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Winter 2012, Vol.37, No.374-376 INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD CONTENTS Dr. NICHOLAS BETTS The Queen’s University of THE MICROCLIMATE OF GIBRALTAR Belfast, Prof. GRAEME D. STEPH BALL...... 136 BUCHAN Lincoln University, NZ. Prof. TIMOTHY P. BURT University of Durham. MATT TORNADOES IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND CLARK, TORRO. Dr ROB- TO 1960: PART 1: YEARS AD 1054-1800 ERT A. CROWDER (Formerly) PAUL R. BROWN, G. TERENCE Lincoln College, NZ. Dr ROB- ERT K DOE (Formerly) Uni- MEADEN, and MICHAEL W. ROWE...... 145 versity of Plymouth, UK. Prof JEAN DESSENS Universite THE WEATHER IN DURHAM 2011 Paul Sabatier, Fr. Prof DEREK ELSOM (Formerly) Oxford T.P BURT...... 154 Brookes University, UK Prof GREGORY FORBES (Former- A REVIEW OF THE 2011 HURRICANE, TROPICAL ly) Penn State University, USA Prof H M HASANEAN Cairo CYCLONE AND TYPHOON SEASON University, Egypt. Dr KEIRAN KIERAN R. HICKEY AND CHRISTINA CONNOLLY HICKEY National University of JOHNSTON...... 159 Ireland, Galway. Dr LESLEK KOLENDOWICZ Adam Mickie- wicz University of Poznan, Po- Book Review: Climate and the Weather...... 164 land. Dr TERENCE MEADEN, TORRO. Dr PAUL MESSEN- GER University of Glamorgan, A REVIEW OF HEAVY SNOWFALLS/BLIZZARDS/ UK Dr TEMI OLOGUNORISA SNOWSTORMS/SNOWFALLS GREATER THAN Nasarawa State University, 13CM IN GREAT BRITAIN BETWEEN 1861-1996: Nigeria. Dr ALLEN H.PERRY University College of Swansea, PART 8: 1980-1984 UK. Prof RICHARD E PETER- RICHARD WILD...... 166 SON Texas Tech University, USA. Prof JOHN T SNOW Uni- versity of Oklahoma, USA. Dr WEATHER IMAGES: Rime on cow parsley GREG SPELLMAN, University STEVE LANSDELL...... Inside back cover College Northampton, UK. Dr JOHN TYRRELL University Front cover image: © STEVE LANSDELL - Rime College Cork, Ireland. Dr DEN- NIS A WHEELER University of on cow parsley, Norfolk, 13th December 2012 Sunderland, UK Back cover image: © STEVE BALL - Snow on Veleta, one of the highest peaks in the Sierra Nevada, (3,396m), 6th January 2013 136 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 THE MICROCLIMATE OF GIBRALTAR

BY STEPH BALL Met Office, Gibraltar

When I left for Gibraltar early in 2009 to become the new senior forecaster at Met Office, Gibraltar, I set out with many ill-conceived ideas having been told by colleagues how easy the forecasting would be and how I would be spending many a long day bathing in the Mediterranean sunshine. It did not take long to dispel that myth of Gibraltar’s weather, experiencing in my first winter season (2009/2010), Gibraltar’s wettest winter for almost two centuries. The weather broke late in December 2009 and the rain seemed almost incessant then into early spring of 2010.

If you wanted to make a study of changing weather patterns across Western , you could do worse than to choose Gibraltar as a field of study, as it possesses one of the oldest and most reliable meteorological records in Europe; initiated by the Royal Engineers in 1790. It is not hard to understand why such an interest in logging Gibraltar’s weather should come about, with sailors through the centuries above all needing to educate themselves on the peculiarities in wind and tidal flows through the Straits. Throughout the ages many a ship has fallen foul of stormy weather in the Strait, perhaps the most recent having occurred just before my arrival in the October of 2008. On the night of the 10th a dramatic joint rescue operation was mounted between Gibraltarian and Spanish emergency services to rescue the crew of the cargo ship - the MV Fedra. The ship fell into trouble off Gibraltar’s southernmost point in a severe gale force easterly wind, later crashing against the rocks at and splitting in two (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The MV Fedra run aground on the rocks at Europa Point, Gibraltars’ southern- most tip, taken on 10th October 2008 in a severe gale force easterly wind. © Mark Galliano. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 137 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Gibraltar or “The Rock” stands proud at the gateway between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, in the ancient world thought to represent one of the , peaking at 426 metres. While in many ways its climate is typical of the Mediterranean, it could be said to possess its own microclimate, controlled to a great degree by its position in the Strait with high mountain barriers dominating both the north and south coasts of the area. To the north the Sierra Nevada and other smaller mountain chains of Andalucía, while to the south the Rif and Atlas mountains of Morocco, channelling and funnelling the wind flow through the .

The seasonal patterns of Gibraltar’s weather are to some extent controlled by the movement of the . During the winter months (November through to February), the high will tend to retreat as the upper-level winds become more westerly and the weather pattern mobile, with more stormy weather extending south across Europe. This gives rise to mild, wet and at times windy weather across Gibraltar, with winds interchanging between easterly (Levanter) winds and the more southwesterly (Vendaval) wind.

In the aforementioned winter of 2009-2010 as much as 1379mm of rainfall was recorded (Figure 2a), far outstripping previous winters. The southerly displacement of the main polar front (PFJ) and its persistence at lower latitudes throughout the winter period, plus a positive anomaly in the sea surface temperatures (SST’s) off north Africa as seen in Figure 2b, catapulted Gibraltar into an exceptionally wet period whereby month by month the average rainfall was exceeded, by as much as 500% in February 2010 (Ball, 2011.)

Figure 2a: Interannual variation of winter rainfall at Met Office, Gibraltar (1813-2010). 138 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 As well as the positioning of the polar front jet and SST anomaly, another major factor in contributing to the high rainfall was Gibraltar’s location. While orographic uplift over the Rif and Atlas mountains to the south might have helped to enhance rainfall amounts, another more important feature was the interaction of winds within the Strait.

Figure 2b: Comparison of winter (Dec/Jan/Feb) LTA Polar front jet position against 2009-2010 season – and showing +1.5C SST anomaly for February 2010. East or northeasterly winds or Levanter winds can occur in association with several different weather patterns, one of which is preceding the arrival of cold fronts from the Atlantic (normally through November to April). Funnelling of this Levanter wind through the narrowing Strait results in a strengthening of the flow on the western side; this on interaction with the southwesterly Vendaval winds of the advancing cold front can lead to increased thunderstorm activity due to windshear and extra dynamical forcing.

Such interaction of winds is common place within the confines of the Strait and in March 2011 gave rise to a rare sight of an intense over the (Figure 3), caught by many viewers on camera and video as it meandered over the waters off the port of Algeciras (across the Bay from Gibraltar). The offending storm saw approximately 140mm of rainfall recorded in Algeciras within a 3 hour period. Torrential rainfall was accompanied by a barrage of large hail which amassed in the streets and quickly blocked drains, with © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 139 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 part of the main A7 motorway into the City, and roads around the port becoming impassable due to flooding.

Figure 3: Waterspout captured off Algeciras Port on 6th March 2011. Image © Francisco Manuel Cruz Lopez.

The Levanter is perhaps what Gibraltar is more visually recognisable for, giving rise to its own, often distinctive cloud. I still remember my first time driving down from Malaga in the summer under intense blue skies and being taken aback as Gibraltar came into view. There stood the “Rock” solitary against the blue of the Mediterranean with its white cap cloud.

Levanter winds can occur throughout the year, though are generally strongest in winter and often accompanied by low cloud or heavy rains when associated with approaching cold fronts or depressions. The extent of funnelling or strengthening of these winds around the Rock and through the Strait can depend very much on the stability of the air and the height of any inversion. In winter if the winds are strong or gale force and the inversion low, then overturning can sometimes see any low cloud breaking up (Figure 4). 140 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

Figure 4: Gale force easterly winds lashing against Europa Point, southern Gibraltar, 26th December 2011. © Steve Ball.

For those interested in the weather and clouds, Gibraltar’s Levanter cloud is a marvel to view with its ever changing profile as winds strengthen and ease, inversion heights fall and rise and stability of the airmass alters. Cloud formations are perhaps at their most interesting when through spring to autumn a morning blanket of cloud can lift and mostly disperse leaving just a sole patch of cloud hugging the Rock. Depending on subtle changes in the boundary layer the Levanter cloud might shift from a smooth cap cloud almost of lenticular appearance (Figure 5) to a more uneven and cumulo-form appearance where convection and rotor effects over the Bay see the Levanter cloud breaking and punching through the inversion with each rising updraught (Figure 6).

When the inversion height sits close to the top of the Rock, the Levanter cloud is seen lowering with the wind now not able to funnel between the rock top and inversion but instead being forced to sweep around the sides of the rock as water flowing around a pebble dropped into a fast flowing stream. Figure 7 shows a night time photo of the Levanter cloud clearly capturing this movement of the wind and cloud around the sides of the Rock.

In the summer, Levanter conditions will typically form when the Azores High extends over Northern Spain and Southern . The weather is generally fine though often with poor visibilities caused by the movement of warm air over © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 141 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

Figure 5: Smooth cap or Levanter cloud over Gibraltar, taken on 22nd May 2011. © Steve Ball.

Figure 6: Gibraltar’s Levanter cloud stretching out across the Bay as seen from Palmones (nearby Spain), taken on 1st September 2012. © Steve Ball. 142 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

Figure 7: Gibraltar’s Levanter cloud by night – shows a low inversion height with winds and cloud deflected around the Rock sides, taken on 1st September 2012. © Steve Ball.

Figure 8: A light, moisture laden levanter wind with sea fog lapping across Gibraltar’s eastern runway, taken on 27th August 2012, with the ATC Tower and Met Office Gibraltar visible in the foreground. © Steve Ball. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 143 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 cold upwellings through the Strait and along the Spanish coast which can result in frequent sea fogs when winds are light (Figure 8) – though not exclusively confined to the summer months.

Throughout the year there is an overtipping or current of relatively cool, low salinity water which flows from the Atlantic through the Strait, which then follows close to the coast of Spain. Its motion eastward is subjected to a counteracting push southwards which produces two distinct anticyclonic gyres, one near Malaga with another south of Almeria. This colder current becomes more pronounced in summer as evaporation from the Mediterranean increases and the sea itself warms. It is along this cold current and where its path returns west along the Moroccan coast that most of the Levanter cloud and fogs tend to develop.

Over eastern coasts and more especially near the eastern Strait and Gibraltar, the moist Levanter can lead to heavy overnight dews and may sometimes lead to drizzle from the thick low stratus cloud, especially over the City. Sea fogs may also creep up on Gibraltar from the western strait and enter the Bay, when winds are very light over the area and the fog drifts in on a developing sea breeze or during a change from east to westerly winds. The cap cloud might be more associated with an easterly/ Levanter wind, but this is not always the case. On what is essentially a “changeover” day when a spell of moist easterlies is to be replaced by a westerly airflow but the moist boundary layer remains stagnant across the area, the change to a west or southwesterly flow can see a “reverse” levanter developing. This is normally formed by forcing of the moist air across the southern upslopes of Gibraltar and can also accompany wet weather ahead of a cold front (Figure 9).

If you have ever flown to Gibraltar then you may have also experienced a somewhat shaky approach or ultimately an unsuspected diversion to Malaga Airport. The proximity of the Rock to Gibraltar’s runway and the deflected wind flow around it have seen recent documentaries suggesting Gibraltar as one of the Top 10 most dangerous airports in the world.

Various investigations have been made of the wind flow around the Rock using models and wind tunnel experiments, with one such investigation carried out by the Met Office in the early 1960’s. It was known that approaching aircraft were often subjected to turbulent eddies caused by the changes in wind flow around the Rock’s various peaks which sometimes resulted in closure of the airport, and so this needed to be investigated and better understood. Investigations found that the most significant turbulence was experienced when winds fell between a southwesterly and southeasterly quadrant. A further investigation in 1965 concentrated on gusts experienced to the lee of the Rock during strong southwesterly winds. 144 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

Figure 9: A ”reverse“ levanter seen over the from the La Linea promenade, Spain - taken on 24th October 2011 – formed by forcing of moist air over the southern upslopes of Gibraltar by a west or southwesterly wind. © Steve Ball.

Aircraft tend to experience more difficulties with strong southwesterly winds such as those associated with bad weather in winter or during significant sea breeze development through spring into early autumn. Turbulent effects around the Rock will remain a problem for years to come with the results of such investigations continuing to be used by forecasters, air traffic and pilots to ensure safe landings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to Mark Galliano for the use of his photograph of the Fedra incident and to Francisco Manuel Cruz Lopez for use of his tornado photograph. Additional thanks are to my husband Steve Ball for all the remaining photographs used in this article.

REFERENCES Ball S. (2011) Exceptional rainfall in Gibraltar during winter 2009/2010. Weather 66, 22-25. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 145 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 TORNADOES IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND TO 1960: PART 1: YEARS AD 1054-1800

BY PAUL R. BROWN, G.TERENCE MEADEN AND MICHAEL W. ROWE

ABSTRACT: 146 known tornadoes are listed for Great Britain and Ireland for the years AD 1054-1800 together with their strengths, path lengths and widths.

INTRODUCTION We present the first in a series of papers listing all known British and Irish tornadoes from the earliest times to 1960. This first list (Table 2) covers the years AD 1054-1800 and includes a total of 146 tornadoes for these 747 years. Lists of historical tornadoes were originally compiled manually by Dr. Terence Meaden and Mr Michael Rowe, mainly from accounts in old periodicals, and these were subsequently entered into an electronic database as part of a thesis by a PhD student, David Reynolds, in the mid-1990s. That database (the Reynolds database) forms the basis of the present list of British tornadoes; but recent searches of old local, regional, and national newspapers, together with other periodicals, by Paul Brown and Terence Meaden has resulted in the addition of many more entries to the database. It is almost needless to say that the present list is still far from complete, because of tornadoes that were never recorded in print, or were recorded in sources that have not yet come to our attention. Research into historical tornadoes is, however, continuing, which may lead to further additions or amendments to the tables in due course. More detailed information about some of the tornadoes in Table 2 can be found in the list of references at the end of the present article; but it should be noted that the list given here reflects a few revisions and corrections that have been made since these earlier references appeared in print.

EXPLANATORY NOTES (1) The first two columns of Table 2 (Year, Date) give the date of each tornado so far as it is known, dates before September 1752 being converted to the modern (Gregorian) calendar. (2) The third and fourth columns (Place, County) give the place of occurrence. For tornadoes with an identified track the first and last known positions are given. Where county boundaries have changed, so that a place formerly in one county is now in another, the current county is given. For those places that (according to the Ordnance Survey, 2012) are no longer assigned to any county 146 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 the former county name is used. (3) The fifth column (Grid Ref) gives the National Grid Reference or Irish Grid Reference to whatever precision the information allows. A tilde indicates an approximate position. (4) Columns T, L, W give the strength of the tornado (if it has been assessed) and the length and width of the track (if known), using the International Tornado Scale as in Table 1 (see J. Meteorology, UK. 10, 182-185 for the full version of the scale). Values of T and W usually vary along the course of a tornado’s path; our practice is to use the highest known values of each, but these values will not always apply to the whole length of the path. T-strengths for these historical tornadoes should be regarded as best estimates on the (often flimsy) evidence available. (5) The final column (Dn) gives the direction from which the tornado moved (if known). (6) In the full database a distinction is drawn between definite and probable tornadoes; but since this is a subjective assessment and both types are counted the same for statistics, the distinction has been omitted from the present list.

Table 1: International Tornado Scale. Scale Parameters Number T (wind speed) L (path length) W (path width) 0 17-24 m/s (33-47 knots) up to 215 m up to 2.1 m 1 25-32 m/s (49-62 knots) 216-464 m 2.2-4.6 m 2 33-41 m/s (64-80 knots) 465-999 m 4.7-9.9 m 3 42-51 m/s (82-99 knots) 1.0-2.1 km 10-21 m 4 52-61 m/s (101-119 knots) 2.2-4.6 km 22-46 m 5 62-72 m/s (121-140 knots) 4.7-9.9 km 47-99 m 6 73-83 m/s (142-161 knots) 10-21 km 100-215 m 7 84-95 m/s (163-185 knots) 22-46 km 216-464 m 8 96-107 m/s (187-208 knots) 47-99 km 465-999 m 9 108-120 m/s (210-233 knots) 100-215 km 1.0-2.1 km 10 121-134 m/s (235-260 knots) 216-464 km or 2.2-4.6 km or more or more more

© THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 147 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Table 2: Tornadoes in the British Isles 1054-1800. Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1054 Apr 30 Rosdalla Westmeath N~3335 1091 Oct 23 London (City) Gr. London TQ~3381 T8? S or SE 1141 May 19 Wellesbourne Warks. SP2755 T5/6 1149 [un- [unknown] (England) T5? known] 1165 Aug Scarborough N. Yorks. TA~0388 (near) 1173 May 24 [unknown] (Wales?) T3 1205 Aug 4 [unknown] (England) T3/4? 1222 Dec 7 Pillerton Warks. SP2947? T5? (Priors?) 1234 Jul 23 Abbotsley Cambs. TL2256 T3 1244 Jun 18 [unknown] (England) T5/6? 1246 Jul 26 [unknown] (England) T4 1257 Jan 4 [unknown] (England) 1262 Jul 1? Henwick to Worcs. SO8354 to T5? L5? S or N? Grimley (or SO8360 vice versa) 1271 Jul 11 [unknown] Worcs? T3 1279 May [unknown] (England) T4? 1291 Aug 18 Boston Lincs. TF3244 T4? 1323 Jul 2? Cowick Yorks, SE6521 T3 E. Riding 1396 Jul 3 Keyingham Yorks, TA2425 T4? S E. Riding 1402 Jun 3 Danbury Essex TL7805 1402 Sep 16 [unknown] (Wales) 1438 Dec 2 London Gr. London TQ~3281 T5/6? 1545 Jun 30 Duffield to Derbys. SK3343 to T6/7 L5 SSW Heage SK3650 1558 Jul 17 Sneinton Notts. SK5838 T7 or 21? 1563 Jan 19 Leicester Leics. SK~5804 T6? 1577 Mar 27 Patrick N. Yorks. SE2290 T6/7 Brompton 1582 Aug 22 Honing to East Norfolk TG3227 to T4 L3 W or E? Ruston (or vice TG3427 versa) 1585 Oct 5 Hay-on-Wye Brecon SO2342 T4 148 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1638 Oct 31 Widecombe in Devon SX7176 T5? SW? the Moor 1646 May 31 Swaffham Cambs. TL5764 Prior 1646 May 31 between Suffolk? TL77 Thetford and Newmarket 1646 May 31 Brandon Parva Norfolk TG0708 1649? [un- Hullavington Wilts. ST8982 T2+ known] 1656 Jul 30 Norwich Norfolk TG~2308 1660 Jun 12 Worthington to Leics. SK4020 T4? L4 SSW Tonge to SK4123 1662 Aug 9 Macclesfield Cheshire to SJ9772 T4 L6 W3 SSW Forest to Derbys. to Whaley Bridge SK0181 1663 May Northampton Northants. SP7561 1665 Jul 12 Erpingham Norfolk TG1931 1666 Oct 23 Welbourn to Lincs. SK9654 T8/9 L5 W7 SSW Boothby to Graffoe SK9859 1666 Oct 23 Nottingham Notts. SK66 T4 Forest 1669 Nov 9 Ashley Northants. SP7990 T3 L1 W5 1670 Oct 23 Braybrooke Northants. SP7684 T1 W2 1672 Aug 29 Woburn to Beds. SP9433 to T7 L7 SW Putnoe TL0651 1682 Jun 10 Oxford Oxon SP5105 T3? SW 1683 / [un- Sugnall Staffs. SJ7930 T3 L5 W4 85? known] 1687 Aug 25 Hatfield Yorks, W. SE6609 T1 L3 or Sep Riding 4? 1694 Aug 17 Topsham Devon SX9688 T2 WNW 1702 Jul 2 or Hatfield Yorks, W. SE6609 T2 SW 13? Riding 1702 [un- Halston (Har- Northants. SP7064? to T2 L5? W5 NW? known] lestone?) to SP7560 Northampton 1703 Dec 7 Bessels Leigh Oxon SP4501 T2 SW? 1712 Sep 9 Nuneaton Warks. SP3691 1727 Jun 16 Dereham Norfolk TF9813 L1 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 149 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1728 Jul 28 Latton Wilts. SU0995 T1/2 1728 Sep 9 Anstell Yorks, SK~5285? (Anston?) W. Riding 1729 May 31 Bexhill Down E. Sussex TQ735082 T4 L7 W6 SSW to Smarden to Kent to TQ8842 1729 Nov 15 Barford St Wilts. SU NW Martin ~058314 1730 Aug Shelford Notts. SK6642 1731 Feb 22 Thorneywood Notts. SK5941 1731 Nov 10 Cerne Abbas Dorset ST6601 T3 W6 SW 1731 Nov 20 Gedney Lincs. TF4024 1733 Jan 3 Hornsea Yorks, E. TA2047 T6 SW or Riding W 1735 Mar 9 Thetford Norfolk TL8983 T1/2 (or 20?) 1739 Jan 15 Bristol / Bath Somerset ST~67 T4 area 1740 Dec 13 Calne Wilts. SU~0070 1741 end Aug Holkham Norfolk TF8943 T1 L4 W4 E 1741 Sep 19 Bluntisham Cambs. TL3674 T6 SW 1749 Sep 26 Gretton to Northants. SP8994 to T2 L6 SSW between Edith to Rutland SK9106 Weston and Hambleton 1751 Jan 12 between Armagh J0447 to L6 W4 SE Gilford and H~9562 Tanderagee to Lough Neagh (south shore) 1752 May 16 Deeping Fen Lincs. TF1916 to T1 L6 W1 WSW to between TF2920 Weston Hills and Moulton Chapel 1752 Jul 31 Vauxhall Gr. London TQ3078 T2 1752 Oct 11 Termonamon- Tyrone H2276? to T2 L5 W3 SE? gan to Urney H~2380 1754 Jul 28 Walton Suffolk TM2935 1756 Oct 6 Wigton Cumbria NY2548 T3/4 W 1759 Oct 10 Melbourne Derbys. SK3924 T3? L4 W5 1760 Feb 16 Wootton Wilts. SU0682 to T6 L5 WSW Bassett to SU140866 Rodbourne Cheney 150 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1760 Aug 27 Mousehole Cornwall SW4726 T1 1760 Aug 27 Camborne Cornwall SW6440 W3 1760 Sep 23 Curriglass Cork to W~9593 to T4 L6 W5 SSW Waterford W~9899 1761 Jun Durham (near) Durham NZ~2742 T3/4 1761 Oct 14 Great Malvern Worcs. SO7845 T1 W 1763 Feb 27 Broadway Worcs. SP0937 T3/4 L3 W4 SW 1763 Aug 19 Wateringbury Kent TQ6853 T3 SW 1764 Mar 29 Stock Green Worcs. SO9959 (or 22?) 1764 May 26 Langport Somerset ST~4226 N (near) 1767 Sep River Isla to Perths. NO~2240 T6? L5 ESE or Blairgowrie to SE NO181453

1768 Jul 16 Westbury-sub- Somerset ST~4948 T2 L5? WNW? Mendip 1768 Jul 25 Stoke St Shrops. SO5682 T4 Milborough 1768 Aug 18 Good Easter Beds. to TL640132 T2 L4 W3 WSW to Pleshey Essex to TL6614 1768 Sep 16 Langton Dorset SY6182 T1/2 W Herring 1770 Aug 15 Newsham N. Yorks NZ103095 T1 1772 Feb 2 Asterton Shrops. SO T3? ~398912 1772 Feb 18 Lower Warks. SP4961 to T1 L6 E Shuckburgh SP300613 to Bishop's Tachbrook 1772 Feb? Llantysilio Denb. SJ1943 T2 1772 Aug 23 Newlands to Northld. to NZ0955 T2 L6 SW Ryton Durham to NZ1564 1773 Oct 3 Nottingham Notts. SK581382 T2/3 1773 Oct 10 Fenny Drayton Leics. SP3596 T2/3 1773 Oct 10 Marton-in- N. Yorks. SE5968 T4? the-Forest 1773 Oct 10 Bawtry (near) Yorks, W. SK~6593 T3 W4/5 S Riding © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 151 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1773 Oct 10 Sutton on Notts. SK7965 T2? Trent 1774 Jun 24 Woburn Beds. SP9433 1774 Jul 6? Coventry to Warks. SP334793 T4 Coombe to SP4079 Abbey 1774 Aug 28 Lancing to W. Sussex TQ1804 to T3/4 L4 WSW Shoreham-by- TQ2105 Sea 1775 Jul 28 North Cadbury Somerset ST6327 to T2? L5 W4 SSW to Lamyatt ST~6535 (near) 1775 Aug 21 Stone Worcs. SO8675 T4 L3 S 1775 Sep 2 Carrickfergus Antrim J~4288 T4? L6 SW area 1780 Oct 15 Roehampton Gr. London TQ2274 to T5 L4 W6 S to TQ2279 Hammersmith 1785 Sep 18 Uffculme to Devon ST0612 to T3/4 L4 WSW Culmstock ST1013 1785 Nov 1 Nottingham Notts. SK5839 T3/4 SW 1785 Nov 28 Bath Somerset ST7464 T4 (or 29?) 1786 Jul 31 Sacombe Herts. TL3419 T3/4 NW 1786 Jul 31 Newmarket Suffolk TL6463 T2 W 1786 Jul 31 Cheveley Cambs. TL6860 T3 1786 Jul 31 Little (or Suffolk TL7963 to T2 L5 W5 SW Great?) TL8367 Saxham to Fornham All Saints 1786 Sep 8 Bellaghy Derry H9596 T2/3 SW? 1786 Nov 15 Aldeburgh Suffolk TM~4656 T4 (near) 1787 May 24 Wellington Somerset ST1320 T4 1787 Dec 14 Newchurch Isle of SZ548857 T2 L3 WSW Wight to SZ565886 1788 May 27 Kelso Roxburghs. NT729340 T1/2 L0 N to NT729339 1788 Jul 12 Deptford Gr. London TQ3677 T1/2 152 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1788 Aug 16 Kingston Yorks, E. TA0831 to T1/2 L6 W7 WSW upon Hull to Riding TA1934 Sproatley 1788 Dec? Great Orton Cumbria (or NY3254? T1 Northld?) 1789 Feb 23 Iver Bucks TQ039812 T1/2 1789 Jun 18 Barnwell to Northants. TL0484 to T3 L4 W6 SSE Oundle TL0388 1789 Aug 22 Monikie Angus NO4938 T1 1790 Dec 23 Basingstoke Hants SU6549 T3? W5/6 SW or WSW 1791 Jul 19 East Kilbride Lanarks. NS~6354 to T1 S or SE to Glasgow NS6265 1792 Jun 4 Packington Warks. SP2284 T2/3 (or May Great Park 28?) 1792 Jun 23 Millfield area Berwicks. NT~6533 1792 Jul 18 Benarty Hill Fife NT1597 1793 Aug 8 Herne Bay Kent TR1568 T3 1795 Nov 1 Thaxted Essex TL6130 T1/2 1797 Jun 22 Chichester W. Sussex SU~80 T1/2 L4 W5 1797 Jun 22 Stopham W. Sussex TQ0218 T0 1797 early Jul Huntington Cheshire SJ~4264 T2 (near) 1797 Jul 23 Worksop to Notts. SK5879 to T3/4 L5 W4 WSW Scofton (near) SK~6280 1797 Jul 30 Burley in Yorks, W. SE1646 T4 Wharfedale Riding 1797 Jul 30 Stafford Staffs. SJ~9223 T3 W6 1797 Aug 1 Manchester Lancs SJ~8397 T4 1797 Aug 1 Balsall Warks. SP2377 to T2 L5 NW Common to SP~2673 Kenilworth Chase 1797 Aug 3 Ancrum Roxburghs. NT599235 T1 L4 WSW to NT~632245 1798 Jul 1 Lockleywood Shrops. SJ6928 T2/3 L5? W5 1798 Jul 17 Cawston Norfolk TG~1323 T1 W3 NNE 1798 Aug 16 Boreham E. Sussex TQ662106 T2? NE Street 1798 Nov 5 Fishguard Pemb. SM9537 T2/3 NW or SE? © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 153 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Year Date Place County Grid Ref T L W Dn 1799 Jul 3 Whitelaw Berwicks. NT832525 T1 SW 1800 May 4 Morton Lincs. TF0924 1800 early Sandford Shrops. SJ5834 T3/4 Oct Table 3 gives the totals of tornadoes 1054-1800 by T-strength (where known). Those for which the strength is between two values (e.g. T1/2) are assigned 0.5 to each value, hence the decimals in some of the totals. There is more of a bias towards the higher strengths in these than in the modern figures because the stronger tornadoes from long ago are more likely to have been recorded in extant print sources than the weaker ones.

Table 3: Tornado totals in the British Isles by T-strength 1054-1800. T-strength Total 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1054- 1 18.5 27.5 25 27 6.5 7.5 3 1.5 0.5 1800 Table 4 gives the breakdown of tornadoes 1054-1800 by month of the year.

Table 4: Tornado totals in the British Isles by month 1054-1800. Total Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1054- 5 7 3 1 13 13 30 25 11 17 9 7 1800

REFERENCES BOTLEY C.M. (1984) Giant hail and tornado in Kent, 19 August 1763 [with comment by G.T. MEADEN]. J. Meteorology, UK. 9, 340. FAIRS, G.L. (1982) A tornado at Hay in Herefordshire in the year 1585. J. Meteorology, UK. 7, 187-191. MACLEAN, A. (1988) A Scottish tornado in July 1799. J. Meteorology, UK. 13, 130-131. MEADEN, G.T. (1975-76) The earliest-known British and Irish tornadoes. J. Meteorology, UK. 1, 96-99. MEADEN, G.T. (1976-77) Destructive tornado at Hornsea, Yorkshire. J. Meteorology, UK. 2, 301-302. MEADEN, G.T. (1979) Tornado near Oxford on the day preceding the . J. Meteorology, UK. 4, 82-84. MEADEN, G.T. (1979) A tornado in Leicestershire and a severe hailstorm in Kent in the summer of 1660. J. Meteorology, UK. 4, 148-150. MEADEN, G.T. (1980) A damaging waterspout at Topsham on the River Exe, in August 1694. J. Meteorology, UK. 5, 112-116 and 160. ROWE, M.W. (1975-76) The dates of two early British tornadoes. 154 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 J. Meteorology, UK. 1, 103. ROWE, M.W. (1975-76) Tornadoes in Mediaeval Britain. J. Meteorology, UK. 1, 219-222. ROWE, M.W. (1980) The Widecombe calamity: how many died? J. Meteorology, UK. 5, 315-317. ROWE, M.W. (1985) Britain’s greatest tornadoes and tornado outbreaks. J. Meteorology, UK. 10, 212-220. ROWE, M.W. (1989) The earliest documented tornado in the British Isles: Rosdalla, County Westmeath, Eire, April 1054. J. Meteorology, UK. 14, 86-90. ROWE, M.W. (1999) The earliest known tornado in : Blairgowrie, September 1767. J. Meteorology, UK. 24, 218-220. ROWE, M.W. (1999) ‘Work of the Devil’: tornadoes in the British Isles to 1660. J. Meteorology, UK. 24, 326-338. THACKRAY, P.R. (1996) Tornadoes in and around Doncaster: a survey. J. Meteorology, UK. 21, 361-368.

THE WEATHER IN DURHAM 2011

BY T. P. BURT

A remarkably warm year: the warmest year on record at Durham since 1850 (equal with 2004); both April and November were record breakers. It was both drier and sunnier than normal.

After one of the coldest Decembers on record, January was above average temperature (94th warmest in 162 years), mainly because of daytime temperatures being above normal, although there were some cold days. Night-time minima were only just above average. There was the highest absolute maximum since 2003. The high number of ground frosts was equal to 2001 and the highest since 1998. Rainfall was a little below average but long-period totals remained well above average. It was also a sunny month, well above average. February was a very mild month, the 14th equal warmest in 162 years. There was the highest mean minimum and highest absolute minimum since 2002, although the mean maximum was only the highest since 2008. Total rainfall (58mm) was well above average too, the 128th highest since 1850. Nevertheless, it was not an exceptionally wet month; the wettest February on record at Durham is 1941 with 152.5 mm. There was less bright sunshine than in January but the total was only just below average. Even so, a very cold December meant that winter was below average, but not excessively so: the 52nd coldest in 161 years, 0.4C below the mean and more than 1C warmer than the previous winter. Rainfall was just a little above average, sunshine rather more so. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 155 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Like February, temperatures in March were well above normal, but not exceptionally so. The mean air temperature was just into the upper quartile for 161 years of records. Daytime temperatures were well above average, but night-time minima only just so. March was also a dry month, with just less than half the expected amount of rainfall. The 3-month total was below average for the first time since the period April – June 2010. It was the 9th sunniest March on record, but not unusual recently as both 2009 and 2003 were sunnier. April was an exceptionally warm month, the warmest April on record at Durham since 1850, easily breaking the previous record (2007) by the very large margin of 0.5C. Both the mean maximum and the mean minimum were the highest on record since 1900. The mean daily maximum in particular, a massive 5.5C above average, is the largest difference between a record maximum and the average for any month of the year; July 2006 was 5C above average. The absolute maximum (21.8C, 23rd), not a record, was the highest since 2007; the highest minimum, 11.1C on the 6th is also worth noting, a remarkably warm night for April. These very high temperatures reflect a notable warming in April in recent years; of the top ten warmest Aprils, five have occurred since 2003. The period January-April 2011 was the 3rd warmest (6.7C) since 1850 (equal to 2004), beaten only by 1990 (6.8C) and 2007 (7.3C). The 12-month running mean went back above 9C for the first time since the period ending in February 2010. April was also a very dry month, the fifth driest April since 1850, just 15% of the expected amount. 1938 holds the record with only 2.2 mm. April was the 2nd sunniest (225.6 hours) on record since 1882, beaten only by 1914 (238 hours). It was also the 2nd sunniest start to a year, beaten only by 2003. Although the mean maximum in May was lower than in April, overall, it was a warmer month than April, given higher night-time temperatures. It was the warmest May since 1998 (equal to 1999). Indeed, it was the 6th warmest May at Durham since 1850. The mean maximum was the highest since 2004 (19th equal highest since 1900), and the mean minimum was the highest since 2003 (5th highest on record since 1900). May was the third below-average month for rainfall in a row, although only the driest May since 2009. Not surprisingly, given the record-breaking April and a very warm May, this turned out to be the warmest spring on record at Durham since 1850, beating the previous record (2007) by 0.3C. Interestingly, of the seven warmest springs on record at Durham, six have been since 2002, the exception being 1945. As for the rest of eastern England, the Durham spring was very dry, the fifth driest on record since 1850, and the driest since 1956, the other drier springs being 1929, 1875 and 1858.

The weather in June was mixed: warm days at the beginning and end of the month, but disappointing temperatures, some cool nights especially, in the middle of the month. It was often cloudy with some rain, although nothing very heavy. Daytime temperatures were well above average but night-time temperatures just below; overall, mean air temperature was just above 156 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 average therefore. The absolute maximum and absolute minimum were the highest and lowest respectively since 2005. There was the first ground frost in June since 1998. Rainfall was just below average for the 4th month in a row. July was disappointing: the coolest July since 2000, ranking only 61st in 162 years. The mean maximum was only the lowest since 2007 but the mean minimum was the lowest since 1962, ranking equal 10th lowest since 1900. Rainfall was above average and sunshine below average. Day-time temperatures were well below average in August, and night-time temperatures a little below average so that, for the second month in a row, mean air temperature was below average. Both the mean maximum and mean minimum were the same as 1998 and the lowest since 1994. August had well above average rainfall, the wettest since 2004. The number of rain days was the highest since 1985. For the 4th month in a row, sunshine was below average, but it was only the dullest August since 2006. Overall, it was the sixth worst August for hours of bright sunshine since 1882 (but still rather better than the meagre 57 hours in 1912). The mean air temperature for the summer was 14.1C, 0.1C below average. This is the same average as summer 1998 and the coldest since 1993. This is only just below the long-term average, of course, but disappointing in relation to recent summers. It was the 14th wettest summer on record at Durham since 1850, drier than 2008 and 2009 but wetter than 2007. The last five summers taken together, have been the 2nd wettest sequence on record; only 1927-31 was an even worse run of summers in terms of rainfall. There was also the 5th lowest amount of sunshine in summer since 1882, the worst since 1986. Using the Davis Index of summer weather, which weights average temperature, rainfall and sunshine, summer 2011 ranked as the 12th worst at Durham since 1886, marginally poorer than 2007 and the worst since 1987. Taken together, the last five summers have been on average the 4th worst series on record – a disappointing run indeed!

Remarkably, the last three days of September all exceeded 24C but, unlike other places in the UK, these were not record-breaking maximum temperatures for September. Otherwise, it was not particularly notable for temperatures with some cooler days in the latter half of the month before the heat wave at the end. It ended up being the 9th equal warmest September since 1850, the warmest since 2006 (which is the warmest September on record at Durham with a record maximum of 26.7C on the 21st). It was the driest September since 2004. Nevertheless, all long-period cumulative totals remained above average, although the 6-month total was only just so. It was the sunniest September since 2006 but even so still a little below average. October was the 11th equal warmest October in Durham since 1850 and the warmest since 2006; 2001 holds the record (12.9C). The warm weather at the end of September continued into October; the 1st with a maximum of 25.3C is certainly the warmest October day since 1962 (when available records begin) and so may well have been the highest ever temperature recorded in October at Durham. This easily beat © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 157 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 the previous record, 24.1C in 1985. Rainfall was almost exactly average for October. Sunshine was just a little below average. November was a remarkably warm month, the warmest November at Durham since records began in 1850, beating the previous record by 0.2C (1994). Both mean maximum and mean minimum were well above average: the mean maximum was the 2nd highest for November, beaten only in 1994, and the mean minimum was the highest on record, beating the previous one set in 1953. There was the lowest number of ground frosts (3) since available records begin in 1961 (an equal number in 1984) and only 2 air frosts. It was also a very dry month, only 44% of the average amount: the 24th driest November since 1850 and the lowest November total since 2004 when only 14.4 mm was recorded. Whilst the number of rain days was not exceptionally low, 8th equal lowest since 1961, the daily total only exceeded 1 mm on eight days and the highest daily total was only 5.2 mm (25th). Although there was little rain, sunshine was below average in November. 2011 was the 2nd warmest autumn at Durham since 1850 (11.3C), beaten only by the remarkable 2006 (12.0C). It was the 18th driest autumn since 1850 (106.4 mm), the lowest autumn total since 1989. Sunshine was below average for autumn (258.9 hours), despite being so dry, 44th lowest since 1882.

December was the 32nd equal warmest in 162 years, easily into the upper quartile. The mean maximum temperature was the highest since 2005 and the mean minimum was the highest since 2002. The 12-month running mean for air temperature exceeded 10C for the first nine months of 2007 and the December 2011 mean was the highest 12-month mean since then. There has been a steady warming since the low point in December 2010 when the mean was 1.67C lower. December was another dry month, but not exceptionally so, 73rd lowest total in 162 years. Sunshine hours were just above average, but there was less bright sunshine than in the previous three Decembers.

Following a below-average year in 2010, 2011 was a remarkable transformation: the warmest year on record at Durham, equal to 2004 at 9.96C (to two decimal places) but 10C to all intents and purposes! There was a remarkably low number of ground frosts, only 78; only 2002 (71), 2003 (77) and 2004 (67) have had fewer. Only 2000 (19) and 2002 (16) have had fewer ground frosts than 2011 (20) in the second half of the year. Nine months were below average in 2011 so the low rainfall total for the year was no surprise. The low total was not exceptional, however: it was only the 47th driest year at Durham in 162 years. The highest daily total of the year was on 5th August when 36.2 mm was recorded. 2011 had slightly more than average hours of bright sunshine, but both 2006 and 2009 had higher totals. The sunniest day of the year turned out to be 26th May; this late spring day was better than anything that followed during the summer! 158 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Maximum daily sunshine DURHAM WEATHER SUMMARY TABLE 2011 Number of ground frosts Difference from average Difference from average Mean air temperature Number of rain days Highest daily rainfall Absolute maximum Absolute minimum Mean maximum Sunshine hours Mean minimum Rainfall total temperature temperature temperature temperature

JAN -10.6 69.8 48.4 13.6 11.4 -6.5 7.1 0.3 6.7 0.5 3.5 16 23 FEB 61.5 16.4 12.8 -1.1 7.7 6.8 2.7 8.4 2.4 5.6 20 58 10 157.2 MAR -26.4 24.8 18.7 10.5 -4.2 9.2 2.1 1.3 6.3 16 16 6 225.6 APR -40.3 21.8 16.5 11.2 -0.2 4.4 7.2 5.9 4.2 13 3 5 165.3 MAY -19.2 32.6 20.0 11.8 11.8 11.7 -0.8 7.4 1.8 12 16 3 132.6 JUN 48.2 26.7 18.4 13.5 11.5 -3.6 9.4 2.5 8.5 0.5 16 1 125.7 JUL 20.8 35.1 86.6 23.7 19.5 14.4 11.2 -0.5 5.4 9.3 13 0 130.8 AUG 99.4 36.2 63.7 23.2 10.3 18.7 14.5 -0.2 7.4 7.5 22 0 119.4 SEP -27.2 28.4 24.8 18.1 14.1 8.2 4.4 1.4 10 11 6 0 OCT 86.3 51.0 25.3 14.4 11.1 -1.5 8.4 1.5 7.8 1.3 15 13 2 NOV -35.0 53.2 27.0 15.6 11.4 -2.5 7.5 5.2 5.8 2.9 8.6 15 3 DEC 68.3 49.2 12.9 -8.2 -1.9 6.3 2.3 7.7 1.1 5.0 16 15 8 1364.3 YEAR 592.2 -56.8 36.2 26.7 13.9 10.0 11.8 -6.5 165 6.0 1.4 78 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 159 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 A REVIEW OF THE 2011 HURRICANE, AND TYPHOON SEASON

BY KIERAN R. HICKEY AND CHRISTINA CONNOLLY JOHNSTON Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.

ABSTRACT: 2011 was another exceptionally quiet year continuing the trend of the previous three years as regards hurricanes, tropical and . There was a slight increase in the number of storms recorded but a slight reduction in the numbers of events that became full-blown hurricanes, tropical cyclones or typhoons. Again only the Season was above average and there were ongoing low levels of storms for the North West Pacific Typhoon and East Seasons. There were only three Category 5 events, all of which occurred in the NW Pacific region. There were no events of exceptional note in terms of wind speed or barometric pressure.

Keywords: Hurricane, Tropical Cyclone, Typhoon, 2011.

INTRODUCTION Worldwide the 2011 tropical storm season was below average, an ongoing continuation from previous years, (Hickey, 2009; Hickey 2010; Hickey 2011). The only exception was the Atlantic Hurricane Season which experienced above average activity. As described by the NOAA (2012) 77 tropical storms were recorded of which 40 developed into full blown hurricanes, tropical cyclones and typhoons, a slight drop from the previous year (Table 1). Of the 40 hurricanes, tropical cyclones and typhoons only 21 developed into category 3 or higher events, again a slight drop on the previous year. Fatalities were low globally at 2,323 with no major fatality event occurring throughout the year. This fatality level is up about a thousand on last year. In the NW Pacific caused 1,268 fatalities across the , the most of any one storm globally. Damage was much higher than last year with over $30 billion worth of damage being recorded globally. in the North Atlantic was responsible for $19 billion of this total and affected the east coasts of the Caribbean, United States and Canada caused 56 deaths as well as the economic cost. Hurricane Irene was the fifth costliest U.S. hurricane on record. A moderately strong La Niña predominated in the beginning of 2011 which then dispersed in Spring but returned in October and prevailed through the remainder of the year putting the below average activity in the 2011 storm season into context. La Niña conditions contributed to an above-average 160 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 tropical cyclone season in the North Atlantic hurricane basin and a below-average season in the Eastern North Pacific. It was also associated with the wettest two-year period (2010–2011) on record in Australia, which was particularly remarkable as the wet conditions followed a decade-long dry spell. This year was also recorded as the 11th joint warmest with 1997 since records began and the 35th consecutive year of above average global temperatures. 2011 was 0.62C above the 20th century average of 13.9C (NOAA, 2012).

REGIONAL OVERVIEW The Atlantic Hurricane Season was above average with the same number of storms recorded in 2010 but down on major hurricanes in comparison. Only two category 4 hurricanes– Katia and Ophelia and two category 3 hurricanes – Irene and Rina were recorded. Although only category 3 Hurricane Irene caused huge damage (Table 2). Category 4 Hurricane Katia was one of two hurricanes that made it all the way across the Atlantic and its tail-end travelled across Ireland and the United Kingdom, through Europe and as far east as St. Petersburg in Russia. Both these events will be discussed in more detail later. Total damage was $21 billion but there were only 114 fatalities. The North Indian Cyclone Season was in comparison below average with 6 storms of which only 1 developed into a cyclone recorded as a category 2 event. However, Cyclone Thane caused at least 46 deaths and over $317 million in damages across Southern India and Sri Lanka (Anon, 2012). The Southwest Indian Cyclone Season was also below average with 4 storms and only 2 cyclones, Cyclone Bingiza was a category 3 event and was the only storm to make landfall in the 2011 season killing 22 people across Madagascar and leaving almost 26,000 homeless. Severe crop damage was recorded prompting monetary donations from the EU and others to help alleviate the situation. The Australian Cyclone Season was considered near average and yielded 11 storms of which only one event was a category 3 or above and this was Cyclone Yasi which was a category 4 event. The costliest cyclone to ever hit Australia, Yasi made landfall in northern Queensland causing 1 death and $3.54 billion in damages. The South Pacific Cyclone Season was below average for 2011 producing 8 storms and 5 cyclones. Only two of these reached category three or higher and these were Cyclones Wilma and Atu both of which were category 4 events. Only 4 fatalities occurred for this region and damages were estimated at $3.03 billion. The Northwest was also considered below average producing 18 storms with 10 reaching typhoon status. Most notably it was the weaker storms that produced the most damage. Tropical Storm Washi in particular caused the most fatalities of any event this year with 1,268 deaths in the Philippines caused by high winds, flooding and landslides. A state of © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 161 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 national calamity was declared in the Philippines and 100,000 people were evacuated from the worst affected areas. Damage was relatively slight and was estimated at $48.4 million, half of which was due to damaged infrastructure. The East Pacific Hurricane Season for 2011 was recorded as below average. 11 storms were recorded of which 10 attained hurricane status. Of these hurricanes one was category 3 and five achieved category 4 status. Despite the damage associated with these events amounting to over $204 million, fatalities were very light at 42.

Table 1: Global and Regional Overview of Hurricanes, Cyclones and Typhoon (HCT) Activity in 2011 after NOAA, 2011.

Region No. of No. of Overview Fatalities Damage Tropi- Hurricanes, $ billions cal Cyclones Storms and Typhoons Global 77 40 Below Average 2323 30.255 Atlantic 19 7 Above Average 114 21.000 (Hurricane) North 6 1 Below Average 360 0.481 (Cyclone) Southwest 4 2 Below Average * * Indian Ocean (Cyclone) Australian 11 5 Near Average 3 3.640 (Cyclone) South Pacific 8 5 Average 4 0.025 Tropical (Cyclone) Northwest 18 10 Below Average 1800 4.905 Pacific (Typhoon) East Pacific 11 10 Average 42 0.204 (Hurricane)

* = unknown 162 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 INDIVIDUAL EVENTS The 2011 season consisted of only three category 3 events, 14 category 4 events and only 3 category 5 events. Unsurprisingly category 4 events were up from last year but both category 3 and 5 events were down in numbers from last year. , a category 4 event in the East Pacific had the strongest winds at 250 km/hr with a joint third lowest barometric pressure with Cyclone Yasi of 929 hPa. Two other hurricanes, Hilary and Kenneth from the East Pacific, both category 4 events, had the next joint highest wind speeds at 230 km/hr (Table 2). The lowest recorded barometric pressure of any event was a category 5 event, in the Northwest Pacific with a barometric pressure of 920 hPa but a wind speed of 195 km/hr. The second lowest barometric pressure was from Typhoon Namadol at 925 hPa with and a wind speed of 185 km/hr. The only other category 5 event was which had a highest wind speed of 175km/h and a lowest barometric pressure of 930 hPa.

IMPACT ON EUROPE Two tail-ends of hurricanes made it all the way to Europe, down one from 2010. The most significant of the two hurricanes was that of Katia. This category 4 hurricane originated just off west Africa then tracked northwestwards to the USA coast before turning eastwards and tracking all the way to Europe in September. The tail-end of the hurricane then tracked some 250 km NW of Ireland before continuing over northern Scotland. The highest gust recorded in the UK was in Scotland at Cairngorm Summit at 157km/h. In Ireland, Malin Head, Co. Donegal recorded a 122km/h gust near sea-level and a 10 minute sustained wind speed of 89km/h. As a result of these high wind speeds power lines and power outages occurred across parts of Ireland and Scotland and the estimated damage in the UK alone was put at £100 million. Remnants of this hurricane caused damage as far as and St. Petersburg, Russia causing power outages and damage to buildings. Three fatalities were associated with this event including one fatality in Co. Durham, England when a tree fell on a minibus killing the driver. The tail-end of category 4 event with a similar track to Katia also travelled across the Atlantic and remnants affected the north of the UK in early October. However the impact was much less with some heavy rain and a drop in temperatures, wind speeds were also not as high as was expected. Damage was minimal as a result of this event. Worth noting is the fact that 2 out of the 4 major hurricanes of the Atlantic Season affected Europe. This multiple occurrence although absent in 2010 was evident most recently in 2009, 2006, 2004 and 1998. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 163 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Table 2: Most Intense Hurricanes (H), Cyclones (C) and Typhoons (T) in 2011

Name Intensity Month Location Max Winds Min (km/h) Pressure (hPa) H. Irene 3 August N. Atlantic 195 942 H. Katia 4 September N. Atlantic 220 942 H. Ophelia 4 September N. Atlantic 220 940 H. Rina 3 October N. Atlantic 185 966

C. Bingiza 3 February SW. Indian 165 953

C. Yasi 4 January Australian 215 929

C. Wilma 4 January S. Pacific 185 935 C. Atu 4 February S. Pacific 165 937

T. Songda 5 May NW. Pacific 195 920 T. Ma-on 4 July NW. Pacific 175 935 T. Muifa 5 July NW. Pacific 175 930 T. Nanmadol 5 August NW. Pacific 185 925 T. Roke 4 September NW. Pacific 155 940 T. Nesat 4 September NW. Pacific 150 950 T. Nalgae 4 September NW. Pacific 175 935

H. Adrian 4 June E. Pacific 220 944 H. Dora 4 July E. Pacific 250 929 H. Eugene 4 July E. Pacific 220 942 H. Hilary 4 September E. Pacific 230 942 H. Jova 3 October E. Pacific 205 955 H. Kenneth 4 November E. Pacific 230 940

REFERENCES ANON (2012) Tamil Nadu allocates Rs 700 cr more for cyclone hit state Available: http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/tamil-na- du-allocates-rs-700-cr-more-for-cyclone-hit-112010500036_1.html 164 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 HICKEY K.R. (2009) A review of the 2008 Hurricane, Tropical Cyclone and Typhoon Season, Int. J. Meteorology, UK, 34, 233-236. HICKEY K.R. (2010) A review of the 2009 Hurricane, Tropical Cyclone and Typhoon Season, Int. J. Meteorology, UK, 35, 307-310. HICKEY K.R. (2011) A review of the 2010 Hurricane, Tropical Cyclone and Typhoon Season, Int. J. Meteorology, UK, 36, 269-272. NOAA (2011) Significant Climate Anomalies and Events in 2011, Available: www.nhc.noaa.gov NOAA (2012) State of the Climate Report Annual 2011, Available: www.nhc.noaa.gov

BOOK REVIEW: CLIMATE AND WEATHER BY JOHN KINGTON Collins 2012. £50 Hardback. 484pp. ISBN: 978-000-718501-6

Readers familiar with the New Naturalist series (of which this is no. 115) will expect a book of fine quality, and they will not be disappointed: it is both well-written and pleasantly produced in an attractive type-face. The author had the great good fortune to have studied or worked under those two giants of twentieth-century climatology, Gordon Manley and Hubert Lamb, and their influences are apparent in this work. It is, however, more than an updated version of Manley’s classic book in the same series, there being much more emphasis here on climatic history, this being the author’s forte, and the book might have benefited from an indication of this in the title, or perhaps a sub-title (although the latter would go against the style of the series as a whole). It is divided into two distinct parts, the first being an introduction to the processes of British weather and climate and the ways in which they are studied, the second a meteorological chronology from the first century before Christ to the end of the twentieth century. It begins with an introductory chapter in which meteorological terms (including such recently coined ones as ‘bomb’ and ‘sting jet’) are defined and explained, and which concludes with a section on the effects of climate on health and civilisation (the author wisely avoiding the touchy subject of climatic determinism and its undesirable racial implications). The next few chapters deal with the atmospheric circulation and seasonal variations, and are followed by a couple of chapters on historical sources and mapping. Next we have an introduction to cloud study and phenology; and then the last two chapters of Part I, dealing with climatic trends and variations, prepare the way for the long chronology that occupies the whole of Part II. There is a useful glossary of some specialised terms, a bibliography that ranges from obscure manuscripts to modern popular works, © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 165 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 and a detailed index. Part I is written in a clear readable style with no mathematical formulae, and in good correct English (e.g. the author talks about ‘climatic’ change, not ‘climate’ change as we often hear nowadays; and in referring to old dates he correctly places BC after the year, and AD before it). Not the least of the book’s attractions are the photographs (most of them in colour). Like those in Manley’s book, these for the most part are of quiet gentle weather scenes such as can be seen on fifty or more days a year in the British countryside, and more pleasing to the discerning reader than an excess of spectacular ‘once-in-a- lifetime’ pictures as sometimes favoured by less refined publications, and with which the soon becomes sated. The chronology in Part II does present a bit of a problem. It certainly provides a wealth of material for anyone interested in the history of climate; it is unique in its thoroughness and is worth publishing for that reason alone. But although composed of sentences and arranged by decades, it is essentially a very long list (occupying more than half of the book’s 484 pages), and as such does not make easy reading. The style is also rather formulaic, which does at times create a sense of repetitiveness. Furthermore, sources are not given for the majority of entries, as they would have been in a book aimed at an academic, rather than a general, readership, making it difficult to check the accuracy of dates, etc. A spot check against the TORRO records on a few references to early tornadoes revealed a couple of dating errors where the author has apparently quoted from unreliable sources; and at one point he falls into the trap of taking ‘waterspout’ in the modern sense, whereas in earlier times (at least in this country) it more often meant either a cloudburst or what we now call a . But these apart, I came across only a very small number of more obvious errors that escaped the notice of the proof-reader. The first millennium of the chronology is necessarily restricted to those fragments of weather information that have come down to us from Roman times, the Dark Ages, and the Early Mediaeval Period. For the later centuries the author has had to be increasingly selective in his choice of entries, but from the twelfth century onwards most years receive at least one mention and eventually nearly every season or month has an entry (often several entries). The choice of material for these later years is bound to be somewhat subjective, and it would be invidious to complain about the inclusion or omission of this or that event, but most of the important occurrences seem to be there. Useful synoptic charts are provided for some of the most noteworthy dates, and Lamb Daily Weather Types are frequently referred to, as are volcanic dust veils. Despite my earlier comments on the chronology I should not wish to deter anyone with an interest in weather and climate, particularly its historical aspects, from buying this book, which I can well recommend. There is also a paperback version for those who find that £50 for the hardback would dig too deeply into their pockets - but buy the hardback if you can. PRB 166 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 A REVIEW OF HEAVY SNOWFALLS/ BLIZZARDS/SNOWSTORMS/SNOWFALLS GREATER THAN 13CM IN GREAT BRITAIN BETWEEN 1861-1996: PART 8: 1980-1984

BY RICHARD WILD WeatherNet Ltd, 3rd Floor, Kingsland House, 21 Hinton Road, Bournemouth, Dorset, BH1 2DE

ABSTRACT: After reviewing Daily, Monthly and Annual Weather Reports, publications including British Rainfall, the Snow Survey of Great Britain, most academic and meteorological journals, and miscellaneous material such as personal conversations, newspaper cuttings and letters, 1107 days have been found where heavy snowfalls/ blizzards/snowstorms or snowfalls greater than 13 cm occurred over Great Britain between 1861 and 1996.

Keywords: Snowfalls, Blizzards, Snowstorms, Great Britain, 1980, 1984.

INTRODUCTION This paper follows the same format as part 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (Wild 1998, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2007). The year 1861 was chosen as the first year of this study, to coincide with the start of Lamb’s daily classification. For dates to be included in this review the following criteria have been set:

1. 13 cm (5 inches) of snow or more must have fallen somewhere in Great Britain in 24 hours (not accumulated depths).

2. A particular snow event has been described as a blizzard or a snowstorm.

3. The snow event has been described as heavy (for a date to be included, the term ‘heavy’ describing a snow event is only used where the other two criteria above are not known, especially on dates in the early part of this study where the word blizzard was not officially used to describe a snowstorm and/or where snow depth measurements were not undertaken).

4. The snowfall must have affected a populated area and/or must have occurred below 200 m above mean sea level. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 167 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 This may not be a definitive list, because some dates where the above criteria could have been met may have been excluded, due to insufficient information about them. If dates in the following review are not referenced, then they were found by extracting the meteorological observers’ notes and summaries from relevant journals and publications. A brief anecdote on the events that occurred on a particular date is given, as well as references where further information on the snow event can be found (if available).

Heavy snowfalls/blizzards/snowstorms/snowfalls 13 cm or more over Great Britain between 1980 and 1984 The first heavy snowfall event of 1980 occurred over northern England, the Midlands and Wales between the 14-15th January. At Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, 15 cm of snow fell. This heavy snowfall event caused the death of 6 people across Great Britain. The next heavy snowfall event occurred in Scotland and northern England on the 4th February. Snow fell up to 30 cm in places, including Whitehillocks, Tayside. The A1 was blocked with snow in Northumberland, while some villages in Cumbria became isolated due to snow. The next heavy snowfall event occurred between the 17th-21st March in parts of central and southern Scotland, Wales and northern England. Some places reported a snowfall of up to 20 cm, causing considerable disruption to road and rail traffic. The final heavy snowfall event of 1980 occurred in Scotland, northern England and Wales on the 28th November. Hundreds of motorists were stranded and many villages were isolated due to snow, as up to 15 cm of snow fell in places.

The year 1981 saw a considerable number of heavy snowfall events. The first occurred on the 16th January, which was quickly followed by aheavy snowfall event between the 21st-22nd February. On the 16th January, heavy snow was widespread over Scotland, the Midlands and northern England, with up to 30 cm in places. The snow caused transport disruption, with 20 cm of snow falling at Glasgow Airport, Strathclyde. Several roads were blocked with snow in Staffordshire and Derbyshire. Between the 21st-22nd February, heavy snow fell over the eastern parts of Wales, the West Midlands and SW Scotland. At Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands, 28 cm of snow fell. This was the heaviest snowfall in a 24 hour period at Edgbaston since 1912 (Woodcock 1988). In parts of Staffordshire, snow fell to a depth of 35 cm. On the 22nd March, heavy snow fell over Scotland, North Wales and northern England. Snow fell up to a depth of 20 cm over the Pennines, with many roads in Scotland, Cumbria and Northumberland closed due to snowdrifts.

Case study 24th-26th April 1981 Between the 24th-26th April 1981, heavy snow affected the Midlands, southern and SW England, northern England, central and southern Scotland and Wales 168 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 (Figures 1-2). Many regions endured up to 25 cm of snow, while at Berry Hill, Gloucestershire, snow was lying up to 66 cm, with snowdrifts up to 6 m high reported in North Yorkshire and over the Pennines by the 26th April. Some areas received 48 hours of continuous snow, causing a severe loss of life to livestock and the death of 3 people. The snow damaged power lines, causing power cuts and disrupted rail services. On Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, 50 vehicles were abandoned and on the M4 motorway, 300 people were left stranded. The adverse weather conditions caused the cancellation of cricket matches as well as a horse racing event at Newmarket, Suffolk (Andrews 1981; Anonymous 1981a, 1981b, 1981c; Bignell 1981; Brown 1981; Cutforth 1981; Evans 1981; Hales and Kings 1981; Meaden 1981; Miles 1981; Mortimore 1981; Mutton 1981; Smith and Smith 1981; Trenchard 1981; Webb 1981a, 1981b; Weeks 1981; Burt 1982; Hainsworth 1982; Harman 1982; Higgins 1982; Holford 1982; Lumb 1982; Lyall 1982b; Maclean 1982; Stirling 1982; Mabey 1983; Glenn 1987; Lobeck 1989; Currie et al. 1994; Ching and Currie 1997).

Figure 1: Synoptic chart 26 April 1981 at 06:00 (Daily Weather Summary). December 1981 saw several heavy snowfall events. These included the 8th, 11th, 13-14th and between the 20-21st. On the 8th December, heavy snow fell over most parts of Great Britain, especially in southern and eastern England. Approximately 15 cm of snow were reported to have fallen over the Chilterns (Shone 1982; Stanier 1982b; Clark 1986; Currie et al. 1992; Davison et al. 1993; Horton 1995). On the 11th December, a depression moving east over northern France brought heavy snow to central and southern Great Britain. Snow fell to a depth of 18 cm in Hertfordshire and much of southern England as well as East Anglia; however, 26 cm of snow fell at Heathrow Airport, London (Holford 1982; Shone 1982; Stirling 1982; Webb 1982b; Davison et al. 1993). Between the 13-14th December, heavy snow fell across most parts of © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 169 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 England and Scotland. At Birmingham Airport, West Midlands and Shrewsbury, Shropshire, 30 cm of snow fell, while on the Epsom Downs, Surrey, 100 drivers were trapped in their cars due to snowdrifts (Holford 1982; Stanier 1982a, 1982b; Stirling 1982; Webb 1982a, 1982b; Mabey 1983; Davison et al. 1993; Southern 1994). Between the 20th-21st December, snow fell in most places of Great Britain with the heaviest snow falling over eastern England, with Lincoln, Lincolnshire receiving 33 cm of snow. The snow isolated many villages, as many areas in mid Wales lost their electricity supply. Considerable disruption was caused to transport by the snow, with a severe loss of life to wildlife. On the 21st December the snow isolated many districts of Kent.

Figure 2: Channel 3 image of the British Isles by NOAA 6 Polar Orbiting Satellite at 19:35 UTC on the 26th April 1981. Image courtesy of NEODAAS/University of Dundee.

In January 1982, 2 heavy snowfall events prevailed. The first occurred on the 4th, while the other was between the 8-9th. On the 4th January, a major snowstorm occurred in the north-east of Great Britain. In eastern Scotland, 40 cm of snow fell in the Braemar area of Grampian (Webb 1982a), while the Orkney Islands and the Isle of Lewis received up to 15 cm of snow. Many roads in Scotland were blocked with snow (Stirling 1982).

Case study 8-9th January 1982 Between the 8-9th January 1982, heavy snow fell over South Wales and central southern England (Figures 3-4). In South Wales, snow fell to a depth of 170 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 60 cm in places, with snowdrifts up to 6 m. Many rural communities in South Wales were isolated for up to 12 days, with 10,000 people losing their electricity supply. Cardiff (Rhoose) Airport, South Glamorgan was closed due to snow until the 12th January. Up to 60,000 sheep perished, while 300 people were marooned by snow in their cars in parts of Berkshire and Oxfordshire. As a consequence, the motorists had to shelter in village halls (Holford 1982; Lyall 1982a; Perry 1982; Stirling 1982; Webb 1982a, 1982b; Browning 1983; Davies 1983; Mabey 1983; Perry et al. 1984; Woodcock 1988; George 1990; Currie 1993; Davison et al. 1993; Vernon 1993; Horton 1995; Currie 1996).

Figure 3: Synoptic chart 8th January 1982 at 06:00 (Daily Weather Summary).

Figure 4: Channel 2 image of the British Isles made by NOAA 7 Polar Orbiting Satellite at 14:33 UTC on the 8th January 1982.

Image courtesy of NEODAAS/ University of Dundee. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 171 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 The only other heavy snowfall event of 1982 occurred over Scotland on the 12th March. At Lagganlia, Highland, 23 cm of snow fell, while snowdrifts blocked many roads in Scotland.

The first heavy snowfall event of 1983 occurred in most parts ofGreat Britain between the 7-11th February, with most of the heavy snow occurring in eastern districts of England. On the 7th February, heavy snow showers fell causing traffic difficulties in Kent. These snow showers continued and by the 10th February, snow had fallen to a depth of 36 cm, blocking roads in Dover, Kent, causing bus services to be suspended and for pupils to be sent home from school. By the 11th February, Braemar, Grampian endured 50 cm of snow lying on the ground, while parts of Northumberland experienced 41 cm (Ogley et al. 1991). The next heavy snowfall event occurred on the 2nd April in NE Scotland, eastern and SE England. Up to 20 cm of snow fell in Kent, blocking roads near Dover (Lyall 1984). The snow was caused by a small polar depression off eastern parts of Great Britain. The final heavy snowfall event of 1983 occurred over much of Great Britain between the 11-12th December. The heaviest snowfalls occurred over higher ground in Wales and the Midlands northwards, with 23 cm of snow falling at Bacup, Lancashire.

The only heavy snowfall events of 1984 occurred in January. The dates were between the 13-16th and between the 21-22nd. Between the 14-15th January, heavy snow showers fell in Scotland and northern England, causing considerable drifting over high ground. On the 16th January, a depression moving across southern Scotland brought gale force winds and heavy snowfalls to Scotland, Cumbria, the Peak District and NE England. The town of Wick, Caithness was isolated due to snow for a time (Perry et al. 1984).

Case study 21st-22nd January 1984 Between the 21st-22nd January 1984, a severe snowstorm occurred in Scotland and northern England damaging trees, houses and bringing down many power lines (Figures 5-6). In the Highland region of Scotland, snowdrifts trapped 4 trains and 2,000 skiers were stranded at Glenshee, Perthshire. Up to 60 cm of snow fell in parts of NW Scotland, the Southern Uplands and the northern Pennines. This snowstorm claimed 5 lives (Hudson 1984; Perry et al. 1984; Symons et al. 1985; Barton 1996; Graham 1996). 172 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

Figure 5: Synoptic chart 21st January 1984 at 06:00 (Daily Weather Summary).

Figure 6: Channel 3 image of the British Isles made by NOAA 7 Polar Orbiting Satellite at 14:32 UTC on the 21st January 1984.

Image courtesy of NEODAAS/University of Dundee. © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY 173 Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to thank Mrs Marina Wild, Miss Laura Stuart, the staff at the BADC, Chilton, Oxfordshire and the staff of the National Meteorological Library and Archive at the Meteorological Office in Exeter, Devon for their help in the research and writing of this paper.

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(1997) The Dorset Weather Book. Frosted Earth, Coulsdon, 100 pp. Clark, J. B. (1986) Major snowfalls in Manchester since 1880. Weather, 41, 278-282. Currie, I. (1993) January snow, a thing of the past? Climatological Observers Link, 273, 41-42. Currie, I. (1996) Frosts, Freezes and Fairs. Frosted Earth, Surrey, 90 pp. Currie, I.; Davison, M. and Ogley, B. (1992) The Essex Weather Book. Froglets Publications Ltd, Kent, 160 pp. Currie, I.; Davison, M. and Ogley, B. (1994) The Berkshire Weather Book. Froglets Publications Ltd, Kent, 144 pp. Cutforth, P. R. (1981) Late April blizzards in Cumbria. J. Meteorology, UK, 6, 207. Daily Weather Summary (1981-1999) Meteorological Office, UK. Davies, C. L. (1983) The effects of snowfall in the South Wales valleys - A study from local newspapers. Dissertation, BSc (Hons) Degree in Geography at the University College, Swansea, 51 pp. 174 © THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF METEOROLOGY Winter 2012 Vol. 37, No.374-376 Davison, M.; Currie, I. and Ogley, B. 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PHOTOS REQUIRED FOR THE JOURNAL

We are always looking for stunning weather images to print in the Journal - if you have images you wish to be considered for print please send them to ‘[email protected]’

You only need to send low resolution images initially, then if chosen for publication we will ask for the highest resolution you can send, which will be suitable for printing.

Please also include where and when your photos were taken. WEATHER IMAGES RIME ON COW PARSLEY, EDGES LANE, LONG STRATTON, NORFOLK Steve Lansdell of TORRO took the photo below and also the one on the front cover of this Journal while out in the environs of Long Stratton, Norfolk on the 13th December 2012.

The photo below shows cow parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris) covered in rime. The rime formed when supercooled water droplets in freezing fog froze on contact with the plant. ‘Supercooled’ means that the water droplets are at a temperature below zero degrees Celsius. This occurs because water needs a nucleus on which to begin the freezing process if it is above -40C. Within the fog there are few such nuclei and thus they remain liquid until coming into contact with an object.

Note that the rime is only on one side of the cow parsley - the windward side.

© Steve Lansdell Image © Steve Ball 2012 ISSN 1748-2992