Van Aegir Tot Ymir. Personages En Thema's Uit De Germaanse En Noordse Mythologie

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Van Aegir Tot Ymir. Personages En Thema's Uit De Germaanse En Noordse Mythologie Van AEgir tot Ymir. Personages en thema's uit de Germaanse en Noordse mythologie Paula Vermeyden en A. Quak bron Paula Vermeyden en Arend Quak, Van AEgir tot Ymir. Personages en thema's uit de Germaanse en Noordse mythologie. SUN, Nijmegen 2000 Zie voor verantwoording: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/verm064vana01_01/colofon.php © 2017 dbnl / erven Paula Vermeyden / Arend Quak 5 Inleiding Toen Jacob Grimm in 1835 zijn indrukwekkende verzameling van Oudgermaans geloofsgoed uitgaf, noemde hij het boek Deutsche Mythologie. Zijn bedoeling was inzicht te verschaffen in het oude geloof van de Duitse volkeren voor de komst van het christendom, onder gebruikmaking van de kennis van de mythologie van omringende volkeren, tenminste voorzover deze kon dienen om het beeld van de Duitse mythologie te verhelderen. Zijn bronnen waren, naast enkele klassieke schrijvers over het oude Germanië uit het begin van onze jaartelling, tal van vroeg- en laatmiddeleeuwse teksten en overleveringen uit alle Germaanse landen, zowel in het Latijn als in de volkstalen. Het grootste gedeelte van deze teksten werd in het Noorden opgetekend: naast de in het Latijn geschreven Gesta Danorum van de Deense auteur Saxo Grammaticus (eind 12e eeuw) de teksten die in de 13e eeuw op IJsland in de volkstaal werden opgetekend: de skaldenpoëzie, de beide Edda's en de saga's. Grimm maakte in zijn inleiding duidelijk onderscheid tussen de Duitse en de Noordse mythologie op grond van afstand in tijd en plaats, maar zag de Noordse mythologie als wezensverwant. Zo werd zijn boek een mengeling van algemeen Germaanse, Duitse en Noordse mythologie en geloofsopvattingen. De uitgever van de fotomechanische herdruk uit 1968 noemt het boek ‘eine germanisch-deutsche Religionsgeschichte und Mythenkunde’. Ongeveer een eeuw na Grimm noemde Jan de Vries zijn standaardwerk over hetzelfde onderwerp en gebaseerd op dezelfde bronnen Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte (1935-1937). Na de Tweede Wereldoorlog maakte het nu voor velen negatief beladen woord ‘Germaans’ nogal eens plaats voor ‘Noords’, getuige titels als Turville-Petre's Myth and Religion of the North (1964), Ellis Davidsons Gods and Myths of Northern Europe (1964) of Anne Holtsmarks Norrøn Mytologi (1970). Rudolf Simeks lexicon uit 1984 draagt echter weer de titel Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie. Alle hier genoemde werken, of ze nu ‘Germaans’, ‘Duits’ of ‘Noords’ in hun titel voeren, behandelen de geloofsopvattingen en de mythologie van de Germaanstalige volkeren van Europa voor hun kerstening. Ze putten uit dezelfde bronnen, ze bestrijken dezelfde uitgestrekte tijdruimte, grofweg bezien een periode vanaf de Bronstijd (ca. 1500 v.Chr. - ca. 500 v.Chr.) tot aan de acceptatie van het christendom door de verschillende Germaanse volkeren, een periode van honderden jaren. Over de periode vóór onze jaartelling bieden slechts archeologische vondsten informatie, over later tijden informeren behalve de resultaten van archeologisch Paula Vermeyden en A. Quak, Van AEgir tot Ymir. Personages en thema's uit de Germaanse en Noordse mythologie 6 onderzoek ook plaatsnamen en teksten. Het corpus van teksten begint bij klassieke auteurs als Caesar en Tacitus en omvat teksten uit de verschillende Germaanse landen tot en met 13e-eeuws IJsland; het omvat dus ruim twaalf eeuwen. In deze twaalf eeuwen groeide een onduidelijk, door vele stammen bewoond Germanië in verschillende fasen uit tot een geheel van grotere staatkundige eenheden. Die verschillende fasen werden gemarkeerd door de overgang tot het christendom, het vroegst in het Zuiden, het laatst in het Noorden. De Goten behoorden tot de eerste Germaanse volkeren die tot het christendom overgingen (3e/4e eeuw), de Zweden waren de laatsten (11e eeuw). Is de godsdienst van de Germanen uit Brons- en IJzertijd vergelijkbaar met wat men tien eeuwen later geloofde en weer twee eeuwen later pas optekende? Dit lijkt onwaarschijnlijk. Wat betreft de oudste tijden is er om te beginnen al het probleem dat het vaak zeer moeilijk blijkt vast te stellen of we met Germaanse dan wel met andere volksstammen te maken hebben, bijv. in het geval van de oudste Scandinavische rotstekeningen. Ook is het niet altijd gemakkelijk de voorwerpen of (geromaniseerde) namen van Kelten en Germanen van elkaar te onderscheiden. Dit geldt bijvoorbeeld voor de Matronen, vrouwelijke godheden aan wie vele votiefstenen zijn toegewijd. Vaak blijkt het vrijwel onmogelijk om op grond van slechts een naam vast te stellen of zo'n godin van Keltische of Germaanse oorsprong is. Tussen wat we weten over die vroegste tijden en de tijd van de laatste optekeningen in de volkstaal liggen vele eeuwen, waarin volkeren zich verplaatsten en samensmolten, waarin nieuwe maatschappelijke structuren groeiden en de christelijke Kerk in samenwerking met keizers en koningen uitgroeide tot een macht die het hele leven van de mensen beheerste. Binnen de nieuwe structuren maakte men kennis met gevestigde culturen, culturen met een uitgebreide schriftelijke overlevering. De Germaanse, nagenoeg schriftloze cultuur (de runen even buiten beschouwing gelaten) werd door dit alles overspoeld en in de loop van de tijd grotendeels vernietigd. Wat voortleefde deed dat min of meer ondergronds. Wat wij er nog van weten is voor een groot deel kennis op grond van interpretaties en veronderstellingen. Het terrein van de onzekerheden is groot. In het hier voorliggende boek zal de behandeling van mythologie (opgevat als de kennis van en de verhalen over de oude goden) en cultus evenals in de meeste vakliteratuur niet streng gescheiden zijn. De verhalen staan echter voorop. Aangezien de meeste verhalen in het Noorden werden op- Paula Vermeyden en A. Quak, Van AEgir tot Ymir. Personages en thema's uit de Germaanse en Noordse mythologie 7 getekend, is ervoor gekozen uit te gaan van de Noordse traditie, zonder echter voorbij te gaan aan wat er buiten het Noorden bekend is. Dit betekent dat de goden primair hun Noordse namen dragen maar dat ook de niet-Noordse varianten van de godennamen worden vermeld. In het geval van belangrijke goden als Odin en Thor gaat het om vele varianten. Behalve enkele goden die misschien alleen in het Noorden bekend waren, kennen we ook Germaanse goden die niet in het Noorden gekend werden, zoals de Zeeuwse Nehalennia of de voornamelijk Rijnlandse Matronen. De bronnen van onze kennis van de mythologie van de Germaanse volkeren zijn als eerder gezegd archeologische vondsten, plaatsnamen, runeninscripties (weinig en moeilijk interpreteerbare informatie) en teksten van klassieke schrijvers en van gekerstende middeleeuwers uit verschillende eeuwen. Niet-christelijke auteurs vanaf Caesar maken sporadisch opmerkingen over geloofsbeleving en goden van de Germanen. In Tacitus' Germania vinden we wat uitgebreider en tamelijk neutrale informatie over dit onderwerp. Dan zijn er de christelijke auteurs uit de tijd van de volksverhuizingen en de vroege Middeleeuwen, waar we sporadisch opmerkingen over het oude geloof en de goden vinden, vrijwel altijd negatief gekleurd. In deze periode wordt de geschiedenis van de afzonderlijke volkeren opgetekend, zoals bijvoorbeeld die van de Goten door Jordanes, de geschiedenis van de Langobarden door Paulus Diaconus of die van de Franken door Gregorius van Tours. Over Germanen wordt nu niet meer gesproken - het gaat nu over de afzonderlijke volkeren. Over Scandinavië berichten IJslandse en Noorse auteurs en een drietal auteurs van daarbuiten: Rimbert, die in zijn Vita Anskarii de levensgeschiedenis van de ‘apostel’ van Scandinavië beschreef, Adam van Bremen die de geschiedenis van de bisschoppen van de kerk van Hamburg schreef en Saxo Grammaticus die in zijn Gesta Danorum over de Deense koningen tot aan zijn eigen tijd schreef. Ook bij deze drie vinden we algemene en zeer christelijk gekleurde, dus soms zeer negatieve informatie. Zeer belangrijke bronnen van informatie zijn de teksten die op IJsland werden opgetekend: de skaldenpoëzie, de poëzie uit de Lied-Edda en verwante teksten, de saga's en de Edda van Snorri Sturluson, de Snorra-Edda. In vrijwel alle teksten behalve de IJslandse vinden we slechts korte berichten over geloof of goden. Verhalen vinden we, met één uitzonde- Paula Vermeyden en A. Quak, Van AEgir tot Ymir. Personages en thema's uit de Germaanse en Noordse mythologie 8 ring (»Odin), alleen op IJsland en bij Saxo (en deze noemt de IJslanders als zijn voornaamste zegslieden). De periode waarin de meeste teksten op IJsland werden opgetekend, is de 13e eeuw. Men denkt dat het neerschrijven van deze teksten hier samenhing met een periode van antiquarische belangstelling voor het verleden: de 13e eeuw is de tijd waarin men alles van vroeger verzamelde, waaronder de mythologische overleveringen. In de tijd dat de mythologische teksten neergeschreven werden, was het land al ruim twee eeuwen een christelijk land en uit de optekeningen blijkt duidelijk dat het hier gaat om verzamelen en bewerken van tot op zekere hoogte ‘dood’ materiaal. Ook zijn veel van deze overleveringen op de een of andere manier christelijk gekleurd. Niet christelijk gekleurd is het grootste gedeelte van de Lied-Edda en de poëzie van de skalden uit de heidense tijd. Hun stof is stevig verankerd in de voorchristelijke wereld. De gedichten zijn lang mondeling overgeleverd en in de 13e eeuw zonder inhoudelijke veranderingen opgetekend, zij het vaak textueel verminkt. Vooral de langere gedichten leveren soms belangrijke informatie over goden en godenverhalen. De voornaamste bronnen van onze kennis van de Noordse mythologie zijn de Lied-Edda, voorts
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