three directions of modern art: the evolution of the canvas colophon:
This book was created by Jane K. Wycoff, under the direction of Professor Matthew Gaynor, while attend- ing the Univerity of Illinois at Chicago during the spring semester of 2006. The primary programs used were Adobe InDesign CS2, as well as Photoshop CS2, and Illustrator CS2. The typefaces used are Plain, Extra, Cameo, and Light Trixie, Light, Bold, Condensed Bold and Regular Helvetica Neue, and Condensed Medium, Condesnsed Extra Bold, Regular and Italic Futura. table of contents:
3 there is no one direction: robert rauschenberg 1 an essay by Jane Wycoff 19 outside the box: donald judd 2 an essay by Radoslaw Uchacz 33 challenging stereotypes: barbara kruger 3 an essay by Aubrey Mapes 49 bibliography Robert
there is no one way by jane wycoff Robert
3 Rauschenberg Robert Rauschenberg there is no one way by jane wycoff
In New York in the early 1950’s the art scene was beginning to reach an exceptional epoch. For emerging artists it was the pinnacle location to live and work. A path had been set. From Steiglitz to Pollock, the vanguard artist moved to New York to find the recognition, acceptance, and artistic community he/she sought. As one of the many to travel this path, Rauschenberg was able to carve his own road. Being both on and off the beaten path he has come to be known as one of the most prolific postwar artists. On account of his profound creative impulses, his unique combination of form and conception, as well as his pertinent impressions and insights, Rauschenberg was a refreshing artist to the New York art scene.
Rauschenberg was able to manifest a particular artistic vision and create a vast body of work, which has remained undeniably experimental and relevant. Although his importance to modern art has been significant, Rauschenberg’s artistic merit has often been questioned.
[facing page] ESTATE, 1963 79 x 95 x 3 3/4” “I don’t think New York is a melting pot at all. Nothing melts here, it all just stands out like a sore thumb.”
assemblages. But while many of the beliefs echo those of earlier artists the differ- ences are apparent when you 4 note the nihilistic attitude there is no one way of Dadaists and the Surreal- ist dramatic use of the sub- conscious. Rauschenberg does not find solace in skepticism, nor obsess over the subcon- It is notable to acknowledge that most successful artists scious; rather, Rauschenberg (both creatively and financially) have pushed peoples but- remains optimistic and sees tons and confronted the meaning of art and it’s place within the beauty of living. His society. work reveals these traits.
To understand the work of Rauschenberg it seems essential to When asked what he feared acknowledge the historical context from which he emerged as most he answered, “That I well as the art trends and movements that he emulated. New might run out of world.” York Dada and European Surrealism invariably influenced Rob- ert Rauschenberg. His intellectual dissatisfaction and re- In his work Rauschenberg ported exhaustion with the climate of the world can be seen does not mock or make per- as parallel to Dada and Surrealist artist’s feelings after sonal statements and while World War I. As Rauschenberg was drafted into World War II, his works are soothing, they he was directly affected by the brutal violence and destruc- are not dreamy. He seems to tion of humankind. (Hopps 14-15) The psychological effects instead portray a melancholy of what he witnessed are found deep in his paintings and refusal of what he sees as unjust and to create a world of ideas that is far better then reality. This, I believe, sets him apart from many of robert rauschenberg: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/rauschenberg_r.html
5 Robert Rauschenberg his contemporaries because while working in abstraction he creates a visual world that relates to his audience. He in- corporates what they already know and see. Rauschenberg is acutely aware of the viewer. With his poetic use of imagery and juxtaposition of context he creates these graphic il- lusions that are both universal and individual. They become poignant to the individual because they give the mundane objects of the everyday significance. In essence he works with the viewer to infuse and stir memory and recognition. He instigates the viewer to make connections and provide his or her own thoughts and recollections.
rauschenberg with JASPER JOHNS Josef Albers teaching drawing. Black Mountain College
6 there is no one way
In the 1950’s Rauschenberg was a student at Black Moun- tain College in Black Moun- tain, North Carolina. Black “an extremely complex random order that cannot be described as accidental” Mountain was an indepen- dent four-year college where Rauschenberg developed his artistic talent and created some of his most important works. Black Mountain College was the first American exper- imental college that had an pation in Germany and the closing of the Bauhaus. Many of interdisciplinary academic the Bauhaus faculty and student émigrés relocated to Black curriculum that focused on Mountain North Carolina to carry out the ideals of a pro- the creative arts. The school gressive education. The most famous émigré and faculty of was opened in 1933, which co- Black Mountain was Josef Albers, who first taught and then incided with the Nazi occu- became the headmaster in 1940. Alber’s was one of many of professors who had a profound effect on Rauschenberg. Among the other alumni under Albers’ tutelage were Willem de Koon- ing, and Robert Motherwell. Rauschenberg was also close to his photography teacher Hazel-Frieda Callahan who was a nur- turing figure who helped ease the sometimes-volatile instruc- tion style of Albers. This may have been one of the reasons that Rauschenberg took more interest in photography and veered away from his ini- tial interest in drawing and painting. Although loved the nature of the image he was not a technical photographer and did not enjoy the end- 7 Robert Rauschenberg
“an extremely complex random order that cannot be described as accidental”
less hours in the darkroom and therefore did not focus on it entirely. Rauschenberg did photograph ‘found’ ob- jects, a subject that was to become well known in later works. His photographs often seemed drawn or painted and contained a rough elegance that is rather attractive (Hopps 16).
Rauschenberg attended Black Mountain College during the summers and lived in New York the remainder of the year.
new york city Light borne of darkness, 1949 When in New York he lived and MONOPRINT [EXPOSED BLUE PAPER] worked in his studio 96th RAUSCHENBERG AND SUSAN WEIL Street and. While at Black Mountain Rauschenberg first began working with light sen- sitive blue paper and while 8 in New York he experimented there is no one way more fully with the medium. (Hopps 23-26) At his studio he created remarkably in- tense images. In essence he used light as his brush and painted wistful and vague im- agery. His subject matter was the body and elements from the natural world and within the context he explored the grace of the human figure and the awe of nature. Although Man Ray had explored these its fuller potential. These techniques and invented the Blue Print paper monoprints rayogram, Rauschenberg, as were life-size and made up usual, used the medium to of so many brilliant shades of blue they are like waves of wonderment that wash over you.
A general aversion to nar- rative and distancing from literal representation was the way of modern art. There- Light borne of darkness, 1949 MONOPRINT [EXPOSED BLUE PAPER] RAUSCHENBERG AND SUSAN WEIL
fore, at Black Mountain Rauschenberg was constantly testing the boundaries of telling a tale without showing the story. At this time his distinctive choices of imagery and color were subtle and the combination of photography and painting 9 was practiced. This will continue to be his favorite medium. Robert Rauschenberg At Black Mountain, and under Josef Alber’s discipline, the critical interpretation of space, color and form was thor- oughly investigated. Here, Rauschenberg developed his style and although the creative setting of Black Mountain was in- fluential to decipher Rauschenberg’s visual cues it is inter- esting to trace see how his childhood effected his work.
Rauschenberg admitted that a substantial facet of his vi- sual vocabulary was developed early on. Born and raised in Port Arthur, Texas he was known to be a collector in his childhood. It seems that Rauschenberg’s knack for finding the most mundane object meaningful was learned early in
RAUSCHENBERG FRAMES THE SPACE SHUTTLE ON ITS LAUNCH PAD WORK IN PROGRESS, 1984 10 there is no one way
louder and more abrasive and the angst of the Abstract Ex- pressionists loomed over the art world, the Zen philosophy of clearing the mind to find clarity seemed the only answer. And clarity is what Rauschenberg gained and this echo of silence is instilled in all of his work. John Cage was so inspired by this work that he composed 4’33 and emulate the white canvas by promoting that silence was not the absence of sound but a an independent noise which coexist within harmony (Cage).
One of the unique qualities of Rauschenberg is how he is somehow able to passively push the boundaries of the “mean- ing of art”. This seems to me one of reason why he is so con- troversial. His absence of explanation and his quiet nature has made him somewhat of an enigma. The raw and unfinished quality of many of his works such as the Black Paintings as
new york city [STOP], 1951 GELATIN SILVER PHOTOGRAPH One of the unique qualities of Rauschenberg is how he is somehow able to passively push the boundaries of 11 the Robert Rauschenberg “meaning of art”.
COLLECTION, 1954
and he feeds off it gather- ing information is his forte and every comment is another addition to his collection of thoughts and ideas. well as his appropriation of Rauschenberg’s experimen- former ideas is often cri- tation while living in New tiqued. With no context and York City were many and far lack of imagination some way between. He explored with miss his distinctive vision. expressing the urban atmo- But with Rauschenberg, he sphere, showed interest in must enjoy this skepticism portraying the passage of because ultimately he seeks time, and practiced the emo- connection with his audience. tional impact of texture. This interaction is welcomed Ultimately he rehearsed the “I rely on intuition, and it’s surprising how much sense there is in intuition”
12
there is no one way White Paintings whisper Col- lection shouts. The combine Collection is created with oil paint, fabric, newspaper, printed reproductions, wood, metal, and mirrors, organized on three wood panels and mea- suring 79 x 95 x 3”. This com- bine marked Rauschenberg’s score xxi, 1993 acrylic and enamel on aluminum transition into “his feeling 451/8 x 961/2 that art should open itself synchronization of his many as completely as possible to mediums. “An extremely com- the surrounding environment.” plex random order that cannot be described as accidental” The literal interpretation (Mattison 41). From 1953- of Collection is a collec- 1962 Rauschenberg was mostly tion of the materials but occupied with the combines it is instead a metaphorical series, which were named recollection of experiences. after their integration of multiple mediums. One of the combines in the series named Collection, was created in 1954. In comparison to White Paintings conceived only three years before while the “I rely on intuition, and it’s surprising how much sense there is in intuition”
13
ESTATE, 1963 79 x 95
At first glance it seems messy and untamed but when realizing the urban environment in which Rauschenberg was imbedded it is noticeable that he was just bearing witness. The primary colors illustrate some intimate primary emotions.
The natural world in which Rauschenberg originally reveled is now abandoned for the excitement of city life. A woodcut on the top of Collection looks like Chinese lettering and may have been incorporated because of the many Chinese signs that lined the street outside of Rauschenberg’s studio. Each idiosyncrasy adds character and meaning. Although one can seek iconographic stipulations and try to make sense of the concoction it is so much more rewarding to step back and let the sensations flood your senses.
The visual immediacy that Rauschenberg creates is evident in his photography as well as his oil and silkscreen paint- ings such as Estate, created in 1963. The underlying grid 14 there is no one way
stabilizes the canvas while a microcosm is miraculously erected. “It’s overall composition mimics the ordered chaos which was part of downtown life. Images that lean at precar- ious angles and that are multiplied, reversed, and overlaid with each other abound in Estate.” (Mattison 96) There is a superb asymmetrical balance that adds to the information. And although at first glance it doesn’t seem to make any sense because there may be too many clues for the mind to register wallstreet, 1961 it demands attention. For of course it is human nature to find
72x 89” meaning and yet there are so many meanings to gather. The confusion is indicative of the destruction of world around us. Within this complexity Rauschenberg still promotes a “What interests me
15 is the here and now” Robert Rauschenberg
sense of solace and order. He suggests that although everyone is overwhelmed, at the end of the day they are predominately quiet and free. These paintings were created while he was living in New York and therefore you can understand that Rauschenberg is very much a product of his environment. The imagination Rauschenberg is the ulti- is Rauschenberg’s church and mate multitasker. Still an with Estate and Choke (1964) active artist he has cre- he invites you to come pray. ated the supreme studio on Captiva Island just off the coast of Florida. He works on multiple projects at a time and believes that be- cause all experiences are interrelated it allows him to rapidly make decisions from one piece to another. He is able to cross-reference copperhead chica, 1985 48 3/4 x 59 3/4 x1” balance that defines him. Like the White Paintings and Collection, there is the 16 parallel that is somewhat
there is no one way Zen-like. The busy and the serene, the world around us and the world within, and the maze that the contradictions create are thoroughly trav- eled. He thrives on creating multiple directions and in- fuses the excitement of the puzzle of his thinking into all his work. The difficult aspect of being an identifying figure in mod- ern art is that Rauschenberg was seen as speaking from a broken soapbox and ridiculed for his fiscal achievements. Rauschenberg’s careless at- titude made him vulnerable and possibly the shelter of Black Mountain did not fa- cilitate what would happen to him when he was success- ful. The fame which ensued was unwarranted and unwanted. For many the breaking down of the boundaries of art is re- dundant and artists who gain status from their attempts Untitled, 1953 steel flange and stone 13 x 18” express, 1963 62 x 120”
17 Robert Rauschenberg only disgrace the purity of art. “They forget that the boundaries are reformulated as quickly as they are broken down, and that this does not involve any progress. Though all this gained Rauschenberg a trendy rabble of follow- ers, it did not endear him to the hardcore New York art community.”
The thoughtful nature of Rauschenberg was often the cause of suspect so it is difficult to create an argument to defend him. Fortunately enough the best argument is in the work. To
thoroughly engage with his work is to better understand his meaning. The optimism he instills in his art is subtle. The silence he bequeaths is necessary and the coolness in which he administers it is cleansing.
outside the box donald judd by radoslaw uchacz
19 donald judd
1994 is a y e a r t h a t m a r k s a g r e a t l o s s in t h e h i s t o r y o f Am e r i c a n a r t , it was this year that renown minimalist sculptor Donald Judd passed away leaving behind him a legacy that baffles us even today. “Don was a great man and a great thinker who left an incredible body of work, beautiful and radical, yet there was still so much he could have contributed.” This is how he was described by his close friend Douglas Baxter. He was not only a great sculptor but also a great influence and a guiding light for many young artists trying to see and understand sculpture the way he did. As a young artist himself many years back, Judd knew just how hard it can be to achieve success and he always extended a helpful hand to fellow artists whenever he could. Even though Donald Judd is gone, we still have his art to admire and remember him by.
(opposite page) Untitled, copper and light, 1972 Donald Judd was born in Excelsior enrolled at the Art Students League it better” (Hubbard 2002). He con- Springs, Missouri on June 3rd 1928. of New York, and began his long ca- tinued to write for the magazine for His father was an employee of the reer in fine arts. During this time he the next six years. It was during this Western Union Telegraph Company also attended Columbia University time that he started to experiment which forced them to move con- where he studied philosophy and with flat surfaces and three-dimen- stantly from place to place, making history of art. It is important to point sional objects. “While still a painter, Judd’s childhood not an easy one. out the Judd did not start out as a Judd had begun embedding found In 1943 his family finally settled in sculptor. It was ultimately writing and object into his encrusted paint sur- Westwood, New Jersey where he painting that finally led him towards faces” (Haskell 1984). Before he finished high school. Right after high sculpture. In 1959 he started to work started to use objects, his ultimate school Judd decided to enlist into as an art critic and wrote articles for goal in painting was to make the en- a military service, knowing that he Art Magazine. “The articles he wrote tire painting interesting and engag- would qualify for an educational aid for the magazine forced him to think ing. In a sense he was desperately under the G.I. Bill. After being honor- carefully about the new art that was trying to make a sculpture out of ably discharged from the Army, he being produced and to understand a painting. By using objects and a
20 outside the box
100 untitled works in aluminum, 1982-1986
“The main thing wrong with painting is that it is a rectangular plane placed flat against the wall. A
rectangle is a shape itself, it determines and limits the arrangement of whatever is on or inside it”
Donald Judd, 1969 21 donald judd
“The main thing wrong with painting is that it is a rectangular plane placed flat against the wall. A rectangle is a shape itself, it determines and limits the arrangement of whatever is on or inside it” flat surface he was slowly making another, forced Judd to abandon progress towards his goal. The best the flat surface and in 1964 Untitled example of this is his 1961 Relief. It a piece entirely made of iron pipe. was a rectangular panel painted a An interesting fact is that Judd only tarry black with a small empty alu- designed the piece which was then minum baking pan sunken in the in turn made by a filmmaker and middle. In this piece he was able to part-time plumber. The structure is create a real space and not just an in a shape of a rectangular box with illusion, but unfortunately he failed to crossing pipes in the center as a create the unity he was looking for. main focus point. This piece marks “The main thing wrong with paint- the final stage of Judd’s transforma- ing is that it is a rectangular plane tion to sculpture and the beginning placed flat against the wall. A rect- of the new art form he is so well angle is a shape itself, it determines known for today. and limits the arrangement of what- ever is on or inside it” (Kellein 2002). Until his death in 1994, Donald Judd 22 This, and the fact that painting was worked exclusively with boxlike con-
outside the box still influenced by the European structions. He chose this object for compositional formula of balanc- its simplicity, objectiveness and the ing one part of the painting against hard edge created by six planes placed on a ninety degree angle. from top to bottom, but see exactly “At no time in this work does a what he wanted us to see, a simple viewer have to be concerned about object contained within in its own whether the work looks like anything. space. Another important quality in Each piece intentionally looks like Judd’s work is his openness about what it is and nothing more” (Hub- the box construction. If screws were bard 2002). This is exactly the kind used in the construction process of unity Judd was looking for, an he left them exposed so the viewer object that is able to stand on its does not have to puzzle over the own without the support of other way the piece was put together. His elements, with a singular focus on pieces do not leave much too hu- the object itself. Most sculptures man imagination. What the viewer force us to interpret them, to look sees, it is what he gets. “He wanted for their meaning and a purpose, to his work to reveal the methods of associate them with our life and our construction, but he was not willing feelings. This was not the case with to let that detract from the integrity Judd’s work. He cherished the fact of his surfaces and materials. His 23
that his work was static and without solution was to show off the meth- donald judd any movement. He did not want us ods of joinery, making them a part to look upon his work and analyze it of the design” (McElheny 2004). The
Untitled, 1971 perfect example of this is his 1965 came later into play when he started Untitled; the piece is made of steel to experiment with multiple boxlike and fluorescent orange plexiglass objects while still trying to stay within that allows the viewer to directly the idea of one specific object. Judd observe the means of construction approached the compositional prob- through the transparent plexiglass. lem only in three ways, horizontal Judd, by choosing a box as a base and vertical alignment or a series of for his design made his process smaller objects combined into one on the one hand a lot easier and on big boxlike object. Untitled, 1990, the other hand a lot harder. Being vertically stacked stainless steel with limited to only one shape he did not amber plexiglass boxes and Untitled, have to create other geometric ob- 1984, an enameled aluminum con- jects to further explore his minimalist struction are the best examples of approach to sculpture. What posed Judd’s compositional approach and more difficulty was successful cre- solution. “Stacked, aligned, cantile- ation of box variations, for this Judd vered, or centered, their strict geo- 24 paid very close attention to compo- metric arrangements often derived
outside the box sition, the materials he used, color from mathematical progression— exploration and finally space, which eliminate the idea of composition was as important as anything else. and achieve a singular focus on the object itself” (Kellein 2002). There is At the beginning Judd worked no disorder to Judd’s work and his mostly with single objects where he careful placement of each box away did not have to concern himself too form each other makes the unity much with a composition, this made possible. The viewer does not need his work a lot easier and made his to dip into their mathematical knowl- progress much faster. Composition edge to appreciate and understand his work. Through stacking his box- es, Judd created for himself a big- ger playground where he could use natural light and created shadow to further enrich his compositions. “The shining steel picks up shadows and reflections from all around it, which differ on each box… The amber plexiglass tops and bottom create glow that seems to come from with- in each box as well as from the wall. The result is that, while all the boxes belong together in a single composi- tion, the position of the viewer can alter the visual effect of the work in an infinite number of ways” (Hub- bard 2002). 25 donald judd Judd’s first boxes were made mostly out of plywood, an inexpensive and durable material which allowed him to create his work without the help of others. However, given the choice and financial freedom, this material would probably never appear in his pieces. Upon making a name for himself and reaching that status 26 of a well known and respected art- Through manufacturing Judd could
outside the box ist, Judd quickly switched to richer finally express himself for what he and sturdier materials which in turn was, a perfectionist. This process al- allowed him the freedom of only de- lowed him to create each piece with signing his pieces. “Like a few art- unbelievable precision and free his ists before him, Judd designed an work from human hand. This libera- artwork and then had it constructed tion from the human hand angered by a manufacturing company. He other sculptors and gave them had his works constructed from an opportunity to attack his work. such materials as stainless steel, Judd defended his work by stating galvanized iron, brass and copper, that this approach, while success- as well as plexiglass” (Baker 1988). ful, also makes his work available The use of these materials eliminated and affordable to wider public and the difficulty Judd had with finishing not just the privileged few. McEl- the wood’s surface and opened an heny, in her article “Invisible hand,” opportunity to use wider range of also defends Judd’s work by stat- natural colors that appear in metals. ing that “while some objects are produced completely by machines, of plexiglass in Judd’s work alone most of them are however made played a very big role. “Plexiglass through complicated collaboration presents an ambiguous surface that between machinery and people is closed to the touch yet open to with accumulated knowledge and the eye. Thus apart from any struc- experience.” Another reason why tural function, the material can be Judd used these material and fab- used to delineate a planar surface ricating workshops was practical- and simultaneously give access to ity. This way he could speed up the the interior” (Coplans 1971). This construction process, overcome material gave Judd great opportu- the structural and weight prob- nity to manipulate the color and the lems by making them more durable, space itself in his pieces. easier to move from place to place and finally making it very easy for Judd like many other artists had anybody to take them apart or put treated color with great curiosity 27
them together. The introduction and respect. In the essay “Some donald judd
“material, space and color are the main aspects of visual art.” aspects of color in general and red and black in particular,” Judd stated that “material, space and color are the main aspects of visual art.” Too many times we look upon a paint- ing and get so preoccupied with the 28 content that we see color only as a
outside the box supporting role when in fact it plays one of the main roles. At the begin- ning cadmium red light was Judd’s preferred color for his objects, he liked it so much that throughout his career he repeatedly went back to it. “Cadmium red light seemed to him, in the early 1960’s, to be the ideal color to really bring out the actual shape of the objects. At the same to paint their motorcycles. The use time, cadmium red imbued the of metals also allowed him to base objects with a vibrant optical pres- his work on a metal’s original color ence in the space” (Cantz 2000). In and to omit the painting process his interview with John Coplans in entirely. The durability of plexiglass 1971, Judd stated that, “If you paint and its process of manufacturing al- something black or any dark color, lowed him to get it in any color he 29
you can’t tell what its edges are like. desired and what was more impor- donald judd If you paint it white, it seems small tant it still preserved its transparency. and purist. And the red, other than a In his work Judd used colors only gray of that value, seems to be the in three combinations; one color, only color that really makes an ob- two or three colors for contrast and ject sharp and defined its contours multiple colors which appeared and angles.” Besides the red, Judd in his enameled aluminum boxes liked to use colors derived from much later in his career. There is no nature as well as the highly metal- doubt in my mind that Judd learned lic colors used by Harley Davidson to understand and use color very
Untitled, stainless steel, amber plexiglass, 1969 efficiently which is evident in the body of his work today.
The final element and also one of the most important ones in Judd’s work is the use of space. Almost from the beginning Judd treated space as a part of the whole design, for this reason alone he never used a ped- “Space is made by an artist; it is not found or packaged.” estal to display his work. “Space is made by an artist; it is not found or packaged. It is made by thought. Therefore most buildings have no space” (Judd 1994). This is how Judd saw space through his eyes; all his pieces were made for a spe- 30 cific space. During exhibitions he
outside the box always made sure that none of his pieces ended up randomly or ac- cidentally placed but always posi- in his Untitled, 1965, a galvanized tioned to his specifications. We can iron piece. This piece consists of clearly see his approach to space seven identical boxes mounted on a wall with equal intervals between the ceiling, boxes and the floor. In this manner Judd showed existing connection between the piece itself and the space. In 1968 Judd took the importance of space further and
Untitled, 1969 Single Stacks, 1965
“Space is made by an artist; it is not found or packaged.”
31 donald judd sculpture or what he liked to call purchased a five story building in it due to in competency or incom- There is no doubt that Donald Judd ‘specific objects,’ he made simple New York that allowed him to start prehension” (Kellein 2002). Judd’s was one of the greatest minimalist boxes beautiful and enjoyable, he placing his work in a more perma- ultimate tribute to space was the sculptors of the 20th century. He presented them for what they were nent manner that was not possible creation of Untitled, 1980-86, made was one of the first artists that dared and not for what he wanted them in gallery or museum shows. “Judd from milled aluminum in Marfa, Texas. to question the very essence of to be. believed that temporary exhibitions, It was in installation of one hundred sculpture and fine arts. He showed being designed by curators for the boxes in a single building, a place us that it is possible to sculpt with- public, placed the art itself in the where all structures coexist in harmo- out the use of our hands but with background, ultimately degrading ny along with the space around it. the use of our minds. Through his barbara kruger
by Aubrey Mapes
Untitled , 1987 Barbara Kruger takes black and white images, combines them with satirical phrases highlighted by red banners, and turns them into powerful statements about current social affairs. These image-and-word pairings address Kruger’s concerns about is- sues of gender, race, religion, and economic status. In some cases, they take on topics currently up for political debate such as women’s barbara kruger reproductive rights. This work has made its way onto magazine cov- ers, billboards, tote bags, t-shirts, matchbooks, and buses, bringing her concerns to the public and keeping the questions they raise in the front of their minds. Each of Kruger’s compositions presents a different topic as its subject matter, and the signature style in which
challenging stereotypes
they are presented points to the main source of her frustration. There is an intentional similarity in her work to commercial art and adver- tisement, which is a response to how society is portrayed in, and manipulated by, the media. The images featured in her work are often taken from 1940’s and 50’s stock photography, film stills, or manuals, and embody the social stereotypes that were most preva- 33 lent then. These stereotypes continue to influence the way people kruger barbara by Aubrey Mapes perceive each other, and Kruger’s artwork strives to challenge those perceptions.
The advertising-style of Barbara Kruger’s work is influenced by her experience in graphic design. Shortly after attending classes at Parson’s School of Design, she obtained a position with Condé Nast Publications and became second designer for Mademoiselle Magazine. She soon became head designer and remained with the company for four years. After leaving this position, she found work as a freelance picture editor for other publications such as House and Garden and Aperture. Kruger has stated, “My work as a de- signer almost completely informed my work as an artist on a formal level when I started using images. I worked with someone else’s pho- tos; I cropped them in whatever way I wanted and put my words on top of them. I knew how to do it with my eyes closed. Why couldn’t that be my art?” (Squiers 1999, 141–148)
Kruger did not begin producing artwork in this style, however, until several years after her work with magazines. Even though she start- ed to create her own art in 1969, she experienced several phases of experimentation before realizing the approach that has become so
34 challenging stereotypes successful for her. Her initial works were textile pieces, inspired by the work of polish artist Magdalena Abakanowicz. She discontinued this approach in 1976, feeling that it had become meaningless to her. She then took several visiting-artist teaching positions at various universities and art schools around the country. During one of these positions at UC Berkeley, Kruger attended film screenings at the University’s Pacific Film Archive. It was here that she encountered the work of Belgian filmmaker Chantal Akerman. Akerman’s work, along with that of Yvonne Rainer and Sam Fuller, became very in- fluential to Kruger when she began integrating film into her later pieces. It was also around this time that she began experimenting with photography, and the merging of text and image started to be- come a regular formula for her. She presented a slide show entitled “Seven Minutes in the Bathroom” at the Whitney Museum’s down- town space. This was a series of close-up images of a bathroom
35 barbara kruger barbara
Untitled, 1982 Assorted Book Cover Designs, 1984–96 Untitled, 1989 Poster for March on Washington in support of legal abortion, birth con- trol, and women‘s rights, New York
“the ruling group must justify its authority through cultural values and forms. 36 challenging stereotypes The entire society must submit to these forms, if their regulatory intention is to become effective.” accompanied by a voice-over narration. She also began creating works that were comprised of her own black and white or color pho- tographs along with texts she had written. By 1979, she had finally arrived at her current format: high-contrast, black and white images with superimposed phrases set in Futura Bold Italic type. (Goldstein 1999, 25–36) The work that Barbara Kruger creates emulates the techniques employed by advertising and propaganda: strong imag- stereotyped, and represents a time when conformity ruled. Kruger ery behind bold proclamations. uses these images to reveal how popular media is used to manip- ulate individuals into accepting conventional ideas about appear- This format is specifically intended to grab a viewer’s attention and ance and lifestyle. The idea is that advertising is used not only as a deliver the message sharply and immediately. But there is another means to generate sales, but also to influence social behavior. This purpose to this approach. The imagery that Kruger selects is heavily is achieved by repeatedly exposing viewers to idealized representa- tions of themselves in hopes that they will begin taking cues from these examples. Art historian Norman Bryson suggests that “the ruling group must justify its authority through cultural values and forms. The entire society must submit to these forms, if their regulatory intention is to become effective.” He also states that “public acknowledge- ment of consensual fictions [is central to the] stability of social forma- tion.” (Linker 1990) This notion of social control by the media can
“the ruling group must justify its authority through cultural values and forms. 34 The entire society must submit to these forms, if their regulatory intention is to become effective.” kruger barbara be seen in a public work done in Siena, Italy, 2002. Kruger posted phrases on the sides of buses, one of which followed a route through the historic center of the city. One of thirteen phrases could be seen on these vehicles, in a place reserved for advertisement: (in Italian) “Think like us”, “Look like us”, “Talk like us”, “Love like us”, “Hate like us”, “Fear like us”, “Pray like us”, “Win like us”, “Lose like us”, “Laugh like us”, “Cry like us”, “Live like us”, “Die like us”. The ap- pearance of these phrases in a commercial context seemed to be a literal translation of the kinds of messages that typically occupy this space. Kruger eliminated the subtlety of their suggestions and simpli- fied them as direct commands. (Pierini 2002, 47–51)
Kruger’s interest is in exposing this method of influence to the viewer and inviting them to consider the role it plays in each of our lives. As part of her effort to achieve this, she uses a technique she calls “direct address”, which refers to the inclusion of pronouns in her phrases such as “you”, “we”, “I”, and “us”. These pronouns open up a dialogue with the viewer, leading them to decide which side of 38 the conversation they are on. Kruger explains, Direct address has challenging stereotypes motored my work from the very beginning. I like it because it cuts through the grease. It’s a really economic and forthright approach to the viewer. It’s everywhere and people are used to it. They look at each other when they talk. They watch TV. Talking heads and pronouns rule, in the best and worst sense of the word.” (Tillman 1999, 189–196) Untitled (Turned Trick), 1988
Some of her phrases are written in first person, implying that the figure in the image is speaking. (“I am your reservoir of poses”, “I cannot look at you and breathe at the same time”.) Some speak di- rectly to a second party. (“Your money talks”, “You kill time”, “Your fictions become history”.) Others are statements that speak on be- half of a group. (“We will not become our own best enemy”, “Our time is your money”.) These are all individual conversations between the image and the viewer. But who exactly is being represented by “we”? Can the viewer assume that they are “you”, or that they should be accusing “you”? In the case of compositions referring to gender issues, these questions may be a little easier to answer. The usual presence of a female figure implies a female speaker, representing women in general. However, it is much more difficult to decide when looking at the work dealing with the topic of consumption.
The representation of women has long been a topic in Barbara Kruger’s work. She continuously selects images that depict women as passive and subdued, referencing the once popular notion that women were secondary citizens in society. Some of these composi- 39 tions sarcastically indicate the insignificance of a woman’s presence. kruger barbara An image of a woman’s face almost completely veiled by her hair is paired with the words, “We construct the chorus of missing per- sons”. A similar composition, this time showing only the woman’s hands covered by long strands of hair, bears the phrase, “I am your almost nothing”. Kruger also makes references to the social restrictions placed on women, limiting their independence. “We have received orders not to move” appears across a silhouette of a woman held in place by a series of straight pins. “You are a captive audience” leads the viewer’s eye down to an image of a groom placing a wedding band on his bride’s finger. She took this idea even further when she Billboard project for Wexner Center for the Art, created a poster for a march on Washington in April of 1989, which Columbus, Ohio, 1990 was organized in response to a Supreme Court hearing that threat- ened to overturn the Roe vs. Wade verdict. The poster featured a close-up of a woman’s face, which was divided down the center with the values of one half inverted into a negative. The phrase covering the face read, Your body is a battleground”, and a tag line urged women to support legal abortion, birth control, and women’s rights. The division of the face and the high contrast between the coloring of the left and right side were visual indicators of the intense war be- ing waged on a woman’s right to choose. (Linker 1990)
The work presented later in Kruger’s career began dealing with con- sumption, a topic that makes the relationship between speaker and audience harder to define. This series does not speak as clearly to 40 a specified group as the work concerning gender issues does. This challenging stereotypes work deals with matters that affect members of both sexes: money and power. Kruger began this approach because she felt the need to “comment critically on the marketplace, to be both in and about consumption”. (Linker 1990) Her work addresses the marketplace on different levels. First is the aforementioned use of the advertising style. Second is the actual production of her pieces which mimics the wall with push pins. I wanted them to enter the marketplace because mechanical, mass-produced creation of items offered on the market. I began to understand that outside the market there is nothing—not a She uses appropriated images, combines them with a phrase type- piece of lint, not a cardigan, a coffee table, a human being. That’s set in the same font, sends them to a printer for duplication, and what the frames were about: how to commodify them. It was the has the final pieces presented in red-lacquered frames. (Weintraub most effective packaging device. Signed, sealed, delivered.” (Phil- 1996) Kruger explains the intentional display of her own work as lips 2004, 5–8) commodity. “These were objects. I wasn’t going to stick them on a
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Billboard project for Public Art Fund, Inc., Queens, New York, 1988-1989 Consumption, in this capitalistic society, is something in which ev- eryone can share some of the guilt. Still, with the continued use of ambiguous pronouns, how much guilt is up to each viewer to de- cide. There are clearly allusions to a connection between wealth and power, and the ability to exercise control when those things have been attained. (“You make history when you do business”, “We get exploded because they’ve got money and God in their pock- ets.”) But there are references to a more general participation in the marketplace as well. “You are seduced by the sex appeal of the inorganic” is combined with an image of two gloves, each from a different pair, clasping hands. The implication is that the consumer is attracted to what the desired product represents, the social sta- tus achieved by owning it. Kruger reviewed a video piece entitled “Casual Shopper” for Artforum in 1983. In this review, Kruger sug- gests that the female shopper being observed in the piece is driven by a need to obtain objects that are assumed, by a patriarchal so- ciety, to bring fulfillment. (Linker 1990) This idea still touches on the stereotype of a woman’s role as dictated by men, but the feminine gloves in the image, like the female shopper in the video, address women’s active participation in this system.
One final stereotype that Kruger’s work has managed to disrupt is the manner in which art is expected to be viewed. Museums and gallery spaces are reserved specifically for the housing and viewing of artwork. Of course, this viewing is limited to the audience that fre- 42 quents this type of location. Kruger’s work has defied this expecta- challenging stereotypes tion by first reexamining how art could exist within a space, and then
Untitled, 1988 by pushing the boundaries of what could be defined as occupiable shot careers.” A closely-cropped image of an angry man’s face as space. In her 1994 exhibit at the Mary Boone gallery, her images he is speaking read, “Hate like us”, and, “Your fear and loathing. and words abandoned their red-lacquered frames and took on an ar- Your mean spirit. Your constant contempt.” There were numerous chitectural scale, plastering the walls, ceilings, and floors. A smaller images like these, bearing similar messages that again referenced image placed on the floor at the exhibit’s entrance was a cartoon of a sort of social mind control. But in this particular exhibit, Kruger a man yelling, “How dare you not be me?”. A photograph of a huge added an audio track. There were sounds of a roaring crowd who crowd served as the backdrop behind larger images, each contain- applauded a vicious, hateful speech given by an unknown male ing its own caption. A man and woman kissing through face masks speaker (presumably the angry male featured in the large photo- was accompanied by the words, “Fight like us”, and in a smaller text graph). In the same style as her texts, the speaker used general box, “Your inability to empathize. Your eroticized combats. Your big pronouns to engage the viewer, saying things like, “Just push me.
Untitled, 1983
43 barbara kruger barbara Just push me a little harder and your world explodes.” These vi- audience outside the art world. This again ties in with the meaning sions, words, and sounds created an atmosphere of aggression and behind her chosen format. In addition to disrupting the oppressive discomfort that consumed every inch of the room. Viewers would messages of the media, she employs its methods to communicate therefore find themselves in the middle of a confrontation rather than to the masses. (Weintraub 1996) Some of these pieces are created acting as casual observers. (Weintraub 1996) Later installations in- with the standard objective: making viewers aware of the stereo- corporated film pieces that addressed the viewer, further exploring types and social inequalities that continue to shape our lives. Others ways to affect and involve the audience. are created with a more specific message. As previously mentioned, there was the poster for the march on Washington in 1989. There But Kruger’s work has extended beyond interior spaces. She has was also a 1991 billboard designed for the Women’s Work Project designed pieces for billboards, t-shirts, bus cards, and magazine cov- on Domestic Violence. A close-up of a woman’s face behind a chain- ers. She does this to make her work more accessible, to attract an link fence read, “If you are beaten, if you are hurt, if you are scared,
44 45 barbara kruger barbara if you need help, get out”, and offered a phone number for victims large red banner that read, “Help!”. This was followed by a smaller 46 of this violence to call for assistance. A 1992 design for the Visual text box that briefly described a difficult personal situation and al- challenging stereotypes Aids project featured an illustration of a singing skeleton, promoting ways ended with, “I just found out I’m pregnant. What should I do?” AIDS awareness and safer sex practices with phrases like “Don’t die These images lead one to wonder how a man would handle such for love”. a predicament if this were possible. The question being raised is whether or not pregnancy is an issue that belongs solely to wom- Other works that appeared in public spaces served as more general en, and if so, is it not up to them to decide how it should be dealt statements rather than announcements for a particular organization. with? There was also a 1986 billboard design showing a young girl An example of this is a series of bus shelter designs for Public Art admiring the flexed bicep of a young boy. The words, “We don’t Fund Inc. in 1991. Different portraits of men were viewed under a need another hero” appeared in a banner across the center of this image. Kruger has described this piece as a “plea to reexamine public. First, she introduced a format in her art that directly called hierarchies”. (Mitchell 1998, 302–313) A 1996 bus placard in New out the media as an instrument of social control. Second, she at- York revealed a close-up of an eye underneath a red banner which tempted to reach viewers on a more emotional level by using her art simply stated, “Don’t be a jerk”. The eye in this case is possibly as an environment. Third, she moved her work out of private spaces a reminder that a person’s actions have a direct affect on others. and into the public where her statements could reach new audiences Perhaps it is intended as a watchful eye that monitors behavior and and increase awareness. Barbara Kruger continues to find ways to threatens consequences. make her message known. Her recent work includes a video instal- lation entitled “Twelve”. She has numerous credits as a writer and To summarize, Barbara Kruger’s work is the result of one artist’s tire- curator, and is currently a Professor of Visual Arts at the University less efforts to intervene between the influential and the unassuming of California, San Diego. (Greene 2005) 1 rauschenberg 2 judd
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