors of the Cultural Change and Ways for the Spread of Cultural Innovations… in the first half of the 16th century Vilnius Bernardine Library was the biggest library of the Catholic institution. The emergence of secular libraries (book collections) can be related to the spread of humanistic ideas and spirit of the Reformation movement, however, they did not belong to institutions and, even more, they were private rather than institutional. GDL nobles and hierarchs of the Catholic Church that arose from them were the first to accumulate book collections. Besides religious publications, legal books made a significant part of them; a lot of them were works of ancient classics, travel descriptions, chronicles, and historical and medical works. However, these were closed libraries available only to a very limited circle of readers. There is fragmental knowledge about book collections of townsmen (craftsmen, merchandisers), which also witnesses the interest of the GDL residents in books. Personal libraries were private, however, data can be found in sources that books would be borrowed from them and in case a debtor had not returned the books, litigation process would have been initiated. But still libraries of monasteries and education institutions were more open to the society and they contributed to the spread of books in Lithuania a lot. A small quantity of data available does not provide with enough knowledge that could help to decide on the scope of the spread of books in the Lithuanian society of the period from the 15th century to the first half of the 16th century. However, we can say that state officers, church institutions, and noble families had books. Spread of books in the GDL primarily was the merit of individual persons who perceived their cultural significance. Science and cultural knowledge acquired by them determined the progress of writing, science, and culture in the GDL in the 16th century.

For further reading: Ališauskas V. Sakymas ir rašymas // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kuni gaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 603–622. Cicėnienė R., Rankraštinė knyga Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystė je XIV a. pradžioje–XVI a. viduryje: sklaidos ir funkcionavimo 19 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

sąlygos // Knygotyra. 2009, T. 53, P. 7–37. Access via the Internet: www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Knygotyra/53/7-37.pdf Gudavičius E. Lietuvos europėjimo keliais. Vilnius: Aidai, 2002, P. 211–251. Kiaupienė J., Petrauskas R. Lietuvos istorija, IV tomas. Nauji horizontai: dinastija, visuomenė, valstybė. Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė 1386–1529 m. Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 2009, P. 139–159. Pacevičius A. Mokyklos // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 378– 396. Petrauskienė I. Knygų plitimo keliai. Lietuvoje XVI–XVIII a. // Kultūrų sankirtos: skiriama dr Ingės Lukšaitės 60-mečiui. Vil- nius: Diemedis, 2000. P. 171–186. Topic 3. The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL in the 16th century

The Reformation was a very complicated phenomenon in Europe- an states. It started as a creation of an argument system in order to change the faith. But soon it was applied by church organisations to the changing organizational models and new political tendencies. In many countries it merged faith with political and social processes and affected the development of culture quite quickly and compre- hensively. Different forces of the society formed different visions of the correct faith and the only real church. This created tensions among groups aiming to quickly modernize many areas of social life and culture and loyal to traditional activities and thinking. During those periods of time, when it was attempted to reduce the tension by creative activities rather than force and repressions, culture and forms of social life rapidly modernized in all European countries.

The Start of the Reformation in Lithuania Ideas of the Reformation reached Lithuania thanks to trade and cultural contacts. The first news about the spread of the Reforma- tion ideas in the GDL get back to the thirties of the 16th century – a Franciscan monk promoted the teaching of M. Luther in a Francis- can abbot in around 1525. Articles 3 and 16 of Synod Resolutions of Vilnius Diocese of 1528 instructed to fight with Lutheranism and obliged all priests to inform about suspects. In 1520, 1522, 1523, and 1534 the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund the Old published edicts forbidding to study in Wittenberg and other Protestant universities and to bring books from there for which even the death penalty was threatened. During the reign of Sigismund the Old (1506–1548), the Reformation movement was prohibited not only in the GDL but also in Poland, and it was organized secretly. A situation of Protestant intolerance in the GDL started changing gradually during the reign of Sigismund Augustus (1548–1572). Si-

21 Problems of the GLD Cultural History gismund Augustus was interested himself both in the spread of Prot- estantism and Protestant literature in various countries (Protestants formed the library of the palace) but he did not become a Protestant himself. The later rulers of the state were also Catholic. Catholicism confessed by the country’s rulers became one of the most important factors in confessional competitions and significantly contributed to the fact that eventually Protestantism was not established in Poland and Lithuania. On the other hand, a passive position of Sigismund Augustus opened the way to a temporary but very wide spread of Protestantism. The first bright figure of the Reformation was Abraomas Kulvietis (1509–1545). Despite the prohibitions, Kulvietis studied in Protestant universities, brought prohibited books from abroad, and accumulated the biggest collection of heretical books in Lithuania of that time. It included works by John Hus, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Philip Melanchthon, and other early Reformation authors. Kulvietis was the founder of the first high school in the GDL (it was open from 1540 to 1542) even though in accordance with the law in force he did not have a right to do that because of his studies at Protestant universities and Protestant books owned. The content of teaching was mainly humanitarian preparing for a new type of studies in foreign universities. He deliberately broke the monopoly of the Catholic Church to establish schools, since the church was a guarantee of conservation, and tried to preserve the unchanged situation in the education system. The foundation of a new type of a school was one of the first bright novelties that reached Lithuania through the Ref- ormation. Kulvietis wrote the first protestant text in Lithuania Con- fessio fidei (1543). Confession fidei that criticizes the Catholic clergy is a statement of an independent intellectual that raised priorities of the law, personal independence, conscience and reason, and libera- tion, which had to be in force both among priests and laymen. This text shows that laymen started expressing their opinion regarding faith questions. This phenomenon encouraged to devote to a universal and qualitatively new Christianization that manifested in an essential feature of the culture of the New Times: the emergence of literature for public, writing and publishing of books, i.e. entrench- ment of the writing culture.

22 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL… Ideas of Public Modernisation in the Writing of the GDL in the Fourth-Sixth Decades

The aims of the first proponents of the Reformation and personalities close to them can be known from a few texts that remained. In the fourth-sixth decades of the 16th century several works were created: the already mentioned Confession fidei by Abraomas Kulvietis; a small book by Jonas Kozminietis Laiškas Dievo žodžio tarnams (A Letter to Servants of God’s Word), which partially reflected the realities of a public life in the GDL; a treatise by Mykolas Lietuvis Apie totorių, lietuvių ir maskvėnų papročius (On the Customs of Ta- tars, Lithuanians and Muscovites); Gedulingoji kalba apie „... Olykos ir Nesvyžiaus šviesiausiojo kunigaikščio... Jono Radvilos gyvenimą ir mirtį (A Mournful Speech on “…the Life and Death of the Bright- est Duke of Olyka and Nesvizh Jan Radziwill) by Mykolas Lietuvis and his son Venclova Agripa Lietuvis. A relationship of all these authors with the Reformation was slightly different: A. Kulvietis (after 1542) and V. Agripa (1552) were clearly motivated Evangelical Lutherans, and Jonas Kozminietis was very critical towards activities of the Catholic Church, however, he did not convert himself into Protestantism; judging from his work, Mykolas Lietuvis was not yet Evangelical though he criticised the Catholic church very purposefully. All these authors criticized certain areas of public life and suggested measures for correction of the society’s condition. Mykolas Lietuvis and A. Kulvietis attached great importance to the law and both of them suggested changing much in this area. Mykolas Lietu- vis called for a reform of courts, acknowledgement of equal rights of all nobles in court proceedings and laws and establishment of elected state courts. A. Kulvietis stated that it is necessary to change the very principle of the law and adapt it to spiritual courts: not to allow priests to solve the cases which are brought against people criticizing the church. He particularly emphasized the necessity to involve spiritual courts in the general law of the state and try to modernize them, i.e. to organize the court by referring to the principle of New Times. The criteria of the priest evaluation change in the texts of the fifth decade of the th16 century; requirements to have higher

23 Problems of the GLD Cultural History modern education, to be economical and dutiful, not to stockpile several benefices in one hand are raised for them. When defining an image of an ideal priest, personal traits rather than his position in the hierarchy is emphasized: dutifulness, education, professional preparation, thrift. Such features of priests were mentioned as the most important by the ones who chose the Reformation in many European countries. A. Kulvietis already suggested using the assets of churches in another way: to economically maintain priests, help students in need, provide the state with material aid. Therefore, an idea was maturated in Lithuania that the purpose of the churches’ property should be changed, that property should be used more for needs of the society, matters of the state and education. All authors were firmly convinced that celibacy of the clergy should be annulled since in their opinion it was introduced late in the Christian church and the Holy Scripture did not mention it. They preached the lack of schools and the rough educational system to be one of the biggest evils of the public and cultural life in the GDL and a duty not performed by the church. In the opinion of all three authors, it is necessary to establish public (not enclosed in monasteries) schools – gymnasiums for laymen. Education, science, and organization of teaching were deemed to be a great value in all works written at that time, which was contrasted with the old view that man only needed nobility and property. In the texts of the middle of the 16th century, the first Lutherans and persons close to them already quite clearly defined what should be corrected in the public life of the GDL and what direction should be taken. Their positive attitude to modernize the cultural life and especially one of its areas – education – is obvious. They also formulated an attempt to change the purpose of the church property – to use it more for the needs of the society rather than the clergy. The ones that turned to the side of the Reformation already needed to introduce novelties; the moti- vation of actions was clear and formulated. According to them, the faith, its reformed teaching and the need to modernize cultural life formed the unity.

24 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL… The Second Wave of the Reformation in Lithuania

Since the beginning of the sixth decade of the 16th century, the religious image of the GDL society quickly changed since essentially none of the incentives of the Reformation was weakened or removed. In the fifties of the th16 century, the first communities of Protestants started establishing in the GDL. The researchers claim that during that period of development power to the Reformation movement was primarily granted by its proponents from the most famous and rich- est GDL nobility and wealthy noblemen families. Reformation followers or obvious sympathetic people primarily appeared in three families of noblemen – Radziwill, Kezgaila, and Chodkievicz. Other people that gradually converted themselves into Protestantism also appeared in other families of noblemen: the Agrippa, Astika, Bile- wich, Hlebavicius, Pacas, Kiszka, Sapieha, Valavicius, and others. After a part of rich and influential politicians turned into the Ref- ormation, it was easier for the nobility to choose as well: positions elected in the majority of districts were gradually taken by protestant noblemen. The initiated transference of nobles and noblemen to the side of Reformation opened possibilities for establishment of Protes- tant institutions in Lithuania and formation of their churches. In the 6th and 7th decade of the 16th century in the GLD three directions of the Reformation formed almost at the same time: Evangeli- cal Lutherans, abbreviated as the Lutherans, Evangelical Reformats, abbreviated as the Reformats, and Calvinists (after a short period the Arianists separated from the latter – a radical current of the Reforma- tion that connected many anti-Trinitarian and Anabaptist groups). Lutheran communities together with ecclesiastical Lutheran institutions started establishing in Lithuania (Vilnius and Kaunas) in the fifties of the th16 century, but their members were mainly townsmen of the German origin. The followers of Lutheranism also emerged in powerful families of Lithuanian nobles, primarily the Kezgaila, Radziwill, Chodkievicz, Bilewich families. Starting from the fifties of the 16th century, the Lutheran churches were established in manors and towns, particularly in Samogitia. However, actively but spon- taneously establishing Lutheran communities, not supported by the sovereignty, were not able to form a united GDL church organization

25 Problems of the GLD Cultural History with an administrative centre, and more German Vilnius and Kaunas Lutheran churches did not support a relationship with hypothetical Lithuanian churches of Lithuanian manors and cities. A failure to establish a national Lutheran church determined the diminishing of the significance of Lutheranism and the decline of some Lutheran churches, which started at the end of the 16th century. Communities of major cities that were able to organize a local church treated the Lutheran religion as one of the ways to distance themselves from other local residents, preserve the identity, language of the national minority (German). A non-Protestant GDL community treated urban Lutheran communities as the confessor of the German religion. The Lithuanian Calvinism tradition, which determined many bright changes in the history of the Lithuanian culture, was undoubtedly more successful and powerful. A decision of the GDL Chancellor and Vilnius Voivode Duke Nicholas Radziwill the Black (1515–1565) to become a Calvinist had a crucial influence on the overtaking of the Calvinism teaching and establishment of the confession. The first Evangelical Reformat churches also started establishing in private holdings of Radziwill the Black in Brasta and Vilnius (Lukiškės). After the death of Radziwill the Black (1565), the destiny of the Lithuanian Calvinism mainly depended on his cousin, the GDL Hetman, later a Chancellor and Vilnius Voivode Radziwill the Red (1512–1584), who became an important founder and curator of the Evangelical Reformat Churches. Since 1557 the Lithuanian reformats started organizing church synods – meetings of priests (minis- ters) and laymen – during which the church structure of Evangelical Reformats was created. Already in the early phase of the Lithuanian Calvinism development religious opinions were distinguished, which became a basis for so called radical currents of Protestantism from which later the very GDL Calvinists distanced themselves. Differences in opinions started distinguishing in communities due to certain statements of Christianity. Different treatment of the Christ’s nature and arising dogmatic differences were an essential basis of disagreement between Calvinism forming Orthodoxy and individual groups sepa- rating from it. The year 1565 can be deemed an official date of Arian- ist separation from the Reformats. The year 1565 may be assumed as

26 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL… the date of the church when Arianists started gathering into separate synods in this way starting the history of the Lithuanian brothers or Minor Church. The Lithuanian brothers are called in a general name of Arianists in historiography. They united anti-Trinitarians of different currents not acknowledging the dogma of the Saint Trinity and Anabaptists not acknowledging the baptism of children. Arian- ism was expressed in manors of Olyka, Nesvizh, Kletsk, Biala, which were managed by Radziwill the Black, and manors of Vengrov, Yvija, and Losk belonging to the main curator of the Lithuanian Arianists Anna Radziwill-Kiszka, as well as in Vilnius.

Theories of Society Development and Social Criticism in Protestant Writing in the Second Half of the 16th century Already since the 6th decade proponents of the Reformation in the GDL attempted considering the questions of the society and state development, discussed the society of that time and critically assessed it. Even though we cannot assume GDL Evangelicals as a whole to be a united opposition to the forming caste-based state of nobles with a limited power of the monarch, proponents of the Reformation maturated the critical relationship with a social reality of that time most intensively and were the first ones to formulate the projects of the society’s correction and even its supposed future perspectives. The society correction projects were based on complicated sociological, religious, and ethnical arguments. All this allows talking about sociological attitudes i.e. basics of the society development theory, which were started to be considered in the GDL. The point of view of Lithuanian Evangelicals regarding sociological issues was not a united system and it constantly changed depending on time or representative of the Reformation current. The most famous ideologist of Evangelical Reformats in Lithuania the writer and publicist Andrius Volanas (around 1530–1610) stated sociological attitudes of the Calvinist Reformation current most consistently in his books. The thoughts of Lithuanian Lutherans of the 16th century coincided with his points of view. This witnessed that there were general ideas of the whole Reformation movement. However, there

27 Problems of the GLD Cultural History were differences as well, particularly social ones. Therefore, specific projects of the society correction differed a lot from each other. Separate currents of the Reformation differed when they discussed towards which direction the society of that time had to be corrected. And all of them had such aims. Views of Evangelical Reformats and Lutherans towards things to be corrected in the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian were quite similar and were based on their understanding about the society development. When trying to reform the society, the majority of them suggested improving norms and moral of the law applicable at that time. Points of view of the representatives of Lithuanian Reformation differed from the attitude spread in the society at that time regarding castes necessary to the society. One of the Reformation attempts in Europe was a wish to change the position of the priests’ caste, restrict its rights quite a lot, and involve laymen into the management of the church. In the understanding of Evangelicals, priesthood was more like a profession rather than a caste. There were people among Lithuanian Calvinists and Lutherans who wanted to reform the society of their time from another point of view. A. Volanas and Lithuanian Calvinists of a slightly younger generation saw a major threat arising to a Lithuanian and Polish society – weakness of the townsmen’s caste. On different occasions in the press published they would widely prove that the public importance of townsmen should be increased among castes important to the society – nobles, townsmen, and peasants. Lithuanian representatives of the Reformation attempted to greatly correct the structure of the society of their time: to reduce privileges of nobles, to restrict the significance of priests in the management of the state, to reach independence of the church and secular power of the state from the pope, to increase the significance and rights of townsmen. Changes were taking place towards this direction in the Western European countries, where conditions for formation of the new economic organizational model based on a trade-monetary relationship were maturating. These attempts to reform the society showed towards which direction the most active Lithuanian Calvinists wanted to see the Lithuanian society turning. The left-wing group of Arianists had completely different points of view regarding social life of Lithuania than Calvinists or Luther-

28 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL… ans. They did not acknowledge social inequality (all are born equal), they announced than none of the Christians can have subordinates and slavery is not allowed morally; all castes have to be eliminated and property has to be made public. A part of left Lithuanian brothers supported those who thought that mediators and rites were not necessary to believers at all (later such an attitude was rejected). In the opinion of the left-wing group of the radical Reformation, the whole framework of the society had to be reformed – commonality of the property had to be introduced; castes and abuse should be eliminated. However, the weakness of this group and ways to reform the society planned by it – belief and personal morale – restricted those intentions to individual sextant communities. Those attitudes and attempts remained in the history of the public idea as the witness of the major opposition to the regime of that time. When starting to discuss how the structure of the society should be corrected, in what direction the position of peasants and townsmen should be changed and in order to justify this by social theoretic statements in the 5-7th decades of the 16th century, GDL Evangelicals created a new phenomenon in the Lithuanian culture – basics of so- ciology and journalism on relevant society development issues. They formulated problems of public development; they raised them to the public and in this way encouraged further polemics.

For further reading: Dundzila V. Radical Reformation in Lithuania: the Minor Reformed Church (Lithuanian Brethren), 1565–1617 // Lituanus. 2008, vol. 54, no. 2, P. 51–68. Lukšaitė I. Reformacija Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje ir Mažojoje Lietuvoje: XVI a. trečias dešimtmetis – XVII a. pirmas dešimtmetis. Vilnius: baltos lankos, 1999, P. 131–159; 226–260; 447–482. Lukšaitė I. The Reformation in Lithuania: A New Look: Historiogra- phy and Interpretation // Lituanus. 2011, vol. 57, no. 3, P. 9–31. Pociūtė D., Protestantizmas // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 535–556.

29 Topic 4. Cultural Innovations and Their Relationship with the Reformation in the Period from the Second Half of the 16th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century

Such a complicated phenomenon as the Reformation can be researched from many points of view. Several essential aspects will be reviewed in the light of complicated processes defining the cultural development and its change: the change of culture caused by incoming innovations, new cultural phenomena the formation whereof was encouraged by the Reformation in the culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ways of novelty resettlement, certain characteristics of their acceptance and application, and influence of the Reformation on the intensity of the cultural process. In this topic most attention will be paid to certain problems of the cultural process related to modernization, by firstly taking into consideration those new cultural elements which emerged in the GDL culture in the 16th century and their relationship with the Reformation. Technology of Printing and Intensification of Written Communication One of the most significant innovations that marked the beginning of new times was the use of a printing technology for multiplication of texts. The biggest stimulus to the formation of press as a new ele- ment of culture was given by the Reformation, which created a great need for printed texts. Operative, accurate information disseminated through the press was one of the methods of the Reformation implementation and development. Protestants could not imagine their activities without a printed word, therefore, in the second half of the 16th century in different locations of the GDL printing houses focused on different directions of Protestantism started to be established.

30 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL…

Only together with the Reformation, in the GDL intermittent publishing of books began and writing was started to be used much wider in public life than before the Reformation. A much wider path for the Lithuanian language to the church and partially to the school was opened by an idea very clearly formulated by Protestants – the significance of lingua vulgaris to the faith. Major introduction of a spoken native language to the activities of the church and clearly understood significance of this innovation for the act of faith were established in the GDL culture as well. The first books were prepared by Lithuanian Lutherans originated from all regions of Lithuania, and they were published in the Duchy of Prussia. The books published during the period of time from 1547 to 1591 already showed a consistent publishing programme of books necessary for the activities of the Lutheran church in the Lithuanian language. During the preparation of books in the Lithuanian language, the Protestant activities encouraged acting the Catholic part of the society as well; it forced understanding of the necessity to use a spoken langue more widely in the institutions controlled by the church and in general to change the relationship with the spoken language. GDL Catholics responded to already published Lithuanian Lutheran books by the translation of Catechism by Jokubas Ledesma performed by Mikalojus Dauksa in 1595. So in the GDL Lithuanian books were prepared by representatives of two different religions almost at the same time. The press in the Lithuanian language created since the beginning of the Reformation was started to be used in the whole territory inhabited by Lithuanians: in Prussia and the GDL. Writing in the Lithuanian language could already reach burghers, townsmen, and peasants. A new thing was that the teaching of faith was closely related to writing in the native language. It was already the characteristic of new times, a modern societies slowly forming in Europe. It was the beginning of new phenomena which already started changing those systems slowly – shapes of folk belief, literacy, the scope and nature of the use of writing.

31 Problems of the GLD Cultural History Changes in the Area of Education

At the initiative of GDL Evangelicals a lot of innovations were overtaken in the area of education. Evangelicals attempted having a full system of the Middle and Western European education model and started creating it already at the beginning of the Reformation. Ac- tive proponents of the Reformation evaluated school as the first step of the religion dissemination, as an institution developing the community and eventually as preparation of literate people for further work, particularly for the position of a preacher. Therefore, GDL Protestants created a comparatively much denser network of parish schools; they rather related the teaching of faith with literacy. Dur- ing the course of many decades, the thickening network of parish schools made literacy available primarily to residents of private towns: possibilities for the layer of townsmen increased. They were the first to show the initiative to establish a Protestant university in Vilnius, to teach the modernized teaching content of that time, i.e. to essentially coordinate the Lithuanian school with the modernizing European school. With their practical activities, Evangelical churches formed the attitude towards learning as a condition to become a good Christian quite consistently. During this period of time noble Evangelicals started raising different requirements for priests as well: they had to be educated in a higher school. As the contingent of priests shows, after working in major Evangelical manors they were able to explain and reason the statements of theology, to consider them with reference to the Holy Scripture, many publications of the European Bible of the 16th century, books by famous theologians. Education, an ability to communicate when referring to intellectual arguments, erudition in the cultural manor-church environment of Protestants became a necessary and usual thing: Lutheran and Calvinist priests discussed polemic questions of faith, collected arguments, searched for books. New values supplemented foundations of noble churches gradually spreading among laymen from the times of baptism as a norm of behaviour of serving to God and church at the beginning of the Reformation. The church of Evangelical Reformats and Lutherans treated allocation of finances to books, schools, printing houses as 32 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL… a proper serving to God. This value changed priorities regarding the purpose of the use of wealth allocated by the rich in order to confirm their piety and faith. During the period of renewal of the Reformation and Catholic Church, the attitude towards cultural activities quickly changed in the Catholic part of the society as well. The renewing Catholic Church also needed personalities who were able to reason, who were lettered and educated, as well as who preserved not only external but also internal conviction. Cultural orientations changed in the whole society. Much wider possibilities than before the Reformation for the use of the whole writing complex (schools, printing houses, books, libraries, and documents) were provided.

Change in Value Orientations In the 16th century various value orientations can be noticed in the public thought of the GDL and texts of its thinkers; currently historiography is not ready yet to define their whole. After a review of the texts of that time from this point of view, it is obvious that the second half of the 16th century was similar to a crossroad. The theory of values including all areas of human problems and activities and hierarchy which has religion at the highest stem is replaced by separate and equal areas which are not connected with each other strongly by the concept of values. Even though religion was the highest stem in the hierarchy of values, we can still recognize the signs of a new thought as well. Certain value orientations can be noticed at a lower lever – daily life – and certain specific features of the lifestyle can be evaluated. It is the already mentioned prominence given to individualism, requirements for thrift, moderation; professional preparation is valued, active professional activities are raised above the position of the society granted by the origin, success in the economic and other areas of activities is assumed to be the sign of God’s grace. Acknowledgement of the value of the professional preparation was an alternative for nobility that used to be the main criterion in the society where origin determined the legal status of a person, his possibilities to participate in the management of the country, etc. Wide education including vari- 33 Problems of the GLD Cultural History ous sciences as well as humanitarian was valued as the necessity in preparation for state positions. The fact that the significance of moderate life, thrift, and profes- sionalism was acknowledged for saving of the state and “correction” of the society does not mean that these values were publicly accept- able to the caste of nobles. However, new values were still loudly and publicly discussed as a mandatory correction of the noble society, its life style. New values were considered as the opposition to the noble lifestyle, perception of prowess, which started to form in the 16th century and acquired completely grotesque shapes in the 18th century.

Religious Competition and Modernisation of the Cultural Life For some time, when the Reformation was taking place peacefully in order to acquire as bigger influence in the society as possible, all different groups of believers put much effort to find cultural changes and satisfy them. This was particularly characteristic during the decades of the balance between different types of believers. At that time there was a weakened value to aim for one’s own purposes only by forbidding or restricting activities of the “opponents” in the Catholic Church. After the Catholic Church planned directions of positive reformations and establishment of institutions during the post-Trent period in the whole Europe, such a value also prevailed in the sum- mits of GDL Catholic churches. So the role of the Reformation was dual: it was the initiator of innovation overtaking and at the same time it became the pole of tension encouraging the creation of culture. It created a competitive situation. After the growth of a cul- turally mobile group of the Catholic Church, favourable conditions were formed for quick development of the culture. The Reformation, the former stimulus of the church removal in Europe, specifically in the GDL became one of the factors encouraging cultural creation. A situation when both competing parties provided each other with impulses, actively and usefully responded to them lasted for more than half a century in Lithuania. Under such conditions the Refor- mation in the GDL was the factor of the quickest modernization of the culture.

34 The Reformation and Ideas of Social Life Modernisation in the GDL…

For further reading: Laumenskaitė E. The Peculiarities of the Developmen of Economic Thought in Lithuania (Sixteenth-Nineteenth Centuries) // Lithu- anian Historical Studies. 2006, vol. 10: 2005, P. 95–120. Lukšaitė I. Andrius Volanas XVI–XVII a. Lietuvos visuomenės pert- varkos kryžkelėse // Volanas A. Rinktiniai raštai. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1996, P. 27–48. Lukšaitė I. Reformacija Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje ir Mažojoje Lietuvoje: XVI a. trečias dešimtmetis–XVII a. pirmas dešimtmetis. Vilnius: baltos lankos, 1999, P. 492–579. Topic 5. The Catholic Reformation and Its Influence on the Cultural Development of the GDL (the Period from the Second Half of the 16th Century to the First Half of the 17th Century)

The public Council of Trent (1545-1563) of the Catholic Church made a big impulse on cultural changes during the last decades of the 16th century and formation of the Baroque culture model since it formulated the teaching of the Catholic Church regarding the most important faith questions from scratch due to which most discus- sions were initiated with Protestants. Resolutions of the Council of Trent became a programme of the Catholicism consolidation directed towards the restoration of the Church’s unity against a constantly strengthening union of Protestantism. Since the middle of the 16th century the Catholic strategy raised two tasks related to the announcement of the faith: to get those who distanced from the faith back to it and spiritually strengthen those who remained loyal to the Catholic Church. The church started spreading its limits of effect in all areas of cultural life aiming to connect the artistic creation with religious experiences. Particular attention was paid to educational activities – establishment of Catholic universities, colleges, and seminaries and renewal of elementary education. Pastoral activities and religious missions were actively carried out since they had to serve the strengthening of the Catholic Church’s authority and Catholic confession. Implementation of the resolutions of the Trent in the GDL related to the intensive activities of the Catholic Church structures in different cultural areas not only encouraged processes of the religious life renewal but also opened a way to wide cultural changes that gave start to the new cultural Baroque Epoch in Lithuania.

36 The Catholic Reformation and Its Influence on the Cultural Development … Societas Jesu and Implementation of the Reform in Lithuania

Jesuits that arrived to the GDL in 1569 were practically the first ones to bring the spirit of the Reformation and they had the most important role in the development of the Reformation ideas. Vilnius became the biggest centre of Jesuit activities in the whole state, and Vilnius Jesuit College established in 1570 became the intellectual focus of the Ref- ormation which later turned into a higher education school – Vilnius Academy. Since the very beginning Jesuits zealously undertook pastoral activities and disseminated the practice of preaching in different languages; Jesuits were the first ones that transferred teaching of catechism from churches and schools to public spaces of the city. Jesuits organized missions to various Lithuanian cities, towns and villages intensively. During them members of this order not only taught catechism but also fought with pagan prejudices as they considered them, preached, listened to confessions; they also tried to acquire certain positions in local communities by reconciling those who had arguments, by convincing to write off debt interests and similar. Jesuits distinguished themselves by an exceptional attention to marginal groups of the society – the poor, prisoners, prostitutes. They visited prisoners, the poor and the diseased themselves or through religious fraternities managed by them, re-bought imprisoned debt- ors and Christians serving for infidels, supported and fed the starv- ing, carried out rites for the diseased with plague, provided support to prostitutes determined to change their life and took care of the expansion of the foster home network. The pedagogical side of activities of Vilnius Jesuit College was no less important to Lithuania. Until then there were no secondary education schools in the country so the College received much interest from those seeking education. A typical model of their school (college) comprised the so called studia humanoria, i.e. three classes of grammar (infima, grammatical, syntaxes), poetry (humanitas) and rhetoric (rhetorica). When the study programme in Vilnius College was expanded, the lecturing of philosophy and theology was introduced next to the humanitarian disciplines. In 1579, this college was granted the rights of the university by acts of the ruler and the pope.

37 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

Vilnius archbishop Valerijonas Protasevičius and the sovereignty of Jesuits put effort that very high level professors from Spain, Italy, Ire- land, and Belgium would come to Vilnius. Vilnius University became a real higher education school of the international type. Its establishment marks a certain turning point in the humanitarian culture of the GDL and the establishment of the Latin educational system in Lithuania. Jesuits perfectly made use of the pedagogical principles of the most famous European humanists coordinating them with religious activities. Until the middle of the 17th century Vilnius Academy experienced a period of prosperity and became the centre of attraction in the whole region – this expanded the mission field of Jesuits even to the neighbouring Protestant and Orthodox lands. Colleges in Polotsk, Riga, Kražiai, Grodno, and Vitebsk were founded until the middle of the 17th century, and later in Pašiaušė, Daugavpils, Navahrudak. The strategy of Jesuit education, which purpose was “educated and eloquent religiousness”, provided for the establishment of not only secondary schools but also the whole infra- structure intended for education: school theatre, fraternities of Jesuit students, bursas, seminaries. Thanks to colleges and seminaries in Lithuania, the number of priests of the local origin greatly increased. Colleges and the academy provided the possibilities to study for free, and seminaries offered free accommodation and catering. For this reason priesthood became much more available to indigent candidates.

Catholic Reformation and New Religiousness Renewal of the religious life started from the clergy. The first current of the clergy reformation was disciplinary. It was intended to establish the image of a priest in charge of the people entrusted to him “by behaviour, language, and erudition“. In everyday life the difference and particular status of a priest had to be emphasized by distinctive signs of the caste (cassock and tonsure) and an austere way of life including celibacy and other practices of self-control. These requirements for a priest were far from new but had not been implemented until then. Such a situation changed quickly: later it was less and less heard about cases of public concubines, and the lack of signs of the caste was mentioned as an exception. A priest who had been an unremarkable 38 The Catholic Reformation and Its Influence on the Cultural Development … neighbour of townspeople until then gradually moved away from the town‘s community and distanced himself from the parish life style. This change laid the foundation for a new image of a priest without essential changes to the one that had been present for several centuries. After the Council of Trent, particular attention was paid to the effectiveness of the apostolate structure. In the second half of the 16th century, when the Protestant Reformation reduced the number of Catholic parishes by half, the Catholic apostolate remained on the edge of a precipice. The condition of the parish apostolate structure started significantly improving in the first half of the 17th century when almost all old parochial Catholic churches occupied by Protestants were recovered. After establishment of new parishes in the middle of the century, a network of Catholic parishes became even denser in the eve of the Reformation. Besides the sacramental apostolate, the spread of the Word of God and particularly its most important forms – catechesis and preaching – acquired particular significance in the movement of the Catholic Reformation. In this way the Reformation gave prominence to catechesis and created a total mechanism of Christian teaching. In addition to a pastor and a teacher, other clergymen (missionaries) and laymen – students of the parochial school, members of religious fraternities, beggars and in special cases just “honest men” – were involved in the catecheti- cal work. During the epoch of the Reformation, the catechesis came out from the space of a traditional church and school – priests were instructed to go to villages of their parish to catechize the young people and to teach the elders to perform the duties of a Christian and take sacraments. Veneration of saints, devotion to the Mother of God, worshipping of saint relics, pilgrimages and the practice of indulgences were practices of piety that flourished in the first half of the 17th century thanks to the Reformation. Disciplinary resolutions of the Council that emphasized the pastoral vocation and mission have fundamentally changed the Catholic clergy – from a bishop to a vicar. The resolutions of the Council of Trent and their enforcement activities also made the religious life of laymen more active and encouraged new processes of individualisa- tion and social disciplining characteristic of the New Times. More intensified pastoral activities that reached even the lowest layers of

39 Problems of the GLD Cultural History the society contributed to the making of folk customs and art more Christian. A resolution of the Council that approved of the practice of worshipping the images of saints gave an important impulse to the renewal of the sacral art and increase in its quantity. Basically, the whole architecture and art of Catholic churches was under the influence of the spirit of the Council of Trent since the end of the 16th century. The programme of the renewal of the church formed by the Coun- cil of Trent gave start to the whole epoch of a religious life that affected tendencies of cultural development for several centuries. Motives of post-Trent theologies found their expression not only in scientific treatises but also in daily religious practices: prayers, chants, and artistic culture – sacral art and architecture, mental changes.

For further reading: Jovai a L. Kataliki koji reforma // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. Krikščionybės Lietuvoje istorija, sud. V.Ališauskas. Vilnius: Aidai, 2006, P. 241–259. Jovaiša L.Tridento susirinkimas ir Lietuva // Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademijos metraštis. 2000, T. 16, P. 35–48. Access via the In- ternet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/15001/15465.pdf P. 185–216. Narbutas S. Praha-Vilnius: jėzuitų poveikis lietuvių kultūros raidai // Lietuvos mokslų akademijos biblioteka. 2011, 2007–2008, P. 117–134. Access via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/ arch/30001/30437l.pdf Pawlikowska W. The Challenge of Trent and the renewal of the catholic church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the higher clergy of Vilnius and the problems of plural benefices and residence in the sixteenth century // Bažnyčios istorijos studijos. T. 4: Bažnyčios istorija nuo Romos iki Vilniaus: iššūkiai krikščionybei nuo Ankstyvųjų Naujųjų laikų iki šių dienų. 2011, P. 37–55. Ulčinaitė E. Jėzuitai ir provincijos kultūra: (kai kurie jėzuitų veiklos aspektai puoselėjant lietuvių kalbą ir kultūrą XVI-XVIII a.) // Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademijos metraštis. 2007, T. 30, P. 43–57. Access via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/ arch/15001/15489.pdf 40 Topic 6. Ways of Spread of Elements of the Baroque Artistic Culture in the GDL and Their Functioning in the Society of That Time. The Period from the End of the 16th Century to the 17th Century

The strengthening of relationships with the west of Lithuania was primarily taking place via the palace of the monarch; therefore, in order to understand the development of the Lithuanian artistic culture of that time it is important to clarify their patron activities, taste, and interests. Sigismund III Vasa and his son Wladyslaw IV Vasa focused on the biggest royal manors of Madrid and Brussels and life of the Italian aristocracy of that time. Sigismund III Vasa, who established the first art gallery in the Republic of Two Nations, bought works of art in Rome, Florence, Venice, and Naples. The son of Si- gismund III Wladyslaw IV, who visited the biggest European manors when he was young, as well as Brussels and Florence, preferred tendencies of the Baroque art. He established an Italian opera theatre in the Republic which also visited Vilnius. He also extremely liked dramatic performances and solemn meetings, which he organized and directed himself. By being familiarized with Flemish and Italian art of that time, he helped the art culture of those countries to get into Poland and Lithuania. The smartness of the manor, theatricality, representational theatrical tendencies of Wladyslaw Vasa had much influence on the nobility and particularly on noblemen constantly competing with the monarch who tried not to give in with anything. It is true that during the years of ruling of the last representative of the Vasa Dynasty John Casimir the influence of the royal palace on the Lithuanian culture weakened and during the reign of his inheri- tors it became barely noticeable at all.

41 Problems of the GLD Cultural History Cultural Relationship of the Nobility with European Countries and Their Influence on the Development of the Artistic Culture The nobles who maintained a close economic relationship with different Western European countries contributed much to the development of cultural contacts of Lithuania with Italy, Holland, and Germany. By being a cosmopolitan orientated social layer, the GDL society became the second communication channel after the King’s palace through which cultural innovations penetrated. Already in the 16th century a tradition for young nobles to educate themselves abroad and travel in foreign countries formed. They studied in Le- iden, Dresden, Padua, and Bologna universities, learned behaviour in Orleans and Habsburg palaces. Life and studies in Italian, German, and Dutch manors and cities not only educated the young nobles but also helped them to familiarize themselves with the culture of those countries and to focus on the cultural life of already visited countries; it formed their aesthetic taste and perception of art. During journeys, relationship with artists would start and later they would be given orders or the very artists would be invited to work. It is important to mention that separate families of nobles valued different countries; this was determined by the presence of very different cultural orientations at the same time. For example, the branch of the Biržai-Dubingiai Radziwill family, which maintained loyalty to Calvinism during the whole 17th century, was powerful in the first half of the 17th century and oriented itself to Calvinistic Holland and Protestant duchies of Germany. In the 17th century the Catholic (Nesvizh) branch of this family was more in favour of Italy towards which other noble families, such as the Sapieha and Pacai, oriented themselves.

Issue of Art Perception and Functionality The majority of educated noblemen were distinguished for good knowledge of art, knowing of the most famous artists of that time and their works, as well as understanding architectural schools. However, regardless of sufficient education, they did not demonstrate particu-

42 Ways of Spread of Elements of the Baroque Artistic Culture in the GDL… lar esthetical sensitivity. The most frequent epithets by which architecture and art collections were defined were “luxurious”, “unusual”, and “expensive”. To them art seemed to be a sign of wealth, a high position of the client. A representative example of such an understanding and relationship can be patron activities of Biržai branch of the Radziwill family. Still at the end of the 16th century this family most probably following the example of aristocracy of German duchies started establishing a portrait gallery in Vilnius and Dubingiai that later turned into a giant collection, supplemented with mainly imported works or works by incoming foreign authors. Besides works of visual arts there were fossils, stuffed exotic animals, armament, mechanisms. Objects valued due to their rarity, interest and price as well as representative portraits that witnessed the old age, power and connections of the family were accumulated in the gallery. Demonstration and emphasizing of the nobility of the family had a particular significance in the state without a strong power of the monarch, where noble families competing with each other had much influence. In such a situation, particular attention was paid to the art as a representative measure. Art entered into the system of the main self- praising which was supplemented by trips, balls, burial ceremonies, and musical events, which required artistic figuration and surprised their contemporaries with unseen scopes. Here patron activities were expressed through demonstration of property, as a measure of the client worshipping. The process of the nobility strengthening accompanied by the whole representation system (a great role belonged to the visual art in it) also coincided with the strengthening of contacts with the culture of Prussia, Germany, Poland, Holland, and Italy. In the art of these countries forms of representation and ideas were searched for. So a “cosmopolitan” culture, which emerged on the basis of creation of foreign masters and influence of foreign countries, formed in the field of patronage of the manors of the monarch and noblemen.

Relationship between Artistic Culture and Aristocratic Ideology Representative attempts of noblemen emerged not from contacts with foreign countries: their roots were concealed in the local culture. In

43 Problems of the GLD Cultural History order to understand what the context of this “cosmopolitan” artistic cultural layer was and what comprised the deeper foundation of the local artistic culture, it is necessary to turn back to the culture of the widest middle and small aristocracy layers and the system of aristocratic ideology that influenced it significantly. The latter ideological system referred to the attempt of the caste that had the main state privileges to preserve their position and their freedom. Researchers more than once emphasized xenophobia, delusions of grandeur, con- servatism, and excessive ritual religiousness, which emerged from the deep belief of small and middle aristocracy in the perfectness of the system of the government and the divine election of its caste. The nobility understood the election of their caste and the nation through the legend of an exceptional origin. The aspect of the past constantly confirmed and emphasized distinguished in the excessive cult of the family, old origin, famous ancestors. In the artistic culture such a cult was implemented through showing off of the personal genealogy: the old origin was demonstrated by accumulating collections of portraits, establishing galleries; often portraits were the only works of visual arts ordered by the nobility. They were considered to be an important witness of the ancient, high level origin. The 17th century is called the golden age of the portrait. At that time portraits just turned into fetish both among Lithuanian and Polish noblemen and lower layer aristocracy. Sumptuous clothes and armaments in portraits emphasized a high status and individual glory of the Lithu- anian aristocracy as well as honourable genealogic relationship. He- raldic signs and long records describing the nobleman portrayed would be used to create a public identity of a person by identifying it with ancestors. The art completely lost its aesthetic function in the aristocratic environment and became a part of the representative semantic system that had only an informational, marking role. It is not surpris- ing that expensive things had a particular value in the aristocratic culture: the passion of aristocrats for fabric vowed with gold, silver dishes, armament encrusted with silver and gold, jewelleries abun- dantly decorating various domestic objects was described by many incoming foreigners who were amazed by such wasting of money. This showing off luxury was related to the parading lifestyle based

44 Ways of Spread of Elements of the Baroque Artistic Culture in the GDL… on effects and pose including many rituals. Such a lifestyle included various elements overtaken from Eastern neighbours – Turkey, Persia, and Russia. Something that in those cultures meant honourable caste dependence arrived from those countries – aristocrats accepted and overtook this symbolism. The representativeness, which was already mentioned when talking about the artistic patronage of noblemen, should be derived from such a perception of art. These particularities of a local culture should be remembered in order to imagine the destiny of those cultural novelties which came to Lithu- ania through palaces of the King and the nobles.

For further reading: Baniulytė A. Itališkieji Pacų ryšiai XVII a. antroje pusėje ir LDK miestų dailė // Dailė LDK miestuose: poreikiai ir užsakymai. Dailės istorijos studijos. 2006, t. 2, P. 86–115. Access via the Inter- net: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/1001/1307.pdf Kuolys D. Baroko kelias Lietuvos Kultūron // Sietynas, 1990, T.VIII, P. 181–222. Paknys M. Mecenatystės reiškinys XVII a. LDK: bažnytinės architektūros užsakymai. Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla, 2003, P. 58–82. Raila E. Barokas // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 58–71. Vaišvilaitė I. Baroko pradžia Lietuvoje // Acta academiae artium Vil- nensis. Dailė, 1995, T. 6, P. 7–26. Trilupaitienė J. Lietuvos Didžiųjų kunigaikščių Vilniaus rūmų XVI–XVII a. muzikinė kultūra europiniame kontekste = The Musical culture of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania during the 16th and 17th centuries in its European context // Lie- tuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės valdovų rūmai ir jų atkūrimas Europinės patirties kontekste : tarptautinės mokslinės konferencijos medžiaga, 2006 m. spalio 11–12 d. 2009. Vilnius: Kultūra, 2009, P. 126–166. Ulčinaitė E. Vilniaus universitetas ir Baroko kultūra // Vilniaus universitetas Europoje: praeitis, dabartis, ateitis. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2005, P. 142–150, 151–160. 45 Topic 7. Development of the Visual Culture during the GDL Baroque Period

During the Baroque epoch, an image and an emblem were actualized next to a word. Since the Council of Trent the Church paid much attention to two methods of faith transference: word and image. The Baroque eloquence was based on a biologically grounded stan- dard of imagination that man in this world could not think about a thing without a hypothetical image. A statement that believers are not ready for intellectual considerations therefore operation of their imagination is more successful was followed. Protestants refused the image by giving prominence to the word itself (they practiced literal reading of the Holy Scripture). The image and visual impression in Catholic texts became more important than the truth of evidence. These values essentially influenced the development of culture both in the religious and secular area by encouraging development of new forms of the visual culture.

Establishment of Emblems in the GDL Culture An emblem is a connection of an allegoric image and a text reflecting it in one structure. The canonical emblem consisted of three parts: a sententious statement or an alternative title of the composition, an image, and an epigrammatic poem. Sometimes this structure would be supplemented by the fourth part – a prose commentary. Plants, animals (real or fantastic), tools of craftsmen, domestic appliances, musical instruments, natural phenomena (a storm, a rainbow), historical, biblical mythological figures and scenes would be depicted in emblems most often. Quite a lot of emblematic figures would be overtaken from medieval bestiaries and herbariums. Considering the descriptions of animals and plants, an allegoric meaning would be granted to their images. During the Baroque epoch after the establishment of the conception that all elements of the world are connected by an interdepen-

46 Development of the Visual Culture during the GDL Baroque Period dent relationship, comparison and juxtaposition became one of the main logic and artistic methods of creation, and an emblem turned into a genre by which such a worldview acquired a clearly expressed shape. An emblem emerged and spread as a certain game, witty cha- rade. Gradually it was started to use emblems for the expression of complicated concepts; it was entered into philosophy, aesthetics, and history. The attempt of that time to connect an image and the world should be explained following the emblematic grounds. Establish- ment of emblems in the GDL culture is related to the educative activities of Jesuits. Lithuanian Jesuits assumed the genre of emblems to be particularly suitable for the educational system. The Catholic reformation brought in and implemented emblematic thinking, perception of an image as a sign in the GDL culture. As in the whole Europe, in the GDL an emblem was not just a bookish phenomenon. It was applied to the design of buildings and decoration of other architectural shapes, tombstones. Researchers draw special attention to the emblems of the Jesuit school theatre, as well as to those used during theatrical events organized on the occasion of religious or secular celebrations.

Didactic Functionality of the GDL Theatre During the period discussed, a new branch of art – theatre – appeared in the Lithuanian culture. It had a significant influence on other areas of art and its foundation was closely related to the values of the Catholic reformation programme. By assuming theatre to be one of the teaching forms, a part of the didactic programme, Jesu- its in all countries created many drama works, staged many performances and organized various off-scene events for every occasion important for the school, city or state. During school performances students would be accustomed to communicate with the audience, to develop memory, diction, to consolidate the knowledge of the Latin language, and consider religious, moral values. The purpose of the Jesuit theatre was not art but education; it aimed to teach students to speak clearly and correctly, as well as to show themselves in public, and to develop their abilities and initiative. But at the same time theatre was a measure of representation. 47 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

However in the long run the school theatre went beyond these didactic objectives: it moved from academic audiences to streets and squares of the city, it became an inseparable part of the city life, formed an aesthetic taste of the audience, and became an impressive claimant of the Baroque spirit. It did not only introduce the plots of the literature, historiography and drama of Antics, Middle Ages and New Times but also tried to reflect significant events of that time, to give them artistic meaning, to comment on them and actualize them. Reaction to important political events was immediate – various performances were created to emphasize them. The attempt of Jesuits to actively participate in public, political and cultural life was also confirmed by school performances showed during major religious festivals, e. g. Easter or Christmas.

Para-theatrical Events – Religious Processions The spread of para-theatrical events – processions with scenes performed on the road, triumphal arcs, and live images – is also related to the activities of Jesuit schools. Such events particularly flourished at the beginning of the century in Vilnius. Church processions were an important part of the life of the Baroque epoch person. It was a unity of religion, art, public lifestyle, worldview and attitude. The emblems discussed above are characteristic of these phenomena of art closely related to the Catholic reformation. Processions comprised many “figures” moving along the city streets in carriages or on foot – certain live images which were accompanied by notes and mottos, corresponding with the epigrams and inscriptions typical of emblems – sententious statements. Each of such “figures” would portray either an allegoric composition or correspond with the icon of the emblem. Participants of the procession performed the roles of angels, muses, sciences (rhetoric, history), virtues (just- ness, loyalty, strength), and the whole procession expressed an idea which could be understood only by having in mind all its “figures”. Special programmes would explain the meaning of the procession to “the wise”, and para-theatrical events affected the people who did not know theology visually. 48 Development of the Visual Culture during the GDL Baroque Period

At the beginning of the 17th century the phenomenon of emblems already included many areas of the GDL cultural life (writing, theatrical events, design of buildings, tombstones). It shows that the cultural elite who perceived the world through the European system of symbols and who were able to use those symbols freely were already formed in Lithuania.

For further reading: Balaišytė L. Publicum dolori theatrum: kilmingųjų laidotuvių apipavidalinimas Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje XVIII a. viduryje // Dailės istorijos studijos 3. Ars memoriae: atmintis – dailės funkcija ir tema (XVIII–XXI a.). 2008, P. 9–23. Access via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/14001/14069.pdf Balaišytė L. Vilniaus pasaulietinės iškilmės ir jų apipavidalinimas XVIII a. viduryje // Viešosios ir privačiosios erdvės XVIII amžiaus Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje. Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2008, P. 121–147. Griciūtė L. XVII-XVIII a. bažnytinės procesijos Lietuvos Didžiojoje kunigaikštystėje // Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademijos metraštis. 2002, t. 21, P. 337–385. Access via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/17501/17992.pdf Ulčinaitė E. Mokyklinis jėzuitų teatras – politinio Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės teatro dalis // Literatūra, 2004, t. 46, P. 75–85. Ac- cess via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/34501/34998. pdf Ulčinaitė E. Lietuvos Renesanso ir Baroko literatūra. Vilnius: Vilni- aus universiteto leidykla, 2001, P. 173–186. Topic 8. Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas and Cultural Changes in the GDL in the Second Half of the 18th Century

The Enlightenment epoch is a period of time when it is started to think and talk in another way, and when humanistic values oriented towards the antique culture are explained in a new way, without putting up with Orthodox Baroque tendencies. A new idea of Europe was formed during this Epoch; it connected values emphasized by the Renaissance and Enlightenment and gave the basis for a new secular identity. Such a turn in the history of Europe did not mean radical distancing from the Christian worldview but primarily marked a separation of the religion from all other areas of the society – a major process of public life secularization. During this epoch, ideas that had to improve the life of the whole humanity radically were formulated and tried to be implemented in a new way; the principle of innate equality was actualized, and a belief in the future and a possibility to find essential solutions of life problems were related to the idea of progress. In the first half of the 18th century new ideas based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment age started moving to the Republic of Poland and Lithuania from Western Lithuania, but their reception in the society was not simple and easy. These ideas were primarily overtaken by the cultural and political elite of the society meanwhile the mental horizons of the broad nobles society and peasantry were restricted by the stereotypes inherited from the previous age. New ideas that faced a strong traditional public thought started affecting GDL cultural processes more significantly in the second half of the 18th century by slowly changing the intellectual cli- mate and value preferences, causing the biggest changes in the field of education and other areas closely related to it.

50 Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas and Cultural Changes in the GDL… Orders of Catholic Monks and Spread of New Educational Ideas

The spread of Enlightenment ideas in the Republic of Two Nations was particularly closely related to the academic environment. Besides the nobility, another layer of the society played a significant role in the life of the state even though it did not occupy a very remarkable and noticeable place in the structure of the public body, but it was very active and dynamic in other areas of social activities. They are orders and congregations of Jesuits, missionaries, Piarists, and The- atines. Their activities and teaching were most often restricted to the walls of schools, colleges or private apartments, however, seemingly invisible and hardly determined educational and scientific practice effectively mellowed the soil for Enlightenment ideas. Many of the above mentioned members of the order moved to study to Western Europe. Soon a “feedback” mechanism started to work effectively and began to produce European Enlightenment Ideas in the provinces of Lithuania and Poland. Unceasing spread of new thinking and new ideas started in the environment of the Cath- olic order, which contributed to the emergence of new branches of teaching. History, as a separate subject, was formed in Jesuit colleges in France, Germany and Italy in the sixth decade of the 18th century and was taught in all Lithuanian and Polish Jesuit colleges. Besides history, separate hours for teaching geography were also introduced. Until the middle of the 18th century achievements in astronomy and meteorology were approved of in Jesuit schools that strictly opposed the tradition of Aristotle-Ptolemy. This complex of astronomy, geography and history introduced in Lithuanian and Polish colleges encouraged seeking knowledge of empirical reality and historical self-consciousness, which had not been experienced until then. Besides Jesuits, very much attention to education was paid by the Piarist Order competing with Jesuits. The scholastic tradition of thinking was refused in schools supported by Piarists, and French and German languages were included into the programme. Teach- ing of the French language and literature was very well organized and deliberated. Thanks to it, the most prominent authors of the French literature of the 17th century appeared in the cultural environment

51 Problems of the GLD Cultural History of Lithuania and Poland for the first time. The level of mathematics teaching increased greatly, students had a possibility to familiarize themselves with the basics of experimental physics, and an atlas and a globe were started to be used during geography lessons. The Theatine Order also carried out active development and educational activities. Its members were the first ones in the Republic to start greatly criticizing the teaching of the Latin language according to old methods. Theatines paid much attention not only to humanitarian but also to natural sciences. In the fifties of the th18 century they included a new concept of the nature knowledge system in their study programme. Therefore, in the first half of theth 18 century certain Catholic orders and congregations were most susceptible to Enlightenment ideas. By having the educational monopole in their hands, they spread the first ideas of the Age of Enlightenment that most often would come from France. Many noblemen who acquired education in the local school would continue their studies at the universities of Western Europe. In this way a compact layer of educated and en- lightened people was accumulating in the state of Lithuania and Po- land. By having a common educational experience and depending on the same cultural discourse they could communicate with each other in “the Language of Enlightenment”. This layer of people who were the first to overtake the ideas of the European Enlightenment distinguished not only by the cultural but also by the civil initiative.

Education Reform and Activities of the Education Commission In 1773 after annulment of the Jesuit Order the Education Commis- sion of the secular type was established in the Republic of Two Na- tions. Its purpose was not only the administrative reform of schools but also a new concept of science. Schools had to prepare citizens who would know a political and economic situation of their country very well, and could orientate themselves in world events. These attempts were reflected in teaching programmes. Much attention was paid to the studies of history, law, basics of economics, geography, and basics of nature knowledge; knowledge about crafts and farm-

52 Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas and Cultural Changes in the GDL… ing was also provided. The following patriotic objectives of education were emphasized: development of civil virtues and coordination of personal interests with public needs and welfare of the homeland. Therefore, much attention was paid to teaching of history and languages in the projects of the reform. The knowledge of national history and understanding of the actualities of that time had to be encouraged in schools. The use of the Latin language in the teaching process was criticized, because attachment of the person to his own country and language could not be developed by referring to it. So, several important accents could be highlighted – a language started to be treated as a witness of a certain cultural experience and a mark of identity. Foreign (French, German) languages were introduced in schools, and the Polish language was established as a language of teaching and the question of the Lithuanian language as a language of teaching in the secondary school was raised. In 1775, a teacher seminary was founded in Vilnius, when after closing the Society of Jesus the lack of teachers had been noticed in parish schools. Functioning of the teacher preparation institution was particularly significant because of two more reasons. Along with a quickly ideologically maturating caste of small and middle aristocracy and developing environment of townsmen a new layer of the state residents – teachers – started to form. This speeded up the initiated society differentiation, which chronologically coincided with the establishment of new political institutions and development of a qualitatively changed administrative and bureaucratic thought.

Formation of New Reading Practices and Changes in Book Publishing Tendencies A book became one of the essential measures of independent thought development in the 18th century. In 1775, the Textbook Preparation Union was founded next to the Education Commission, which had to resolve a particularly relevant problem of textbooks. The activities of the Union were especially valuable since by publishing various scientific works and textbooks it essentially not only changed reading methods but also a relationship of the very reader with the reality surrounding him. The methodology of a book dictation, promoting

53 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

rough exercising of the mechanical memory and encouraging exal- tation of the senior authority, which had been practiced for two hun- dred years by the Jesuits, was changed by the individualized relationship of the reader with a text. This change initiated a phenomenon of critical thinking and awakened efforts of self-analysis. An active “book propaganda” organized by the Education Commission helped the society of the Republic to cope with a long-lived bibliophobia. They became an easier acquired item since they became cheaper. Most probably it can be stated that the decrease in book prices was related to more intense book publishing and the increase in circulation and readers. During the Age of Enlightenment, a book that had been an object of luxury for a long time was turned into an attribute of a daily life. On the other hand, it can be seen from contemporaries of the period analysed and other memories that a literacy level was quite low in the Republic in the second half of the 18th century. A book was an unusual thing even at homes of nobles, and a big part of noblemen elected to local parliaments were illiterate. A clearly increased need for reading and writing is witnessed by a significant increase in the sale of primers. And the changes in the publishing conjuncture are witnessed by changing reading practices of townsmen and aristocracy. Townsmen, aristocracy and even peasants started reading calendars. Many of them and different kinds of them appeared. Besides earlier known church liturgical calendars, astrological forecasting, political, civil, and national calendars were spread. The calendars made the layers of the society that earlier participated in spoken communication read. This statement is confirmed by calendars discussing different topics from Catholicism dogmas and religious practice to agriculture and livestock growing, which were massively distributed and were full of records. During the last decades of the 18th century Lithuanian records whose authors were peasants appeared; maybe, they were wealthy but not noblemen for sure. This is witnessed not only by the changing situation in the area of written communication but also by the tendencies of modernization of the social life.

54 Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas and Cultural Changes in the GDL…

For further reading: Mačiulytė K. Religinė ir pilietinė tapatybė LDK apšvietos pamoksluose // Literatūra. 2006, T. 48(7), P. 102–118. Access via the Internet: http://archive.minfolit.lt/arch/8501/8638.pdf Plečkaitis R. Apšvietos epochos dvasia ir Lietuvos visuomenės tikrovė // Apšvietos ir romantizmo kryžkelėse: filosofijos kryptys ir kontroversijos Lietuvoje XVIII a. pabaigoje–pirmoje XIX a. pusėje. Vilnius: Kultūros, filosofijos ir meno institutas, 2008. P. 10–30. Raila E. Apšvieta // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 44–57. Raila E. Ignotus Ignotas: Vilniaus vyskupas Ignotas Jokūbas Masals- kis. Vilnius: Aidai, 2010, P. 99–164. Tarasiuk J. K. Narbutt and the beginning of enlightenment in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania // Problemos, 2010, Priedas, P. 38–43. Žąsinaitė J. Švietėjiška savivoka XVIII a. Lietuvos ir Lenkijos perio- dikoje // Metai. 2009, Nr. 4, P. 121–126. Topic 9. Nobles of the GDL in the Period from the 16th Century to the First Half of the 18th Century: Life Style and Ideals

Nobles were primarily distinguished from other members of the society by nobleness, power and wealth. However it is highlighted in many texts of the 17th century that an identity of a nobleman was determined not only by blood and wealth but also it was related to a complicated treatment of one’s image, social construct and lifestyle. Therefore, when talking about the aristocratic culture, not only the problem of the nobleman’s status, his prestige and honour, which were determined by a position in the society and a specific lifestyle, but also a rhetoric of a personal identity – formation of one’s image – becomes important. Therefore, when talking about the aristocratic culture, it is also important to find answers to the following questions: How did a nobleman have to look like and behave in order to present his proper image to the society? What norms did he have to comply with in order to be a “real” nobleman? What requirements and expectations of the caste constructed the “I” of a Lithuanian nobleman?

Environment of the Ideal Life Discussion of the ideals of the nobles’ lifestyle could be started from the discussion of living environment images in the nobles’ writing. First of all, it should be mentioned that a construction of the ideal aristocratic environment is often seen by a contraposition of the urban and rural life. Nobles considered cities to be places of evil con- centration: they would always feel threat in the city, the noise and smell irritated them, and they were constantly afraid of thieves and other dangers. A city for noblemen was a place of a short visit. An opinion prevailed that a long stay in the city caused moral losses. Even noblemen affected by the ideas of the Enlightenment period 56 Nobles of the GDL… opposed an honourable and virtuous life in a village to bad habits of a life in big cities. A life in a village for a nobleman seemed not only complying with his interests (supervision of land and property) but also was granting moral supremacy over other nations since in the cities “heresies and sins spread quite easily, and knightly ideals were replaced by feminizing”. A sufficiently big land ensuring economic independence of its owner was assumed to be ideal, however it was not too big so that a landowner could manage his works in the farm himself and protect himself against temptations granted by wealth and idleness. An aristocratic idyll, the world full of harmony, where there was no place for a bad neighbour, economic problems, war or fire, was a certain miniature utopia possible under the conditions of a landowner’s life. Implementation of the ideal had to provide a nobleman with personal independence, full autonomy, and freedom. Internal peace had to be ensured by a refusal to chase posts and restrictions of their interests in the matters of agriculture. However ideals overpassed the reality of the aristocratic life of that time a lot. Constant attempts of noblemen to occupy better positions and accumulate as much wealth as possible can be seen in the sources, and these desires were being implemented by any measures. As the commoners tried to get into the space of aristocracy, in the same way representatives of the latter tried to get into the environment of nobles, and the top of their dreams was intermar- riage with a famous and influential family of the nobles.

Model of a Good Life and a Public Image of a Nobleman Adherence with sometimes quite a complicated model of a “good life”, which included almost everything – from clothing and proper behaviour at table to an ability to support a friendly conversation and an appropriate greeting of persons in a higher hierarchical position, can be assumed as an essential feature of the aristocratic lifestyle. Even though the same code of behaviour existed in a relationship among noblemen, however, it was distinguished by certain varia- tions: from adulatory, humble from the point of view of the nobles 57 Problems of the GLD Cultural History to the perfunctory attitude towards poor noblemen. Other norms of behaviour were applied in communication with persons not belonging to the case of nobles. A nobleman was characterized by the skills of his eloquence. Elo- quence was perceived as a manly virtue, and it was the most important virtue in the arena of public performances. It helped to confirm the image of itself. It can even be stated that in general a language was an instrument creating a demonstrative personality of a nobleman: good eloquence comprised a part of a public and personal life, social and political games. Private and public conversations, speeches in sejms and sejmiks, political pamphlets, autobiographical letters were a measure of self-commemoration and presentation. A nobleman had to know a mechanism of self-presentation since his own power partially depended on his presence in everyone’s view. He was recognized not only from his own arms, but also from his gestures, language and clothes. To see and be visible was one of the most important forms of activity in the publicity culture of the Republic in the 16-17th centuries: the life of noblemen was full of such performances as wrestling, processions, public statements and speeches, hunting, and dances. A body of a nobleman was very important when creating his image. In the 16-17th centuries the world of aristocrats was focused on a body: posture, gestures, and etiquette as matters of self-control. Cer- tain gestures, discourses about a body posture were identified with nobleness. The manner of walking, posture, gesture, a different manner of speaking, writing and rituals transferring certain information showed either gentility or vulgarity at the same time. The very posture of a nobleman had to show his high origin and manly nature. Behav- iour and physical data of a nobleman were related to “innate virtues” and social advantage. It was believed that a member of the noblemen caste was able to temper his body impulses and whims more than a representative of any other caste. Polish and Lithuanian moralists constantly emphasized aristocratic discipline and self-control. In the rhetoric of that time it was never stopped to celebrate physical disciplined traditional soldier bodies with military skills and virtues. By praising a healthy, strong build of “a real soldier”, moralists often opposed it with fastidiousness of reprobate noblemen, their fat

58 Nobles of the GDL… bodies. In the moralistic literature of the 16th and 17th centuries much was spoken about degeneration of a strong and healthy body of a soldier and hatred of the noblemen to military things.

Importance of Gentility and Honour to Nobles’ Lifestyle Nobility (gentility) was the biggest virtue in this layer. Already a concept of gentility and a privileged position in the society based on it was distinguished in the self-consciousness of the noblemen caste of the 16-17th centuries. In the whole Europe of that time inheritance of a noble position was related to the theory of inheritance of virtues and features witnessing advantage. In the GDL aristocracy (nobility) was treated no less mystically as based on a separate better biologic origin (bodily advantage, mind and character were inherited). Therefore, marriages of the unequal origin were quite strictly rated. An origin was perceived as a strength from the past received from ancestors of the family, which were not only symbols of pride, honour and glory to their offsprings but rather a proof of power and strength. A coat of arms was a sign of this origin. It is practically the most important attribute, a sign of self-commemoration in a certain environment of the family and society. The very image of the coat of arms was not only an armorial sign of a nobleman. It was also a feature of his brave, unshakable soldier, witnessing his courage, hero- ism and other military virtues. Military marches were a source of pride and a symbol of a powerful family of a nobleman or aristocrat. Therefore, nobility in the GDL was related not only with a coat of arms but also with possession of military attributes, their collection and later with their demonstration. Understanding of honour was inseparable from nobility. Touchi- ness of the nobility regarding honour granted a basis for different adventures, which would be often stimulated by alcohol. Foreign- ers visiting the Republic of Two Nations often complained about ag- gressiveness of carousals of the noblemen and suspicion of others regarding encroaching of honour. Since there was no strong execu- tive power, a sward would represent the police; it would serve for execution of the court judgement or revenge to the neighbour they

59 Problems of the GLD Cultural History did not like. Without wanting intervention of the government, the noblemen would execute their justice themselves. There were many occasions to get insulted since understanding of honour was not clearly defined and quite wide. In the writing of that time it was gen- erally agreed that manliness and chivalry were necessary features of a nobleman as symbols of a higher public position and courage (a nobleman could be compromised by cowardice and not, for example, by plunder, robbery or cruelty). An excessive perception of honour also affected other layers of the society: here influences of the ethos of nobleman-soldier, which reached both townsmen and peasants, can be noticed. However, only in the case of nobility the protection of honour was related to the system of ethical imperatives derived from the status of a noble.

For further reading: Guzevičiūtė R. Tarp rytų ir vakarų: XVI–XX a. LDK bajorų kostiumo formavimo aplinkybės ir pavidalai. Vilnius: Versus aureus, 2006, P. 20–30. Kiaupienė J. “Mes, Lietuva”: Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės bajorija XVI a.(viešasis ir privatus gyvenimas). Vilnius: Kronta, 2003, P. 221–240. Kuolys D. Asmuo, tauta, valstybė Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės istorinėje literatūroje: renesansas ir barokas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1992, P. 130–171. Petrauskas R. Giminystė // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 183–196. Tereškinas A. Bajoriško „aš” retorika XVII a. Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje: iškalba, kūnas, scena // Acta Academiae artium Vilnensis. Dailė. 2002, T. 24, P. 171–200. Topic 10. Peculiarities of Cultural Development in the Urban Environment of the GDL

In many cases exclusivity and development of the urban culture were determined by the lifestyle and specific activities characteristic of the urbanized environment. The most important place of townsmen in the life of the society and the state were trade and production. Craftsmen, market and shop salesmen, inn owners were important elements of a city life but the wealth and power of the city primarily depended on the condition of the remote wholesale and its scope. The developed remote trade and crafts were the basis of prosperity of the town and its townsmen community; it brought riches, made the city attractive to live in. An urbanized, compact structure of the public environment of the city reflecting urban activities is also important when talking about phenomena of urban culture and their forms characteristic only of the city life. The market square was the most important public environment of the city, its centre. Markets and fairs, city festivals and other events important for the city at- tracting relatively many people would take place there. A town hall had to stand on the market square or next to it in the municipal city. The town hall was a centre of the public life of the city community; people of the city’s municipal institutions would gather there, courts and celebrations important to the city would take place there as well. Another public space – a parish church was of the same importance in a city life as the Market square. Just its significance was different: a spiritual life of townsmen took place there. A church was not an urban part of the city; however, due to the nature of its relationship with a city life and significance of this relationship it undoubtedly was a part of an urban life. When talking about the development of the city culture, an ethno-confessional factor in the townsmen’s life should be considered. City communities of the GDL were distinguished for ethnical and confessional variety – a different ethno-confessional situation developed in each city which had a crucial significance on the forms of the urban culture. An ethno-confessional factor primarily

61 Problems of the GLD Cultural History influenced a linguistic situation in a specific city – dominant ethnic groups determined the use of certain languages in the area of written and spoken communication. And religious variety determined the structure of the education system since foundation of city schools most often took place on the confessional grounds. The ethnical and confessional dependence in many cases also determined the professional clustering of townsmen and divided the city community in case of certain public urban activities.

City Community as a Sociocultural Derivative The community of townsmen was not monolithic – it consisted of city inhabitants of different layers distinguished by different social statuses. The so called urban citizens were the superior layer of the townsmen community. They were the subject of city self-government; municipal institutions were formed from them. The layer of urban citizens was increasing; it was constantly supplemented by new townsmen, newcomers or the ones coming up the social ladder from lower layers. Craftsmen together with smaller tradesmen were the basis of another abundant layer of the urban community – townspeople. During the period described, the attributes of a constant life in a city, i.e. own houses, independent economic activities, workshop of a craftsman, own inn or a tradesman’s shop, were practically the most visible their common features. It is important to emphasize this since in this way they differed from the plenty of freely hired people who constantly stayed in the city at the same time and who most often did not have their own living place. The majority of these mercenaries – mercenaries of townsmen’s households (home work- ers, apprentices, gizels, freelance inn managers or beer makers, etc.) would live in a city constantly or at least during the period of employment since they worked there, therefore, they could be deemed to be a part of an urban life. The lowest level of the urban community, the so called people of the out, consisted of vagabonds, beggars, prostitutes, market strollers, etc. Such people (marginal groups of the society) would be present in every larger city. Habits of the urban life and the Right of Magdeburg encouraged taking care of those in trouble, those who lost property 62 Peculiarities of Cultural Development in the Urban Environment of the GDL for some reasons, got poor due to a disease, were disabled or had no guardians. Foster homes would be established for them; the church and people engaged in charity would take care of them. But according to the understanding of that time vagrancy and adultery were not tolerated, people practicing this would be punished with physical penalties and removed from the city. Another reason that could push a man out was a resilient belief that there were people having unique supernatural powers and able to harm the surrounding people with these powers, in other words, a belief in spells and witchcraft. In- comprehensible actions of other people were dreaded and it would be hurried to apply to court in order to protect this fear. It is not always known how these cases would end, but people blamed for incanta- tions and spells would be strictly punished. In any case they would find themselves outside the margins of the townsmen community and would become out people.

Sense of Community in the Urban Lifestyle Even though the nature of economic activities often forced a townsman to be an individualist, however during a period discussed, a man alone could hardly survive without referring to a community or sometimes even to some of them; he had to feel uncomfortable facing the confrontation with other castes, other communities. The townsmen community was the connecting structure, and smaller gatherings of townsmen organized on different grounds were assembling, changing, communicating and disappearing inside it. The city itself started taking care of people of the city community who were not able to maintain themselves in the old age or in case of disability. In this sphere of a city life, the municipal institutions of the city operated together with the church. Maintenance of foster homes was a moral obligation of the city community, one of the forms of implementation of the communal life values. Charity and custody were phenomena of the city life disclosing the meaning of the sense of community in a city. Secular religious fraternities were already the real forms of the communal life of townsmen, where townsmen and the church acted together again. The first religious fraternities of cities were established already in the Middle Ages. They experienced a decline in the 63 Problems of the GLD Cultural History middle of the 16th century, during the rise of the Reformation, and they revived again during the reformation of the Catholic Church and the implementation of regulations of the Council of Trent. In the beginning of the 17th century their number started to grow, and the life of fraternities prospered in the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century. The main task of fraternities was activities in the area of holiness, i.e. various piety practices, development of personal virtues, works of charity. At the same time it was a freely selected form of townsmen communication rather than determined by a lifestyle or profession. It was often supplemented with communication with people of other castes participating in the life of fraternity, primarily with noblemen. Another form of townsmen’s communal life arose from their professional needs. First of all workshops of craftsmen should be discussed here. They were unions of masters of one or several crafts which primarily were intended to satisfy the needs of a professional life of craftsmen (quality of products, competition, acquisition of raw materials, sale of products, etc.), to determine the rules for satisfac- tion of these needs and mechanisms of their implementation. But it should not be forgotten that the genesis of workshops often lied in activities of fraternities, masters of one craft could unite into a fraternity, have their own altar in a church and gather at it or somewhere else primarily encouraged by piety. And only later workshops would develop from such craftsmen’s fraternities. The public life of workshops was an obvious expression of a sense of community of craftsmen that influenced the whole city life. This sense of community was strengthened by various rituals and symbols. Workshops had their own seal and flag; they participated in a parade of workshops during church and secular city festivals, when welcoming the ruler or high state officers arriving in the city and church hierarchy. The townsmen community was a gathering that included all residents of the city. It consisted of smaller communities and unities which people would join on different grounds: professional, social, or religious (sometimes these grounds would intermingle). Capacities, possibilities and needs of all these smaller communities and unions merged in the townsmen’s community. The townsmen’s community was not monolithic, its members were different socially, economi-

64 Peculiarities of Cultural Development in the Urban Environment of the GDL cally and from the confessional point of view; they were on different steps of the townsmen’s hierarchy. Relationship of townsmen, social groups inside the city were not idyllic, sometimes tension would be felt in the city, however, unavoidably it would be overshadowed by the sense and need for community.

Importance of Literacy and Education in a Town Life Literacy had a lot of significance for the quality of life of town residents. In the middle of the 16th century writing in the form of documents had already deeply penetrated into a daily life of town residents. The knowledge of writing, an ability to read, write and calculate in writing or draw was necessary for the work of merchandisers, people of liberal professions (doctors, lawyers) and certain craftsmen (shavers-surgeons, goldsmiths, masons, etc.).Writing was a vitally important thing to a self-governed city. Different resolutions of the city self-government had to be written down, it was necessary to apply to the ruler, contact trade partners, manage trade accounts, etc. Besides the ruler’s palace and church institutions, the environment of townsmen in Lithuania was one of those where writing and writing culture spread earliest. By all means, schools working in the city contributed to the establishment of writing. Besides old parish schools, schools of other confessions (Orthodox, Calvinist or Lutheran) operated in cities, and public schools operating next to clerics should not be forgotten as well. It can be supposed that the variety of schools and their relative abundance also determined a conditional abundant number of students. The origin of students and a social position of their parents were quite varied. It is obvious that sons of merchants and craftsmen attended the school. It is probable that offsprings of the city elite – municipal officers, rich merchants – would start their studies in schools of the native town. Most probably it was hard for a poor townsman to educate his son in the school, most often they would be allowed to study some craft or sent to serve. But attraction to education can be seen from the fact that sometimes apprenticeship or employment contracts contained conditions that the employee had to bring the child to school at his own expense. 65 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

Only very general information about the content of teaching is found in sources. For example, in contracts of employers and employ- ees’ parents or guardians it is only agreed on the allowance of boys to go to school by expecting that there they will learn everything what is good. A belief that education is good and that it can help in life is obviously seen. Reading and writing had to be taught in all schools. It also has to be emphasized that the basics of mathematics were necessary for townsmen, merchants and craftsmen, and children had to learn it at school. Since there were a variety of schools, it was believed that the content of teaching was not unified as well. Taking into consideration the social origin of students, this system could include the most varied layers of city inhabitants. It also served to the general city neighbourhood. The activities of city offices and establishment of writing, as well as documents in the domestic life of townsmen, students of the European universities originated from the GDL cities and books protected and read by townsmen also directly or in- directly witness effectiveness of this system. When talking about literature and art, it can be stated that townsmen were susceptible users of manifestations of these areas of culture. Creative powers of townsmen in the area of culture were not very big, they disclosed at the level of community organization and a daily life, i.e. at the level of the use of writing, construction of elementary schools, public and private buildings, equipment of their interior, cherishment and use of ideas and symbols of the city’s independence.

For further reading: Doukhan I. Baroque city: the conception of time and history // Acta Academiae artium Vilnensis. Dailė, 2001, T. 21, P. 263–275. Kiaupa Z. Kauno istorija. 1Tomas. Kauno istorija nuo seniausių laikų iki 1655 metų. Vilnius: Versus aureus, 2010, P. 336–361. Kiaupa Z. Miestai // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 351–364. Samalavičius S. Vilniaus miesto kultūra ir kasdienybė XVII–XVIII amžiuose. Vilnius: Edukologija, 2011, P. 21–26; 32–65. Varsackytė R. Šventės ir iškilmės Kaune XVII–XVIII a. // Kauno istorijos metraštis. 2008, T. 9, P. 35–44. 66 Topic 11. Peasantry Communities of the GDL: Features of Sociocultural Development

The culture of peasants changed slowly compared with the development of the culture of other parts of the structure of the society both during the Middle Ages and the Early New Times. Even though it constantly changed by applying a new cultural phenomenon to the already existing one, these changes proceeded slower by maintaining a close continuity with the culture of past times; the culture of peasants, as well as the culture of other layers or castes of the society, was constantly conveyed to new generations, however, the characteristic feature of this process was that peasants transferred the old heritage by transforming it little, and during the development of history they changed it very slowly, therefore, many archaic things were transferred to new generations even though in changed forms. In the period from the second half of the 16th century to the 18th century, the peasantry culture existed in a serfdom street village – a big group of homesteads. The village community comprised the environment of a public and cultural life of a peasant that determined the formation of peasantry culture elements, their preservation, and transference from a generation to a generation. Many communal relationships are reflected by the lifestyle of peasants that reached us through descriptions of the habits of the 16-18th centuries, folklore and all spoken tradition, which disclosed the most important events and the daily rhythm of the village community, as well as the main life events of its member – a peasant. Birth, marriage, death, annual works, and calendar festivals comprised a daily life combined by constantly repeating situations. Individual experience, proficiency of a person in a village community that became collective was returned to everyone but already in a generalized cultural form rather than separately.

67 Problems of the GLD Cultural History Cultural Lifestyle Forms of Peasantry Determined by the Rhythm of Work and Life Cycles

The rhythm of earthwork was crowned by festivals jointly celebrated by the whole village or even several villages. Quite a lot of their descriptions remained from the 16-17th centuries, though it is already obvious that they were vanishing gradually and both Catholic and Protestant churches intensively and constantly fought with them as pagan. The agricultural festivals were celebrated with common feasts – a village or even several villages would make or bring beer, buy an animal from jointly collected money or would jointly treat themselves. Commemoration of agricultural festivals – sambariai, žaisliai – most often were related to certain agricultural cycles: early in the spring before the ploughing works, at the end of June–beginning of July, around Pentecost or St. Peter, or in autumn after removal or collection of yield or after commencement of threshing. The annual work rhythm was festively commemorated by calendar customs of the agrarian cycle (the first soil bed, the first pastur- age, sowing, visiting of corn, the beginning and end of harvesting), and that would become a festival for each worker, the whole family or a village community. The work that formed the content of the peasant’s life was also the basis of his festivals. He was prepared for work from the little age. Many mandatory details of everyday life would antagonize for festive mood at the start of the work: clean clothes, rites performed in unison, prohibited rift. Festivity would comprise the whole of customs, where actions having a magic meaning and rites would intermingle with bright relics of still the old faith. The communal nature of family customs related to the birth of a baby, marriage and death was emphasized in the sources of the 16-18th centuries. First of all, established rituals marked the public importance of these moments of a human life and turned them into events of the whole village. Publicity is characteristic of them – the entire village or a part of it would become witnesses of the event. This is also witnessed by the nature of radynai and apgėlos – rites for a new-born: by the rite of radynos the father as if acknowledges the baby as his own and greets the mother in this way, and during apgėlos a name is given, a new-born is accepted to the community,

68 Peasantry Communities of the GDL… and representatives of the village (godparents) give wishes to the new-born and parents. The celebration of marriage had a particularly distinct meaning of the public confirmation in the 17th century. It included several phases – betrothal (inflorescence), conclusion of prenuptial contracts, when the bride and the groom drink with each other, presentation of the wreath to the bride highlighted by orations and traditional songs, meaning the nuptials evidenced by all participants, putting on a married woman’s head-dress for a bride in the morning after the first night, transference of a girl from one social group to another (according to the social position and age); taking away the bride and dowry, the ritual of meeting of the daughter-in- law in the presence of the whole village – a transference from one village community to another is confirmed. A wedding was a celebration of the whole village; its publicity made the village a witness of the family being created. Wedding ceremonies were also a social actualization of them that had elements of a religious ritual of the past centuries. At the same time they were an experience of a person and the whole village for the expression whereof many lyric songs, different rituals, unique symbols and images had been created. Bright closeness of the community members can be seen in the presence of death. Friends and all people of the village were invited to come to see the dying person, to say goodbye. The dying person apologized to them if he had done something bad and treated them to beer. Each dying person was lamented, the funeral was necessar- ily held and people would go to the burial. The entire village would prepare meal after the funeral, one month, three months or a year after the death. Individual experience through customs, rituals in the commemoration of the deceased would become a joint emotional condition of the whole village. The commemoration of the deceased was an inseparable part of the rural routine, faith and cultural life. Knowledge about such commemorations in the 16–18th centuries can be found in many places of Lithuania; at that time they were still closely related to agricultural festivals.

69 Problems of the GLD Cultural History Issue of Peasants’ Faith

The faith of peasants and town residents can be defined as Christian; however, its daily forms of devotion reflected a strongly surviving layer of traditions characteristic of the culture of Lithuanian people. The following features were characteristic of the faith of peasants (and town residents): particularly strong belief in magic and an ability to preserve the images of faith inherited from previous centuries which changed quite slowly. It was still believed in the creatures of the world beyond us, or the world of spirits, however, these spirits were not al- mighty Gods but belonged to a lower level. The superior theology did not change popular shapes of the faith; specific layers of the popular culture, unique to each ethnic community were characteristic of it. But still the forms and images of peasants’ faith changed though slowly. Worshiping of mythical creatures, animals, natural objects and phenomena, and celebration of various festivals not appropriate to Christians, belief in dreams, various classes of sorcerers (soothsayers, herbalist, fortune tellers), and various rituals and rites are constantly mentioned in the sources. At first sight various non-Christian practices of magic origin seemed of quite an impressive volume, including a complex of beliefs, sacrifices, rituals, spells. However, it is not the real religion of Lithuanians and it is only what remained from it after disappearance of constantly functioning cult centres and professional soothsayers and removal of the nobility from the environment of the social religion. It is a peasantry faith continuing the tradition, however, not controlled. Syncretism, a certain combina- tion of evolved pagan and Christian images was characteristic of the peasants’ faith. Introduction of the Christian model of behaviour to peasants in the 16th century and particularly in the 17th century was taking place following two directions: by trying to change folk customs and beliefs and by trying to apply the Christian model to local conditions where it was not able to beat the expressions of the old belief. By looking for methods to become prevalent in the folk worldview, the Catholic Church had to narrow its concepts (Maria of the Gates of Dawn or iluva is worshipped rather than Maria in general), they had to adjust to folk psychology and that was also related to the introduction of the national features to the religious cult.

70 Peasantry Communities of the GDL…

In the 17–18th centuries after looking at the customs of agriculture, family life, and various rituals, it can be obviously seen that Chris- tian images and rituals had already overshadowed old images and faiths about the presence whereof we can only guess. The traces of the old pagan faith and rituals can be seen in customs of the majority of collective festivals which have been recorded by already vanishing. Customs of collective festivals were very vivid since agricultural communities worked under similar conditions like at the moment of Christianity acceptance. The Catholic Church had to adjust to these agrarian festivals and the ancestor cult closely related to them. May- be the rituals of the pagan faith related to old agrarian cults or the cults of the deceased were present in peasantry celebrations. However in the 17th century these festivals were already coordinated with the festivals of the Catholic Church, and certain things were transferred from old rituals to them. In the 17th century a lot of church festivals were introduced, which had to cover the old rituals of agrarian customs with Christian rituals. The Catholic Church (and Evangelical communities) tried to coordinate the attitude, worldview of a peasant, and festive moments of the daily life with the Christian Church worldview and ideology using all measures and methods.

We can call the 18th century the final phase of paganism destruction. Already at the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century a part of goddesses and mythical creatures were pushed to the area of spoken tradition, folk and passed only to the area defined by artistic imagination. Paganism ends by passing to the level of eth- nography, i.e. by turning into the unsystematic accumulation of customs. We can see such a Lithuanian village in the 19-20th centuries but essentially the ethnographic level was already reached until the middle of the 18th century even in the deepest province.

For further reading: Jurginis J., Lukšaitė I. Lietuvos kultūros istorijos bruožai. Feodal- izmo epocha iki aštuonioliktojo amžiaus. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1981, P. 198–218. Lukšaitė I. Evangelikų ir katalikų veiksmų perimamumas keičiant lietuvių liaudies tikėjimo pavidalus (XVI a. paskutinis ketvirtis– 71 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

XVII a. pirmasis trečdalis) // Lietuvos krikščionėjimas Vidurio Europos kontekste. Vilnius, 2005, P. 251–278. Račiūnaitė R., Senvaitytė D., Vaicekauskas A. Senovės lietuvių pasaulėžiūra. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo Universiteto leidykla, 2001, P. 83–87. Sarcevičienė J. Lietuvos valstiečių religingumas XVIII a.: tamsioji mėnulio pusė // LDK dvasingumas: tarp tradicijos ir dabarties. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo Universiteto leidykla, 2010, P. 133–150. Topic 12. Non-Christian Communities in the GDL Culture

Three following nations confessing other monotheistic religions belong to non-Christians in the GDL: Jews and Karaites confessing Judaism and Muslim Tatars. Non-Christian communities started settling on the GDL lands quite late – in the second half of the 14th century. Establishment of new communities reflected the accommodation policy carried out by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytau- tas, who expected the revival of the economic development of the country (by encouraging settlement of the Jewish communities) and renewal of the military organization (by establishing settlements of Karaites and Tatars) from migration. Exceptionality of non-Chris- tians dividing the society into Christians and Jewish, into Karaites and Christians was legally established in privileges granted by the GDL monarchs to the Jews of Brasta (1388) and Karaites of Trakai (1441). After emergence of a new legal concept in the Second Statute of Lithuania (1566) a separate privilege was granted to Tatars going to military service. From the very establishment the Lithuanian Jews felt the care of the monarch; they were an important commercial partner and the source of cash to them. Encouraged by favourable privileges of grand dukes, the Jews created a dense and structured network of their communities in Lithuanian cities and lived in a quite tolerant atmosphere. At the end of the 14th century by settling the Karaites of the Turkish origin confessing the Judaist religion in Trakai it was attempted to use them for military service and primarily for protection of Trakai castles. Later this community received self-government rights of the city, which was characteristic only of Christian cities. Even though during later years the number of Karaite communities increased, Trakai still remained the main centre of the Karaites. The first larger groups of Tatars could settle still in the 14th century; however, a more intense creation of communities was related to the already mentioned accommodation policy of the Grand Duke on lands belonging to him. The first communities were es-

73 Problems of the GLD Cultural History tablished next to the ruler’s residences, and later Tatar settlements were established next to the main military and administrative centres. Even though all minority groups were socially hierarchical, the largest internal social differences were among Tatars. Certain Tatars had a privileged status matching almost the noblemen – they would perform military service for the lands granted but they did not have political rights usual to the noblemen. Another socially lower part of Tatars lived in cities. As well as other minorities, their communities were gathering in some part of the city and lived a socially and confessionally closed life. A freedom of religion confession, uniqueness of the management in the community, or limits of the communication with the society were acknowledged for each of the communities under the privileges granted by the Grand Duke. In the GDL a unique multicultural environment of that time which was not present in any other European country emerged. However the custody of rulers and conditional tolerance did not prevent from the spread of negative stereotypes or separation determined by the existence of ethno-confessional uniqueness. The attitude towards people of unusual facial features, confessing non-Christian religions, talking in non-understandable languages and following unknown customs was an important ele- ment of the GDL cultural life disclosing significant thinking characteristics of the Christian society of that time through an oppositional mental construct of its own and the strange one.

Attitude towards the Jewish in the GDL Society Developed economic activities, including economic areas of the GDL, are practically the main sign with which participation of the Jews in the social life is associated. Successfully organized Jewish activities also influenced the formation of certain negative images and stereotypes of a Jew. Purely economic contacts initiated between the GDL society and the Jews restricted possibilities of cog- nition a lot, and the knowledge of the Christian part of the society about the Jews living nearby was minimum. The lack of knowledge, weak mutual relationship and division into Christians and infidel non-Christians characteristic of Christian societies taken root in 74 Non-Christian Communities in the GDL Culture the GDL and characteristic of Christian societies of the GDL created a favourable environment for the emergence and spread of un- reasonable accusations, negative stereotypes, and phobias. Intoler- ance existing in the Lithuanian society already in the 16th century developed when affected by both universal European attitudes and a negative image of the Jews “discovered” by the GDL society. In works of publicists and other texts of the 16th century in the Chris- tian part of the GDL society, the Jews are described as a clever, ma- licious nation of deceivers and infamous rich men, impoverishers of Christians and also an eternal enemy and wrecker of Christians. A negative stereotype of a Jew encouraged emergence and functioning of phobias. Very striking phobias can be distinguished in the GDL – a phobia of a ritual murder and a phobia of impoverishment of Christians encouraged by the economic competition between the Jews and townsmen and economic activities of the Jews – the latter would often provoke townsmen’s attacks against the Jews. Ritual murders (a phobia – a myth of the ritual killing of children) spread in the GDL at latest. In the long run it became one of the main plots of the Lithu- anian folklore about the Jews. Phobias of Christian impoverishment and ritual murder were essentially universal and accompanied the Jews in many states. A fear of the spread of Judaism/Christians turning into Judaists was an original discovery of the GDL society that had certain real grounds. The so called dissemination of the Judaist heresy among Orthodox people through Navahrudak in the whole Russia and also Poland is allocated to the Lithuanian Jews. Most probably, the spreader of heresy was a GDL Jew, he also had proponents in Lithuania; there Judaism spreaders of neighbouring states were hiding during hard moments. Articles II and III of Lithuanian Statutes is an obvious expression of the phobia of the spread of Juda- ism providing for the death penalty on those disseminating Judaism among Christians. These phobias and reaction of the society to them discloses the GDL anti-Judaism model: a universal negative stereotype of a Jew and images formed by Lithuanian realities. It is true that the comparison of the scope of anti-Judaism expressions or attacks against Jews in Western or Middle Europe and the GDL would be in favour of Lithuania.

75 Problems of the GLD Cultural History “Discovery” of Karaites in the GDL

A problem always occurs when talking about the place of Karaites in the GDL society and the attitude towards them. The terminol- ogy and quite late and unequal use of the ethnonym the Karaite prevents from using a part of the sources of the history of Lithuania for the study of the history of the Karaite society. The concept of the Karaite in the GDL marks not only the national dependence but the religion confessed. This principle was applied to all non-Christians. It is not known why Karaites were not distinguished as a separate national or religious community until the middle of the 17th century and they are called Jewish in sources. The Karaites of Trakai were mentioned in sources as Karaites for the first time only in the ruler’s privilege to Trakai community (1646). The mentioning of the Kara- ites of Trakai can be explained by the emerged need to accurately separate Karaites from Jews since the privilege restricted business possibilities of the latter in Trakai and in general prohibited them from living in the city. It is quite difficult to explain why Karaites were called Jews and were not related to Lithuanian Tatars similar to them by their ethnic origin and the language used. Probably the Hebraic alphabet used by Karaites served for the identification of Karaites and Jews. Much was also determined by the limited knowledge of the society of that time about nearby living foreign nations. The Swedish King Charles XI was the first one to encourage exploring the Karaite lifestyle and customs. He sent an oriental professor Gustav Peringer from Uppsala University who wrote the first comprehensive work about Karaites to Lithuania to collect reliable and extensive information in 1690. A paradox of the Karaite history is that they were “discovered” thanks to caprices of the curious Swedish King. After emergence of a new concept of Karaites a nation identified with the Jews for a long time was not only distinguished as an independent nation having little in common with Jews but was also opposed to them. A positive stereotype of Karaites started forming as an opposition to a negative stereotype of a Jew. Such were the consequences of a separation between Karaites and Jews.

76 Non-Christian Communities in the GDL Culture Tatars in the Society of the GDL By adjusting to the living conditions provided in Lithuania and looking for an optimal variant of the relationship with the GDL society, GDL Tatars formed a unique lifestyle focused on nationality, own traditions and primarily preservation of the religion. The economic and public integration of Jews, Tatars and Karaites differed more than their status. In exchange for the land ownership granted the military service performed was only one of the directions of such integration. Their status did not exceed the norms of participation in the social life offered by non-Christians since non-Christians were allocated to a separate social layer. Other traditional images of Tatars are well known: a Tatar currier, a Tatar carrier, a Tatar gardener. Tatar manuscripts are a unique phenomenon of the GDL writing. It is a detail of their history in Lithuania witnessing that Tatars came close to the majority of the Lithuanian society with their spoken and religious writing language. Lithuanian Tatars not only did not know the Arabian language necessary in Muslim rituals but also forgot their native language. Emergence of Tatar texts written in Arabian characters in the Ruthenian and Polish languages in the middle of the 16th century is assumed to be a sign of the progressing linguistic assimilation of Tatars. Tatars are the only non-Christian GDL community that did not preserve their native language. As a unique ethnic group they were mainly distinguished by religion and origin meanwhile warfare and its organization or occupation in specific crafts was more of secondary signs of uniqueness. On the other hand, acknowledged soldiers, curriers, carriers and gardeners brought Ta- tar knives, Tatar warfare traditions to the Lithuanian society. It is believed that a military service, the allegedly superior origin and frequent Tatar-Christian marriages regardless of prohibition formed a favourable image of a Tatar in the society.

For further reading: Jakulytė-Vasil M. Tatars’ assimilation/integration in the social fabric of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania // Orientas Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos visuomenės tradicijoje: totoriai ir karaimai. Vil- nius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2008, P. 23–36.

77 Problems of the GLD Cultural History

Šiaučiūnaitė–Verbickienė J. Karaimai // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kuni gaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 218–224. Šiaučiūnaitė-Verbickienė J. “Kuris iš jų geresnis: žydas, totorius ar čigonas?” Petro Čiževskio žvilgsnis į Lietuvos Didžiosios Kuni gaikštijos totorių kasdienybę // Orientas Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos visuomenės tradicijoje: totoriai ir karaimai. Vil- nius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2008, P. 215–222. Šiaučiūnaitėč-Verbickienė J. Totoriai // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, sud. V. Ališauskas, L. Jovaišas, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila. Vilnius: Aidai, 2001, P. 724–733. ŠiaučiūnaitėčVerbickienė J. Žydai Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštys tės visuomenėje. Vilnius: Žara, 2009, P. 190–269. Expanded bibliography

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