International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

IJLTER.ORG

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

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ISSN:1694

ISSN:1694 -

- Vol.10 No.1 e

PUBLISHER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and London Consulting Ltd Educational Research District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access Chief Editor journal which has been established for the dis- Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, ed- Editorial Board Prof. Cecilia Junio Sabio ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition- Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publi- Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander Dr Jelena Zascerinska readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Gabor Kiss to this journal by submitting articles that illus- Dr Trish Julie Rooney trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant ad- Dr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, e- Dr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit pa- Dr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submis- Dr Alexander Franco Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Afsaneh Sharif should not have been published previously or Dr Ronel Callaghan be under consideration for publication while Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 10 NUMBER 1 January 2015

Table of Contents

Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and Enhancing the Performance of Education Systems: A Case Study in Kuwait ...... 1 Iman C. Chahine and Faryal Khan

The Treatment of Natural Events in Geography Curricula for Secondary Schools in Germany ...... 22 Ann Thanaraj

Global Climate Change and the Need for Relevant Curriculum ...... 35 William H. Robertson, Ph.D. and Anna Carolina Barbosa

A Retrospective Analysis of STEM Career Interest among Mathematics and Science Academy Students ...... 45 Rhonda Christensen, Gerald Knezek and Tandra Tyler-Wood

The Influence of Academic Credit System on Interpersonal Relationship in Chinese Colleges ...... 59 Tian Guang and Wang Hong and Liu Yu

A New Force to Push Universities in the U.S. to Go Online ...... 73 Dr. Noah Kasraie and Dr. Ala Alahmad

Analysing the Effectiveness of EngagementPromoting Techniques in the EFL Classroom ...... 80 Joao Carlos Koch Junior

Beyond Subitizing: Symbolic Manipulations of Numbers ...... 93 Sinan Olkun, Arif Altun and Sakine Göçer Şahin

Examining Generational Differences among Diverse Families Regarding Parental School Involvement ...... 104 Gustava Cooper-Baker and Barbara N. Martin

Building the process of transformation teaching and learning according to the constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software in Vietnam ...... 120 Ngoc-Giang Nguyen and Anh-Tai Phan

Oral Assessment and Grade Integrity: A Case Study ...... 142 Vidar Gynnild

Creativity within the Academy: A Subjective Academic Narrative ...... 157 Dr Josie Arnold

A Study on the Impact of ICT on Collaborative Learning Processes in Libyan Higher Education ...... 172 Thuraya Kenan, Abdussalam Elzawi, Crinela Pislaru and Maysoun Restoum

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1-21, January 2015

Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and Enhancing the Performance of Education Systems: A Case Study in Kuwait

Iman C. Chahine UNESCO-Doha Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, SA

Faryal Khan UNESCO-Doha

Abstract. As part of Qatar National Research Fund project, Momentum for Education Beyond 2015: Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and Enhancing the Performance of Education Systems in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries, we conducted a regional case study that aims to provide empirical evidence on the quality of education in Kuwait by examining teacher self-efficacy beliefs regarding the teaching and learning process. The study contributes to better empirical evidence and knowledge about the quality of education specifically in grade 4 and grade 8, as examined in a random sample of 22 girls and boys schools across six governorates in Kuwait. The study gathered data using quantitative methods and examined differences in efficacy levels across grades, gender, subject matter, and geographic regions. We anticipate that the case study provides insights on the challenges and constraints impeding improvement in the quality of education and system- performance in Kuwait.

Keywords: self-efficacy; assessments; expectations; learning outcomes

Motivation and Background Within the context of Education for All (EFA) initiative, national and local governments have made improvements in education a key priority. However, despite advances achieved towards realizing the six EFA goals across countries over the past decade, it is projected that not a single goal will be achieved globally by 2015(UNESCO, 2013). Similarly, for the Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC) countries in particular, despite the fact that some progress has been made in several areas associated with the six EFA goals, none of the countries is expected to achieve all of the EFA goals by 2015 (see Table 1). As per several indicators cited in Table 1, Qatar is expected to reach five of the six goals, Oman to reach three of the six, Bahrain will reach two of the six, UAE will reach one goal, Kuwait may reach one, and no sufficient data

on the progress of Saudi Arabia except for Goal 4 where it is expected to be far from target (UNESCO, 2013).

Table 1. Progress of GCC Countries on EFA Goals EFA Goals Goal 1: Goal 2: Goal 3: Goal 4: Goal 5: Goal 6: Early Universal Youth and Adult Gender Quality of education Childhood Primary adult skills Literacy parity and Education Education equality Indicators Preprimar Primary Lower Adult Gender Survival Pupil/teacher y enrolment secondary literacy parity in rate to last ratio in enrollmen target of education target of at primary grade primary t target of 95% enrolment of least 95% education (2010) education at least at least 95% 70% Target reached Qatar Oman, Oman, Qatar Bahrain, Oman, Qatar Bahrain, Kuwait (9) or close (≥ 95%) Qatar, UAE Kuwait, Kuwait Qatar (11) Qatar Saudi Far from Oman, Arabia(11) target (80-94%) Saudi UAE (17) Arabia, UAE Very far UAE from target ( < 80%) Insufficient Data Bahrain, Bahrain, Bahrain, Bahrain, Oman, Bahrain Kuwait, Kuwait, Kuwait, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman Oman, Saudi Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabia, Saudi Saudi Arabia UAE UAE Arabia Arabia, UAE

Effectiveness, equity, and quality of education (Goal 6) remain the primary challenges towards realizing EFA goals for 2015 in the GCC countries. Learning outcomes vary significantly across countries in the GCC region for which data was analyzed but are particularly alarming in Kuwait where between two-thirds of primary-age students are failing to learn, particularly mathematics. In grade 4, the learning performance of children in Kuwait is below expectations, considering the country‘s rate of expenditure in education (Mullis et al., 2012a).

Given that most GCC countries in general and Kuwait in particular may miss the education targets of EFA goals, it is all the more important to recognize the importance of capitalizing on learning as key to ensure good-quality education. Consequently, an in- depth empirical assessment of teachers‘ beliefs regarding their ability to teach and as well as their expectations is essential, as a shift in emphasis is now discernible towards quality and learning, which are likely to be more central to the post-2015 global framework (Psacharopoulos, 2014). As the post-2015 global education goals are expected to be more ambitious than the EFA goals, extending to lower secondary education, such a shift is vital to enhance teacher effectiveness and improve education opportunities for all children in Kuwait.

The purpose of Kuwait case study is to provide an empirical assessment of the quality of education in Kuwait by examining teachers‘ self-efficacy toward teaching particularly mathematics, science and reading literacy. Specifically, the case study addresses the following research question: © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

 What characterizes the differences in teachers‘ self-efficacy measures across content areas and geographic regions in male and female public schools in Kuwait?

Theoretical Framework The study is principled by the Evaluative Inquiry Cycle model (EIC) (Chahine & Clarkson, 2010).The EIC model, which guided the overall project execution, involves five basic tasks that delivered chronologically during the study implementation (see Figure1).

Explore Data and Task 5: Research Communicate Task 1: Findings Position the Inquiry

Task 4: Analyze Task 2: and Plan the Synthesize Data Inquiry

Task 3: Collect Data

Figure1: Evaluative Inquiry Cycle Model

Education in Kuwait: Learning Outcomes Traditionally, education assessments in Kuwait were aimed at ensuring that expected inputs meet anticipated students‘ needs. Outcome measures such as a satisfactory number of skilled teachers, high teacher to student ratio, relatively small class sizes, and accessible monetary resources were considered not only sufficient, b u t also admirable. Previous studies within Kuwait (Aldhafeeri, Almulla & Alraqas, 2006) describe education in Kuwait as based on memorizing and recalling information, which is an outdated method in modern education. Instead, these researchers argue that students need to be proactive within learning. More recently, Education For All (EFA) initiative has arguably shifted the emphasis on assessment from inputs to outputs, specifically focusing on the output of competency-based learning for guiding curriculum planning across grade levels. Focusing on direct and indirect measures of student learning such as examining teacher perceptions of learning and collecting teacher and principal feedback on performance (Mullis et al., 2012 a, 2012b), provide a prospect for teachers to re-think their teaching practices and outcome expectations and to pinpoint weaknesses and suggest improvements.

Hand, O‘Neil, and Sanderson (1996) argued that teaching and assessment should be inextricably linked. Hence, quality teaching can be enhanced by enacting a proficiency model that integrates basic knowledge of learning objectives with approaches tailored towards reinforcing the behavioral, cognitive and affective domains. For teachers in Kuwait to develop these models require a comprehensive knowledge of these higher-level proficiencies as well as rigorous instructional approaches to ensure that learning outcomes are attained. Teacher effectiveness and learning outcomes are contemporary indicators of quality in the field of education. Garavalia et al. (2003) argue that assessment methodologies based on the outcomes desired for learning could effectively drive new curriculum and engaging pedagogy. The authors adopt the European characterization and describe learning outcomes as ―statements of what a learner knows, understands, and is able to do after completion of learning‖ (Bulgarelli et al., 2009). In terms of curriculum design and development, Adam (2004) contends that learning outcomes are necessary tools to mobilize educational reform. He further notes that they represent a shift towards emphasizing ―learning‖ than ‗teaching‘. This change was exemplified by reinforcing a student-centered approach rather than a teacher-centered standpoint. Learning in student-centered environments strengthen the ties between teaching, learning, and assessment and reinforces the relationship between the learning design, implementation and assessment. Learning outcomes provide essential evidence regarding the acquisition of desired competencies (UNESCO, 2013). They attest to the effectiveness of education systems at delivering good- quality education and effective learning. Furthermore, there is strong evidence in the literature that measuring teacher efficacy for teaching in accordance with student achievement helps to improve the quality of teacher education programs (Gordon & Debus, 2002). In a similar vein, there is a widespread emphasis on the role of teacher beliefs and self- efficacy measures in contributing to meaningful and retainable learning.

Over the past 50 years and despite the continuing challenges ensued by rapid population growth, the state of Kuwait has achieved wide strides in expanding educational opportunities and reinforcing equitable distribution of services and educational activities across the various centers in all regions of the state. The state of Kuwait has supported numerous reform initiatives to achieve EFA goals and to promote development projects in education by increasing the rate of expenditure to 14.5% of GDP income and 4.3% of gross national GNP income in 2011/2012. The expenditure supported projects that targeted the construction of new schools for boys and girls in new residential areas and providing training opportunities through community service programs and continuing education programs for lifelong learning. Perhaps the fundamental advancement of the State was decline in illiteracy rates from 48.3% in 1970, to 3.8% in 2013, a clear evidence of the State‘s efforts to achieve the goal of universal education (Kuwait Department of Education, 2014).

Nevertheless, examining a few measures of comparative performance, again with a focus on international assessment reports TIMSS, PISA, and PIRLS, 2011 (Mullis et al., 2012a, 2012b) regarding teacher effectiveness and student learning reveals a number of key findings:

Finding 1: Among the six GCC countries, students in Kuwait had the lowest achievement scores in mathematics (See Figure 2).

Achievement in Mathematics Content (grade 4) 500 450

400 350 300 250 200

150 100 50 0

Bahrain UAE Qatar SA Oman Kuwait

Figure 2: TIMSS mathematics scores in grade 4.

Finding 2: In terms of professional development, teachers in Kuwait had the highest frequency of attending training particularly on mathematics curriculum compared to the rest of GCC countries (see Figure 3).

Teacher participation in professional development 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar SA UAE

Math content Math pedagogy /instruction Math curriculum Integrating IT in math Math assessment

Finding 3: percentage of students whose teachers reported that they feel confident to teach mathematics in Kuwait is the lowest compared to the rest of the GCC countries (see Figure 4).

Confidence in Teaching Math 100

0 UAE Qatar Oman SA Bahrain Kuwait

Figure 4. Teacher confidence for teaching mathematics in GCC countries.

Overall, we found significant discrepancies between the performance and outputs of education systems across the six GCC countries. This study sheds light on how teachers‘ self efficacy beliefs about the teaching vary across subject matters, gender, and geographic locations. We argue that a closer look at teacher –related constructs will help explore the nature of major challenges facing teachers hereby facilitating focused efforts that transform educational practices toward a robust post 2015 agenda. Methodology Design This case study employs quantitative techniques. The rationale for using such a design is to measure how different are teacher efficacy levels across gender, subject matter taught, gender, and geographic locations. The study utilizes a nationally representative sample of schools and relies on surveys collected in close collaboration between UNESCO Doha research team and Kuwait National Commission.

Sampling strategy The sample comprises 22 schools randomly selected from a population of 802 schools. To ensure sample representativeness and using 2013-2014 school distribution data, we focused recruitment efforts on elementary and middle school across the six governorates in Kuwait: Al-Ahmadi, Al-Jahra, Hawalli, Al-Asema, Al-Farwaniya, and Mubarak Al-Kabeer (See Figure 5 for the distribution of schools across the six governorates).

Figure 5: Distribution of K-12 public schools across six school governorates in Kuwait.

Within each school governorate, we randomly selected one girls‘ school and one boys‘ school at both the elementary and middle level. Using the RANDBETWEEN and INDEX functions in Excel, we generated random lists of schools across the six governorates (See Table 2). In this study, we report on data collected from grades 4 & 8.

Table 2: Distribution of sample across governorates and schools Schools Total Teachers schools Science/Math/Literacy Governorate Elementary: Middle: (per (assuming different teachers) Grade 4 Grade 8 governo Girls Boys Girls Boys rate) Al-Ahmadi 2 4 2 0 3 6 schoolsx3 teachers=18 teachers (G4) 2 schools x2 teachers=4 teachers(G8) Total=22 Al-Jahra 2 2 0 2 3 4 schoolsx3teachers=12 teachers (G4) , 2schoolsx2teachers=4 teachers (G8) Total=16 Hawalli 2 2 3 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12 teachers(G4) 4schoolsx2teachers=8 teachers(G8) Total=20 Al Farwaniya 2 2 2 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12teachers 3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers Total=18 Mubarak Al 2 2 2 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12teachers Kabeer 3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers Total=18 Al Asema 3 2 2 1 4 5schoolsx3teachers=15teachers 3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers Total=21 STUDY SAMPLE 22 115 © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Based on the random selection of the school sample, we recruited 115 grade 4 & 8 teachers of mathematics, science, and reading literacy to participate in the study.

In this study, we argue that the selection of schools using random sampling strategies potentially guards against sampling error by reducing under-representativeness bias. Furthermore, the purposive sample of 22 schools provides in-depth descriptions of how these schools operate which in turn can help identify relevant parameters for follow-up studies.

Data Collection Before conducting the questionnaires and interviews, permissions were sought and participants were asked to sign off on consent forms declaring their intent to volunteer in the study. We employed an Arabic version (AlKhateeb, 2004) of Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (MTEBI) developed by Enochs et al. (2000). The MTEBI is an instrument specifically designed to measure teacher beliefs in their ability to teach mathematics effectively. The instrument consists of 27 items comprising 13 items on the Personal Mathematics Teaching Efficacy (PMTE) subscale, 8 items on the Mathematics Teaching Outcome Expectancy (MTOE) subscale, and 6 items on Teacher Expectations (EX). Each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale response: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (unsure), 4 (Agree), and 5 (strongly agree). The instrument was adapted to assess teaching efficacy of science and Arabic reading literacy (See appendix A).

Data Analysis The quantitative data analysis of all surveys and questionnaires were tested for internal consistency and validity using Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient as measure. Additionally, frequencies were run to examine the percentages of responses on efficacy questionnaires. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to explore significant differences across several independent variables including school governorates, grade levels, gender, and school subjects.

Results To verify the internal consistency for teaching mathematics, science, and reading literacy efficacy questionnaires, a reliability analysis technique was run. Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient was the statistic used to measure the internal consistency of a scale and was interpreted in the same way as a correlation. A significantly high Cronbach‘s alpha of .729 for the 27 items on the efficacy questionnaires indicates that all items are correlated with one another thereby reliably measure the construct of efficacy (See Table 3 below).

Table 3: Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha Based on Cronbach's Alpha Standardized Items N of Items .729 .703 27

We also report the response rate across schools and governorates as shown in Figure 6 below and we noted discrepancy in teacher response rate on the efficacy questionnaires between girls and boys schools.

16 14 14 12 11 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 0 Boys Girls Boys Girls GRADE 8(EFF) GRADE 4(EFF) Math 3 5 11 14 Science 3 5 11 11 Literacy 5 8 7 9

Math Science Literacy

Figure 6: Teacher response rate across gender and grade level. Furthermore, we used SPSS to run Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) method in an attempt to explore differences in teachers‘ responses on the efficacy questionnaires across the school governorates, grade levels, and subject matter. Additionally, we tested ANOVA assumption of normality for each question item by examining skewness and kurtosis measures, which fell within acceptable range (between -1.5 and 1.5) for most of the items. Therefore, we concluded that the 21 efficacy items and 6 expectation items have passed the normality test (see Table 4 below).

Table 4. Testing for normality for the 27 items

Test Item Skewness Kurtosis Q1 -.876 -.001 Q2 -.467 -.825 Q3 .127 -1.595 Q4 -.862 -.448 Q5 -.296 -.924 Q6 .463 -1.185 Q7 .180 -.796 Q8 .850 -.407 Q9 -.506 -1.082 Q10 -.387 -.640 Q11 -.630 -.541 Q12 -1.093 .763

Q13 -.759 .490 Q14 -.629 .381 Q15 .399 -1.188 Q16 -.549 -1.123 Q17 -.669 -.671 Q18 .266 -1.229 Q19 .804 -.310 Q20 -.908 -.526 Q21 .274 -1.405 EX1 .101 -.324 EX2 -.127 -.619 EX3 -.571 .919 EX4 -.472 .241 EX5 -.601 -.110 EX6 -.002 -.719

Efficacy Results A number of significant findings emerged as we analyzed teacher responses to the efficacy questionnaires. The results were compared across the six school governorates, grade levels (grades 4 & 8), gender, and subjects (math, science, and literacy).

Efficacy levels: Grade 4

At the elementary level, we found the following significant differences (α<.05) in efficacy levels (See ANOVA table in Figure 7 for related statistics):

ANOVA Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Q8 Between Groups 3.951 5 .790 2.479 .044

Within Groups 16.259 51 .319 Total 20.211 56 Q10 Between Groups 4.272 5 .854 3.151 .015

Within Groups 14.372 53 .271 Total 18.644 58 Q12 Between Groups 10.122 5 2.024 2.456 .045

Within Groups 42.861 52 .824 Total 52.983 57 Q13 Between Groups 7.539 5 1.508 2.743 .028

Within Groups 29.139 53 .550 Total 36.678 58 Q14 Between Groups 6.491 5 1.298 3.807 .005

Within Groups 17.733 52 .341 Total 24.224 57 Figure 7. ANOVA results using SPSS for Q8, Q10, Q12, Q13, and Q14.

There were significant differences (p=.04 at α<.05) among teachers‘ responses on Q8 (I will generally teach ineffectively), which reflected a discrepancy in the way teachers perceive their ability to teach their subjects across the different governorates (See Figure 8).

Figure 8. Mean plot for teacher responses across the six school governorates in Kuwait

We argue that the differences in the way teachers perceive their effectiveness are perhaps linked to existing policies within each governorate. Such policies play major roles in promoting or hindering teachers from being active decision makers influencing the teaching and learning in their classrooms. Despite the fact that the education system in Kuwait is centralized and monitored by the Ministry of Education which institutes provisions covering laws regulating the overall operations of public and private educational institutions (UNESCO, 2011), discrepancies emerge across governorates regarding rules as to the day-today execution of tasks and the opportunities and constraints afforded at the grass root level. This, we argue, affect teachers‘ perspectives and perceptions regarding their role as agents of change in the classroom.

Furthermore, we noted significant variations across governorates in terms of how teachers perceive the impact of their efforts on student achievement. For example, we found significant differences in degrees of agreement on Q10 (When a low-achieving child progresses it is usually due to extra attention given by the teacher) (p=.015 at α<.05); on Q12 (The teacher is generally responsible for the achievement of students) (p=.045 at α<.05); and on Q13 (Students' achievement is directly related to teacher's effectiveness in teaching) (See Figure 9: a,b,c) (p=0.28 at α<.05). The differences were mostly prevalent between the suburban (such as Al-Ahmadi and Jahraa, the two largest governorates in Kuwait) and the urban districts, which comprise four suburban governorates.

(b) (a)

(c)

Figure 9. Mean plot of teacher responses on Q10 (a), Q12 (b), and Q13(c).

We attribute these differences to the level of training that teachers might have had particularly in areas related to the psychology of teaching and learning, across the different governorates. Despite the fact that education system in Kuwait is undergoing major reforms in the area of teacher certification and training, there are seemingly noticeable disparities in the quality of opportunities provided across geographic locations.

Moreover, significant differences in level of agreement were reported in the way parents in different governorates perceive the role of the teacher (Q14: If parents comment that their child is showing more interest in mathematics at school, it is probably due to the performance of the child's teacher) (p=.015 at α<.05) (See Figure 10). For the same reason, the differences seem to arise between urban (Hawalli) and suburban (Jahraa) governorates.

Figure 10. Mean plot of teacher responses on Q14 across governorates.

1. We noted significant differences between teachers‘ responses across girls and boys schools particularly in relation to teaching effectiveness and student learning (see ANOVA table in Figure 11 below).

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Q1 Between Groups 2.641 1 2.641 6.015 .017 Within Groups 27.219 62 .439 Total 29.859 63 Q4 Between Groups 2.378 1 2.378 5.435 .023

Within Groups 27.561 63 .437 Total 29.938 64 Q9 Between Groups 5.063 1 5.063 6.842 .011 Within Groups 45.875 62 .740 Total 50.937 63 Q10 Between Groups 1.373 1 1.373 4.629 .035 Within Groups 18.688 63 .297 Total 20.062 64 Q13 Between Groups 5.709 1 5.709 10.951 .002 Within Groups 32.845 63 .521 Total 38.554 64 Q14 Between Groups 3.516 1 3.516 8.954 .004 Within Groups 24.344 62 .393 Total 27.859 63

Q16 Between Groups 2.992 1 2.992 4.961 .030 Within Groups 36.185 60 .603 Total 39.177 61 Figure 11. SPSS ANOVA results for Q1, Q4, Q9, Q10, Q13, Q14, and Q16.

Of particular interest is the differential level of agreement between male and female teachers regarding the correlation between student achievement and teacher effectiveness (Q14) (p=.004 at α<.05). For example, while female teachers strongly agree that student achievement is directly related to teacher‘s effectiveness, male teachers slightly agree (See Figure 12).

Figure 12. Differential level of agreement regarding the relationship of teacher effectiveness and student achievement between male and female elementary teachers.

We interpret the above result as pertaining to the perspective that female teachers who teach girls tend to view themselves as more nurturing and engaging hereby positively influencing student learning (Carrington et al., 2008).

2. Across math, science and literacy teaching, we also noted significant differences (p=.010 at α<.05) only in teachers‘ expectations regarding other teachers‘ beliefs in their students‘ learning (see ANOVA table in Figure 13 below).

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. EX3 Between Groups 5.928 2 2.964 5.019 .010 Within Groups 34.846 59 .591 Total 40.774 61 Figure 13. SPSS ANOVA results for EX3

Contrary to mathematics and literacy teachers who agreed that their fellow teachers expects their students to master basic mathematics and reading skills, science teachers were not sure (see Figure 14).

Figure 14. Differential level of agreement among math, science and literacy teachers regarding other teachers’ belief in their students’ learning

In conclusion, differences in several efficacy levels emerged as we examined the self-efficacy beliefs of grade 4 teachers across subjects, gender and geographic locations in Kuwait. We argue that a closer look at these differences could help shed some light on some of the challenges facing education system in Kuwait in realizing the goals of Education for All agenda, particularly goal 6 which pertains to quality of education.

Efficacy Levels: Grade 8 At the middle level, we found the following significant differences (α<.05) in efficacy levels: 1. Across governorates, we noted differences in the way teachers‘ perceive their ability to improve their practices and their beliefs regarding how students are performing at an average level (see ANOVA table in Figure 14).

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Q2 Between Groups 3.643 5 .729 4.987 .003 Within Groups 3.214 22 .146 Total 6.857 27 EX4 Between Groups 9.675 4 2.419 4.292 .010 Within Groups 12.399 22 .564 Total 22.074 26 Figure 14. SPSS ANOVA results for Q2 and EX4

For example, there were significant differences (p=.003 at α<.05) in agreement on Q2 (I will continually find better ways to teach) within urban governorates (Asema and Mubkabir) and between urban and suburban (Asema and Al-Ahmadi) (See Figure 15 below).

Figure 15.Differential level of agreement in teachers’ perception of their ability to improve their practices across governorates

Furthermore, we noted differences (p=.010 at α<.05) in teacher agreement levels on EX4 (I expect that most students in my school will perform at about the national average in academic achievement) across the six governorates (See Figure 16).

Figure 16. Differential level of agreement in teachers’ expectations across governorates

Interestingly, while there were no differences noted in the level of agreement in teachers‘ expectations across urban governorates, we found significant differences between the two suburban governorates (Al-Ahmadi and Jahraa). It is worth noting that according to 2014 Kuwait Population Census, Al-Ahmadi governorate has the highest Kuwaiti population (265,423 Kuwaiti nationals) which constitutes 32.8% of the total population compared to Jahraa that has the smallest Kuwaiti population (171,808 Kuwaiti nationals) with only 3.5% of the overall population. This led us to believe that the discrepancy in expectations could be due to the social composition of the population in each governorate where teachers come from. 2. Across gender, there were significant differences (p=.002 at α<.05) in teachers‘ expectations of their students (See ANOVA table in Figure 17 below).

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. EX4 Between Groups 7.456 1 7.456 12.752 .001 Within Groups 14.618 25 .585 Total 22.074 26 Figure 17. SPSS ANOVA results for EX4

Differences between agreement levels on EX4 (I expect that most students in my school will perform at about the national average in academic achievement) reported between male and female teachers suggest that in general, teachers in girls‘ schools have seemingly higher expectations of their students than the boys‘ schools (See Figure 18 below).

Figure 18. Differential levels of agreement in female versus male teachers’ expectations

On the other hand, across subject areas, on Q1(When a student does better than usual it is often because the teacher exerted a little extra effort) science teachers tended to agree more than math and literacy teachers on efficacy related to teachers effectiveness and student achievement. However, literacy teachers had higher expectations of their students than teachers of mathematics and science (See table below in Figure 19). However, while math and science teachers tend to disagree strongly on Q3 (Even if I try very hard, I will not teach as well), literacy teachers were uncertain.

ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Q1 Between Groups 2.601 2 1.300 6.512 .005 Within Groups 5.192 26 .200 Total 7.793 28 Q3 Between Groups 9.691 2 4.846 3.810 .035 Within Groups 33.067 26 1.272 Total 42.759 28 Q7 Between Groups 7.232 2 3.616 3.809 .036 Within Groups 23.732 25 .949 Total 30.964 27 Q10 Between Groups 1.929 2 .964 3.529 .044 Within Groups 7.106 26 .273 Total 9.034 28

Figure 19: SPSS ANOVA results for Q1,Q3,Q7,Q10

Figure 19. Differential levels of agreement in across subject areas

Additionally, literacy teachers agree on Q7 (If students are underachieving, it is most likely due to ineffective teaching) however, math and science teachers were uncertain. Finally, while science and literacy teachers strongly agree that ineffective teaching is correlated with student under achievement, math teacher only slightly agree.

Discussion Over the past 50 years and despite the continuing challenges ensued by rapid population growth, Kuwait achieved wide strides in expanding educational opportunities and reinforcing equitable distribution of services and educational activities across the various centers in all regions of the state. Recently, Kuwait began implementing the revised curriculum in mathematics and science gradually in K-12 grades. It is proposed that the new curricula represent a shift in the way teachers deliver and facilitate the instruction in the classroom, with deeper emphasis on scientific explorations and critical thinking. Along with this reform movement, the State of Kuwait has supported numerous reform initiatives to promote development projects in education by increasing the rate of expenditure to 14.5% of GDP income and 4.3% of gross national GNP income in 2011/ 2012 (Department of Education, 2014). The expenditure supported projects that targeted the construction of new schools for boys and girls in new residential areas and providing training opportunities

through community service programs and continuing education programs for lifelong learning.

However, and despite educational efforts and significant financial investments and expenditures on development projects by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education, issues related to teacher effectiveness and ways to strengthen teachers‘ beliefs in their abilities to be major stakeholders in the education process are still questionable. Results of international and national assessments showed that Kuwaiti students are not performing up to international standards in mathematics, science, and reading particularly at the 4th grade. As the results of this case study indicate, teacher motivation and efficacy are arguably major challenges facing the educational system in Kuwait. Perhaps what is needed is to provide a highly efficient system for supporting teachers by developing an infrastructure that will enhance their teaching capabilities and strengthen their content and pedagogical knowledge. Concomitantly, situated within this new system is a deliberate consideration of teacher efficacy as a construct that draws heavily on cultural, gender, and subject matter differences from one teacher to another.

This shift can be achieved by instituting a system for professional development for teachers to keep them up-to-date vis-à-vis the latest development of curricula and teaching methods as well as evaluation and leadership. Such reform initiatives is not limited to funding, but extend to include adjustments to existing policies related to administrative operations, school leadership and all administrative and technical regulations relating to education and training in the State.

Acknowledgment This publication was made possible by NPRP Grant No: NPRP 6 - 828 - 5 – 098 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.

References Adam, S. (2004). Using learning outcomes: A consideration of the nature, role, application and implications for European education of employing learning outcomes at the local, national and international levels. Edinburgh, Ireland: Scottish Executive. Aldhafeeri, F., Almulla, M., &Alraqas, B. (2006). Teachers‘ expectations of the impact of e learning. Social Behavior and Personality, 34, 711-754. Alkhateeb, H.M. (2004). Internal consistency, reliability, and validity of the Arabic translation of the mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs instrument. Psychological Reports, 94, 833–838. Bulgarelli, A., Lettmayr, C., & Menendez-Valdes, J. (2009). The shift to learning outcomes, policies and practices in Europe (Cedefop Reference Series 72). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities: Luxembourg. Carrington, B., Tymms, P., & Merrell, C. (2008). Role models, school improvement and the ‗gender gap‘—do menbring out the best in boys and women the best in girls? British Educational Research Journal, 34(3), 315-327. Chahine, I.C., King, H. (2012). Investigating Lebanese teachers' mathematical, pedagogical and self- efficacy profiles: A case study. Near and Middle Eastern Journal of Research in Education. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/nmejre.2012.2. Enochs, L.G., Smith, P.L., Huinker, D. (2000). Establishing factorial validity of the mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs instrument. School Science and Mathematics, 1004, 194–202. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Garavalia, L. S., Marken, P. A. & Sommi, R. W. (2003). Selecting appropriate assessment methods: Asking the right questions. American Journal of Education, 66, 108-112. Gordon, C, & Debus, R. (2002). Developing deep learning approaches and personal teaching efficacy within a pre-service teacher education context. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(4), 483-511. Hand, L., O‘Neil, M., & Sanderson, P. (1996). Fostering deep and active learning through assessment. Accounting Education, 5 (1), 103-119. Kuwait Population Census (2014). Retrieved from http://stat.paci.gov.kw/arabicgs/#DataTabPlace:MapSelcChartGendrAge Ministry of Education (2014). Kuwait National report on Education for All (in Arabic). Kuwait: Author. Mullis, I. V. S., M. O. Martin, P. Foy, and A. Arora (2012a). Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011 International Results in Mathematics. Boston, MA: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Mullis, I. V. S., M. O. Martin, P. Foy, and K. T. Drucker (2012b). Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 International Results in Reading. Boston, MA: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Psacharopoulos, G. (2014). Benefits and costs of the education targets for the Post-2015 Education for All Development Agenda. Copenhagen, Denmark: Copenhagen Consensus Center. UNESCO (2013). Global monitoring report. Paris, France: Author. UNESCO (2011). World data on Education. Paris, France: Author.

Appendix A Mathematics/Science/Literacy Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument (M/S/LTEBI)

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below by circling the appropriate letters to the right of each statement.

SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; UN = Uncertain D= Disagree; SD= Strongly Disagree 1. When a student does better than usual in SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy, it is often because the teacher exerted a little extra effort 2. I will continually find better ways to teach SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy 3. Even if I try very hard, I will not teach SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy as well as I will most subjects 4. When the mathematics/science/literacy grades of SA A UN D SD students improve, it is often due to their teacher having found a more effective teaching approach. 5. I know how to teach mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD concepts effectively 6. I will not be very effective in monitoring SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy activities. 7. If students are underachieving in mathematics, it is SA A UN D SD most likely due to ineffective mathematics/science/literacy teaching 8. I will generally teach mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD

ineffectively. 9. The inadequacy of a student's mathematics /science / SA A UN D SD literacy background can be overcome by good teaching. 10. When a low-achieving child progresses in mathematics SA A UN D SD /science/literacy, it is usually due to extra attention given by the teacher. 11. I understand mathematics/science/literacy concepts SA A UN D SD well enough to be effective in teaching mathematics/science/literacy 12. The teacher is generally responsible for the achievement SA A UN D SD of students in mathematics/science/literacy. 13. Students' achievement in mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD is directly related to their teacher's effectiveness in mathematics/science/literacy teaching 14. If parents comment that their child is showing more SA A UN D SD interest in mathematics/science/literacy at school, it is probably due the performance of the child's teacher. 15. I will find it difficult to use resources to explain to SA A UN D SD students why mathematics/science/literacy works. 16. I will typically be able to answer students' questions. SA A UN D SD 17. I wonder if I will have the necessary skills to teach SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy. 18. Given a choice, I will not invite the principal to SA A UN D SD evaluate my mathematics/science/literacy teaching. 19. When a student has difficulty understanding a SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy concept, I will usually be at a loss as to how to help the student understand it better. 20.When teaching mathematics/science/literacy, I will SA A UN D SD usually welcome student questions 21. I do not know what to do to turn students on to SA A UN D SD mathematics/science/literacy. EX1. Most of the students in my school will be at about the SA A UN D SD national average in academic achievement. EX2. Most students in my school are capable of mastering SA A UN D SD grade level academic objectives. EX3. Teachers in my school generally believe most students SA A UN D SD are able to master the basic reading/math skills. EX4. I expect that most students in my school will perform SA A UN D SD at about the national average in academic achievement. EX5. Nearly all my students will be at or above grade level SA A UN D SD by the end of this year. EX6. I expect most students in my school will perform SA A UN D SD below the national average in academic achievement.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 22-34, January 2015

The Treatment of Natural Events in Geography Curricula for Secondary Schools in Germany

PD Dr. Stefanie Zecha and PD Dr. Martin Trappe

Katholische Universität Eichstätt

Abstract. This article explores how the German school curricula for geography in lower secondary schools deal with the term natural event, including hazards, risks, and catastrophes. It relates the selection of Germany‘s lower secondary curricula with the idea that geography is only a scoring subject in these schools and that today‘s children should be treated as the adults of tomorrow. The organization of German education in 16 autonomy regions is briefly described. The authors use the content analysis in combination with quantitative and qualitative research methods. This study includes all secondary curricula published by the regional educational ministries from 2014. After developing a category system, this paper first conducts a quantitative analysis of the terms natural risk and catastrophe, and then investigates the related contents. The outcomes of such curriculum analysis are also presented graphically. The results show that the terms as well as the contents related to them are not implemented in the same manner. A look at the terms will mostly provide the term natural catastrophe, followed by the term natural event. A close look at the kind of natural catastrophes mentioned in the curricula indicates that such catastrophes are not really relevant in the context of Germany.

Keywords: natural catastrophe, secondary curricula, Germany, content analysis

1. Introduction Global statistics reveal a massive increase in the number of disasters and disaster impacts within the last few decades. Natural disasters have caused more than ―3.3 million deaths and $2.3 trillion is needed to mend the consequent economic damages in the last four decades‖ (WB, 2010, p. 10). Thus, the process of preventing and reducing natural hazards has gained in importance (Stoltman et al. 2004, p. 6). In this context, young people are educated on the basis of the idea that they would multiply the human race and that they are the adults of tomorrow. ‗Hazards education in schools can play a vital role in increasing a community‘s capacity of being ready, willing, and able to do what is necessary to prepare for and respond to a disaster‘ (Stoltman et al. 2004, p. 95). Also, geography gives the possibility to study the complex relationships between human beings and the environment. On the one side students learn to understand the physical process and socio-cultural systems, as well as they broaden their perspectives about the changing of the environment. For these reasons, geography is the perfect subject for teaching natural hazards (Geipel, 1996).

A close look to the history of geographical education in Germany shows us that natural hazards have long been part of geography lessons. Natural hazards were mentioned even in German school books published in 1926, and a lot of studies having interests in geographical themes show that pupils are hugely interested in natural catastrophes and they are the most chosen subject in geography lessons across all school types and classes in Germany (Hemmer and Hemmer, 2006). An interesting question is: exactly, which role do natural catastrophes play in the instructional system of the subject geography? The design and spread of curriculum materials is one of the oldest strategies for influencing classroom instructions (Dow, 1991). For this reason, the authors analyse in this article the current situation of natural hazards in the school curricula of lower secondary schools in Germany.

2. Theoretical base In this chapter, the current stage of research regarding natural hazards is shown. Also, the terms natural hazards, natural events, natural risks, and natural catastrophes are defined, and a short insight into the German curricula situation is given.

2.1 Research review Stoltman at al. (Stoltman, 1996) describes how natural hazards were treated in the curricula of different nations, such as Australia and France, at the end of the 20th century. In England, the topic of natural disasters has been focused in the national curriculum on tectonic processes, geomorphologic processes, and weather and climate issues which basically falls into the category of physical geography (Sinha et al., 2009, p. 11). In France, the topic of natural catastrophes forms a fixed part of the school curriculum since 2001 with the title ‗Les sociétés face aux risques‘. In Germany, the topic of natural hazards has a long tradition in geography lessons and they are mostly taught as a part of physical education. First publications on this topic in German geography didactic papers were in the year 1968 (Bauer, 1969; Fick, 1970; Brucker, 1976; Birkenfeld, 1982, Geipel 1982). It seems that interest in this theme gradually faded in the 1990s. There are only a handful of articles on this topic in this decade. Since 2000 there have been special issues that have been treating this theme from the perspective of geography didactics (Geographie Heute [2000], Praxis Geographie [2008]). The newest publications are from Hemmer et al. , 2011, and also from Otto, K. H (2011).

The investigation gap in Germany implies that national hazards have not been systematically investigated till now, which holds true for the kind represented in the current curricula in German lower secondary schools.

2.2 Definitions: Natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, and natural catastrophe.

Cutter (2001, p. 3) says, ‗The distinction between hazard, risk, and disaster is important because it illustrates the diversity of perspectives on how we recognize and assess environmental threats (risks), what we do about them (hazards), and how we respond to them after they occur (disasters).‘ For this reason the phenomena of natural event, natural hazard, natural risk and natural catastrophe will be explained.

2.2.1 Natural event. Dikau and Weichselgartner describe the appearance of natural processes like inundations and volcanic eruption a natural event. If the natural event goes beyond a certain limit, people see the natural event as a danger. This limit varies from one person

to another and differs from one society to another; it also changes over time (Dikau & Weichselgartner, 2005). The reasons for the appearances of such natural processes can be meteorological, geological, or biological (Plate, 2001). Natural events have no human danger (Dikau et al. , 2007). One example is inundations in and around Greenland, as they do not bear damage to people and anything having material value (Dikau et al. , 2007).

2.2.2 Natural hazards. Dikau and Weichselgartner (2005) define natural hazard as a natural process that contains a potential threat for the lives and the property of human beings. The frequency and dimension of such natural processes exceed a certain level: which is related to damage to people or the living ground. ‗In a more strict definition natural hazards show the possibility that in future a natural event will occur which causes damage‘ (Dikau et al. , 2005, p. 180). Normally authors concentrate on humans (which, we might note, is anthropocentric). Natural hazard have to be distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster. The definition of an extreme event is an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. There are different categories of natural hazards: geological hazards, hydrological hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards (Dikau et al. , 2007).

2.2.3 Natural risk. The term risk is closely related to natural hazard. It is described as ‗a situation or event, which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to national or international level for external assistance; an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering. With reference to natural hazards, the definition of risk very often is expressed as a product of two or more components‘. Ansell and Wharton (1992) express it in the following way: ‗risk = (likelihood of hazard occurrence)x (consequence), where the likelihood is expressed as a probability (e.g., 20%) or frequency (e.g., one in five years) of the occurrence of the disaster ‗(Ansell et al, 1992). The consequence means measuring the consequences of the hazard to people as well as houses and natural environments (Ansell & Wharton, 1992). It can be regarded as a mixture of three different aspects: people , who will die, people who will be injured and the damage to the environment.. The definition was confirmed by Tobin & Montz (2007), but they use instead of consequences the term vulnerability: risk= (hazard probability) x (vulnerability). ‗Vulnerability is defined as the potential for loss (human, physical, economic, natural, or social) due to a hazardous event; it is the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset, which make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard‘ (UNISDR, 2009, p. 30). The scale to measure it ranges from zero to one. Risk elements are objects in an endangered area, and they are embraced as a consequence of differently used monuments (e.g., places to live), infrastructure (e.g., streets), any kind of usable surface (e.g., industrial areas or agricultural fields), and people living in these areas (Dikau et al., 2007, p. 1033).

2.2.4 Natural catastrophe. The question is when a natural event becomes a natural catastrophe? The definitions of both the terms are very general, and they only relate to the term catastrophe. For example, Mechler (2004) defines natural catastrophe as an ‗exceptional natural event with heavy effects for the human being and the economy‘. Natural catastrophe presents a large dimension; it comes suddenly and unexpectedly in a short period. It can claim human sacrifices and cause widespread economic damage (Dikau & Weichselgartner, 2005). To measure these effects and compare it between different events, events have to

be classified. Normal criteria are the number of deaths, injured people, the damage to the economy, or the costs required for rescue and search action. Mechler (2004) says that a natural catastrophe causes the attacked region‘s self-aid capacity to exceed and hence the region needs supra-national or international aid. In general, this happens if the amount of deaths exceed thousands and there are large numbers of homeless people, or if there is extensive economic damage.

2.3 Curricula situation in Germany, especially for the subject geography. Curricula are a very important element, to transmit information about natural events to the children at school. They give the baseline for teaching, the content of teaching and the objectives of teaching (Böhn, 1997). Case studies have become increasingly important in curricula—which follow the principles of exemplarity— because it is no longer possible to have encyclopedic knowledge due to the increasing amount of information (Senegačnik, 2005). There is a federal governmental system in Germany, and each of the 16 regions have their own curricula. Contents and aims can be understood in particular historical and social backgrounds. Each region has its own curricula and they are somehow different in certain details. Also, one can get information about the themes and the contents of the topics. Besides this curricula give overviews about the didactic and methodological use. Furthermore, the curricula contain introductions to the didactic and methodological implementation. And finally, one can find suggestions relating to teaching lessons. The curricula in Germany is supervised from the education ministry and thus they are authorized instructions; teachers have to stick to these instructions. In a lot of curricula the content is rather vague and hence the teacher has to decide how to fill the content (Ikonen, 2009).

In nowadays each regional government installs a curriculum commission, which creates a new curriculum in discussion with different social groups. It is not possible to present the process for all 16 regions. For this reason, the authors now provide a deeper insight into the process of curricula planning for Bavaria. The most important institution is the Ministry of Education and the State Institute of School Education and Investigation for Education (‗Staatsintitut für Schulpädagogik‘). The Institute of School Education belongs to the Ministry of Education and follows its orders. A curricula commission is responsible for the precise development of specific school subjects., which chief is the representive of the subject in the ISB. Ministry officials normally appoint five teachers after the proposal of the Institute of Education; the teachers, while still working at their schools, join the commission. Besides, can be included advisors like scientists from the didactic part or the subject part of the university (Hopmann, 2010).

The contents of the curricula and standards form the base of schoolbooks and thus if the theme does not appear there, there is scant chance that it would appear in the schoolbooks (Ikonen, 2009).

The following questions emerge after going through the theoretical part:

 Which terms of natural hazards are used in different curricula?  Which kind of natural hazards are presented in the curricula?  Which content is related to the theme natural hazards?  Which regions are related to the examples of natural hazards?  What are the similarities and differences between the different curricula of the regions in terms of natural hazards?

2. Methods and resources To analyse the curricula of the different regions in more depth, a special method known as content analysis has been chosen. Cohen et al. (2007) define content analysis simply as the process of four ‗C‘s, namely coding, categorizing, comparing, and concluding. In addition, categorizing refers to developing meaningful categories into which words, phrases, sentences, among others, can be grouped as the units of analysis, while comparing means establishing connections between the categories. Finally, concluding stands for drawing theoretical considerations on the basis of the text and the results of the analysis (Cohen et al., 2007). The author has used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods in the method of content analysis (Mayring, 2002).

2.2 Quantitative and qualitative method. 2.2.1 Quantitative analysis. Quantitative methods are used to measure different aspects, such as word places or dates of the curricula, in terms of frequency. In this investigation the categories are denoted by different terms like natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, natural catastrophe as well as by different kinds of natural hazards (e.g. earthquake) and the region related to them.

2.2.2 Qualitative analysis. Zhang and Wildemuth (2009, p. 308) outline that the ‗qualitative content analysis goes beyond merely counting words or extracting objective content from texts to examine meanings, themes and patterns that may be manifest or latent in a particular text‘. In this article, the authors look at the content of the different natural hazards. According to Flick (2010, p. 405) mixing of qualitative and quantitative methods as a possibility for triangulation is ‗used as a strategy of improving the quality of qualitative research‘.

2.2.3 Trustworthiness. In the case of content analysis, reliability goes along with the notions of stability, reproducibility, and accuracy (Weber, 1990, p. 120). To guarantee this, the categories have to be clearly defined and have to possess the intercoder reliability, which means that the same results of coding are obtained from two different coders. Such intercoderbility has a value in this case 0.8 (Weber, 1990, p. 121).

2.2 Resources. To fully capture the topic of natural hazard one has to start with the curriculum since it is the foundation for any schoolbook. The study includes every German curriculum used in lower secondary schools throughout 2014. Curricula always indicate developments in the field of education and current discourses within society (Apel, 1991, p. 6). They also provide answers to contemporary challenges. The topic of natural hazard is one example of these challenges. The authors chose geography because recent studies have not considered it in this form. The 16 federal states of Germany have cultural sovereignty, which leads to different curricula for geography across the nation. This diversity complicates a study for the entire federal territory. In total, the authors has analysed 60 curricula—all of them were represented in a digital manner so that an electronically keyword research was possible.

3. Results: Investigation of the secondary geography school curricula In this section, the findings of the comparison between the different secondary curricula are given.

3.1 Some important results in relation to the terms natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, natural catastrophe.

3.1.1 Quantitative perspective. First the results to the frequency of the categories natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, and natural catastrophe in the secondary curriculum are shown.

Table 1: Terms in the current curricula of geography in lower secondary schools in different regions of Germany

(R: Realschule; G: Gymnasium; BW: Baden-Württemberg; BY Bayern; BE: Berlin; BB: Brandenburg; HB: Bremen; HH: Hamburg; HE: Hessen; MV: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; NI: Niedersachsen; NW: Nordrhein-Westfalen; RP: Rheinland-Pfalz; SL: Saarland; SN: Sachsen; ST: Sachsen- Anhalt; SH: Schleswig-Holstein; TH: Thüringen)

Table 1 shows that there is no term used in the curricula in Bremen (HB). The term used by different commissions is natural catastrophe, followed by natural event, which is used in seven regions, and then natural risk, which is used in four regions, and finally, the term natural hazard, which is used in three regions. In the regions Niedersachsen (NI), Nordrhein-Westfalen (NW) and Thüringen (TH), the term natural catastrophe simply does not appear. Only two terms appear in most cases. Only in Sachsen (SN) three terms can be found: hazard, risk, and catastrophe.

A qualitative interview investigation with the people of the commission can show the reasons behind the absence of terms in the curricula of Bremen (HB). One significant result is that the term natural catastrophe appears very often—this is because German schools usually start teaching natural events by showing the effect of a catastrophe to the children (Haubrich, 2006, p. 285). As there are schoolteachers in the commission, the term natural catastrophe plays an important role for them. Another possibility could be that people in general do not really distinguish between these different terms (Pohl et al. , 2002, p. 55). If the different terms do not appear in the same curricula, cannot really be expected that schoolbook authors would emphasize the different meanings of these terms (Lichtenstein-Rother, 1970, p. 75).

Regarding the term column, it will be apparent that natural hazards are not a continuous theme that appears every school year; in most cases, it is fixed to one or two classes. Only in Sachsen (SN) and Sachsen-Anhalt (ST), the theme goes through the whole school life of the children.

4.1.2 Qualitative perspective. In the qualitative perspective the authors will provide examples as to how the terms natural hazard, natural event etc. are described in the curricula. In many cases, the terms are only mentioned without any comment. For example, in the curricula of Hessen, one will find the term natural catastrophe or calculable natural hazard. In the curricula of Baden-Württemberg Realschule, one can read, for example, that ‗the natural hazards and their effects are continuous threat for humanity‘. This sentence emphasizes the negative effects. In the curricula of Sachsen, the planners used a more neutral formulation to live with natural hazards. In some curricula, however, the terms are not only mentioned, the people of the commission sometimes put them in relation with a special natural hazard. In the curricula of Baden Württemberg, Berlin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Saarland, the natural hazards come along with natural hazards out of the geomorphological direction. In the curricula of Sachsen und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, the people of the commission use the terms in connection with climate change. No curriculum was found which define the terms as well as no difference between the terms natural event, natural risk, natural hazard, and natural catastrophes were made.

In no curriculum you can find a wide definition of the terms and that there is indeed a difference between. An interesting question is how this situation has actually evolved. The main reason is that the curricula in Germany are very vague and thus there are not much information about the theme to ascertain the direction in which it should be taught (Ikonen, 2009).

Figure 1: Section of the 5th grade natural event Ministry of Education (2014)

(Translation to live with natural events)

4.2 Kinds of natural hazards in the German curricula of secondary schools in Germany.

It is not only interesting to look at how the different terms are presented but also at the different kinds of natural hazards which are represented.

4.2.1 Quantitative aspects. Table 2: Natural hazards in the current curriculum of secondary schools in Germany (R: Realschule; G: Gymnasium)

The most treated natural hazards in the curricula are erathquake and volcanism, followed by tsunamis. Inudation, taifun, monsoon, flooding, tornado, hurricane, avalanche, storm, stormflood reach between four and one references. The number of natural hazards mentioned in each region is also different: in Bremen (HB), they do not mention any natural hazards; in Sachsen-Anhalt (SN), the commission uses two different types; in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV), Nordrhein-Westfalen (NRW), Berlin (BE), Baden–Württemberg (BB) and Hamburg (HH), the commission uses four different kinds of natural hazards. In Rheinland-Pfalz, one will find a variety of natural hazards.

These results are not easy to explain. The example of tsunami is one example that society had influenced the curricula. This natural hazard appeared after the tsunami catastrophe of 2004 (Blankertz, 1986, p. 124) Volcanic eruption and earthquake are in the first place. The answer could be that these are traditional hazards, and they are in the curricula for long, and that it is a kind of tradition to include them. Another aspect could be that these hazards are also very relevant in the context of national standards (DGFG, 2014). Also, the subject of tectonic plates plays a role in every curriculum, and, as a consequence, you also look at the natural hazards that emerge out of it, such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

4.2.2 Qualitative aspects. While conducting the qualitative analysis, the authors will have a closer look to the context in which the natural hazards are used. In most of the curricula, the authors only mention natural hazards without any commentary. In some curricula, such as the Berlin Gymnasium, the commission, when they talk about natural hazards to Germany, refers to German rivers like Rheine and Elbe. In fact, the curricula of Hamburg use the rivers Rhein, Mosel, and Elbe. However, these mentions are exceptions to the rule.

Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are mostly mentioned. In the curricula of Hessen, Berlin and Hamburg, they refer this subject to south Europe. Hence, one can read in the curricula: ‗South Europe, for example, [subjects you can choose for this region] are characterized by volcanic eruptions, earthquake, and irrigated cultivation‘ (Ministry of Education, Hessen, 2014). Berlin (BB) and Hessen (HE) also extend the commission‘s focus to Asia; while Hessen (HE), Sachsen-Anhalt (SH) and Sachsen (SN) provide the example of the San Andreas Fault Zone, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV) focuses on Ozeanien. The ministries issue guidelines regarding such example for the teachers and the commission decides which example they would take for classroom teaching.

In the Hessen curricula, the commission also talks about earthquake protection and volcanic eruption safety, and also mention the different types of volcanic eruptions. The curricula do not very often provide the kinds of natural hazard which are typical for Germany.

Figure 1 shows a visual representation of the results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses of natural hazards, risk, event and catastrophe, as well as of the kinds of natural hazards.

Figure 1: Natural catastrophes in the current school curricula in Germany (Designer of the map: Stefanie Zecha)

3. RESUME This study provides a useful perspective regarding the manner in which the curriculum commission has implemented the subject of natural hazards in German curricula. It can be observed that the presentation of natural hazards differs from one region to another. A look at the terms will mostly provide the term natural catastrophe, followed by the term natural event. There are no discussions in the curricula about the different meanings of the different terms.

A close look at the kind of natural catastrophes mentioned in the curricula indicates that such catastrophes are not really relevant in the context of Germany. If the idea of natural hazards is taken from the respective regions, the curricula would do more than passing knowledge, it may encourage the learners to take an active part by examining the environment of their school buildings—they can go beyond the confines of the school yard to map their neighboring communities and meet consult their elders to gather knowledge about the extreme natural catastrophes that had taken place in the area. As a consequence, they will acquire a better understanding of the concept of disaster prevention (Petal, 2008, p. 25)

In future it would now be interesting to see, how are the natural catastrophes presented in school books and what presentation of natural catastrophes teachers have in their mind, because they teach it to the pupils.

Education in the field of natural hazards is actually all about increasing the capacities of the public to address natural disasters. The other way around: social capacity building is a key feature of education. The most important issue in this regard is the necessity to train children in new knowledge and skills related to natural hazards. Increasing knowledge and skills raise their awareness, and also change their perception regarding risk and personal responsibility, and consequently, their impact on behaviour (Riad et al., 1999).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 35-44, January 2015

Global Climate Change and the Need for Relevant Curriculum

William H. Robertson, Ph.D. and Anna Carolina Barbosa The University of Texas at El Paso El Paso, Texas, USA

Abstract. With the rising importance of preparing students in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), the establishment of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) is critical to the development of disciplinary core ideas in the study of Weather and Climate. With the recent debate over the issue of global climate change, mostly instigated by the media, and its implications on human activities, economy and international policies, the insertion of this matter as a disciplinary core idea, both for middle and high school, is of great importance. Another factor contributing to the integration of this need is related to research findings about students’ misconceptions about climate change and its direct correlation with media influences (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997) and the lack of information about climate change inside curricular materials such as current science textbooks (Choi et al., 2010).

Keywords: global climate change; curriculum; educational standards; science education

Introduction In the 21st century, several reports demonstrate evidence regarding the intensification of climate change and poverty due to the inadequate and increasing capitalist tendencies of natural resources manipulation, especially associated with globalization processes. For example, negative predictions associated with unsustainable economic growth in China have been reported associated with new coal power plants that have been built, leading experts to predict increased carbon dioxide emissions that could double by the year 2030 Jones, LaFleur and Purvis (2009). In this case, there seems to be a correlation between what some authors designate as “Empire” (Korten, 2006) and its hegemonic values of competition, power control and economic greed with an increase of disproportionate levels of global poverty and overexploitation of natural resources. The main economic sectors that are potentially most affected by unsustainable economic and political

practices have been identified as agriculture, water resources, natural ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal areas, and human health (Nyong (2009, p.47-55). Additionally, another prediction that relates to the negative outcomes of anthropogenic-induced climate change is the increase of people displacement (Piguet, Pécoud, & De Guchteneire, 2011), usually affecting inhabitants of areas of the highest levels of poverty, social inequalities and vulnerability, such as the recent example of Hurricane Katrina (Leichenko, Thomas & Barnes, 2010).

In this regard, it seems evident that, even though capitalism and the technological advances are fostering what we call globalization by providing the possibility of connecting diverse groups from across the globe and by facilitating access to knowledge. There is still a significant portion of individuals who are not only being denied the same opportunities to participate in this technological revolution, but also are suffering the negative consequences of unsustainable forms of natural resources management. This scenario may indicate that what is termed “global citizenship” may not only be restricted for those who are able to consume the technological products but this concept may also have its meaning limited to interactivity in a global scale without integrating a sense of belonging to an Earth Community. For educators and researchers, the efforts should focus on trying to expand the idea of “global citizenship” as a condition that can only be defined through digital democracy and environmental responsibility and participation. In this sense, there is an urgency for more research in the education field that aims at discussing how to overcome the digital divide between students’ from different socio-economic (SES) conditions while also promoting a broadening of the construct “global citizenship” to also include environmental and technological knowledge, skills and ecological responsibility. To this extent, this paper presents arguments that demonstrate how the use of technology inside climate change related curriculum may contribute not only to reducing the digital divide that exists between rich and poor students. Additionally, it will also explore topics aimed to reduce students’ misconceptions about climate change, increase low-income students’ interest in STEM related areas, promote student agency and community empowerment, and help students’ develop a sense of belonging to an Earth Community, an essential requirement for global citizenship.

This paper is put forth as a structured argument in order to primarily present a position that educational curriculum efforts towards expanding the notion of global citizenship should have as one of its goals the dissemination of the idea of social alliance, which should be based on two main values: the principle of universal justice and empathy towards others. Additionally, such educational efforts should be based on the following constructs: 1) consciousness awareness (Korten, 2006); and, 2) the development of cross-cultural competencies (Banks, 2006). Second, the use of technology in presenting climate change related curriculum may help facilitate students’ development of scientific knowledge (such as biological, ecological, physical) about this matter and also aid their development of empathy towards others and concern about social justice through discussions that focus on

the social repercussions of climate change. In this regard, the need for modern curriculum that integrates the use of technology inside climate change studies could contribute to improving students’ consciousness and global awareness, in other words, the ecological and sociological responsibility that define their role as active global citizens.

The Need for Expanding the Notion of Global Citizenship The idea of a world or global citizen can be defined either through nationalist or cosmopolitan lenses, and it certainly implies the need to have concern for climate issues that impact cultures worldwide (Gibson, Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown, 2008). Another perspective on this issue can be seen by contrasting the ideas of Empire and Earth Community, which puts forward a diametrically opposed set of actors that permeates all levels of society and hierarchies of power, which in turn leads to conflict and compromise (Korten (2006). The counterpoint to the idea of Empire is described as the notion of Earth Community (Korten, 2006). In this sense, an Earth Community should be characterized by the following values: mutual trust, respect, accountability, compassion, cooperation, and environmental stewardship (Korten, 2006, p.37). In this case, a definition of global citizenship that embraces values such as “respect and honor for other cultures, and a concern for global issues” (Gibson, Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown, 2008, p.12) would be closer to the development of an Earth Community, than the nationalistic perspective. In the same way, Korten’s (2006) idea of Earth Community would correlate with Cortina’s (2008) understanding of social alliance, as the idea of “Empire” could also imply the existence of an unfair contract between those who are oppressed and their oppressors. Pursuing this further, Cortina (2008) not only identifies mutual recognition and compassion as basic core values associated with the notion of an alliance, but also differentiates between the ideas of contract, which is seen as something for economic gain, and alliance, which has social awareness as a core property. Therefore, educational curriculum efforts towards a broader notion of global citizenship should have as one of its goals the internalization of the notion of social alliance, which should be based on two main values: the principle of universal justice and empathy towards others (Thompson & Bendik-Keymer, 2012). However, while the principle of social justice may be perceived as an essential prerequisite for the establishment of mutual cooperation among individuals in a complex society, our present modern and liberal paradigm stresses power and privilege, in that those with the power often compromise the well being of the masses of society (Korten, 2006, p.34).

Furthermore, such educational learning opportunities that seek to contest and to modify the core values of the Empire will have to be based on the idea that by helping individuals, societies transcend from a lower to a higher stage of consciousness or global awareness by providing individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills in order to reduce the digital divide between hegemonic and economically privileged individuals and socio-economic marginalized groups, this may facilitate the internalization of essential moral values such as empathy,

tolerance and universal justice. In this sense, the concept of global awareness can be viewed as ways in which all the world in interconnected and interdependent, where problems and issues have an impact of the lives of individuals worldwide (Gibson, Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown, 2008). Hence, once these variables are in place this can contribute to the development of an individual’s sense of belonging to a plural global community, which is necessary for his/her choice of adhering and actively participating in that community (Cortina, 2005). Following this further, another important component of educational efforts towards a broader concept of global citizenship should be the development of cross-cultural competencies (Banks (2006). As such, there is a need for a literate citizenry that have commitments of global equity, which reflect the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of settings of diversity (Banks, 2006). While other types of knowledge and skills may fall into the category of cross-cultural competencies (such as linguistics and ethics), for the purpose of this paper, the focus will center on the importance of ecological, technological and sociological types of knowledge and skills associated with climate change as essential cross-cultural competencies for the development of scientific literacy and a broaden concept of global citizenship.

Technology, ESD and the Digital Divide According to Ahmed (2010), the articulation between actions against global poverty and environmental responsibility might significantly increase the chances of educators to reduce the performance gap that exists between high- and low-income students. In this regard, the author considers education for sustainable development (ESD) as the key educational mediator that may fight poverty at the same time that it might develop lifelong learning among students. Ahmed (2010) describes three key elements in the attempt to integrate marginalized groups with sustainable development measures:

the empowerment of people at the local level in designing and achieving poverty reduction; access to productive assets, capital and technology for the poor, microfinance being a widely used instrument; and extending a social safety net economic support to the ultra-poor, those who are ineligible even for microfinance, in order to enhance their capabilities to access capital and technology. (p. 241).

Technological Inequalities and Low-Income Students Since the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, several generations of students have had the opportunity to engage in scientifically related activities inside the classroom through virtual laboratories and simulation software. In fact, recent studies suggest that the use of such pedagogical tools in science education can be beneficial for student learning in grades 6-12 (Scalise et al., 2011); for the development of new learning strategies among students and teachers, in secondary schools (Jimenez, Gyette, Platteaux, 2007; Edelson, 2001; Goyette, Platteaux, and Jimenez, 2007), at university levels (Williams, Lansey & Washburne,

2009; Winn et a., 2006), as well as in the improvement of overall student technology skills.

Other variables, such as reduced budgets and decreased funding sources in schools, may also act as significant factors in favor of the use of virtual labs and simulations for science lessons. However, the use of technology-rich science inquiry differs between high- and low-income areas, since the former seemed to focus on high- order thinking and problem solving while the latter are prone to lower-order activities (Scalise et al., 2011). In this case, it seems urgent that both scholars and policy makers take into consideration the need for the development of curriculum and pedagogical materials that not only focus on reducing the digital divide by providing students with real-life skills and competence but also aim at improving their sense of responsibility towards Earth Community, particularly regarding the use of natural resources that contribute to technological improvements and globalization processes (Dodds, Strauss & Strong, 2012).

Students’ Misconceptions about Climate Change The identification of students’ misconceptions about climate change processes is of significant importance in order for educators and scientists to develop pedagogical materials as well as teacher education programs that aim at addressing this scientific illiteracy (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997) The authors conducted a survey with high school students and were able to identify five recurrent misconceptions about climate change: 1) Inflated estimates of temperature change; 2) Confusion between CFCs, the ozone hole, and climate change; 3) Perceived evidence – warmer weather focus; 4) All environmental harms cause climate change; and, 5) Confusing weather and climate (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997, pp.2233-2235). Also, the students who believed in the existence of evidence associated with climate changes identified news and television as their main source of information.

In this sense, the same authors identified four possible sources that might contribute to this idea of scientific illiteracy: 1) Information availability; 2) News media as a source of information; 3) Judgmental heuristics; and, 4) Fuzzy environmentalism (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997, pp. 2236-2237). Interestingly, the authors point out the fact that students identified teachers as informational sources about climate change much less frequently than news media. The authors then attribute this to the fact that traditional school curriculum may act against the in depth coverage of climate change related issues, especially because of its lack of multidisciplinary organization.

Other researchers have developed positions about the influence that science textbooks may have on students’ misconceptions about climate change and verified that some of the scientific concepts related to the students’ misconceptions about climate change were not even mentioned in most of the analyzed books. The main scientific concepts that were not approached or inefficiently approached by the analyzed books were: 1) Distinction between pollution and greenhouse effects or

climate change; 2) Distribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere; 3) Solar irradiation change and its possible impacts on current climate change; 4) Projections of future climate changes according to emission scenarios; 5) Climate change is already under way; and, 6) The dependency of human society on fossil fuel and barriers to reducing emission of greenhouse gases (Choi et al., 2010, p.893). Additionally, it might be unpractical to believe that books could be updated as fast as new knowledge becomes available which means that educators should try to rely more on Internet resources, digital materials and increased training opportunities for teachers (Choi et al. 2010). Finally, the authors argue in favor of scientists and science educators to collaborate in the development of pedagogical materials related to climate change that take into consideration students’ common misconceptions about this matter.

Sociological Aspects of Climate Change It is important that educators take into consideration some essential aspects associated with sociological aspects of climate change that justify the need for an urgent integration inside the educational field. For example, the use of environmental arguments to justify the displacement of people can be viewed as a mechanism of better understanding human migration patterns (Piguet, Pecoud and De Guchteneire, 2011). Accordingly, there are some theories that may explain this absence: that the notion of environmental-related migration may be perceived as a “primitive’ form of migration” (Piguet, Pecoud and De Guchteneire, 2011, p.3).

Another argument that might serve to justify the incorporation of environmental related issues inside environmental education field is the fact that the impact of major climate change phenomenon, such as drought, floods, and sea level rise (is likely to differ between regions with different levels of vulnerability (Piguet, Pécoud and De Guchteneire, 2011). Moreover, if a society is greatly dependent on its environment for its economics, there may be an increased level of vulnerably as compared to other more industrialized communities. In this case, an understanding climate change is unlikely to affect all humans the same way, since its impact may also depend upon the individuals’ access to resources (financial, political, infrastructure) that might be required in order to facilitate an effective response to environmental changes (Piguet, Pécoud and De Guchteneire, 2011). Therefore, discussions about the sociological aspects of climate change should also include a collective reflection upon the correlation between socio-economic class and resources accessibility by the population affected. A particular case that can exemplify this issue is the illegal migration that happens between Mexico and the U.S. While it is widely accepted the influence that violence influences the political and economic instability inside Mexico, which in turn has displaced people across the border, little has been discussed about the influence that economics may have on this matter (Brochin, 2012). The effects of climate change can already be perceived inside Mexico, where overpopulation has negatively impacted land traditionally used for agriculture, rendering it unfit to support crop development and cultivation Johnson (2011). In this regard, the author points out that this

problem may be aggravated by the reduction of annual precipitation, which is expected to drop in 12% in central Mexico by 2020. In some ways, this need for survival tied to the environment can be seen as contributing to Mexican citizens migrating to the United States (Johnson, 2011).

Another recent demonstration of the correlation between sociological and climate change related analysis was the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Furthermore, Leichenko, Thomas and Barnes (2010) describe poverty, limited resources, poor education, high levels of unemployment and racism as the main variables that have contributed to increase New Orleans’ degree of vulnerability. In the same way, groups of African-American and the elderly were more greatly impacted by the conditions brought on by Hurricane Katrina. Researchers cited the inability of these groups to evacuate tied primarily to issues of health and economics left these marginalized populations most affected (Leichenko, Thomas and Barnes, 2010).

Climate Simulation Software as a Way for Reducing Scientific Illiteracy Researchers such as Scalise et al. (2011) have pointed out that virtual laboraoty experiences and simulations in science are just beginning to be disseminated as curriculum. At the same time, other researchers have demonstrated that the use of simulation software can be used as an efficient methodology in ESD (Shapka, Law and VanWynsberghe, 2008) and in science education (Luo and Kemp, 2008) for elementary (Lim, Nonis and Hedberg, 2006), middle school (Shin, 2002) and undergraduate students (Williams, Lansey and Washburne, 2009; Winn et. al., 2006).

In addition, the use of computer simulations that focus on issues of global climate change, including models of the interactions of the atmosphere, land masses, and oceans can most help students understand the ways in which human behaviors impact global populations Sheppard, 2005). Moreover, the author identifies topics and methods that can provide students with methods for demonstrating and understanding both positive and negative outcomes associated with global or local impacts through the use of climate change simulation software in order for the landscape visualization to be able to positively affect and motivate individuals to engage in sustainable actions.

Some of the main reasons associated with the uneven access by poor students to STEM resources results from the costs of assistive technology, the lack of training for faculty and the problems associated with wide scale distribution of such resources, and as such these inequities can be tied to the socioeconomic status (SES) of the local community and the schools which serve these students (Hagedorn and Purnamasari, 2012). As such, the ideas of a digital divide tied to economics in real, especially where topics and concepts of global climate change are tied to access and usage of computer technology (Bruno, Esposito and Genovese, 2011). This idea can be expanded to equate educational inequalities associated with the level of access to

quality education and technological tools as another main reason for lower socioeconomic status students to be excluded from STEM related areas.

Conclusion This paper intended to contribute to the discussion in favor of a broader concept of global citizenship, which takes into consideration the notion of social alliance and the importance of digital democracy towards both social and environmental justice. In this regard, it was related that an educational effort towards this direction may be the integration of technology tools inside the teaching about climate change, both its ecological and sociological aspects. To this extent, the use of technology in presenting climate change related information is critical, as it is associated with an emphasis about the importance of social alliance and sustainable values, such as cooperation and respect, for the development of an Earth Community, may contribute to the following factors: 1) to facilitate students’ development of scientific knowledge about this matter; 2) to help students develop empathy towards others and concern about social justice through discussions that focus on both the ecological and the social repercussions of climate change; and, 3) to contribute to the reduction of the digital divide between different SES groups. This paper, however, did not intend to exhaust the discussion about the ecological, sociological and educational aspects associated with climate change. In this sense, while there are also issues concerning the social-political causes of environmental disasters, this paper intended to highlight a few arguments about some of the variables that may potentiate the impact of climate change in a global scale, such as global poverty and resources accessibility.

In this case, the purpose of this discussion is to highlight the role that poverty may have both as a variable that inflate negative outcomes associated with climate change, due to vulnerability and lack of resources, and as a barrier against the dissemination of knowledge and skills about climate change phenomenon and its repercussions around the globe, particularly though digital divide. Finally, more research is needed about the educational efforts that aim at articulating the need for digital democracy with an emphasis on the development of an Earth Community should be conducted in order to help educators and police-makers define what cross-cultural competencies should be a part of the 21st century global citizenship curriculum.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 45-58, January 2015

A Retrospective Analysis of STEM Career Interest among Mathematics and Science Academy Students

Rhonda Christensen, Gerald Knezek and Tandra Tyler-Wood University of North Texas Denton, Texas

Abstract. Data reflecting Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) dispositions and reported reasons for interest in STEM were gathered from 342 high school students participating in a residential mathematics and science academy on a university campus in April 2013. Student participants were enrolled in a program in which they complete their last two years of high school in conjunction with their first two years of college. Analysis of these data indicated that factors influencing student interest in STEM and STEM careers include the student’s own self- motivation, support from a parent or family member, science and mathematics coursework offered in school, and exposure to a high quality, motivating teacher. STEM career interest can be reasonably well predicted from a linear combination of four measures of STEM dispositions, but weightings of predictors and total variance accounted for differ for females when compared to males.

Keywords: STEM career interest; math and science; high school students; gender distinctions; retrospective study

Introduction Although it is often difficult for youth to predict what field they will study in the future, students who are already on a Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) path may be able to reflect back on what influenced their interest in following a STEM path intended to culminate in a STEM career. For this study, attitudinal data were gathered from U.S. high school students participating in a residential mathematics and science academy on a university campus in which they finish their last two years of high school in conjunction with their first two years of college. The students also were asked to indicate what influenced their interest in STEM. Researchers sought to find possible causes of students’ decisions to pursue a STEM career in order to report to a broader educational audience promising ways to encourage more students to pursue a career in STEM. This unique group of high school students was provided

© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 46 the opportunity to retrospectively look back on indicators that may have influenced their interest in STEM. The research questions that guided this study were:

(1) STEM Interest Attribution: What do high school science and mathematics academy students report as their primary reasons for interest in STEM? (2) Retrospective Versus Current Interest Alignment: How well do retrospective STEM interest influences align with current interest in STEM as a career? (3) Determinants of Current STEM Interest: How well can STEM career interest be predicted from STEM dispositions for disaggregated groups?

Literature Review Like many nations in the world, the United States is increasingly reliant on the STEM workforce to maintain leadership in the world economy (Banning & Folkestad, 2012). “As the world becomes increasingly technological, the value of these national assets will be determined in no small measure by the effectiveness of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education (p. v.)” (Holdren, Lander, & Varmus, 2010). International studies such as the 2012 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) have ranked the U.S. 21st in science and 26th in mathematics for high school students (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2013). These lower performing academic areas impact the number of students completing higher education degrees in STEM areas. Fewer than half (40%) of students entering college intending to earn a STEM degree complete it – accounting for only 300,000 STEM graduates per year when the projection of those needed for the U.S. workforce is closer to one million (Holdren & Lander, 2012). Not only are fewer students choosing to pursue a degree in a STEM area, but a large proportion of the nation’s science talent leaves that area of interest while in college, often switching to a major in which they find more success and reward in the courses. Often students find the first two years of college coursework mostly theoretical and fairly abstract in the engineering and pre-med major courses. Students often change to majors where they encounter more relevance and less theory (Drew, 2011).

Along with the educational environment, teachers (Sjaastad, 2012), peers (Olitsky, Loman, Gardner, & Billup, 2010) and parents (Breakwell & Robertson, 2001) play important roles in students’ motivation for learning science. One longitudinal study that followed participants’ career choices in addition to their career aspirations found that learning characteristics, such as perceived ability in mathematics and science, as well as friends’ interest in science had the greatest impact on student’s motivation for learning science (Lee & Shute, 2010) and on student’s actual career choice (Garg, Kauppi, Urajnik, & Lewko, 2007). Research on factors affecting the decision to choose a STEM career is still emerging (Banning & Folkestad, 2012).

STEM courses are often viewed as difficult and sometimes unrelated to reality. Students need to be involved in hands-on STEM activities to make the connection between education and future careers (McCrea, 2010). This attitude appears prevalent and seems to permeate science achievement for many students in the U.S. Some researchers have found that students often begin school with a strong interest in science yet decline in interest due to the way science is taught (Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2003). An examination of contributing factors is needed to understand why students choose STEM majors and continue to pursue a career in STEM (Heilbronner, 2011). Researchers are beginning to more closely study this science identity gap (Tan, Barton, Kang, & O’Neill, 2013).

Gender differences in the selection of STEM careers have been the focus of research for many years (Archer, DeWitt, & Willis, 2014; Beghetto 2007; Tan et al., 2013; Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008). While girls are reportedly performing equal to or higher than males on math and science assessments in both middle school and high school (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2010) there is a disconnect in how many females compared to males pursue a STEM-related career (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2007; Smith, 2011). Despite girls having a positive disposition toward science (if not higher than boys), girls aged 10-13 are much less likely to aspire to careers in science (Archer et al., 2012). A study of 6,000 students completed in 2012 indicated that by the end of high school, the odds of being interested in a STEM career are 2.9 times higher for males than for females (Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari & Tai, 2012). Young women believe that science and technology are not relevant to their future career goals (Lent et al., 2005). Girls tend to prefer to learn in a more social context and need to see connections between school assignments and the real world. Formal role models are also an important factor that is often missing for girls in STEM areas (McCrea, 2010).

While there are many reasons students choose not to enter STEM careers, this paper identifies some of the attributes of secondary students who have chosen a path toward a STEM career. Students in this study responded retrospectively, selecting the one factor that most influenced their interest in pursuing study in a STEM field.

Research Methods Subjects Attitudinal data were gathered from 342 high school students participating in a residential mathematics and science academy on a university campus in which students complete their last two years of high school in conjunction with their first two years of college. Surveys were completed by 186 first-year students (11th grade) and 156 second-year students (12th grade). Surveys were completed via paper and pencil forms during a seminar at the end of the 2012- 2013 academic school year. The gender distribution of the students was approximately 54% male and 46% female. While there was some ethnic diversity, the majority of students (68%) were of Asian descent. Approximately 21% of the students were Caucasian, 4% African American, 4% Hispanic, 1% American Indian and 1% reported “other.” These students were selected for the retrospective study because they were high school students who had already chosen a STEM-related path.

Instrumentation The two attitude/disposition instruments utilized in this research were the STEM Semantics Survey and the Career Interest Questionnaire. These instruments had been used to obtain meaningful data on several recent studies on STEM dispositions where the ages of subjects ranged from middle school level students to STEM career professionals (Knezek, Christensen & Tyler-Wood, 2011; Ducamp & DeJaegher, 2013). The STEM Semantics Survey was adapted from Knezek and Christensen's (1998) Teacher's Attitudes Toward Information Technology Questionnaire (TAT) derived from earlier Semantic Differential research by Zaichkowsky (1985). The five most consistent adjective pairs of the ten used on the TAT were incorporated as descriptors for target statements reflecting perceptions of Science, Math, Engineering and Technology. A fifth scale representing interest in a career in STEM was also created.

Internal consistency reliabilities for the five scales of the STEM Semantics Survey for this group of students ranged from Alpha = .89 to Alpha = .93, consistent with other studies using these instruments (Tyler-Wood, Knezek, & Christensen, 2010). These reliability estimates fall in the range of “very good” to “excellent” according to guidelines provided by DeVellis (1991).

The Career Interest Questionnaire (CIQ) is a Likert-type (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) instrument composed of 12 items on three scales. This instrument was adapted from a longer instrument developed for a Native Hawaiian Studies project promoting STEM interest in Hawaii. Adaptations of the instrument were based on a comprehensive analysis completed by Bowdich (2009). Cronbach’s Alpha for the three subscales of the CIQ ranged from .70 to .93 among the group of students in the current study. These values fall in the range of “respectable” to “excellent” according to guidelines by DeVellis (1991).

Additionally, students were asked to choose from a list, the one factor that had most influenced their interest in science, mathematics, engineering and technology (STEM). The list from which students selected was compiled from analysis of previously obtained open-responses regarding the same question. More details about the analysis of the open-ended responses can be found in another publication (Christensen & Knezek, 2013).

Data Analysis and Results

Research Question 1: What do high school science and mathematics academy students report as their primary reasons for interest in STEM?

This section addresses research question one, regarding the reported reasons students who chose to attend an academy of mathematics and science developed an interest in STEM prior to their academy attendance. Respondents were asked to select the most important factor that has influenced their interest in STEM, from a list of seven common reasons previously compiled through analysis of open-ended responses obtained from the same group of students at the beginning of the school year. The list was created based on prior data collection using an open- ended response to the question of factors influencing the students’ interest in STEM (Christensen & Knezek, 2013). The four most frequently reported reasons for interest in STEM were: 1) self-motivation/naturally inclined (reported by 48%), 2) parent/family member (reported by 30%), 3) science and mathematics classes offered in school (reported by 9%) and 4) a high quality/motivating teacher (reported by 8%). These and other reasons are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 STEM Interest Primary Factor Primary Influential Factor Frequency Percent Parent/family member 101 29.6 High quality/motivating teacher 26 7.6 Friend/peer 3 .9 Self-motivated/naturally inclined 165 48.4 Science and mathematics classes offered in 30 8.8

school Science and mathematics clubs 4 1.2 Science fair/competitions 6 1.8 Other 6 1.8 Total 341 100.0

Analyses were completed to compare the differences in the responses for males and females. Fifty-five percent (55%) of the males attributed their interest to being self-motivated and naturally inclined toward STEM, while only 41% of the females attributed interest in STEM to their self-motivation. Conversely, females (34%) were more likely than males (26%) to attribute their interest in STEM to a parent or family member.

Research Question 2: How well do retrospective STEM interest influences align with current interest in STEM as a career?

One-way analysis of variance was conducted to examine differences in the STEM Career Interest as measured by the STEM Semantics Survey, based on the primary (retrospective) reason reported by students for interest in STEM. The analysis revealed significant (p <.0005) differences existed in level of STEM Career Interest based on reported reasons. As shown in Table 2, science and mathematics classes offered in school and self-motivated were aligned with the highest STEM Career Interest means. A post hoc analysis (Scheffe) revealed the significant pair- wise differences were between self-motivated and science fair/competitions (p = .027) as well as between science and mathematics classes offered in school and science fair/competitions (p = .046). As shown in Figure 1, whenever science fair/competitions was the category selected by a student as his or her primary reason for an interest in STEM, the actual level of STEM Career Interest was noticeably lower. Conversely, there were at least four reported reasons for interest in STEM that resulted in group mean averages that were notably high.

Table 2 One-Way ANOVA for Career Average by Reason for Interest in STEM N Mean Std. Dev. Parent/family member 101 5.84 1.14 High quality/motivating teacher 26 5.94 1.22 Friend/peer 3 5.67 1.27 Self-motivated/naturally inclined 165 6.12 1.10 Science and mathematics classes offered in school 30 6.17 1.17 Science and mathematics clubs 4 5.85 .82 Science fair/competitions 6 4.17 2.46 Other 6 4.53 1.92 Total 341 5.96 1.21 Note: Sig. p < .0005.

Current Disposition by Reason for Interest in STEM

Science fair/competitions

Other

Friend/peer

Parent/family member

Science and mathematics clubs

High quality/motivating teacher

Self motivated/naturally inclined

Science and mathematics classes offered in school

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 1. Group mean averages for STEM Career Interest based on retrospectively reported primary reason for interest in STEM.

Regression analysis was used to determine whether selection of one of the four top reasons students attributed their interest in STEM could be used to predict STEM Career Interest. The four reasons used for the regression analysis were parent/family member, quality teacher, self- motivated and science/mathematics classes offered in school. The measure used for the dependent variable was the STEM Semantics Career Interest mean for the group. While only 6% of the career interest measure could be predicted (RSQ = .06, p <.0005) from a combination of having reported one of the four reasons as primary, the beta coefficients were significant and especially strong for the self-motivated reason (β = .517, see Table 3). Beta coefficients, as standardized regression coefficients, represent the strength of the contribution of an individual predictor, given that the other predictors are held constant.

This analysis indicates that reporting self-motivated as the primary reason (in retrospect) for establishing an interest in STEM was most strongly aligned with having a measurably high degree of STEM Career Interest at the time of the survey. An influential parent or family member as the primary reason for an interest in STEM (in retrospect) was also strongly aligned with positive STEM Career Interest as measured on the survey. In fact, each of the four reasons listed in Table 3, if viewed as a kind of discrimination index for primary reason (coded as 1) versus not primary reason (coded as zero), are shown to serve well in the sense that students who reported any of these four reasons as their primary reason for interest in STEM (coded = 1) have more positive dispositions toward STEM as a career (p < .003) than students who did not report the four top variables as his or her top choice (coded zero).

Table 3 Regression Analysis of STEM Career Interest as Function of Primary Reported Reason for Interest in STEM Model Unstandardized Standardize t Sig. Coefficients d Coefficients B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constan 4.874 .271 18.006 .000 t) Parent .964 .295 .364 3.267 .001 Self 1.250 .286 .517 4.373 .000 Teacher 1.065 .356 .234 2.990 .003 SciClass 1.293 .346 .303 3.738 .000 Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

(3) How well can STEM career interest be predicted from STEM dispositions for these disaggregated groups?

Retrospective Reasons in Context of Current Interests A hierarchical cluster analysis (interval scale, average linkage between groups) was run using the five scales from the STEM Semantic Survey, three scales from the CIQ, the top four categories for reasons for interest in STEM, and the demographic variables of gender and school size (UIL) classification. This cluster analysis was used as a form of data mining (Berkhin, 2006) in order to focus on relationships for further examination. As shown in Figure 2, three clusters emerged illustrating: a) gender is related to the reasons for reported interest in STEM, b) school size is related to the three career interest questionnaire scales, and c) career interest is related to the four measures of STEM dispositions on the STEM Semantics Survey. The relationships within each of these three clusters will be explored further.

Figure 2: Dendogram showing clusters of relationships.

Gender Differences in Interest in STEM Four chi-squared tests were conducted to determine whether the proportion of males versus females reporting each of the four primary reasons for interest in STEM differed by gender. A two-tailed significance criterion (p < .05) was used. As shown in Table 4, 100 out of 183 (60%) of the male respondents listed self-motivation as their primary reason, while only 64 of 157 (41%) of the female respondents listed self-motivation as their primary reason. This difference in frequency count by gender would rarely occur by chance (Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .012). Males more frequently chose self-motivation as their main reason for an interest in STEM.

Table 4 Chi-Squared Test for Self-Motivation Gender Total Male Female Self No 83 93 176 Yes 100 64 164 Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 5, 53 of 157 (34%) females selected parent or family member as their primary reason for their interest in STEM, while only 48 of 183 (26%) males selected a parent or family

© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 53 member as their main reason for interest in STEM. Although females reported this reason more frequently, the difference was not large enough to be considered significant (Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .153).

Table 5 Chi-squared Test for Parent/Family Gender Total Male Female Parent No 135 104 239 Yes 48 53 101 Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 6, 20 of 157 (13%) females selected science and mathematics classes in school as their primary influence for their interest in STEM, while only 10 of 183 (5%) males selected this reason. Although the total numbers were small, twice as many females as males selected this reason and the difference was significant (Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .021). Females were more likely to attribute science and mathematics classes as their primary influence on their interest in STEM.

Table 6 Chi-squared Test for Science and Mathematics Courses Gender Total Male Female Courses No 173 137 310 Yes 10 20 30 Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 7, 13 females and 13 males selected a high quality/motivating teacher as their primary influence on their interest in STEM. Although females had a slightly higher percentage, these small differences in proportion were likely due to chance (Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .689).

Table 7 Chi-squared Test for Motivating Teacher as Reason for STEM Interest Gender Total Male Female Teacher No 170 144 314 Yes 13 13 26 Total 183 157 340

School Size and Career Interest in STEM Partial correlation analysis was used to examine in detail the relationships between the Career Interest Questionnaire (CIQ) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 scores and school size as indicated by University Interscholastic League (UIL) school size classification. UIL rating was used as a school size indicator because it was well known to the students in this study, whereas more

© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 54 precise enrollment figures might not be known. UIL classifications form a monotonically increasing variable of the form: 1 = 199 or fewer students school enrollment, 2 = 200 to 429, 3 = 430 to 989, 4 = 990 to 2064, and 5 = more than 2065 students while CIQ scale scores ranged from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. Overall, CIQ scale scores were not found to be strongly related to UIL school size, but for males there was a significant (p < .05, r = .197) relationship of larger schools being associated with stronger agreement on Part 2 of the CIQ. Since CIQ Part 2 focuses on the desire to enter into a STEM major and career, the authors conjecture that larger schools may have greater resources to support counseling in many career options, and therefore may tend to offer greater opportunity awareness regarding STEM careers. For females, the relationship between school size and CIQ measures was not evident (p = .408, NS) in the data. None of the individual predictors approached the p < .05 level of significance for females. Further research is needed in this area.

Career Interest and STEM Dispositions Regression analysis was conducted with four STEM disposition measures predicting STEM career interest. A previous study using the same instruments with middle school students showed females had greater predictability for STEM career interest (RSQ = .46) than for males (RSQ = .40) (Mills, 2013). Findings were consistent with previous research in the current study of academy high school students which found that for females, 47% of STEM career interest could be predicted from the four STEM disposition measures (RSQ = .47, p <.0005), while for males 42% of STEM career interest could be predicted from the four measures (RSQ = .42, p <.0005). As shown in Table 8, for females the significant individual predictors were semantic perception of science (β = .594, p <.0005) and semantic perception of technology (β = .146, p =.036). As shown in Table 9, for males the significant individual predictors were semantic perception of science (β = .448, p <.0005) and semantic perception of math (β = .261, p <.0005). The general conclusion from this analysis is that academy students’ interest in STEM career can be predicted in the same manner as for middle school students who were participating in a National Science Foundation funded project to foster middle school students’ interest in STEM careers. However, the strength of the relationships for the academy students is stronger. This may be due to a higher level of maturity closer to entry into a STEM career.

Table 8 Beta Coefficients for STEM Career Interest as a Function of STEM Dispositions (Female Subjects) Model Standardized Sig. Coefficients Beta 1 (Constant) .048 Science Scale .594 .000 Math Scale .076 .283 Engineering Scale -.031 .654 Technology Scale .146 .036

Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

Table 9 Beta Coefficients for STEM Career Interest as a Function of STEM Dispositions (Male Subjects) Model Standardized Sig. Coefficients Beta 1 (Constant) .026 Science Scale .448 .000 Math Scale .261 .000 Engineering Scale .042 .551 Technology Scale .090 .194

Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

Discussion Data in Table 3 indicate that retrospectively reported reasons for STEM interest are significantly (p <.01) related to current STEM career interests for academy students but the relationship is not overly strong. Only 6% of the variance (RSQ = .06) in STEM Career Interest was found to be attributable to primary reported reason for an interest in STEM. This can be contrasted with 47% of current STEM Career Interest being explained if current level of positive or negative dispositions toward the individual content areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics are used in the predictive equation. One limitation may be that the retrospective reason reported by students is about STEM interest in general while the primary measure in this study focuses specifically on STEM as a career. An additional limitation on better predictive ability may be due in part to the dichotomous nature (0 or 1 choice) of each retrospective reason reported, versus a continuous rating scale (1 to 10) that would allow students to report level of strength of influence. It is also possible that current dispositions are better predictors than retrospective reasons because one is current while the other is past. Future research is planned to include a continuous rating scale in order to further address this issue as well as asking students additional questions regarding their interest in STEM as a career.

The current study did not directly address the area of content proficiency, which is also known to be important for sustaining interest in STEM as a career (Bouvier, 2011). From one perspective, the rigorous selection method used for academy students assures the study participants are in the top tier of high school students across the state regarding mathematics and science proficiency, upon entry. However, this does not mean all students perform well in the self-regulation environment of typical university courses. Undoubtedly content proficiency accounts for a major proportion of the 53% of unexplained variance in STEM Career Interest in this study. Future studies that include measures of STEM content proficiency as well as career interest would have a better foundation from which to address this type of question.

Conclusions and Implications of Findings This study revealed that factors influencing student interest in STEM and STEM careers included a student’s own self-motivation, a parent or family member, science and mathematics courses offered in school and a high quality, motivating teacher. Differences emerged by gender in the strength of the influential factors that were related to the STEM disposition and career interest indicators. Males more frequently attributed their own self-motivation as their primary

© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 56 reason for interest in STEM and STEM careers, while females were more likely to attribute science and mathematics courses in school as their reason for their interest in STEM. Findings from this study are consistent with prior research (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008) in which self-confidence in females was found to be nurtured by family members, teachers and peers, being provided mostly in terms of encouragement or direct experiences. Females frequently attributed their beliefs and confidence to specific influential persons who helped them in specific instances. Findings for males were quite different in that men attributed their mastery experiences and personal abilities to their science and mathematic-related achievements.

In this study, school size was strongly related to the STEM and CIQ indicators. However, for males, higher dispositions on the CIQ Part 2 were aligned with coming from a larger school. Part 2 of the CIQ measures dispositions toward preparing for and succeeding in a STEM career, including college level coursework.

In general, the researchers concluded that STEM Career Interest can be predicted from the four STEM semantic scales measuring current dispositions toward science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, for both males and females. However for females the strongest predictors were related to science and technology. For the males the strongest predictors were related to science and mathematics. These findings for academy high school students are consistent with prior research on middle school students (Mills, 2013), using the same instruments.

Implications of these findings are potentially far-reaching. With approximately 25% of STEM Career Interest attributable to semantic perception of science, the importance of positive experiences with science at an early age begins to emerge. Also, as shown in Tables 8 and 9, dispositions toward technology and mathematics also contribute to STEM Career Interest, although the relative importance differs for male and female students. Because the females’ dispositions that predict STEM career interest are not that different from the males in this study, although females’ attribution of their interest in STEM is more strongly tied to the influence of other people such as parents and teachers, there is an implied need to have parents and teachers encourage females who exhibit an early interest in STEM to persist in their focus in a STEM- related career.

Acknowledgement This research was supported in part by National Science Foundation ITEST Grants #0833706 and #1312168.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 59-72, January 2015

The Influence of Academic Credit System on Interpersonal Relationship in Chinese Colleges

Tian Guang and Wang Hong Shantou University, Shantou, China

Liu Yu Corresponding Author, Shantou University, Shantou, China

Abstract. Academic credit system has dominated higher educational administrations in Chinese colleges after decades of exploration and development. Credit system has brought some problems, such as less friendly relationship among students as well as between students and their professors, albeit it has made some progress in terms enhancing the quality of education. Moreover, it even made the relationship pattern between students and teachers changed from that of traditional one. The study takes Shantou University as a case, the students in Shantou University as the objects to investigate interpersonal relationship at colleges in China by using anthropological approach. The findings indicate that academic credit system adopted by the Chinese colleges had generated certain influences on interpersonal relations that in turn had impacts on the quality of higher education in China.

Keywords: Credit system; Business Anthropology; Classmate Relationship; Teacher-student relationship

Introduction The academic credit system reforms initiated in China since the end of the 20th century have played a significant role in higher education administration reform (Lv 2013). The academic credit system is an educational management system that allows students to self determine certain electives to take and how many credit hours to take in a semester. Due to distinctive features of teaching and learning, most scholars focus on its influence on the academic learning of college students but ignore the changes to interpersonal relationships under the academic credit system (Bai 2013). This research primarily explores the new trends of interpersonal relationships in Chinese colleges under the academic credit system, and finds out influences of the academic credit system on interpersonal relationships in colleges so that more positive solutions can be assumed in the construction of harmonious campuses.

Interpersonal relationships in colleges not only affect student minds throughout school life, but also play an important role in their state of learning. In addition, since college students are in a significant period of development, it is crucial to maintain good interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, good relationships between teachers and students are an important guarantee to promote teaching quality in higher education as well as the basis to train highly-competent personnel (Emery, Kramer and Tian 2003). Previous researches showed that the academic credit system in colleges play a significant role in strengthening teacher-student relationship (Xu 2011).

As a teaching management system, the academic credit system should be explored with regard to its nature as well as its educational theory and implementation principles from different perspectives (Bie 2013). For reference, the academic credit systems in European countries are the result of external force stressing learning load and final results, and its dynamic mechanisms are policy documents with certain legal effect. The academic credit system in the United States on the other hand is driven by internal force stressing teacher- student contact and teaching input, namely its dynamic mechanisms toward the educational needs of the American public (Haskell 1997, Qin and Chen 2013). Therefore, according to the actual situation in China, the academic credit system should serve to coordinate between internal management restriction force of higher education system and external demand reform force of the market economy for positive interaction so as to construct generation logic of the academic credit system in domestic colleges (Qin and Chen 2013). In addition, the characteristics of different colleges should be taken into sufficient consideration in the design and measurement of specific GPA (Xia and Fan 2014). For particular colleges such as higher vocational colleges, student employment status should be taken into full account for a rational arrangement of the academic credit system (Wang 2012). Some scholars also reach similar conclusions through research on independent colleges (Lv 2013).

Research Design and Method Taking Shantou University as an example, the research explores the influence of the academic credit system on interpersonal relationships in colleges based on qualitative research methods of business anthropology including participant observation and in-depth interview as well as quantitative research methods such as questionnaire survey (Tian and Zhou 2012), investigating the teacher- student relationship and classmate relationship. The primary data needed for the research are collected through the above methods and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. In addition, constructive suggestions are made for further improvement and development of the academic credit system. The details of the academic credit system adopted by Shantou University: independent course selection as mechanism, credit and GPA as units of account to measure the quantity and quality of student performance, certain credits and GPA as the standard for graduation and obtaining a degree; for the convenience of course selection, in principle, 16 weeks are scheduled for theory courses, experimental courses and dispersed practice courses, and another 2 weeks for examination during each fall and spring semester.

Participant observation Participant observation is a major research method for anthropologists, which allows the researchers to collect observational data from the research subjects in their everyday life in a nature way. In this case the participant observers are students and teachers at the university; the period of the participant observation is about 15 weeks. During the 15-week observation period we observed the behaviours and expressions of students and teachers in class and after class, noting subtle actions, taking instant record, summarizing, and analyzing data upon observation.

In addition, because the data collectors were college students who could directly obtain reliable internal observation data without fitting in with the respondents through a long period of time, there were favourable advantages for participant observation. At the same time, as the dormitories of Shantou University gather students of different grades from different schools, we have much easier access to diverse observation data. Furthermore, the observations are not confined to classroom and campus life, but also include various emerging online virtual communities.

In-depth interview In-depth interview is a critical step of the research, which aims to look into the influence of the academic credit system on student interpersonal relationships. In order to obtain the most authentic and valid information, the questions are designed and determined by business anthropological experts after discussion according to research topic and contents. Approximately 100 undergraduates in Shantou University were selected for in- depth interview with questions of different dimensionalities illustrated in the tables below, which were primarily open-ended.

Questionnaire survey Questionnaire survey is a research approach which intentionally collects relevant realistic conditions regarding research subjects is capable of effectively obtaining a large quantity of authentic data in a planned and systematic approach. Based on acquired information and references as well as our own observation, we designed a targeted questionnaire, which covers teacher-student relationship and classmate relationship, as well as students‘ attitudes toward the academic credit system and toward course selection as those attitudes may influence their behaviours at the school. Undergraduates in Shantou University are taken as research subjects, and the questionnaire contains 25 questions and variables included student information such as gender, school, place of origin, and financial condition. A total of 380 questionnaires were distributed with 348 returned, and the response rate is over 90%. It was therefore an effective questionnaire.

Results and Analysis Based on the literature review (such as Bai 2013, Jiang 2008, Lv 2013, Wang 2010, Xia & Fan 2014), as well as our field work experience, we determined that three aspects should be analyzed to evaluate the new trends of interpersonal relationship in colleges under the academic credit system. These three aspects are the relationships between teachers and students in specific contexts, the influence of curriculum evaluation on

teacher-student relationship, and the classmate relationships under the academic credit system.

1) Manifestation and analysis of teacher-student relationships in specific contexts

Traditional morality and higher education management systems used to function together to maintain the development of such an educational tradition. With the profound development of structural reform of higher education based on a market-oriented economy, and in particular the implementation of the academic credit system, under such new contexts, teacher-student relationships in colleges are transforming. An urgent question for management personnel in colleges is how to construct a harmonious teacher-student relationship based on actual situations in the larger environment of a harmonious society. Although there are various aspects that should comply with certain rules in terms of teacher-student interaction in colleges, and the positioning of teacher and student under different contexts, we can nonetheless always uncover phenomena that violate standards.

The phenomenon described in Circumstance 1 is not uncommon on this campus according to our observation and research. Compared with teacher-student relationship under the traditional system, the communications between teachers and students under the academic credit system incline to be diversified and approaches to improve relationships are not confined to the classroom and teaching. Sometimes dining together is the norm.

The phenomenon described in Circumstance 2 is also quite common on campus. Under the academic credit system, some students intend to get high scores by fawning on their teachers so that their scores might not tally with the facts, which might lead to speculation and mental inclination to gain without any labor.

Circumstance 1: time: 9:00-10:00 p.m. May 8, 2012; location: corridor of Dormitory #E. Interviewer: I‘ve heard that you had night snacks with teachers that evening! Interviewee (girl): Yes! We had a good time with them (male teachers)! J and I drank a lot of beer! Recorder: Wow, you‘re so lucky! How many teachers? Interviewee: Three, and they‘re all very nice and talkative.

Figure 1: Circumstance 1

Circumstance 2: time: 8:00-9:00 p.m. May 9, 2012; location: campus road of Shantou University Interviewer: Actually, I think many teachers in our school are very nice. Interviewee: Yeah! For example, W is quite talented and teaches well. S is also very nice and kind to students. She also gives us high scores! Interviewer: Well, only D and I have much to talk about, and I usually chat with him. He is very humorous. I find that American teachers are all full of enthusiasm! Interviewee: For me, I only get close to J, and he is easy to interact with. Interviewer: Is the teacher bound to help you? The teacher can‘t help you if you do a bad job on your homework and team reports. Interviewee: The teacher is very nice, and he will surely give me a high score!

Figure 2: Circumstance 2

Based on the above phenomenon, in-depth interviews are conducted to answer relevant questions. The question is designed as: ―Compared with other traditional educational approaches, what do you think are the differences in terms of teacher-student relationships under the current credit system?‖ with follow-up questions such as: ―Could you explain this phenomenon according to your own experience? What is the influence of such changes? What should be improved?‖ The typical answers are:

(1) ―I think the relationship between teachers and students in colleges is more alienated than that in high schools. After all, teachers leave once the class is over. It is very difficult for them to remember every student unless they are major teachers.‖ (2) ―There is little exchange between teachers and students. Generally teachers leave once the class is over. And we cannot find teachers after class.‖ (3) ―Take general-knowledge courses as an example. There is little exchange with teachers. We neither answer questions in class nor ask questions after class, and only meet with teachers in class. We therefore have basically no exchange with them.‖

From the above responses, we can get the main ideas as follows: the relationship between teachers and students is relatively distant; since there is little exchange between them in class and after class, their relationship is not in harmony; students know little about teachers when choosing courses and ask for more detailed introduction of teachers under the academic credit system; it seems that teachers must cater to students so that more students might choose their courses, which is akin to the relationship between customer and commodity; teacher character and teaching style will also affect the teacher-student relationship.

Table 1 Teacher-student relationship Question Option Number Percent The academic credit system agree, strongly agree 62 19% helps improve the teacher- no idea 120 35%

student relationship. disagree, strongly disagree 161 46% If a teacher once offended agree, strongly agree 85 25% students, students might 37% retaliate during teacher no idea 127 evaluation. disagree, strongly disagree 132 38% The teacher evaluation system agree, strongly agree 145 42% makes some teachers loosen 32% management and requirements no idea 110 of students in class. disagree, strongly disagree 89 25% *Only valid data are selected.

As previously mentioned, a total of 100 undergraduates in Shantou University were selected for in-depth interview with questions of different perspectives, which are primarily open-ended. The first five most representative interview records from each individual are selected as the most influential issues for further analysis. Based on the interviews, it is clear that most students think the teacher-student relationship is not good under the academic credit system. Compared with traditional teaching patterns, the academic credit system leads to weakened teacher-student relationships. Through in-depth interview, we find that teacher character, teaching attitude, teaching method, teaching quality and instruction would also impact the relationship between teachers and students.

Table 2 Familiarity of teachers and students Question Option Number Percent Which can A. Quite familiar with a small portion of 7% best reflect teachers, also have contact after class 19 your own B. Mediocre, but would ask teachers if there 15% familiarity are questions about study 43 with your C. Not familiar with most teachers, seldom teachers? have contact after class, only greet them when 41% meeting 120 D. Basically entirelyunfamiliar with all of 37% them, and do not greet them when meeting 108 *Only valid data are selected.

Therefore, through in-depth interview, we have found that the academic credit system definitely influences teacher-student relationships, which is inclined toward more negative effects. In order to more deeply explore the influence of the academic credit system on teacher-student relationships, quantitative research methods such as questionnaire survey are also employed as a supplement to participant observation and in-depth interview.

Table 1 and Table 2 reveal that approximately 80% of students are not familiar with their teachers, most students and teachers are not familiar with each other, even feeling strange and do not greet when meeting under the academic credit system. In addition, only 18% students hold that the academic credit system helps improve the teacher-student relationship, 35% claim they have no idea, and 46% disagree with the statement that ―the academic credit system

contributes to interaction between teachers and students and improves the teacher-student relationship‖. This indicates that most students believe the academic credit system does not substantially help promote the teacher-student relationship.

From Table 1, we can learn that over 40% of students believe the teacher evaluation system results in some teachers loosening management and requirements of students in class. Only 25% disagree with the opinion. Thus it can be seen that course evaluation under the academic credit system has a great impact on classroom discipline, which is also an important manifestation of the teacher-student relationship. Therefore, classroom discipline under the academic credit system has certain impacts on the teacher-student relationship.

2) Analysis of influence of curriculum evaluation on the teacher-student relationship Apparently, the academic credit system has great impacts on the teacher-student relationship, and most students disagree with the viewpoint that ―the academic credit system helps improve teacher-student relationships‖ and feel unacquainted or even unfamiliar with their teachers. Under the academic credit system, students are required to conduct teacher evaluations. Some students would evaluate according to their relationship with teachers and even retaliate. How do students view the teacher-student relationship under course evaluation, and what are its impacts on the teacher-student relationship?

Circumstance 3 along with widely discussed articles indicates that ―Public compulsory courses are different from specialized ones, as the same course is taught by different teachers. Therefore, everyone scrambles for ‗kind‘ teachers at the beginning of each semester‖ (Liu and Ran 2011, Wang 2010), the author uses an Internet buzzword ―RP‖ (which means personal character) to describe the battle of course selection. So-called good character means that the teacher is kind, gives high scores, and little homework.

The above record is from Sina Weibo, a platform for public social comments, through which teachers and students of this university are able to voice their opinions. From the above information, students have a bad opinion of the teacher, and at least some students disagree with his teaching and evaluation forms. It is hard to imagine that the teacher can get excellent comments during course evaluation.

Circumstance 3: time: 8:00 p.m. May 24, 2012; location: students‘ Dormitory #E, tree hole in Shantou University Participant: XX from School of Business, you are so inhumane! It‘s not just that you read PPT in class, you should even require us to debate in 14th week and take exam in 15th and 16th weeks. What‘s worse, the content is not from the book but from a qualification test. Are there any differences with taking examination twice in a row? It is learned that many students evaluate the teacher as nice, giving high scores, but always repeating what the book says, straying far away from the subject without much knowledge related to the textbook after a lesson.

Figure 3: Circumstance 3

According to the above observation, we conduct in-depth interview to related students with questions: ―Do you think the current teacher evaluation system in Shantou University is rational? If not, what need to be improved?‖ as well as follow-up questions: “Could you talk about your standards and attitude during evaluation of teaching quality based on your experience? What do you think are the influences that student evaluations have on teachers?‖ According to the interview, summary and conclusion can be made as follows:

(1) ―The teacher evaluation system is obviously irrational. Students pay little attention to it and do not want to fill it in later in the year. In addition, even if they do fill it in, teachers do not make improvement. Students generally fill in according to their preference of the teacher.‖ (2) ―Evaluation of teacher performance is too casual. We don‘t know whether teachers have seen their evaluation and comments and whether they have improvement measures. I think something like a hearing should be held so that students can offer on-site evaluation to teachers.‖ (3) ―I remember that a teacher for English was fired due to overly strict evaluation. Although supervisory personnel would come to observe the class and teachers would become especially enthusiastic, it is of little effect and cannot essentially change their teaching approach.‖

From the answers received, key words can be extracted to include: irrational, too casual, no teacher improvement; overly subjective evaluation and difficult to reflect reality; students are not informed about whether their opinions are accepted; the role of supervisory personnel is not obvious; evaluation itself might become a means of retaliation by students.

Based on in-depth interview, it appears that teacher evaluations do not play their intended role. For the preciseness and accuracy of research, we distributed questionnaires on credit systems and teacher evaluation to students so as to explore the relationship between course evaluation and teacher-student relationship through quantitative method.

Circumstance 4: time: 10:10 a.m. April 24, 2012; location: PE class. Teacher: Everyone please handin your theory homework. Just then, students began to whisper. Student A: What? Student B: Is there such a thing? Student C: What? Is there any homework? Student A: Definitely there is, as you see other students have handed it in. Student D: You left last class early, didn‘t you? The teacher assigned the homework before finishing class. Student A, B, C (suddenly understand): Oh~~ Circumstance 5: After warm-up exercises, students exercise separately and in slight disorder. Student B furtively took out a blank test paper and a finished one from the teacher folder when he was not paying attention, and then pretended to ―go to the washroom‖. Student A and C also followed suit. Fifteen minutes later, Student B calmly replaced two finished test paper and later Student A and C also did the same.

Figure 4: Circumstance 4

Table 3 Credit system & teacher evaluation Question Option Number Percent I pay little attention to final agree, strongly agree 150 44% teacher evaluation and don‘t no idea 83 24% think the evaluation has great disagree, strongly 113 32% influence on the teacher. disagree Under the academic credit agree, strongly agree 88 26% system, teacher evaluation no idea 104 30% system weakens teacher disagree, strongly 153 44% authority. disagree *Only valid data are selected.

From table 3, it is clear that nearly half (44%) of students believe course evaluation has little impact on teachers, and only 32% of students disagree with it. It can be seen that students are not serious about course evaluation.

In addition, most students disagree with the statement that ―under the academic credit system, teacher evaluation system weakens teacher authority‖, and only 26% of students agree with it, thus suggesting that most students believe that their evaluation will not affect teacher authority. Thus it can be concluded that most students believe course evaluation has little impact on teachers and they therefore give teachers favourable or unfavourable comments at will, which is likely to dampen teacher enthusiasm and impair teacher-student relationship.

3) Analysis of classmate relationships under the academic credit system Under the academic credit system, however, although the class system is retained, the free elective system gives more freedom to students and it is quite common to take courses of different departments, majors, and campuses, which leads to class discretization. In addition, inconsistent course arrangement, class

time, and location result in weakened relationships between students as well as less class cohesiveness, which ultimately affects classmate relationships. We delve deep into the real situation to explore the influence of the academic credit system on classmate relationship.

The above phenomenon not only happens at PE class, and such behaviors as leaving early and plagiarism are quite common in colleges. The author holds that the academic credit system is a major cause. Under the academic credit system, students can choose a course they like freely, which means that students of each class have courses together out of interest rather than major and grade. Therefore, mutual supervision between students is quite impossible, which exerts further impact on student learning efficiency and quality.

Circumstance 6: time: 7:30—9:00p.m. May 25, 2012; location: D504, committee election of Class 9. It is the last term of committee election, when only over 40 out of 120 students came one after the next. This was much lower as compared with before the implementation of the credit system. Several class committee members attempted to keep the atmosphere. Several candidates for the monitor position did not show much enthusiasm, and some positions were vacant, which made the atmosphere extremely embarrassing. In fact, election results from only one third of the total number were invalid.

Figure 5: Circumstance 5

Under the academic credit system, class status declines and classes cannot play their normal roles. As students are required to attend class as in ―day school‖ under the academic credit system and they do not form such strong class consciousness as in high school, middle school or even primary school, the sense of belonging declines and class cohesiveness is gravely insufficient. It can be learned that the credit system leads to weak collective concepts and lack of class cohesiveness.

Under the academic credit system, every student can choose their own schedule and teachers, which grants students greater freedom and alternatives. However, this system directly leads to different timetables and schedules of each student so that gathering becomes more difficult. This indirectly affects communication between students. In addition to participant observation, we also further explored the influence of the academic credit system on classmate relationships through questionnaire survey.

Circumstance 7: time: morning on April 16, 2012; location: in a student‘s dormitory. A: Girls, I‘ve got a VIP card for―Music Online‖ and it‘s hard-earned. Let‘s go to the KTV one day! (A shows the gold VIP card to her roommates joyfully) B took a look at the card and said: Great, we have never gone to the KTV together and I‘ve thought about it for a long time. C: Wow, it‘s really quite cheap. When shall we go?.... B: I have many courses on Thursday. I‘m afraid it cannot be Thursday. C: Thursday is OK. But I‘m occupied on Friday. B: I can‘t be sure whether I have time at weekend, as I always have some unexpected work to do…. A: Well, it seems that we can‘t go out together again. Why does our free time never coincide?!

Figure 6: Circumstance 6

45.5% of students voted against the statement that ―the academic credit system promotes classmate relationship‖, among whom 31.88% of students ―disagree‖ and 13.62% ―strongly disagree‖. Compared with 25.64% on the supportive side, it may be said that the disagreeing side achieved overwhelming advantage. It can be concluded that the academic credit system hinders communication between students to some extent.

Table 5 also proves the above conclusion as it is found that only 24.55% of students are familiar with most classmates; 22.46% of students have some impression of classmates, but are not familiar with them; 34.43% of students have close contact with a portion of classmates; and 16.17% of students only know a small part of classmates with little communication.

Table 4 Credit system & classmate relationships Options Number Percent The academic credit system agree, strongly agree 85 25.64% promotes classmate interaction no idea 103 29.86% and improves relationships. disagree, strongly disagree 157 45.5% *Only valid data are selected.

Table 5 Familiarity among classmates Question Options Number Percent How well A. I am quite familiar with most classmates and 82 24.55% do you we know each other know B. I am familiar with most classmates, but don‘t 75 22.46% your know their names and have little communication classmate C. I know some classmates, communicate 115 34.43% s? frequently and maintain good relationship with them D. I know some classmates, but with little 54 16.17% communication E. We basically do not know each other 8 2.39%

*Only valid data are selected.

Conclusions and Recommendations With regard to the teacher-student relationship, the changed teacher evaluation system leads to changed status of teachers and students (Liu and Li 2010), and thus teachers lower their requirements for students, which leads to poor classroom discipline (Jiang 2008). Under the academic credit system, students primarily learn by themselves, which results in less exchange between teachers and students and poorer teacher-student relationships (Jiang 2008). Moreover, under the academic credit system, some students take course evaluation as means of retaliation, and some students pay little attention to it so that the evaluation program becomes arbitrary. The negative effect on teacher-student relationships caused by the academic credit system should therefore be paid sufficient attention. As such, we suggest:

1) Change the mode of course evaluation. The current course evaluation system lacks normalization and student evaluation tends to be subjective, which hinders normal development of the teacher-student relationship. Process evaluation and face-to-face evaluation can be adopted to further promote exchange between teachers and students.

2) Establish a feedback system. After course evaluation, students can witness teacher improvement and offer suggestions through such a feedback system. As another important approach for exchange between teachers and students, a feedback system can provide greater opportunities for communication.

3) Change dimensionality of course evaluation. As most students find it difficult to understand, making the dimensionality of course evaluation easier would help reflect student opinions more accurately and promote mutual progress of teachers and students as well as the harmonious development of teacher-student relationships.

Due to free and dispersed courses and mixed dormitories, students have fewer opportunities to communicate with each other, leading to a reduced sense of class belonging and inadequate class cohesiveness. From a sociological perspective, there would be some impact on their relationships if they are unable to remain in the same class for a long time (Chen 2004). Such impacts primarily include: (1) the academic credit system reducing exchange between classmates so that they are alienated; (2) the academic credit system weakens mutual supervision from students taking the same courses and thus impacts classroom discipline and learning quality (Xiao and Zheng 2013).As such, we make the following suggestions:

1) Students should become more proactive in making friends and class committee members should regularly hold class activities. Under present social contexts, interpersonal relationships are indispensable for success in career. In addition, class committee members should hold class activities regularly, and try to get all students involved so as to increase opportunities for their communication and promote friendship.

2) Under the academic credit system, student schedules and timetables are different, which is an ineradicable phenomenon. Therefore, the only thing we can do is to promote the advantages of the academic credit system. For example, the mixed-dormitory system enables students to learn more about knowledge of other majors, which provides a wider range of ideas and perspectives to view the same problems and have more room to find solutions.

3) Add major elective courses to enable classmates to have more opportunities to meet each other at the same time they have more alternatives. In addition to daily class affairs, class committee members should play a greater role in enhancing communication between classmates and organizing activities to promote friendship.

4) Supervision of students should be strengthened with more inspection of study styles. As the teacher-student relationship and classmate relationship are not close under the academic credit system, it is difficult to form effective mutual supervision. The credit system weakens classmate relationships, reduces encouragement and supervision between classmates, and leads to declined learning quality, which is inconsistent with the objectives of colleges to train excellent personnel. Therefore, it is recommended to (1) increase the frequency of inspection of study style; (2) step up efforts to check attendance rates and strictly enforce relevant punishment measures.

References Bie Dunrong. (2013). Educational Theory and Implementation Principles of the academic credit system. China Higher Education Research. (3), 6-15. Chen, Zhenzhong. (2004). Sociality, Interaction and Authority—Interpretation of Classroom Life from Sociological Perspective. Journal of Educational Science of Hunan Normal University. (4), 20-24. Emery, Charles R., Kramer, Tracy R. and Tian, Robert G. (2003). Return to Academic Standards: A Critique of Student Evaluations of Teaching Effectiveness. Quality Assurance in Education, Vol. 11(1), 37–46. Haskell, R.E. (1997). Academic freedom, tenure, and student evaluation of faculty: galloping pulls in the 21 century. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 5(6), 6-9. Jiang, Ying. (2008). Research on Students‘ Participation in Teaching Process under Credit System. Education and Vocation, (26), 53-54. Liu, Yeyun & Li, Xue. (2010). Establishment of Competency Evaluation Index System for Domestic College Teachers. Journal of Educational Science of Hunan Normal University, (2), 89-94. Liu, Zhicheng & Ran, Qian. (2011). On Cultivation of Collective Consciousness of College Students under Credit System‖, Research on Non- Governmental Higher Education, (3), 47-49. Lv Jingyi. (2013). Path, Mechanism and Condition Analysis of Implementing Credit System in Independent Colleges. Higher Education Exploration. (5), 106-109.

Qin Lijun & Chen Shijian. (2013). Comparison of the academic credit system between European and American Universities for Reference‖.Research in Educational Development, (22), 69-73. Tian, Guang & Zhou, Daming. (2012). Business Anthropology, Yinchuan: People‘s Press of Ningxia, 293-313. Wang, Junsheng. (2010). Factor Analysis and Model Building of Course Selection under Credit System. Higher Education Exploration, (5), 80-83. Xia Chunming & Fan Shengfa. (2014). Comparison and Study of GPA-measured Credit System in Domestic Colleges. Jiangsu Higher Education, (2), 84-89. Xiao, Yun & Zheng, Youfei (2013). Practical Exploration and Reflection on Credit System Reform in Professional Colleges. Journal of Higher Education Management, (1), 86-90. Xu, Fenghua. (2011). Establishment of Teacher-Student Relationship under Credit System. Jiangsu Higher Education, (1), 126-128. Wang Zhi. (2012). Systematic Reflection on Implementing Credit System in Vocational Colleges. China Higher Education Research, (2), 93-96.

Acknowledgement: The undergraduate students who enrolled in Business Anthropology course in spring of 2013 partially helped collect the data.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 73-79, January 2015

A New Force to Push Universities in the U.S. to Go Online

Dr. Noah Kasraie University of the Incarnate Word San Antonio, TX, USA

Dr. Ala Alahmad ELS Educational Services San Antonio, TX, USA

Abstract. Online education and e-learning continue to be a trend in the future of higher education. However, some colleges and universities in the U.S. are still resisting this change. One factor that may force these institutions of higher education to change is the new rating system initiated by the current Government of the United States of America. This new rating system will affect the allocation of financial aid to universities which in turn affect the revenue and overall enrolment in various universities. The purpose of this paper is to first review the current literature and then provide an analysis on the effects of this new rating system on the future of online education in institutions of higher education. This paper suggests that the new College Scorecard rating system initiated by the Obama Administration will force college and universities to offer more online courses and programs.

Keywords: Online Education, eLearning, Higher Education, Colleges and Universities, College Scorecard.

1. Introduction The rapid advancements in technology have revolutionized the life of human beings in the 21st century. It has impacted the business processes and models, communication strategies between members in organizations, the expectations of consumers and ultimately the overall operations of businesses. Many products and services that believed to be impossible just a few decades ago are now taken as granted. It has created new challenges, problems, threats and opportunities in the business world.

However, not all industries have embraced advancements in technology as the corporate world has. The higher-education model of lecturing, cramming and examination has not changed much for the past few decades. It is commonly observed that some faculty, administrators and universities resist changing the

models and practices used in higher education for many years. Now, with the introduction of College Scorecard things may change.

In August 2013, President Obama proposed a new college ratings system. This proposal aimed to identify and rank universities that offer the best value in an effort to help students and parents make more informed decisions about their choice of college. This proposal is called the College Scorecard and it is scheduled to launch by the 2015 academic year. It will rate universities based on accessibility, affordability and outcomes to measure overall value. What makes this system so important to universities is the fact that by 2018 the Department of Education will tie it to the way federal financial aid is distributed to universities. High-performing will receive larger amounts of Pell Grants and student loans.

Since this is a new initiative, there is a gap in the literature about how this program will impact the likelihood of universities going online in the U.S. In addition, since the program has not started yet, collection of quantitative or qualitative data was not very meaningful at this stage. Therefore, an analytical review of the literature and position paper seemed to make the most contribution to the body of the literature. The purpose of this position paper is to analyze the possible effects of the introduction of the new College Scoreboard system by the Obama Administration on the decision of U.S. universities offering more online courses and programs.

2. Review of the Literature a. Online Education Online education is growing and becoming more popular among students as time progresses. Students, as well as institutions, are becoming more dependent on online learning as the years pass (Allen & Seaman, 2010). According to Mayadas, Bourne and Bacsich (2009) people want the comfort of college education at their convenience. Online education is affecting many who normally would not have been able to go to college. Today’s students have more opportunity than their past generations and education online is providing those opportunities. Some students may not have a certain class offered though their current college, but online learning is beneficial to them because they may be able to take that class online through a different institution (Sive & Sarma, 2013). Lewin (2012) explains that some students who may not be able to make it to campus, due to life in general, will also benefit from online learning. Students all over the world are becoming more and more intrigued and attracted to these online opportunities, and institutions are changing to accommodate this demand. But are these new opportunities really beneficial to the online learner? Do online course provide equal, less or better education for students?

Many people are certain that traditional learning is better than online classes. Many, who do not understand how effective technology can be, believe that there is no way that an online virtual class can even compare to the traditional classroom education (Angiello, 2010). Contrary to these beliefs, this may not always be true. Studies have found that online learners have performed

somewhat better than those students in traditional classroom settings (Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, Jones, & Karla, 2010).

There is a whole community and culture in online learning classes, just as you’d see in traditional classrooms. There are several ways to insure that students are learning properly. Juwah (2006) suggested that interaction within an online classroom is one of the most important things to ensure a student has in order to promote success. Social presence, though it may not seem so, is very important in online classrooms. Student’s intellectual attendance can be determined by the amount of community based learning a student feels they have in an online class (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). The teacher also needs to be present to insure an increase in success rate of their online students. A professor’s presence in an online classroom increases the social participation in the class and therefore promotes success in an online learning course. (Garrisona, Cleveland-Innesb, & Fungc, 2010). Online education has a role in opening new door for students as well as providing greater opportunities for instructors and institutions alike (Moore, 2013).

Overall, though many may believe that online education is not providing today’s students with a solid educational background and great learning experience, this is not what research shows. Today’s learners are thriving within the online community and technology is providing great opportunities for students. Technology is very effective, along with student socialization and motivation in the online classroom, at giving a good foundation for new learners. Online education provides a sufficient, if not, superior learning experience and education for modern students. b. College Scorecard The U.S. Education Department has compiled statistics for around 4000 colleges and universities in the nation. College Scorecard, as this new rating system is called, will rate colleges and universities based on accessibility, affordability and outcomes to measure overall value. The goal of the Department of Education is to base the way federal financial aid is distributed to universities on this rating system.

The Department of Education uses multiple variables to rate colleges and universities. The first variable is the enrollment of universities. Secondly, cost and net price is used and defined as the average yearly price actually charged to first-time full-time undergraduates not including student aid. Graduation and transfer-out rates for first-time full-time undergraduates are some other variables used by the system. Loan default rate is defined as the percentage of an institution's borrowers who entered repayment on certain Federal student loans in federal fiscal year 2009 and who defaulted before September 30, 2011. Finally, employment is considered in the rating system as what kind of jobs do students have when they graduate (White House, 2014).

3. Discussion An analytical review of the literature reveals three disruptive waves are going to force universities to offer online education. The first disruptive wave is the financial crisis in higher education. It is forecasted that more than thirty to forty percent of private universities in the U.S. will file bankruptcy within two decades. Institutional costs are rising while the Federal student aid is decreasing. The government can no longer subsidize higher education as generously as it used to.

Accessibility is going to become a major factor for financial aid allocation based on the new system. According to the College Scorecard, the total enrolment of a university will have an impact on this new rating system. Many universities have serious space limitations and simply cannot offer more classes to ensure undergraduate students have the classes they need every semester to graduate in 4 –years. One major solution to tackle this issue is to offer online courses. For profit universities have done a great job in implementing this strategy. Not only the issue of classroom space limitation was resolved for them but overall enrolment at for-profit colleges and universities increased 225 percent in the past twenty years (NCSL, 2013).

Many universities face high competition over traditional face-to-face students were several institutions of higher education are only a few miles away. If the goal is to increase total enrolment numbers, maybe the only viable solution is to reach out to students virtually and look for students beyond the local or regional areas the universities are physically located. This is a solution that has been tested successfully many times. For example, Drexel University plans to increase its enrolment “by capitalizing on the University's strong market position in online education” (Drexel, 2014).

The cost of higher education has steadily increased in the U.S. In year 2014, the price for a 4-year university degree for a residential student at an American university is up to $240,000 (Economist, 2014). A report by the National Center for Education Statistics stated that the prices for undergraduate tuition, room, and board at public institutions rose 40 percent in the past ten years (NCES, 2015). It has been proven that in the long-term Online courses can be provided more cheaply than traditional ones (Economist, 2014). Advancements in technology will sooner or later force most colleges and universities to offer online courses and programs in the near future.

The technological revolution will challenge the traditional business models used in higher education. This is the second disruptive wave that will affect the decision of universities to offer more online courses and programs. The current business models will not help universities decrease the net price of higher education for universities. Colleges and universities in the U.S. have passed most of the rising costs on to students. Fees increased by 28% in American private universities and 27% in Public in the five years to 2012. American student debt adds up to $1.2 trillion and more than 7 million individuals have defaulted on their loans. Students are now thinking about the return on

investment especially when they are not able to find employment in their fields of study after graduation.

Many business processes and operations hinder the 4-year graduation on undergraduate students. Students often experience challenging situations at various offices such Financial Aid, Admissions or the Registrar’s that will decrease their satisfaction level and sometimes influence them to consider other universities or ultimately leave a college or university. In addition, spacing limitations and classroom availability are becoming major challenges for students to graduate on time. Many times some classes are not offered in a semester due to lack of classroom availability or other spacing issues on campuses. Offering online classes is one good solution to help with this problem. The third disruptive wave affecting universities in the U.S. is more theoretical in nature. In the past a higher education was more geared towards a small group of elites. This has slowly changed with various industries requiring a higher education as a requirement for employment and consequently universities offering more professional degrees. Universities and institutions of higher education in the U.S. are now responsible for training and retraining workers throughout their careers.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and Open Courseware initiatives such as the one offered by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have made what had been traditionally locked behind firewalls and secure servers freely available to users all around the world (Haggard, 2013). An independent learner no longer needs to enrol in a paid course in a traditional class in a brick and mortar university to learn about many subjects (Hilton, Wiley, Stein, & Johnson, 2010). These courses are now being made available online free of charge to the users. This will definitely impact enrolments in higher education. Many universities are reaching out to new and diverse markets online through online certificate programs (Richter & McPherson, 2012). It is interesting to note that for example currently there are more online certificates in program evaluation that graduate programs offering such a degree. Can universities survive the above challenges without utilizing online education?

4. Conclusions Over 6.7 million students were taking online courses in the fall 2011 term. This shows an amazing increase of 570,000 students over the fall 2010 term (Allen & Seaman, 2013). This is a current trend in higher education in the U.S. A review of the current literature and analysis of the possible impacts of the new College Scorecard rating system initiated by the Obama Administration clearly suggests that the current trend of offering more online courses and programs in colleges and universities in the U.S. will continue. In addition to all of the above review and analysis, it is important to note that the true digital natives that are currently still enrolled in the k-12 system in the U.S. will eventually enter the institutions of higher education in the next few years. Offering online courses will become an expectation for this new population of students and universities that initially resist changing will not be able to complete or even survive (Watson & Pecchioni, 2011).

Future qualitative research is recommended to understand the barriers college administrators face to implement online education in their universities. In addition, more in-depth research is needed to identify expectations of digital natives from their college classroom experience. After the College Scorecard initiative is up and running, a quantitative survey research is recommended to see what statistically significant differences this new rating system has made on the online course offering of colleges and universities in the U.S. At this time, there is an excellent foundation for further research, but it is recommended that future research could benefit from a more theoretically informed basis. Future research is recommended to explore new ways of conceptualizing these research issues drawing on theories. In addition, utilizing change theories to serve as theoretical frameworks for such studies is highly recommended. Since this is a new initiative, there is a need for quantitative longitudinal studies to keep track of the changes and effects of the College Score rating system on online offerings of colleges and universities. Finally, a survey of college administrators about the possible impacts of this new initiative on the business processes and models on institutions of higher education in the U.S. is recommended.

Online education is here and will continue to stay in the higher education industry for many more years to come. What learning technologies will be available to college faculty and administrators ten years from now? That is a question that needs to be answered with an open mind. Considering the advancements of learning technologies in the past ten years, one could easily expect that the learning technologies ten years from now will be completely different than what is being used today. This calls for more ongoing change for faculty and administrators in institutions of higher education. One could embrace these new changes and use them as a competitive advantage or decide to resist the change and lose ground to the fierce competition in the industry. The real question is when are we going to change?

5. References

Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2013). Changing Course: Ten Years of Tracking Online Education in the United States, 2013. Online Learning Consortium. Allen, I., Seaman, J., & Sloan, C. (2010). Class Differences: Online Education in the United States, 2010. Online Learning Consortium. Angiello, R. (2010). Study Looks at Online Learning vs. Traditional instruction. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed For Quick Review, 76(2), 56-59. Drexel University. (2014). Continue to Grow Drexels’ Enrolment. Retrieved from http://www.drexel.edu/strategicPlan/initiatives/enrollment/ Economist. (2014). Making College Cost Less. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21600120-many-american- universities-offer-lousy-value-money-government-can-help-change Garrison, D. R., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Fung, T. (2010). Exploring Causal Relationships among Teaching, Cognitive and Social Presence: Student Perceptions of the Community of Inquiry Framework. Internet And Higher Education, 13(1-2), 31-36. Haggard, S. (2013). The maturing of the MOOC: Literature review of massive open online courses and other forms of online distance learning [BIS Research Paper No. 130]. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved from

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data /file/240193/13-1173-maturing-of-the-mooc.pdf Hilton III, J., Wiley, D., Stein, J., & Johnson, A. (2010). The four R’s s of openness and ALMS analysis: Frameworks for open educational resources. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning, 25 ,37–44. doi:10.1080/02680510903482132 Juwah, C. (2006). Interactions in Online Education: Implications for Theory and Practice. London: Routledge, 2006. Print. Lewin, T. (2012). Universities reshaping education on the web. The New York Times, A12. Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., Jones, K., Department of Education (ED), O., & SRI, I. (2009). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. US Department Of Education. Mayadas, A., Bourne, J., & Bacsich, P. (2009). Online Education Today. Journal Of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 13(2), 49-56. Moore, M. & William, A. Handbook of Distance Education. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 2003. Print. National Conference of State Legislatures. (2013). For-Profit Colleges and Universities. Retrieved from: http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/for-profit-colleges- and-universities.aspx Richter, T., & McPherson, M. (2012). Open educational resources: Education for the world? Distance Education, 33, 37–41. doi:10.1080/01587919.2012.692068 Sarma, S. & Sive, H. (2013). Education: Online on-ramps. Nature, 499(7458), 277- 278. Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2009). Community of Inquiry as a Theoretical Framework to Foster "Epistemic Engagement" and "Cognitive Presence" in Online Education. Computers & Education, 52(3), 543-553. Watson, J., & Pecchioni, L. (2011). Digital natives and digital media in the college classroom: assignment design and impacts on student learning. Educational Media International, 48(4), 307-320. The White House. (2014). College Scorecard. Retrieved from: http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/education/higher-education/college- score-card

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 80-92, January 2015

Analysing the Effectiveness of Engagement- Promoting Techniques in the EFL Classroom

Joao Carlos Koch Junior Sapporo Gakuin University Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan

Abstract. One of the priorities of language teachers is to ensure classes are interesting and engaging. Learners‟ different backgrounds and individual preferences, however, make each class unique. Choice of materials and topics work differently in different classes, and the same is true with teacher behaviour. Through a series of classroom observations, which were conducted through an observation instrument in different settings and with different teachers and students, this research attempted to investigate and list a number of teacher techniques and their effectiveness in promoting and maintaining learner engagement. These techniques were evaluated according to students‟ responses and perceived levels of engagement. The observation instrument was then evaluated. Analysis of findings resulted in a list of categorised techniques and behaviours that were deemed engaging or otherwise beneficial and desirable in class.

Keywords: classroom observation, learner engagement, teacher behaviour, teaching techniques, motivation

1. Rationale

1.1. Background

As teachers, we all hope to keep our lessons interesting and our learners engaged. We also know that no two classes are alike. This is mostly due to learners‟ individual backgrounds, which teachers commonly keep in mind when they plan and deliver their lessons. For instance, in a class with a high number of South American learners, teachers are more likely to engage students with more communicative/group activities than they would in a class where learners are predominantly South-Eastern Asians. However, the opposite may also be true – for example, if the teacher is aiming at using/developing other abilities and learning strategies and/or preferences other than the ones preferred by learners.

In my setting, for instance, even though most teachers would claim they consistently consider learners‟ backgrounds when choosing materials and activities and making decisions when planning an engaging lesson, this behaviour is often limited. A great many teachers are in situations where careful

consideration of students‟ backgrounds is not an option, usually due to time constraints but often also due to lack of awareness.

1.2. Summary of literature

Knowledge of what works best to engage a particular group of learners can enable teachers to tailor lessons that focus on their learners‟ most prominent characteristics while placing less focus on aspects that are not strongly preferred among the class. However, this could also deny the positive impact that challenges have on learner motivation and avoid the development of learner confidence. According to Bandura (1977), positive experiences enhance learner beliefs in their own ability, and these beliefs are necessary for dealing with challenging situations. Corno (1983) highlights this by saying that the effort needed in challenging tasks derives primarily from a learner‟s belief in their own ability, and the effect of such beliefs override learner actual ability. It is important to note that tasks that aim to enhance learner beliefs in their own ability should be kept achievable (Dornyei, 1994).

One of the most popular models of categorising learners‟ characteristics is the Theory of Multiple Intelligences [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences], proposed by Howard Gardner. There have been attempts that take theories and put them to practical use (such as the Project Zero [pz.gse.harvard.edu/mi_schools.php], created by Gardner to research ways to develop multiple intelligences schools based on his theory). Gardner himself, however, warns that „intelligences‟ are not the same as „styles‟, and that the “MI theory is in no way an educational prescription”, and that has been developed without specific educational goals (Gardner, 1995). As an example, the author describes the fact that the interpersonal intelligence “has to do with understanding other people”, but it is often used as a rationale for learning programmes for introverted students – which, according to Gardner, is not at all derived from his theory. Gardner also warns that, while most topics can be approached in a variety of ways, it is flawed to assume all topics can be taught using all intelligences.

Nevertheless, his studies are helpful for teachers in establishing ways to make their repertoire of techniques broader, and looking for activities that will add variety to the classroom, especially when the teacher is flexible to select key topics and approach them “in a variety of ways”, which allows the teacher to reach more learners, and learners to understand concepts in more than one way (Gardner, 1995).

It should also be noted that teachers must be flexible even when being constrained to a narrow syllabus. According to Ehrman et al (2003b), these teachers should be able to systematically cater for the individual differences of their learners. The authors explain that teachers should understand that their desire to help, by choosing what they believe to be the most efficient way, “can become interference for a learner whose approach to learning differs from the teacher‟s preference.” Different kinds of teacher behaviour also affect the class; for instance, according to Clunies-Ross et al (2008), proactive behaviours such as

active listening result in better outcomes than lecturing or disapproving students.

1.3. Reflective teaching and shaping the observation instrument

1.3.1. From a personal perspective: in my current teaching situation, it is especially important that the teacher possesses an ability to be spontaneous and improvise; being able to make informed decisions throughout the lesson plays an important role in the choice and implementation of appropriate stimuli. One way for teachers to learn these skills is through discussion with and observation of their peers, but one major problem is that opportunities for these to occur are rare in my current teaching scenario. Moreover, teachers often do not engage in these activities due to the lack of clear guidance or instructions on how to proceed.

To address these two particularities of my environment (i.e. the lack of formal guidance for peer-based development, and the importance of informed decision- making to generate stimuli in class) I chose to design a method that will allow teachers to conduct observations and collect data on a variety of teacher- generated stimuli in the language classroom. It also should allow the observer to analyse the different stimuli and to enable both teacher and observer to reflect on these stimuli and analyses, and ideally, this new information will help teachers to raise their awareness about different ways to stimulate learning, as well as expand their repertoire of techniques that work in their particular settings.

1.3.2. From the literature perspective: the various points described in the literature review above defend the idea that employing a variety of achievable activities and techniques in classroom is beneficial for learners. Variety, however, implies an escape from routine, from tradition, which are sometimes difficult to change. Dewey (1933, in Farrell, 2007), states that teachers who cannot reflect on their work are unable to make informed decisions. According to Ferrell, one type of reflection is the one that focuses on classroom actions. Cruickshank and Applegate (1981, in Ferrell, 2007) defined this as a process that “help[s] teachers to think about what happened, why it happened, and what else could have been done to reach their goals” (my italics).

Through considering this suggestion of „what else could have been done‟, the idea of a peer observation scheme that analyses the activity of the teacher in the classroom comes to mind. One major benefit of peer observation is that not only does it enable less experienced teachers to learn from their more experienced colleagues, but also the experienced teachers can reflect on their own teaching (as noted by Richards and Farrell, 2005). The peer observation scheme, therefore, aims to promote reflective teaching through the observance of teaching techniques in practice, which comprise varied activities and behaviours such as classroom management, correction techniques, choice of materials and exercises/activities, among others.

The observation will be done through a classroom observation instrument. This instrument aims to provide teachers with an opportunity to assess their use of

techniques in classroom, by allowing observers (through the instrument) and teachers (through feedback and discussion with observers) to reflect on their practice and raise their awareness about variety of techniques, i.e. different ways to achieve the same goals, and how they can use this knowledge in their practice for the benefit of their learners.

The present instrument has a scaffolding approach. It will chart the different forms of teacher-generated stimuli observed, together with the learner response to each stimulus, followed by a description and analysis of the perceived strengths and weaknesses of each stimulus. This data will allow the observer to suggest variations or alternative ways to counter the limitation as well as to promote variety within the classroom while maintaining the same goals. It is important to note that, in this research, the term „stimulus‟ is used in the sense of both what the teacher does to engage students interest and which resources and aids are employed.

Through the use of this observation instrument to collect data on teaching techniques employed in the language classroom, this research aims to:

a. build a list of findings drawn from these teaching techniques; b. analyse these findings with focus on learner engagement levels, reaction and response to the stimuli; c. use this analysis to evaluate the instrument.

2. The observation instrument

The version of the instrument used in this research contains two sections, A and B. A was built to collect key information about the class, namely the number of students and their linguistic background (in this case, L1), age range, the type of class, and class level, as well as summary information about the lesson (i.e. teaching aims, topic).

Section B – the lesson – is comprised of a table. For each lesson stage, the observer made notes of the resources used for language input, teacher stimulus and learners’ response(s) to the stimulus, a scale with levels of perceived learner engagement, strengths and limitations of (i.e. shortcomings of the activity/exercise or the choice of materials/resources), and suggested alternatives, to counter the limitations observed. The result is a table with six columns, one for each of the categories here described.

Observation instrument: Engagement-promoting techniques

Venue Date/time Teacher

A. The class

Students‟ backgrounds (L1): Type of class:

 ______  General English  ______  Business English  ______  Academic English  ______  ESP  ______  Exam (IELTS/TOEIC/CAE/etc)  ______  Other – specify:  ______

Topic: Total: ______students ______Age range: ______to ______

Level: ______Teaching aims:

B. The lesson (instructions on how to fill in this section)

Lesson stage Activity/ Exercise (write lesson stage here, e.g. „Presentation‟/„Lead- (briefly describe the activity/activities in this stage, e.g. „teacher in‟) eliciting items of the presentation and writing them on the board‟)

Resources used Teacher Learner Learner Strengths of Limitations Suggested for language stimulus response Engagement stimulus of stimulus Alternatives input (e.g. (e.g. (mark the (how the (where the (to counter (check those that teacher learners‟ level that stimulus stimulus fell the apply, add to the activity or activity or applies) was short) limitation list where techniques) behaviour) beneficial) and account necessary) for variety) Non-linguistic: Teacher Learners Engaging, Some -Print a drew the laughed and visual (in learners picture Flashcards face of the most High  contrast were not beforehand Worksheets prime immediately with other familiar with -Ask a Projector/display minister to recognised Medium things on it (possibly learner to Video use in the the face the WB due to draw, or for CD player next step Low which were differences a volunteer Computer written) in their to draw Internet culture) Realia Teacher Some -Colour -Teacher- -do it in Pictures/posters elicited students coded centred smaller Audio facts about gave words, -Only groups Board  the prime answers to highlighting oral/written instead of Other(s): minister the the parts of language, whole class High A hand-drawn through questions speech without -make it face  questions and used -Asking variety more Medium the target „Are you -whole class, student-  Linguistic: language sure?‟ made not all centred

students students Low Audio think could Video beyond engage, Written text  „yes‟ or „no‟ some Body language  parallel Oral language  conversation Other(s): … High … … …

Medium

Low

B. The lesson

Lesson stage Activity/ Exercise

Resources used Teacher Learner Learner Strengths Limitations of Suggested for language stimulus response Engagement of stimulus stimulus Alternatives input

Non-linguistic: High

Flashcards Medium Worksheets Projector/display Low Video CD player Computer High Internet Realia Medium Pictures/posters Audio Low Board Other(s):

Linguistic: High Audio Video Medium Written text Body language Low Oral language Other(s):

3. Further refinement of the instrument layout

Strengths Weaknesses Proposed remedies „Learner response‟ is an ‟Textbook‟ and „Dictionary‟ are missing in the efficient and meaningful „Resources‟ column, in spite of being items commonly way to collect information found in the language classroom about the ways learners Add these terms to the column, under „linguistic respond to each stimulus. (input)‟ This is more accurate and detailed than simply a The items in „Resources used for language input‟, gauge with learners‟ while important to be made note of, do not enable the engagement levels user to make a direct, explicit connection between resources and teacher stimulus (there are several The changes in stimuli in one lesson stage, but the „resources…‟ field terminology („technique‟ collects data about an entire lesson stage instead of per becoming „stimulus‟ and stimulus). Establishing what resources were used in „enthusiasm‟ becoming what moment in the lesson is left up to the user, and „engagement‟) also otherwise resources will be ticked per lesson stage provoked a shift in focus, instead of teacher stimulus from actual techniques to Offer a list of resources for user guidance only, and different ways teachers users of the instrument are still required to write down behave in class. Likewise, what resources were used and in what moment in the „engagement‟ represents lesson, and who used them (i.e. teacher or student(s)). better what the instrument This should be explained in the instructions sheet is trying to achieve (analyzing different Learner engagement places little emphasis on stimuli and their effects in changes in levels of engagement, perceived or not the language classroom, A system with arrows is to be included in the beyond making learners „learner engagement‟ column, where an „up‟ arrow enthused) would indicate a rise in learner engagement, and a „down‟ arrow would be used to mark reduced levels of The instruction sheet is an learner engagement compared with the previous important addition to this stimulus instrument, mostly due to its open-ended nature Filling in the „suggested alternatives‟ column often involves thinking outside the lesson, and the user has to come up with suggestions while the lesson is taking place. This creates a compromise between the attention the user is paying to their thoughts and the attention to the actual lesson This is not a limitation of the instrument per se; the suggested alternatives should be discussed as soon as possible after the lesson is finished, and the respective column should preferably be filled out then, unless said discussion is not possible, then the suggestions can be included during the lesson or after the lesson is finished

4. Analysis of Findings and Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Instrument

Findings

The instruments collected data in three main, interrelated categories: teacher technique (also referred to as stimulus), student response, and an analysis of strengths and weaknesses of each stimulus. The data gathered from the instrument helped me to extract findings, which were then analysed. This analysis allowed me to draw some conclusions about the instrument‟s success in achieving the aims of the research.

Finding 1 – Physicality: Keeping learners physically engaged encourages more extensive use of language.

Clear techniques that keep learners physically engaged, such as adapting an existing game for language-learning purposes, or having them sing along, seemed to promote positively-perceived behaviours, such as body language and extensive use of language. This leads me to believe that more physical activities can promote student engagement as well as minimise opportunities for off-topic talk and other kinds of behaviour unrelated to the lesson, by increasing focus, concentration and involvement.

Finding 2 – Generating and sustaining flow: Introducing new elements or adapting elements already present in the lesson, without breaking the pace, prevents learners from losing or shifting their focus.

Techniques that allow teachers to transition between different stages in the lesson in a seamless manner, without interrupting the lesson flow (for instance, not stopping everything to erase the board or dispense handouts) seem to have a significant effect on keeping learners‟ attention levels high.

Finding 3 – Use of surprise elements: Using the element of surprise holds the learners’ focus on the topic, especially in lengthy lessons.

By timing the delivery of information to learners and gradually revealing previously-concealed information, the teacher is able to maintain the element of surprise, thus keeping learners focused and engaged; while it is not clear whether these particular uses of the surprise element were employed consciously, it had a seemingly positive effect and it appeared to help learners stay focused and interested.

Finding 4 – Capitalising on awareness-raising: Using new language in a controlled manner in a main activity, without drawing attention to it, is a potentially powerful way to motivate learners when addressing the same point in the future.

In this technique, the teacher introduces new content (such as new grammar, or a pronunciation-related point) in tandem with a primary, main activity during the lesson, in an attempt to make students notice and raise their awareness of it. The teacher does not make any explicit reference to this new language at this

time. The premise is that, when this content is addressed in a future lesson, learners will recognise the new and benefit from the feeling of being familiar with it, which is a potentially strong means of raising their curiosity and eagerness to learn.

Finding 5 –Pronunciation work: Embedding a pronunciation-related exercise into another exercise adds variety to the lesson and potentially sustains the attention of learners.

There are a number of ways in which pronunciation practice can be approached (for example, through song lyrics, the use of homophones in jokes or puns, making poems, or dictations). Pronunciation work employs different types of drilling and activities, including physical activities (which, as seen in Finding 1 above, can be highly motivating); with a rich repertoire, the possibilities are many for a teacher to turn a more controlled exercise into something more engaging.

Finding 6 – Recycling language: Recycling of language through personalisation activities increases confidence and therefore engagement.

Aided by the teacher, learners use their experience and individual interests to create opportunities for authentic and meaningful interactions (for instance, interviewing the observer or a member of the school‟s staff, or for getting to know their peers better), which can shift their focus from the limited language being practised to the use of a wider linguistic range. This has a positive impact on their use of language, the communicative aspects of the lesson, and especially on their engagement levels. However, some students were seen struggling with this freer use of language, which could have been because of language limitation, or simply lack of interest in the activity.

Finding 7 – Drawing on the board: Drawing on the board has a strong visual impact, and it is a relevant, meaningful and engaging form of teacher- generated stimulus.

Drawing can be used in a variety of ways – such eliciting vocabulary as well as short narratives from learners. Sketching has seemingly more benefits than choosing a picture and sticking it on the board: it motivates students to watch what is happening, especially since they do not know what is being drawn. Another benefit is that it is dynamic and responsive – the lesson flow can determine the teacher‟s next drawing. Moreover, even a bad drawing is potentially engaging, i.e. students laugh at the teacher‟s lack of skill.

Finding 8 – Colour-coding boardwork: Colour-coding information on the board results in a neat-looking board, with information easier to process if compared with a single-colour board.

While it is more challenging to determine the actual impact of the technique on learners through observation (their reactions are subtler and more passive than in other cases), it is clear to the observer that colour-coded information on the whiteboard is a more effective way to display information, especially for students with visual learning preferences. Information is easy to retrieve,

including for the teacher, and copying information is also made easier (students can look from their notes and refocus on the board faster).

Instrument

One major shortcoming of working with teacher techniques and their effect on learner motivation is that analysing techniques and assessing learners‟ level of engagement is sometimes a very challenging undertaking, especially for novice teachers who are unable to evaluate the technique effectively from their own standpoints.

There were instances in which the instrument clearly allowed the observer to chart teacher techniques that were clearly observable, with a clear purpose, and whose benefits and limitations were evident based on the observed response from learners to the stimulus and their levels of engagement. In other cases, the technique‟s effects on learners were not evident, and establishing benefits, strengths or limitations was done in a more subjective way, almost solely from the observer‟s point of view. In these instances, the use of the instrument as a base for post-lesson reflection should be considered.

To counter these limitations, one suggestion is that the instrument should employ clearer, more specific fields to record (and perhaps analyse) students‟ responses: eye contact, facial expressions, checking a dictionary or a mobile phone, interactions with the teacher and their peers (and their tone when they speak: are they chatting, complaining, or asking for clarification… ?), body language, etc. These insights would be useful not only in aiding the observer with establishing the effect of a stimulus, but also if used during a post-lesson discussion with the teacher observed.

It is important to note, however, that positive and negative reactions and learner engagement levels that were observed (as well as the teacher‟s skill in delivering and managing the stimulus) are highly connected to this particular situation. In other words, while the quality of this qualitative data is satisfactory in this context, the difficulty in generalising from this data makes the usefulness of findings like the one described here, highly limited to the setting in which the observation takes place.

Furthermore, it is important to note that the instrument does not, in itself, offer a direct way to make comparisons between different techniques according to their effectiveness; instead, it enables the user to compile a list of observed techniques with comments regarding their strong and weak points in that particular setting, and allows users to consider alternatives for the use of stimuli in their particular setting. In other words, one benefit of the use of this instrument is that users build a collection of ideas that will enhance their own repertoire. These ideas come from the teachers‟ experience, their own reading, or other observations.

Another characteristic of this qualitative type of research is that there are a number of variables that could change the findings analysed here: teacher skill, or learner background/age/level. For example, pronunciation drilling well

conducted is likely to bring hilarity and memorability to learning, whereas the same undertaken arhytmically and half-heartedly can actually reduce motivation. Physical activities are likely to be used several times in a Young Learners‟ class but might be unproductive in a group of learners taking the IELTS exam the next day. Likewise, making meaningful observations and drawing conclusions from them depend on the skills of the observer.

5. Conclusion

This analysis of findings serves to show that the evaluated instrument worked in these particular settings, and therefore I believe this instrument is potentially useful in different situations.

This research can be useful in developing ways to research or assess other, unmentioned forms of stimuli/resources, such as mobile-learning, blended- learning classrooms, bring-your-own-device (BYOD-)- learning, and the impact of these forms of learning on a particular group of learners.

The inductive-learning nature of the instrument (i.e. the users are guided to draw new information from their own findings) enables teachers to build knowledge from their own experience. This is especially useful and helpful in my current setting, where teachers often lack the skills or time to find out where to look for to discover new, meaningful information on their own.

I especially believe the level of reflection found through the use of this instrument not only makes one‟s repertoire richer, but also serves as a springboard for the formation of new beliefs. These new beliefs, in turn, work as a base for informed decision-making. In addition, it is more meaningful to experience a teaching technique than to read or hear about it.

Finally, in my particular setting, this research proved to be useful in addressing

a. a problem (the lack of formal training by a great many teachers); b. a necessity (the need for informed decision-making in conducting a lesson); while considering c. one major limitation (the limited time/skills/resources teachers have available to do research).

In summary, I consider direct research of this kind to be an invaluable way for individuals to take responsibility for their development as language teachers.

6. References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Corno, L., and Mandinach, E. B. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement in classroom learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18, 2, 88-108. Clunies-Ross, P., Little, E., and Kienhuis, M. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with

teacher stress and student behaviour. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 28, 6, 693-710. Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 3, 273-284 Ehrman, M., and Leaver, B. L. (2003a). Cognitive styles in the service of language learning. System, 31, 393-415. Ehrman, M., Leaver, B. L., and Oxford, R. L. (2003b). A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System, 31, 313-330. Farrell, T. S. C. (2007). Chapter 1: Reflective Language Teaching. Reflective Language Teaching – From Research to Practice. London: Continuum. Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages. The Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 3, 200-203, 206-209. Richards, J. C., and Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Chapter 6: Peer Observation. Professional Development for Language Teachers – Strategies for Teacher Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Education Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in the EFL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 6, 1, 3-23. Wrag, E. C. (2012). An Introduction to Classroom Observation. Routledge.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 93-103, January 2015

Beyond Subitizing: Symbolic Manipulations of Numbers1

Sinan Olkun TED University, Department of Elementary Education, Ziya Gokalp Cad. No. 48 Ankara 06420 Turkey.

Arif Altun Hacettepe University, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, Ankara, Turkey

Sakine Göçer Şahin Hacettepe University, Department of Educationan Sciences, Ankara, Turkey

This study has been supported by a grant from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBİTAK) under the grant number 111K545.

Abstract. This study tested the hypothesis that subitizing ability may cause achievement differences in mathematics especially for students with mathematics learning disabilities. Students from 1st through 4th grade were applied to curriculum based math achievement tests (MAT). Based on MAT scores, they were divided into four groups as Mathematics Learning Disorder (MLD) risks, low achievers (LA), typical achievers (TA), and high achievers (HA). All students were asked randomly and canonically arranged dot enumeration tasks with 3 through 9 dots. Median response times (MRT) were calculated for each task and plotted for each grade level and task types. There were virtually no differences in MRTs for number 3 and 4. On the other hand, the MLD risk group spent relatively more time on enumerating canonically arranged dots from 5 through 9. Results provided more support for the claim that rather than subitizing, numerosity coding mechanisms or the type of symbolic quantity manipulations is different in children with different mathematical achievements especially the lower group, the MLD risk group.

Keywords: subitizing, numerosity coding, math achievement, symbolic manipulations of quantities

1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2014 Meeting of the Special Interest Group (SIG) 22 "Neuroscience and Education" organized by the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI) on 12th to 14th June 2014 in Göttingen, Germany.

1. Introduction Many researchers (Desoete, Ceulemans, Roeyers, & Huylebroeck, 2009; Landerl, Bevan, & Butterworth, 2004; Landerl & Kolle, 2009) claimed that deficits in subitizing mechanism, responsible for quickly enumerating small number of objects at a glance, may cause severe learning disabilities in mathematics. Butterworth (2010) on the other hand proposed an alternative hypothesis in that he claimed the deficit lies in an inherited system for sets of objects and operations on them (numerosity coding) on which arithmetic is built. However, there is a few empirical evidence to support both of the claims strongly. They are either single case studies or position papers. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that subitizing may cause achievement differences in mathematics especially for students with mathematics learning disabilities.

1.1 Theoretical background Human cognition has at least 5 core systems for the foundations of human knowledge, one of which deals with numbers (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007). Human number system and possibly some other species are thought to have two separate sub systems to deal with different aspects of number (Feigenson, Dehaene, & Spelke, 2004). For example Lemer, Dehaene, Spelke, and Cohen (2003) suggested that numerical abilities rest on the integration of two distinct systems, a verbal system and a non-symbolic system. Verbal system represents the numerical magnitude as exact quantities while the non-symbolic or analog system represents approximate quantities.

The approximate number system (ANS) deals with large numbers (>4) in an approximate fashion. As small as 6 months old infants can discriminate 8 from 16 represented in visual (Xue & Spelke, 2000) or auditory sequences (Lipton & Spelke, 2003) but not 8 from 12. On the other hand 9-month-old infants can discriminate both but not 8 from 10 (Lipton & Spelke, 2003). There is also evidence that 9-month-old infants successfully add and subtract over numbers of items that exceed object-tracking limits (McCrink & Wynn, 2004), that is out of subitizing range (>4). However, in both numerosity comparison, and addition and subtraction situations, there is a set size signature, called Weber fraction, which develops from infancy through adulthood. This basic capacity seems to develop prior to language and symbolic counting and still to be in use in adulthood.

The other subsystem is called exact (or small) number system (ENS). This basic number processing ability is also intact starting from infancy. Even 5-days-old infants can discriminate 2 dots from 3 dots by means of subitizing but not 4 dots from 6 dots (Antell & Keating, 1983). Six-month-olds can control small numbers of objects even under addition and subtraction operations (Wynn, 1992). Adults can also use this system to quickly enumerate small numbers of objects up to four. If the number of objects is more than four and if there is time available then counting or calculation operations are used within this system. However, a different system is engaged to enumerate the objects under limited time constraints.

Some researchers (Butterworth, 2003; S. Dehaene, 1997) believe that any disorder or malfunction in either of these systems can cause specific learning disabilities in mathematics. In fact, there are several hypothesis about the root causes of very low achievement in math or dyscalculia. One posits that the deficit in approximate number system (ANS) causes mathematics learning difficulties. Others claim that dyscalculia stems largely from the deficit in exact number system (ENS) or subitizing, quickly enumerating small numbers of objects usually less then 5. Still others state that dyscalculia is caused by the deficit in accessing magnitudes from symbols or vice versa, called access deficit hypothesis (ADH). Rousselle and Noel (2007) for instance claimed that children with mathematics learning disabilities have difficulty in accessing numerical magnitude from symbols rather than in processing numerosity per se. Butterworth (2010) on the other hand claimed that a deficit in numerosity coding, not in the approximate number system or the small number system, is responsible for dyscalculia. In contrast to this claim Landerl and Kolle (2009) did not find much evidence that dyscalculic children process numbers qualitatively differently from children with typical arithmetic development.

Available evidence indicates that a fine grained research is needed to further clarify these issues. The purpose of this study was then to test the hypothesis that either subitizing or numerosity coding mechanisms is different in children with different mathematical achievements by using dot counting paradigms.

2. Methods

2.1 Participants

Participants were randomly selected from 12 elementary schools, located four different SES locations with an intention to draw a representative sample of students from 1st to 4th grade within a metropolitan area in a mid-Anatolian city. Initially, data were collected from 487 students. Six students were excluded from the sample since they were diagnosed with some sort of general learning disorders and/or mainstreamed in regular classrooms. The final sample consist of 125, 126, 121, and 109 participants (481 in total) from 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grade respectively. There are approximately equal numbers of boys and girls in each grade level and in total. We did not control for IQ for the practical difficulties, so this is a limitation.

2.2 Data collection tools

There were mainly three tests for data collection. First, all participants were administered a math achievement test (MAT) developed by Fidan (2013) based on the number domain of the Turkish State Curriculum (MEB, 2004). There were different achievement tests for each grade level. The tests contained 13, 15, 16, and 24 items for the first, second, third, and fourth grade respectively. The math achievement test is an untimed test but the administration took one class hour (approximately 40 minutes) for the students.

The second test contained dot counting tasks (RDC). The dots were randomly arranged in each task from the numerosity 3 to 9 (see Figure 1 for details). The test contained 14 tasks representing each numerosity twice.

Figure 1. Random dot counting tasks

The third test was, in many respects similar to the second test except that the dots were arranged canonically or domino like patterns (CDC) (see Figure 2 for details). Canonic dot patterns are considered to be symbolically manipulated (Piazza, Mechelli, Butterworth, & Price, 2002). So we expected that randomly arranged dots are enumerated differently from canonically arranged dots by students with different achievement levels.

Figure 2. Canonic dot counting tasks

2.3 Procedure and Analysis

Raw scores were gathered from the math achievement tests. Students were placed in four achievement groups based on their math achievement scores, in each grade level. Earlier research (Barbaresi, Katusic, Colligan, Weaver, & Jacobsen, 2005; Shalev, Manor, & Gross-Tsur, 2005) reported the prevalence of dyscalculia or MLD roughly from 5% to 14%. In average we placed the lowest 10% of the students in MLD risk group, 11-25% in low achievement, 26-95% in typical achievement and >95% in high achievement group. Finally, we consulted teachers for their opinions about the students to make sure that students’ math scores reflected their general situations in mathematics. Students with some

other learning difficulties were also excluded. Defining the MLD risk group was loose in this study so this was another limitation of the current study.

We calculated groups’ median response times (MRT) for CDC and RDC tests. Based on these scores and achievement groupings we plotted the data to see the changes in response times from the number 3 to 9. RDC and CDC data were plotted separately for each grade level. Each achievement group has a separate line in the graphs.

3. Results As seen in Figure1, first graders had a steadly increasing median response times (MRT) for enumarating the numbers from 3 to 9. Students in all achievement groups had the similar patterns of MRTs except that the lower groups had relatively higher MRTs.

Figure 1. Median response times of 1st graders to RDC tasks

7000 6000 5000 MLD 4000 Low Achiever 3000 Typcial Achiever 2000 High Achiever 1000 0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Second graders had also a gradually and steadly increasing median response times for enumerating the numbers from 3 to 9. As seen in Figure 2, the MLD group had relatively higher median response times than the other groups. The three other groups have almost similar median response times. The discrepancy in MLD group’s MRTs is getting more and more while the number of dots increases from 3 to 8 except nine.

Figure 2. Median response times of 2nd graders to RDC tasks

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Third graders’patterns of MRT is also similar to the first and second graders in terms of steady increase. This time however, the achievement groups especially the lower groups are closer to each other.

Figure 3. Median response times of 3rd graders to RDC tasks

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Fourth graders’ data showed a suprizing and unexpected pattern in terms of high achievers’ MRT. Except the number 6, high achievers got higher MRTs from other groups. However, all other patterns are similar to the first, second, and third graders’.

Figure 4. Median response times of 4th graders to RDC tasks

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The graphs obtained from the canonic dot counting (CDC) test are more illustrative than RCD tests in that CDC tasks seem to be more discriminative than RDC tasks. As seen in Figure 5, 6, 7 and 8, except for third graders, in all other grades MLD group showed an MRT pattern visibly different from other achievement groups especially for higher numbers.

Figure 5. Median response times of 1st graders to CDC tasks

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Additionally, except for the first graders’ MRTs for the number 4, there is virtually no difference between the achievement groups in terms of MRTs for

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the number in the subitizing range (number 3 and 4). In other words, the MRTs are very close to each other both for achievement groups and numbers (ie. 3 and 4). That means the tasks of enumerating canonically arranged 3 and 4 is the same for all students including very low achievers. This is the most striking finding of this study.

From first to fourth grade, on the other hand while the other achievement groups are getting closer to each other in terms of MRTs the MLD risk group is getting hiher and higher MRTs from the number 5 though 9. This is the second most important finding of this study.

Figure 6. Median response times of 2nd graders to CDC tasks

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Figure 7. Median response times of 3rd graders to CDC tasks

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Figure 8. Median response times of 4th graders to CDC tasks

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4. Discussion The findings of this study showed that there might be differences among the achievement groups in terms of subitizing ability. This seems less likely however. Except for the first graders, there were virtually no differences among achievement groups in terms of enumerating the numbers in the subitizing range (3 and 4) if the dots were arranged canonically. Only the MLD risk group in the firs grade spent longer time for enumerating 4 than they did for 3 dots. They all spent almost equal amount of time to determine the number of dots shown. If the dots were randomly arranged all groups behaved again similarly. However, they spent relatively longer time to enumerate 4 dots than they did for 3 dots. That is they all used similar inferior strategies.

When the dots were arranged in canonic, domino like patterns students treated 3 dots and 4 dots as if they are almost the same. They all spent virtually the same time for enumerating each number of dots. After 4 dots however, the MLD group spent relatively more time for enumerating the number of dots. It seemed that, they used still inferior strategies like counting on after subitizing one of the groups while normally achieving students were applying simple calculations on the separately subitized groups of dots. Imposing groupings onto randomly arranged dot sets seemed not possible for all groups. Therefore, we obtained virtually no differences among the groups in terms of MRTs for all numbers.

Taken together, it seems that the students have almost similar subitizing systems for small numbers but while normal and high achieving students were making further symbolic manipulations on subitized groups of dots very low achievers were still using inferior strategies. We believe with Butterworth (2010) that a deficit in numerosity coding is responsible for mathematics disorder. Further

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research are needed, however to strongly claim that numerosity coding rather than subitizing mechanisms are different in MLD and normally achieving students. Carefully designed behavioral and brain imaging research can highlight this problematic issue. Experimental studies with instructional interventions may also help clarify. For example, instructing students to make groupings might differentiate students with MLD more precisely from normally achieving peers. Similarly Iuculano, Tang, Hall, and Butterworth (2008) claimed that low numeracy has not to do with a poor grasp of exact numerosities (ie. subitizing), but more related to inefficient use of symbolic numerals.

In a brain imaging study, Piazza et al. (2002) gave adults enumeration task on visual arrays of dots that varied in numerosity (1–4 and 6–9 dots) and spatial arrangement (canonical and random) to directly compare subitizing and counting. They showed that counting, relative to subitizing, was correlated with increased activity in the occipitoparietal network, while subitizing did not show areas of increased activation with respect to counting. Surprisingly, they concluded that results speak against the idea of the two processes being implemented in separable neural systems.

This research showed that subitizing is necessary but not sufficient for doing further arithmetic beyond simple counting. Further numerical manipulations are needed to do faster arithmetic. In fact many animal spicies can subitize but cannot do arithmetic beyond a simpler form (Stanislas Dehaene, Dehaene- Lambertz, & Cohen, 1998). This research also clarified that these further manipulations were actualized via symbolic manipulations since we know that canonicly arranged dot patterns are thought to be symbolically manipulated (Piazza et al., 2002). Group differences were more pronounced in enumerating canonic dot patterns. An educational intervantional study will shed more light in this issue. Abstracting and symbolizing are two important processes in the course of arithmetic development.

References

Antell, S. E., & Keating, D. P. (1983). Perceptions of numerical invariance in neonates. Child Development(54), 695-701. Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., Colligan, R. C., Weaver, A. L., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2005). Math learning disorder: incidence in a population-based birth cohort, 1976-82, Rochester, Minn. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 5(5), 281-289. doi: 10.1367/A04-209R.1 Butterworth, B. (2003). Dyscalculia screener manual. The Chiswick Centre, 414 Chiswick High Road, London W4 5TF, UK: nferNelson. Butterworth, B. (2010). Foundational numerical capacities and the origins of dyscalculia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(12), 534-541. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.007 Dehaene, S. (1997). Number Sense How the Mind Creates Mathematics. Dehaene, S., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., & Cohen, L. (1998). Abstract representations of numbers in the animal and human brain. Trends Neurosci, 21(8), 355-361. Desoete, A., Ceulemans, A., Roeyers, H., & Huylebroeck, A. (2009). Subitizing or counting as possible screening variables for learning disabilities in mathematics education or learning. Educational Research Review, 4(1), 55-66. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2008.11.003

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Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., & Spelke, E. (2004). Core systems of number. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(7), 307-314. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2004.05.002 Fidan, E. (2013). İlkokul Öğrencileri İçin Matematik Dersi Sayılar Öğrenme Alanında Başarı Testi Geliştirilmesi. (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Ankara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Iuculano, T., Tang, J., Hall, C. W., & Butterworth, B. (2008). Core information processing deficits in developmental dyscalculia and low numeracy. Developmental Science, 11(5), 669-680. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00716.x Landerl, K., Bevan, A., & Butterworth, B. (2004). Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: a study of 8-9-year-old students. Cognition, 93(2), 99-125. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2003.11.004 Landerl, K., & Kolle, C. (2009). Typical and atypical development of basic numerical skills in elementary school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(4), 546-565. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.12.006 Lemer, C., Dehaene, S., Spelke, E., & Cohen, L. (2003). Approximate quantities and exact number words: dissociable systems. Neuropsychologia, 41(14), 1942-1958. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00123-4 Lipton, J., & Spelke, E. (2003). Origins of number sense: Large-Number Discrimination in Human Infants. Psychological Science, 14(5), 396-401. McCrink, K., & Wynn, K. (2004). Large-number addition and subtraction by nine-month- old infants. Psychological Science, 15(11), 776-781. MEB. (2004). İlköğretim Matematik Dersi Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Milli Eğitim Basımevi. Piazza, M., Mechelli, A., Butterworth, B., & Price, C. J. (2002). Are Subitizing and Counting Implemented as Separate or Functionally Overlapping Processes? NeuroImage, 15(2), 435-446. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0980 Rousselle, L., & Noel, M. P. (2007). Basic numerical skills in children with mathematics learning disabilities: a comparison of symbolic vs non-symbolic number magnitude processing. Cognition, 102(3), 361-395. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.01.005 Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2005). Developmental dyscalculia: a prospective six-year follow up. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology(47), 121-125. Spelke, E. S., & Kinzler, K. D. (2007). Core knowledge. Developmental Science, 10(1), 89- 96. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00569.x Wynn, K. (1992). Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature, 358(27), 749-750. Xue, F., & Spelke, E. (2000). Large number discrimination in 6-month-old infants. Cognition(74 ), B1-B11.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 104-119, January 2015

Examining Generational Differences among Diverse Families Regarding Parental School Involvement

Gustava Cooper-Baker Facilitator, Leadership Academy Kansas City, MO

Barbara N. Martin University of Central Missouri Warrensburg, MO

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine parental involvement by viewing generational differences among diverse families through the lens of the overlapping spheres of influence for school-family-community partnerships. The study’s population consisted of one African American family, one Hispanic family and one Caucasian family. A grandparent, children, and a grandchild represented each family. Findings suggest that while parental involvement is still as important today as it was decades ago, based on the family’s culture it was viewed differently. Another finding was the need for developing partnerships with the home, school, and community to enhance opportunities for all parents regardless of race, culture, or ethnicity to become involve in their children’s education. The implications for teacher and principal training are significant.

Keywords: diversity; parental involvement; school-family community partnerships

1.0 Introduction For years, educational research has demonstrated the importance of parental involvement, but most contacts of parents with the school have been superficial (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson & Davies, 2007; Peterson, 2000; McPhee et al., 2013). Parental involvement in schools has become one of the dominant paradigms of family-school relations in the United States (McPhee et al., 2013). This movement toward the call for more parental involvement in school acknowledges a distance between family and school and the need to enhance the relationship (Goodall & Montgomery, 2013; De Carvalho, 2001).

Researchers (Hale, 2001; Moles, 2003) have explored parental involvement from the perspective of how racial, ethnic, and cultural characteristics might impact the school/home relationship. They found that the least involved in their

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children’s education are the parents from culturally diverse backgrounds (Hale, 2001; Moles, 2003). There are a myriad of reasons why this has occurred such as cultural differences between home and school, poverty concentration, and minority enrollment in the school (Hale, 2001). Since nearly 40% of children in the United States public schools are members of a racial ethnic minority or of multiple racial minorities (Lopez, Kreider, & Coffman, 2005), the challenges of American educators to understand how culturally diverse families engage in parental involvement is essential. Baker and Soden (1998) suggested that the amount of parental involvement to affect a positive impact on children is yet to be determined, but even small amounts of such involvement are needed to ensure all children have academic success. Therefore, examined in this inquiry was parental involvement through the lens of Epstein’s (2001) theory of “overlapping spheres of influence”, while examining the parental involvement of three generations of an African American family, a Latino family, and a Caucasian family. The following questions were addressed within the context of the study: 1) What is parental involvement, as viewed through the lens of overlapping spheres of influence? 2) How does race culture and ethnicity affect how parents are involved in their children’s education generationally?

2.0 Conceptual Underpinnings

2.1 Overlapping Sphere of Influence Theory According to Epstein, (2002, p. 32), “There is no topic in education on which there is greater agreement than the need for parental involvement”. “Everyone wants it, but most educators do not know how to develop productive partnerships” (Family Literacy Center, 2006, p.1). This theoretical framework suggests multiple contexts, internal and external that confronts the family, school, and community (Garcia, 2004). The theory of OSI recognizes that three major areas in which students learn and grow include the family, the school, and the community (Epstein Sanders, Simon, Salinas, Jansorn, & Voorhis, 2002). Constantino (2003) and Epstein (1995) both recognized that for parental involvement to take place and for children to learn and grow certain influences must be present. Epstein advocated that with frequent interactions among families and the school, the three spheres in a child’s life, the school, family and the community, are influenced. Epstein, et al., (2002) agreed that various practices in the spheres of influence may draw the school, family, and community together or push them further apart in their influence on children’s learning and development. These spheres overlap by putting the child at the center of the relationship. When the spheres of the school, family, and the community overlap, a true meaning to “learning communities or caring communities” is born (Epstein, 2001 p.24).

Ultimately, Epstein’s (2001) theory of the overlapping spheres of influence is represented by three forces: (a) time; (b) experiences in families; and (c) experiences in schools. Time refers to the child’s historical time; the age, grade level, and social conditions during the time span the children are in school. Experience in the family represents the impact the family has on its children to prepare them for school. These forces are pulled together to produce more of an

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overlap when parents maintain an increased interest and involvement in their children’s education. Experiences in the school occur when teachers make parents a part of regular teaching practices. By involving parents, the overlapping is greater and parent involvement is much stronger. Since this inquiry examined generational parental involvement the use of Epstein’s (2001) theory of the overlapping spheres of influence was deem most appropriate.

2.2 Parental Involvement Parental involvement requires parents to participate as partners with the school and to function as advocates for all children (Goodall & Montgomery, 2013; Epstein, 1995; Moore, 1991). Three major factors that have had an impact on parental involvement are 1) parents’ beliefs about what is significant, required, and acceptable for them to do on behalf of their children; 2) the extent to which parents believe that they can be optimistic about their children’s education; and 3) parents understanding that their children and the school want them to be involved (Bissinger, 2001, p. 12). Machen et al. (2005) noted that collaboration between parents and schools is important in educating children because of the demands of society and the difficult times. Positively engaging parents and other family members in the education of their children has the effect of being more transformational than any other type of educational reform (Goodall & Montgomery, 2013; Kyle, McIntyre, Miller & Moore, 2002).

While recognizing that parental involvement is an important factor for student success, effective parental participation is not easily accomplished and has many barriers (Muldrow, Cano, & Kimmel, 1999). Several researchers (Epstein, 2001; Hale, 2001; Moles, 2003) have explored the strengths of parental involvement with various racial, ethnic, and cultural characteristics. Moles (2003) argued parents from culturally diverse backgrounds are at risk for becoming the least involved in their children’s education due to cultural differences between home and school, poverty concentration, and minority enrollment in the school. Boethel (2003) and Hale (2001) agreed that there is a disparity in parental involvement in children of diverse families but differs on the reasons why. Hale postulated that the reality is the energy that is needed to become involved in their children’s education is often lacking because of the demand of work, pressure within the family, and low levels of education often keep minority families from conforming to traditional models of parental involvement.

2.3 Barriers for African American Parents According to Koonce and Harper (2005), some educators are of the opinion that African American parents have a tendency to be uninvolved in their children’s education. Hale (2001) further indicated that many African American children come from homes of single-parent households and feel it is the responsibility of the school to educate the child. Another factor that faces many African American parents is the notion that parent involvement programs are mainly for white- middle class families (Koonce & Harper). Moreover, problems or concerns that cause conflicts between teachers and parents often increase these barriers. Koonce and Harper (2005) further suggested that schools have not made the

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most of the assets of engaging African American parents in developing partnerships.

2.4 Barriers for Hispanic Parents Lee, et al. (2005) postulated several barriers with Hispanic parents: structural racism, school funding, disciplinary actions, language attitudes, and the lack of resources. Golan and Petersen (2002) noted that Hispanic parents find the school system to be unfriendly, insensitive to their needs and situations. In order to increase Hispanic parental involvement, Lee, et al. argued schools need to change how they look at the educational system through the structuring of programs, eliminating racism, and transforming attitudes. Taking into consideration the scheduling of parents to better engage them in school is a need for Hispanic parents as well as other parents (Golan & Petersen, 2002). Chavkin (2005) suggested that educators should design programs for parental involvement that brings diverse families into the classroom to discuss their experiences, thus building educators’ understanding regarding Latino parents and their expectations. Similarly, Closson, Wilkins, Sandler, and Hoover- Dempsey (2004) studied parents of upper elementary students and identified teacher invitations were particularly strong predictors of involvement among the Latino families in their sample.

2.5 Barriers for Caucasian Parents Even though research (Batey, 1996) investigating barriers for parental involvement has focused primarily on minorities, low income Caucasian parents have similar barriers that affect the depth of their involvement in their children’s education. According to Henderson, et al., (2007) barriers for Caucasian parents might surface when they worry about losing control of their influence in the school’s day to day operation to minority families, or are called “racist” or insensitive to minority parents. Still other barriers that affect involvement for Caucasian parents are teachers who are not always receptive to parents volunteering and who sometimes feel negative attitudes and feelings from the school staff because of labels such as “those parents” (Batey, 1996). Batey further argued teachers often felt that Caucasian parents wanted to control the curriculum and instruction in the classroom.

In order to decrease barriers to parental involvement, all parents have to be understood and included in school practices. Effective schools are the schools that accommodate the diversity of families that it serves (Epstein, 2001). Using a qualitative approach, the purpose of this study was to give voice to three generations of diverse families on what is parental involvement as viewed through the lens of the Overlapping Spheres of Influence in an urban metropolitan area in Missouri.

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3.0 Methodology

3.1 Participants The researchers purposefully selected (Creswell, 2003) three generations of family members in one urban setting. Selection of the participants was based on two criterions. First, each generation of a family was determined to be successful as defined by all three generations of family members having completed either a 2-year associate degree, or earned a bachelor’s degree. Second, all family members were well established in their neighborhoods by being actively engaged in social, civic, or religious organizations. The participants were comprised of grandparents, children, and grandchildren from various ethnicities: The African American family consisted of a grandparent, daughter, and grandson; the Hispanic family consisted of a grandparent, daughter, and granddaughter; and the Caucasian family consisted of a grandparent, daughter, and granddaughter (n=9). The ages of the grandparents ranged from 79 to 85 and all were females. The children’s ages ranged from 45 to 60 and were all female, and the grandchildren’s ages ranged from 21-30 with one male and two females.

3.2 Data Collection and Instrumentation Using a qualitative approach was necessary since defined research goals included the involvement of parents in the lives of their children and the overlapping partnership of the home, school, and community that centers on the child. “Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how they make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world” (Merriam, 1998, p.6). The researchers used multiple methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, and a short questionnaire (Creswell, 2003) to triangulate the data. The participants were interviewed using a semi-structure protocol. The researchers developed the interview questions and protocol using the literature on the Overlapping Sphere of Influence (OSI) theory and cultural differences as a framework. Next, the researchers facilitated three focus groups (grandparents, children, grandchildren) to gather generational data on parental involvement and cultural differences. Finally, the researchers distributed a Likert style questionnaire to all nine participants. The questionnaire asked participants to select the response that best indicated the degree they felt they were involved in their children’s lives in school, at home, and in the community. The emphasis given to the “voice” of the participants is important because it provided actual experiences, beliefs, and values, and became a united voice for reform and change (Creswell, 2003). Since the ultimate goal in qualitative research is to effect change, the voice of the participants raises their consciousness about parental involvement and prepares an agenda for change to improve their lives concerning their children.

3.3 Data Analysis The right approach to analysis of data for a qualitative study according to Merriam (1998) is to do it simultaneously with data collection. Therefore, the researchers gathered and analyzed data concurrently, breaking often to fill in gaps, in order to get the most holistic picture possible. Member

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checking was conducted to verify the accuracy of the transcripts and confirmed for each participant that the story was told as intended (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Using the constant comparative method, the transcripts were analyzed and coded for emergent themes. Analysis was ongoing throughout each stage of the data collection process and saturation was determined by the level of redundancy in participants’ responses. Findings were organized around the three overlapping spheres-home, school, and community.

4.0 Findings The parental involvement data from the questionnaire indicated that in reference to Sphere One, the home, African American and Hispanic grandparents needed “some learning” in helping their children with homework, but had the perception that they needed “no learning” for encouraging their children to do well in school. The three sets of grandparents selected “some learning” to indicate their level of understanding how to prepare for their children for school. All of the children indicated that “very little” learning was needed as a result of their involvement with their children and that they knew how to help their children with homework and had known how to prepare their children for school. These findings were also reflected in the interviews and focus groups, when the grandparents mentioned that they felt the school had the responsibility to get children ready for school if they were not already prepared. However, the parents gave examples of how they helped their children to be ready for school. One parent mentioned that being a teacher helped her prepare her children; she knew what her children needed to know the first day of kindergarten. While not all of the grandchildren had children of their own, they all noted that they intended to be highly engaged with their children’s school experiences.

In reference to Sphere Two, the school, the interview, focus groups, and questionnaire data revealed that the minority grandparents thought very “little learning” had taken place in connection to the principals at the school or in assuming leadership roles in the school. Nor did they receive assistance on how to work with school staff to support their children. One minority grandparent said, “No one ever asked me to help in school and I didn’t ask [for help] either.” The Caucasian grandparent noted that she felt she understood how to get help from the principal and the faculty and was an officer in the parent association. In fact, the Caucasian grandparent stressed, “While there were Black children in the school I don’t ever remember any parents being involved in PTA except for attending.” The minority parents applied “some learning” to knowledge about leadership roles and how to become a more effective parent while their children were in school. As one parent said, “I could have been anything I wanted in the Parent/Teacher Association (PTA) but I was just too busy working.” Neither minority grandparents, nor their children took on many leadership roles in the school, mainly because the grandparents volunteered other places and their children were working full time jobs. In fact, the minority parents said they did not put as much pressure on their children (grandchildren in study) as their parents (grandparents in study) had done to them, but allowed them to be

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children and to make some choices for themselves. One Hispanic parent even said, “I knew my children would be successful in life and I didn’t pressure or force them into making choices or doing things I want them to do. But that wasn’t the case with my parents. They were on me for every decision I made or didn’t make.” However, the Caucasian parent emphasized, “I waited to see what’s happening in school and then make sure my kid is doing her best. I want to help her make the very best decisions.”

Regarding the lens of Sphere three, the community, revealed both minority grandparents and minority children indicated that “very little learning” was needed as the home, school, and community interacted frequently. The minority grandparents, parents and the grandchildren understood that the home, school, and community must be a partnership. The minority grandparents and parents stressed that they expected their children, and were expected by their parents, to be actively involved in the community especially the church. As one minority parent noted, “What happened at school often was discussed at church and support was suggested to get parents involved and to provide opportunities for their children”. The Caucasian grandparent noted “The neighborhood was always involved in everyone’s child, what they were doing and who they were doing it with”. The Caucasian parent did not mention neighborhood nor community groups. However, all of the children mentioned a sense of community whether it was from civic or religious organizations or from talking to their friends on Facebook about their children. As one grandchild said, “Yeah I am involved in church activities and we talk about school and stuff.” Another grandchild noted, “I share a lot about my kid’s behavior on Facebook, pictures, and things.”

The two emergent themes from the data were: 1) Rallying the Community (or Whole Village) with the subthemes of a) Building Successful Partnerships, and b) Collaborating with the Community; 2) Consciousness Raising of Self Assurance with the subthemes of a) Parental Involvement, b) Giving Voice, and c) Culture Differences. The two themes reflect the actions of grandparents, parents, and grandchildren regarding how they were involved in the education of their children. Each generation viewed parental involvement as building a strong relationship between the home, school, and community. Moreover, each generation had something to share that afforded the opportunities to learn about each other and a respect of different cultures. Depicted in Figure 1 are the themes that emerged from the findings.

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Actions of Generational Parents [How they were involved in the education of their children]

Consciousness: Raising of Self Rallying the Community Assurance

Building Successful Parental Involvement Partnerships/Collaborating with the Community Giving Voice Culture Differences

Figure 1: Emergence of Two Main Themes: Impact of parent involvement for generations of diverse backgrounds

4.1 Rallying the Whole Village The data supported the concept that next to the family, the school has the most significant impact on children’s growth and development. This finding supported what Comer, Hayes, Joyner, and Ben-Avie (1996) had identified over a decade ago when they identified that the notion of the African Proverb, “It takes a whole village or Community to raise a child” allows parents, school staff, and individuals within the community to work together and understand the role of parental involvement. Two of the parents noted how the whole community helped in raising the neighborhood children. When noting: There was someone in the neighborhood that knew all of the children and kept the families informed of any wrong doing by any child in the neighborhood. All parents in the neighborhood were considered to be the parents of all of the children. And another parent said, “The families in the neighborhood always looked out for all of the children in the neighborhood”. Moreover, a grandchild noted, All my mother’s friends were teachers and they took care of each other’s children, you could not get away with anything; if you did anything wrong, my mother’s friends would take care of the problem and then call my mother, and of course, I had to suffer the consequences from my mother too.

Another grandchild supported this, “We felt comfortable visiting each other’s houses and getting together for neighborhood gatherings, and we knew our parents would get a report on how well we behaved.” Thus, the extended family played a major part in all communities and in the involvement of all children. This data set further noted that building a nurturing environment at the school level, while tapping the energy of the community resources helped involve parents. However, the village that was once small, simple, and nurturing is now

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very large, complex and sometimes insensitive to the needs of the families. Agencies that supported parents and served families have evolved and changed becoming fragmented and often unable to address the needs of how children learn and perform in school. As one grandparent noted: It was very difficult dealing with a child with a hearing problem because the school did not have the resources to help with the problem. The community resources were limited to income and whether or not you were receiving welfare. I did not think it was fair, but what could you do. That is when we had to make the decision to take my oldest son out of Catholic school, and put him into a public school because of resources and we needed the help.

Ultimately, neither schools nor parents can provide all sustenance, such as services and support, which children need to thrive and develop well in this increasingly complex society. The entire community of significant others and services must work together to strengthen and prepare children for the present and future. As highlighted by one minority parent: We have many outstanding resources in the community and people to help families, but sometimes families don’t know all the places to look for the resources. If community groups would help the schools, they too would benefit. When my son was old enough to work in our community, he sacked groceries at the neighborhood store. The grocery store manager would often check to see how well he was doing in school. This type of networking provided a service and a support of his learning and to help me as a parent.

4.2 Building Successful Partnerships In developing a partnership, parents, teachers, and community members will have to create more family-like schools, and more schools that serve the needs of all families (Epstein, 2001). This data set noted that the focus of partnerships should be on the children because the children are influenced by all three contexts- the home, school, and community. Within the theme of partnership, all generations shared that the partnership is vitally important to the children’s education and parental involvement. Noted were the needs for partnerships such as after school programs and community based social centers. All generations pointed out that after school, children need places to go for family friendly programs. In speaking on partnerships of the church and school, the Hispanic grandmother said: Because my children attended Catholic Schools, the families had to have a partnership with the church and school. My family had a very close bond with church and school. We supported the church through fund raisers, being a cub scouts mother and, cooking for the children at times. The family was involved in all aspects of the church. My husband and sons cleaned the church and the school on many occasions. Therefore, they were known around the church as well as the school. By attending a Catholic School, my children attended Mass every day also. It was without a doubt, because we choose this educational system for our children we knew we would have a close and committed partnership

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with the school and church. I am sure by us having an interest in the school it helped my children to do better in school.

The Black grandparent noted:

I recalled there was some partnership with the home and school, but very little within the community. As a parent, I attended all of the PTA meetings at school and other events. The school knew if they needed me for anything, all that they had to do was call. The church was the largest community service that we use when my children were in school. If my children were not in school, they were in church. The church was the place where they got the second dose of parenting. The church members provided other activities that involved reading, writing, speaking, leadership skills, and helping people in the community.

A Black grandchild said: Growing up I was expected to be in church as much as school it seemed. And every night after school I went to the Big Brothers and Sisters community center until I was picked up. I guess I learned a lot at the center and church just like at school. Playing games at the center helped me learn to like everyone; I guess and made me stronger in a lot of ways.

4.3 Collaborating with the Community One grandparent had spent a life time in one location and has seen many changes in the city. The changes were mainly in the school and the communities demographics. The grandparents noted that in the past, the neighborhoods had more stores, schools and churches in them and certain people lived in a neighborhood and were not allowed to live in other neighborhoods. As noted by the Hispanic grandparent: My parents lived in the neighborhood I live in now. The neighborhood was during the riots in the 1960’s, [but]we were never afraid, because the rioters would come and knock on our door before anything happen and let us know what was going on in the neighborhood. Today, things are a little different; my children often worry about us. The neighborhood has changed, but I don’t plan on moving anywhere. My husband and I try to be very careful in the way we live. We are not as friendly and concern about children and people in the neighborhood as when our children were in school.

Other participants discussed how important it was for the community to help in providing services to parents for the benefit of raising their children. All generations noted that the community should be working and planning with community businesses, cultural, civic and religious organizations, senior citizen groups, and colleges and universities, in order to strengthen schools and to keep the grandchildren off of the streets. As one Grandparent said: In my community, the mayor and the city council members are trying to close the one community center because of budget cuts. It is the only place where adults and children can go to have fun. There is a town

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meeting soon and I plan to attend to voice my opinion. The people in the community need a place for relaxing and to have fun. Just last week they had the neighborhood lit up for some big game, it was nice to see the lights and stop signs to welcome the basketball teams and people into the neighborhood and to show them where the games were played. I feel that the community belongs to the children and the adults that live in the community.

The children and grandchildren alluded that the school should be working and planning with community businesses when a parent highlighted: I had to learn what resources would help my children while they were in school. My children spent a lot of time at church, going to Sunday school and other youth activities. Back then, things were a little safer. I also recall taking car loads of children to school functions with my children. I would pick the children up from their house and then drop them off when the game was over, many times their own parents would be at home, and two or three cars would be sitting in their driveways. Why they were not involved in their children’s education, I did not understand. Maybe it is the issue of safety.

4.4 Consciousness Rising to Self-Assurance This consciousness rising to self- assurance had developed over the years as noted by the participants through parents being involved with their children’s education and providing them opportunities to develop their own voice. The evidence of consistently being positive and have high self confidence had an influence on the families in this study. All of the participants believed that because of their involvement in the school their children were successful in life. The grandparents noted that they worked together to support the schools, by volunteering when they could and by encouraging their children. The grandchildren noted that they were joining forces with the schools to build better partnerships for all children. The parents and the children both noted that collaborating with the schools was a necessity in today’s world.

4.5 Parental Involvement Epstein (2001) noted that “when parents are involved in their children’s education, children go farther in school, and they go to better schools” (p. 314). Within the theme of parental involvement, the grandparents, children, and grandchildren recalled what parental involvement is and how it is different now. As one grandparent said: Parental involvement is when parents support their children in school by helping them to make the right decisions in life. It is having an understanding that schools are different now than when we were in school. I didn’t go to work until my last child was in 5th grade, and I worked at the school they attended, so I was able to attend all of the meetings and be involved in all events at their school. I hear stories of parents today taking the side of their children instead of believing the teachers. I hear of parents not having time to go to the school to see about their children. I think a lot of this is because parents today are not as

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involved as I was. I took care of my children and other people children in the neighborhood as well. I recall when I would walk my children to school I would end up with all the girls walking with us to school. Many parents today are raising their children by themselves today and do not have the communities we had when my children were in school. Many of them have to work, and some work just to have stuff. (I have a niece with three children, who should be attending PTA and helping at school) but instead I think she works just to buy stuff. I worry about the parental involved my great grandchildren will received, will their parents have to work two or three jobs just to survive? I worry about the education system. Will my great grandchildren be able to compete in this global world? I wonder how involved their parents will be.

4.6 Giving Voice

The children and grandchildren extended their voices on parental involvement. As one said:

Parental involvement is when you show your children you care about what they do at school as well as when they are away from school. It is letting your children know that no matter what the problem or situation is parents are there for you. I trusted my children to make the right decisions in life. Of course, they stumbled alone the way, but they had to make do with whatever decisions they made in life.

Another noted:

Parental involvement is the caring, love, freedom you give your children. That support helps them find their voice. Since I was the baby of the family, I couldn’t go anywhere by myself. Things have certainly changed now for children.

As a grandson pointed out:

Parent involvement is when you know that your parents really care about you. It is the support and trust parents give their children in talking to them about everyday life situations. I know my mother is here for me, she is my hero and I am there for her. I am a mother’s boy. When parents are involved in the lives of their children there is a partnership that is shared between the home, school and opportunity for each family to explore and connect.

4.7 Culture Differences While all generations of participants, no matter what their culture or ethnicity, thought parental involvement was very important, there were some differences based on generation. All of the grandparents, regardless of race, felt that their children were in the best of hands when they were in school. However, the

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parents and grandchildren did worry about what was happening at school. Within the theme of cultural differences, one minority grandparent said: My children went to their neighborhood schools, and the majority of the children were “Black” and there were no problems or differences at school; the school Tadd, was once only for Caucasian children. When more Blacks moved further south, the school became a school for the Black children. I saw no change in parental involvement as the school changed or any change in the school.

The Caucasian grandparent followed with:

My children went to Catholic Schools and the Nuns were so strict, that differences were not shown within the school. There were more Caucasian children that attended the Catholic School then Hispanic children or African Americans. The same requirements were made for all families. I didn’t see families doing any more than we did. Even though we didn’t have much we wanted the best for our children. I didn’t notice any cultural differences.

However, the parents of the children felt some cultural differences as they were involved in the education of their children. As noted by one minority parent: If I hadn’t had high self-esteem about myself and not paid a lot attention to the stares from teachers when I entered my children’s school I would have noticed more of a difference. Being in the field of education offered some support to understanding the school and the environment of the school. Because of the roles of school practices in trying to encourage parent involvement, I felt that the parents and home must work together as partners.

Consequently, for the grandchildren, it was also very different because all schools were integrated by the time they entered school. As one stressed: Joy said I saw some cultural differences in that the Caucasian parents attended more school events than the African American or Hispanic parents did. I had friends of both races at the Catholic School so I was able to learn about various people. I enjoyed learning about all cultures and differences in my friends.

In addition, the Caucasian grandchild pointed out, “While the kids didn’t seem to have many issues in school, the parents at ballgames and other places sat in separate places and didn’t seem to talk to each other much.” As the Black grandchild noted, “I saw some cultural differences in that the Caucasian parents attended more school events than the African American or Hispanic parents. Perhaps they felt more welcomed” The Hispanic grandchild noted, “When we had volunteers they seem to always be White, maybe because the teachers were mostly White, I don’t know”.

The participants, regardless of ethnicity or culture, all thought parental involvement was very important. While all the minority grandparents and

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children felt that their children were in the best of hands when they were in school, the minority grandchildren did not perceived that they were always valued at school, some noting perhaps because all schools were integrated by the time they entered school.

5.0 Conclusions

5.1 It takes a village This study revealed that parents, regardless of generation, viewed parental involvement not only as necessity but vital for children to be successful in school. Each generation valued the strength that came from a neighborhood, civic organizations and religious organizations working together to help raise the children. Regardless of ethnicity or race, the participants tended to default to the status quo of churches and community resources when it came to changing schools and neighborhoods. While the type of parental involvement might have altered over time, due to the complexities of society such as both parents needing to work, etc., the need for being involving all spheres of influence (Epstein, 2001) to create an effective parental involvement program is essential in schools today. The building of partnerships that emphasized collaboration between the spheres of influence is indispensable when creating a program for parental involvement in schools.

5.2 Consciousness Rising to Self-Assurance Repeatedly, the theme of parental involvement making a difference not only in the children’s school work but also in how successful they were in life was present in this data set. From each generation, regardless of ethnicity or culture, the voices of the parents noted that being involved with their children’s education was a valued endeavor that made a difference in their lives and the lives of their children. This engagement in their children’s education gave rise to the children finding themselves and their voice not only in school but also in the community at large. The findings of this inquiry articulated the importance of educators being deliberate and purposeful in understanding the impact that ethnicity and diversity have on parental involvement. These findings also supported Epstein’s (2001) spheres of influence that directly affect student learning and development. The model of school, family, and community partnerships places the student at the center, and clearly argues that when families are involved, students’ achievement increases, attendance and attitude toward school increases, classroom behavior improves, and levels of aspiration increase.

6.0 Implications for Practice Creating school, family and community partnerships are essential if families, regardless of race and ethnicity, are to actively participate in the education of their children. As leadership and teacher, preparatory programs work with aspiring teachers and principals, it is essential that they have a deeper understanding of community partnerships with schools. It is imperative that leadership and teacher preparatory programs provide hands on experience for aspiring principals and teachers in how to mobilize the community resources

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and how to work effectively with diverse student populations. Educators should focus on consciously awakening parents to a higher level of self-assurance by having a keen understanding of the needs of parents, building inclusive partnerships, and creating significant collaborating experiences for all parents. Those types of activities that focused on in-depth leadership roles that parents can assume might prove to be particularly positive in association with meaningful parental involvement. Furthermore, since the parents perceived they could not raise the children by themselves, leaders should have the understanding that the home, school, and community working together are needed to provide the social, emotional, and academic growth and success of all children. Rallying the village is particularly essential for families from diverse backgrounds and changing neighborhoods. The educator who can involve the entire community will give the family voice, thus providing a “bridge” to successful and effective school-home partnerships.

References

Baker, A. & Soden, L. (1998). The challenges of parent involvement research. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-3/parent.html Batey, C. (1996). Parents are lifesavers: A handbook for parent involvement in schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bisinger, S. (2001). Connecting with families. Teacher today, Publication, Inc. 17(1), 1-4. Boethel, M. (2003). Diversity: School, family & community connections. Austin, TX. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Chavkin, N. (2005). Strategies for preparing educators to enhance the involvement of diverse families in their children’s education. Multicultural Education, 13(2), 16- 20. Closson, K. E., Wilkins, A. S., Sandler, H. M., & Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. (2004, April). Crossing cultural boundaries: Latino parents’ involvement in their children’s education. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. Comer, J. P., Haynes N., Joyner, E, and Ben-Avie, M. (1996). Rally the whole village: The comer process for reforming education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Constantino, S. (2003). Engaging all families: Creating a positive school culture by putting research into practice. Lanham, MA: Scarecrow Education. Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. De Carvalho, M. (2001). Rethinking family-school relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Epstein, J. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(1), 701-712. Epstein, J. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Epstein, J.,Sanders, M. Simon, B.,Salinas, C., Jansorn, N, & Van Voorhis, F. (2002). School and community partnerships: Your handbook for action. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Family Literacy Center, Inc. (2006).Kansas City, MO., Parent involvement. 3(2). 10-15. Fraenkel, J. & Wallen, N. (2003) How to design and evaluate research in education. New York, NY: McGraw–Hill Higher Education. Garcia, D. (2004). Exploring connections between the construct of teacher efficacy and Family involvement practices: Implications for urban teacher preparation. Urban Education, 39(1), 290-315.

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Golan, S. & Peterson, D. (2002). Promoting involvement of recent immigrant families in their children’s education. Retrieved from http//www.gse.harvard.edu Goodall, J & Montgomery, C. (2013) Parental involvement to parental engagement: A continuum Educational Review 33(2) p. 22-34. DOI:10.1080/00131911.2013.781576 Hale, J. (2001). Learning while Black: Creating educational excellence for African American children. Baltimore, MA: John Hopkins University Press. Henderson, A., Mapp, K, Johnson, V. & Davies, D. (2007). Beyond the bake sale: The essential guide to family-school partnerships. New York, NY: The New Press. Koonce, D. & Harper, W. (2005). Engaging African American parents in the school: A community-Based consultation model. Journal of Education and Psychological Consultation, 16(2), 55-74. Kyle, D., McIntyre, E., Miller, K. & Moore, G. (2002). Reaching out: A K-8 resource for connecting families and schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Lee, C., Zambrana, R., Zoppi, I. ,Lorenzo, O. & Tsado, T.(2005) Colloquium of the Maryland institute for minority achievement and urban education. Session III Latino student success K-20: Family and school. Retrieved from http://www.ducation.umd.edu/mimaue/Colloquia/spo5/new0503ColloqSum may 0330.html Lopez, M., Kreider H., & Coffman, J. (2005). Intermediary organizations as capacity builders in family educational involvement. Urban Education. 40 (2), 78-105. Machen, S., Wilson J. & Notar, C. (2005). Parental involvement in the classroom. Journal of Instructional Psychology. 32(2), 13-16. McPhee, C., Bielick, S., Masterton, M., Flores, L., Parmer, R., Amchin, S., Stern, S., and McGowan, H. (August, 2013). National Household Education Surveys Program of 2012: Data File User’s Manual, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. Merriam, S. (1998).Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Moles, O. (2003). School-family relations and learning. Federal education initiatives. Philadelphia, PA., The Mid-Atlantic Regional Educational Laboratory, 20-21. Moore, E. K. (1991). Improving schools through parental involvement. Principal, 71(2), 17-20. Muldrow, D., Cano, R. & Kimmel, H. (1999). Where have all the parents gone? Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/cod/conf/1999/proceedings/sessions0233html Peterson, D. (2000). Parent involvement in the educational process. Washington, DC. Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 120-141, January 2015

Building the process of transformation teaching and learning according to the constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software in Vietnam

Ngoc-Giang Nguyen Doctor’s degree student of The Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, 101 Tran Hung Dao, Hanoi, Vietnam

Anh-Tai Phan Doctor of Sai Gon University 273 An Duong Vuong Street, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam

Abstract. The theory of constructivism is generally attributed to by Jean Piaget. Two important conceptions of Piaget in the constructivism are assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process in which we get new knowledge similar to the existing knowledge, and then this new knowledge can be directly incorporated in an already existing framework. In other words, students can deal with the new situation based on the existing knowledge. Accommodation is the process in which we get new knowledge which is different from an existing framework, and then this framework can be changed to fit the new knowledge. Applying dynamic geometry software is a new researched way with many good results. Dynamic geometry software helps us learn mathematical concepts, theorems and solve problems. In addition, dynamic geometry software also provides some informatics skills for the user.

Keywords: Constructivism, dynamic geometry software, process.

1. Introduction Applying dynamic geometry software makes the learning process better and more effective. Learners use the software in predicting, verifying as well as developing their knowledge. The expansion of applying this software to various levels and forms depends on specific conditions of the problem.

Constructivism is now being mentioned in a lot of articles (e.g. [2], [5], [6], [7]). In this paper, we research the applying of constructivism to transformation learning with the help of dynamic geometry software in Vietnam. The paper gives processes as well as examples of learning concepts, theorems and solves problems according to constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software. The strong point of constructivist learning is that it helps to develop

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dependent thoughts, creative thoughts and scientific passion. Students can learn lessons deeply and remember them for a long time. However, its weak point is that it takes teachers a lot of time and effort to write lessons according to constructivism. This article also performs the survey of applying informatics to constructivist learning at upper secondary schools in Vietnam.

2. Learning transformations with the help of dynamic geometry software according to constructivism

2.1. The process of using dynamic geometry software in learning transformation according to constructivism

In learning mathematics at upper secondary schools in Vietnam, the understanding of mathematical concepts is an important factor. Mathematical conceptions are only formed deeply if students join in the process of building them actively and initiatively. We give the process of using dynamic geometry software in learning conceptions according to constructivism as follows :

Use dynamic geometry Use dynamic geometry To define conceptions software to form software to verify conceptional symbols conceptions

To consolidate conceptions

Figure 1. Learning transformation according to constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software

2.2. An example illustrating the transformation concept according to constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software

In order to form transformation concept, we use dynamic geometry software such as Cabri, GeoGebra, Sketchpad, … to draw dynamic figures. After students observe examples, ask questions and give remarks, they themselves conclude the definition of the conception.

The following are some tools in the Cabri and GeoGebra software: a) Some tools in the Cabri software

1. Point

Use the tool Point to draw a point A.

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2. Line

Use the tool Line to draw a line a.

3. Segment

Use the tool Segment to draw a segment AB.

4. Ray

Use the tool Ray to draw a ray from A to B.

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5. Vector

Use the tool Vector to draw a vector from A to B.

6. Polygon

Use the tool Polygon to draw a polygon.

7. Perpendicular line

Use the tool Perpendicular Line to draw a perpendicular line d to a.

8. Parallel Line

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Given a line AB. Draw a line b passing through a given point C, which is parallel to AB : Parallel Line C AB.

9. Circle

Use the tool Circle to draw a circle with center O and radius r.

10. Locus

Use the tool Locus to find the locus of a movable object.

11. Trace

Use the tool Trace On/Off to make (cancel) the trace of an object.

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12. Animation

Use the tool Animation to move an object.

b) Some tools in the GeoGebra software

1. Point

Use the tool Point to draw a point A .

2. Line

Use the tool Line to draw a line a .

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3. Segment

Use the tool Segment to draw a segment AB.

4. Ray

Use the tool Ray to draw a ray from A to B .

5. Vector

Use the tool Vector to draw a vector from to B.

6. Perpendicular Line

Use the tool Perpendicular Line to draw a perpendicular line d to a .

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7. Parallel Line

Given a line AB . Draw a line b passing through a given point C , which is parallel to AB : Parallel Line C AB.

8. Circle with Center Through Point

Use the tool Circle with Center Through Point to draw a circle with center O and radius r.

9. Locus

Use the tool Locus to find the locus of a movable object.

Example 1 Observe the two entrance doors of a supermarket, and give remarks on two positional points M, M' compared with the midline of the entrance. Using dynamic geometry software to draw : a) b)

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Figures 2a, b Remarks Two points M, M' are symmetric with respect to the midline of entrance door.

Example 2 Two given lines a and d satisfying that they intersect at A . With each of points M on d , draw point M' symmetric to the point M with respect to a . When M moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M'. Using dynamic geometry software to draw : - Draw line a . - Draw line d meeting a at A . - Draw point M on d . - Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . - Dragging point M on d gives us point M' such that it makes “traces” forming line d'.

Figure 3 Remarks M' moves on d through A such that d' and d take a as a bisector line of a pair of vertically opposite angles formed by d' and d . Example 3 Having two given parallel lines a and d . With each of points on , draw point symmetric to point with respect to . When moves on , give remarks on the positional points . Using dynamic geometry software to draw : - Draw line a . - Draw line d // a . - Let point M be on d . - Draw point M' symmetric to point with respect to . - Dragging point on gives us point so that it makes “traces” forming line d' // a.

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Figure 4

Remarks M' moves on line d' such that d' and d are parallel and equidistant from a .

Example 4 Given line a and circle (O ). With each of points M on (O ), draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . When M moves on ( ), give remarks on the positional points M'. Use dynamic geometry software: - Draw circle (O ). - Draw line a and circle (O ). - Let M be a point on (O ). - Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . - Dragging point M on (O ) gives us point M' such that it makes “traces” forming circle ( O').

Figure 5 Remarks M' moves on circle (O') being equal to (O ). Example 5 Given line a and a figure ( H ) (for example, the figure of pine tree). With each of points on ( H ), draw point symmetric to point with respect to . When moves on ( H ), give remarks on the positional points . Using dynamic geometry software to draw : - Draw line a . - Draw figure ( H ). - Let M be a point on ( H ). - Draw point symmetric to point with respect to . - Dragging point on ( H ) gives us point such that it makes “traces” forming figure ( ).

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Figure 6 Remarks We see that when M moves on ( H ), M' makes “traces” forming figure ( H') so that ( ) is similar to ( H ). We also realize that if we fold “the plane containing the paper” based on line a such that two parts of this paper are close, ( H ) is coincident with ( H'). From the given examples, and observing the above figures, we realize that they have a common characteristic: from the given line a , with each of points M , we always define an only point M' symmetrical to point M through a . We define the conception as follows:

The symmetry with axis a , called Sa , is a transformation that maps each of points M onto point M' as follow : If Ma then M'M ; if Ma then M' is symmetric to the point M with respect to a . Line a is called the axis of symmetry or symmetric axis.

3. Leaning theorems according to constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software

Using dynamic geometry software we can move figures, verify and predict the results of problems. Therefore, it gives us a lot of advantages in leaning theorems. Similar to learning concepts, the process of leaning theorems on transformations according to constructivism is as follows:

To predict a To verify the To state the theorem theorem theorem

To consolidate and apply the

theorem Figure 7. Learning theorems on transformations according to constructivism

3.1. To predict a theorem

At this step, teachers use dynamic geometry software to move reflexes, define corresponding images or set up the equation of the images and the qualitative and quantitative relation between images and reflexes.

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Example 6

Given line a and two distinct points M,N . Let M', N' be images of M,N in the symmetry Sa . When MN, move on the plane, compare MN with M'N'.

The manipulations of theorem prediction on dynamic geometry software are as follows:

- Draw line a .

- Draw two points M,N .

- Draw two images M', N' of M,N in the symmetry Sa .

- When we move M,N , we see that M', N' move and MN M'N'.

Figure 8

3.2. To verify the theorem

Different from other learning methods, the verifiable step of the theorem aims at proving a given statement or a statement that learners believe true. This step of learning based on constructivism is to verify the predictions of learners that learners do not assert. In this step, teachers use the following methods:

- Method 1: have students draw figures, discuss them and choose the symbols on figures; motivate students to write the hypothesis and conclusion of the theorem.

- Method 2: motivate students to exchange their points of view for the predictions of proof methods by:

+ discussing in order to find out the similarity between the required proof and the given proof, from which we can find out the sub-lines, or predict the solutions.

+ Having students practise the converse reasoning since this is an effective way of proving the theorem and it helps learners to develop thoughts.

+ Having students draw figures, discuss them and choose symbols on figures, as well as motivate students to write the hypothesis and conclusion of the theorem. Teachers should be interested in the predictions of learners visually.

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- Method 3: give students opportunities to see the problem by using different methods.

Example 7

Given line a and two distinct points M,N . Let M', N' be the images of M,N in Sa . Prove that MN M'N'.

Solution 1

Figure 9

Take the system of coordinates such that the x-axis is a . The transformation SOx maps M(x11 ; y ) onto M'(x11 ; y ) ; N(x22 ; y ) onto N'(x22 ; y ), and we have:

2 2 MN x2 x 1 y 2 y 1

2 2 2 2 M'N' x2 x 1 y 2 y 1 = x2 x 1 y 2 y 1 .

Thus M''. N MN

Solution 2

Figure 10

2 2 MN2 MN MH HK KN

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Since MH is direction with KN , so MH mKN or 2 2 MN2 MN HK mKN KN

2 HK m1 KN

2 2 2 222 HK2 m 1 HK . KN m1 KN HK m1 KN (1) 0

2 2 M/ N /2 M / N / M / H / HK KN / ( M/ H MH , KN/ KN )

2 2 HK MH HK HK m1 KN

2 2 2 KH2 m 1 HK . KN m1 KN 0

222 KH m1 KN (2)

Since (1) and (2): M/ N /2 MN 2 M / N / MN .

3.3. To state the theorem

The symmetry preserves the distance between two arbitrary points.

3.4. To practise and apply the theorem

After proving the theorem, we apply it to proving the following corollary.

The symmetry maps three points ABC,, colinear with B , between A and C onto three points ABC', ', ' colinear with B' , between A' and C ' .

Solution 1

Figure 11

Three given collinear points ABC,, ; B is between A and C .

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/ ASAa / Let BSBa / CSCa

According to the above theorem:

A// B AB B// C BC (1) A// C AC

Since ABC,, are collinear, B is between A and C , so :

AB BC AC (2). From (1) and (2), we follow that: ABBCAC////// (3)

The equality (3) proves that ABC', ', ' are collinear and B' is between A' and C ' .

Solution 2

Take the system of coordinates Oxy so that Ox is coincident with a . Suppose that A( xAABBCC ; y ),(; B x y ),( C x ; y ) .

Figure 12

We have:

/// A xAAAA;; y A x y

/// Sa : B xBBBB;; y B x y

/// C xCCCC;; y C x y

xx/ xx/ AA / ; BB / ; So / A xAA y ; / B xBB y yyAA yyBB

xx/ CC / ; / C xCC y . yyCC

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Since ABC,, are collinear, with B between A and C , AB kAC with 01k (1).

xBACA x k x x (2) yBACA y k y y

// We have: A B xBABABABA x;; y y x x y y

// A C xCACACACA x;; y y x x y y (3)

// From (2): AB kxxCACACACA;; kyy kxx yy (4)

From (3) and (4): A//// B kA C with 01k ABC', ', ' are collinear, with B' between A ' and C ' .

4. Learning to solve a problem using constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software

The knowledge and skills of students at upper secondary school are formed and developed mainly by solving problems. However, when students solve a problem, they get primary difficulty finding the way to deal with it? How to predict the result of the problem? In traditional learning, teachers usually instruct students to think by imagining in mind, with high abstract, so students learn the knowledge with difficulty. Thus, finding an effective way of learning mathematics is always necessary. Using dynamic geometry software opens a new approach in learning to solve problems. Dynamic geometry software helps to build the process of solving problem. The process of solving transformation problem according to the constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry software (see [13]):

To predict and find out To verify the To develop the the result of a problem problem problem with the help of dynamic geometry software

Figure 13. The process of solving problem according to constructivism

4.1. Finding out and predicting the result of a problem with the help of dynamic geometry software

Example 8

Let A1 be a fixed point, CD11 slides on line d and its length is constant. Find out the position of CD11 so that the perimeter of triangle ACD1 1 1 is minimal.

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We use dynamic geometry software to find out the position of CD11 so that the perimeter of triangle ACD1 1 1 is maximal, as follows:

Step 1: Construction

. Draw point A1 .

. Draw line d .

. Draw point C1 .

. Draw on so that the length of is constant.

. Draw triangle by the tool Polygon.

. Measure the perimeter of triangle ACD1 1 1 .

. Draw the system of coordinates Oxy so that the x-axis Ox (Ox containing d ) and the y-axis Oy are perpendicular.

. Draw N on Oy so that ON equals to the perimeter of triangle .

. Draw a straight line passing through point N and perpendicular to Oy , cutting the straight line passing through point C1 and perpendicular to Ox at E .

Step 2: Making trace

. Making trace to point E , moving point C1 , we obtain the trace of point E that needs to be found.

Figure 14

Moving point C1 to the position so that the ordinate of point E is minimal, we see that triangle ACD11 is an isosceles triangle at A1 .

4.2. Verifying a problem

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Figure 15

In order to prove the perimeter of triangle ACD1 1 1 is minimal, we need to prove that AC11 + AD11 is minimal.

Using the translation DC11, we have AA12.

Let K be a point symmetric to the point A2 with respect to the line d . Connect ' KA1 , it meets line d at C1 .

'' Use the translation AA21, we have CD11.

' ' We have CA11 + AD11  CA11 + CA12 = CA11 + CK1  AK1 = AC11 + CA12 = ' ' CA11 + DA11.

' The equality occurs if C1 is coincident with C1 .

4.3. Develop the problem

We develop the above problem into the following one:

Example 9

Let AB, be two fixed points and they lie on the same side of the line d . CD slides on d so that its length is constant. Find the position of CD so that the perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD is minimal.

Figure 16

TBB:' Use the translation CD .

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The perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD is minimal if BC AD is minimal. It means that B' D AD is minimal.

Similar to problem 1, this sum is minimal if point D is coincident with D' being the point of intersection of EA and d ( E is the point symmetric to point B' with respect to d ).

Use the translation T : '', we have = ' = DC DC BC AD B D AD DE AD  AE  BC AD  B''''' D AD BC AD .

The equality occurs if CD is coincident with CD''.

5. Results and discussion

We delivered survey forms to 43 teachers of upper secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh city, Viet Nam in order to check the applying informatics in learning mathematics. The result is as follows:

Chart 1.1. The software that teachers may apply in learning mathematics

40 35 30 25 Good 20 Neutral 15 Not use 10 5 0

World Excel Maple Flash Violet

PowerPoint Dreamweaver

Dynamic geometry software

From the above chart, we see that the number of teachers knowing dynamic geometry software is high. The number of teachers who are proficient in understanding and using dynamic geometry software is also rather high. We also delivered survey forms to teachers on the necessity of using constructivism in learning mathematics. The result is as follows: Chart 1.2. The ideas of teachers on constructivist leanring

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50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Constructivist learning Constructivist learning Constructivist learning It is necessary to use develops students' takes a lot of time takes a lot of effort informatics in creative thoughts constructivist learning

From the chart, we see the necessity of applying constructivism in learning mathematics to develop students’ thought. However, the weak point of this method is that it takes a lot of time and effort of teachers. We also delivered survey forms to 243 students at upper secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam in order to check the applying dynamic geometry software in learning mathematics. The result is as follows:

Chart 1.3. The ideas of students on applying dynamic geometry software in constructivist learning

200 180 160 140 120 Frequently 100 Sometime 80 Never 60 40 20 0 Like teachers Like teachers Like to Like teachers to use to use explore to use dynamic constructivist dynamic dynamic geometry learning geometry geometry software in software software to teaching themselves discover concepts, students' theorem, errors solving problem

Chart 1.3 shows that students like teachers to use dynamic geometry software in teaching as well as learning using constructivism. Students are interested in dynamic geometry software as well as wanting teachers to point out the mistakes in solving problems. The number of students using dynamic geometry software in self study is high. From this, we can assert that using dynamic

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geometry software in teaching according to constructivism makes students interested in learning. Constructivist method is better than traditional method.

6. Conclusion

We can say that, the process of constructivism of new knowledge is the process in which we gain new knowlege from acquired knowledge. It is the process connecting two poles “known” with “will-know” of the awareness. Thus, when teachers use constructivism, they should know how to divide knowledge and skills into small units so that students can solve a problem by themselves. Teachers should know how to organize, instruct students to survey, find out, and solve each part of knowledge and new skills. The process of constructivism of new knowledge motivates independent and creative thoughts of students. The applying of dynamic geometry software in learning plane geometry is also a new way of helping students to understand lessons and to develop skills in informatics. Students can use dynamic geometry software to find out the solution, the incorrectness of a problem. In addtion, the software also helps student seff-learn. Students like to have a passion for learning with the help of informatics.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 142-156, January 2015

Oral Assessment and Grade Integrity: A Case Study

Vidar Gynnild Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim, Norway

Abstract. The construct of "grade integrity" refers to the degree to which awarded grades accurately represent the breadth and depth of academic achievement (Sadler, 2009b). This case study examines issues of grade integrity at university level by studying a class of 26 students in science and engineering. While the use of two sets of oral examinations, a mid- term and a final examination, appears to be well justified, grade integrity is challenged by the allocation of scores acquired at the two assessment points, and by issues associated with assigning scores at the mid-term exam. The introduction of an assessment rubric increased consistency and inter-rater reliability at the final examination, but challenges still remain in enabling greater transparency in assessment practices. A key task is to incorporate institutional policies and assessment frameworks in grading, thereby empowering students by making them familiar with standards and criteria.

Keywords: oral assessment; grade integrity

Introduction Written end-of-term examinations are still by far the most widespread mode of assessment at the subject university, yet oral assessments are also part of the assessment repertoire, notably in re-sit examinations and in courses with few students. In many instances, oral assessments are combined with traditional written examinations, portfolios and take-home examinations. These changes have largely taken place over the last decade and the major driving force has been the quest for improved learning and more authentic assessment practices. The efficacy of frequent examinations has been assumed, and such practices have been encouraged without examining potential, inherent flaws. Less effort has been invested in ensuring that practices are rooted in sound assessment principles, and that the representation of achievement is valid and reliable. While new assessment practices may have marginalised instances of “selective negligence” made by students, other concerns have emerged in particular related to the link between student achievement and symbolic expressions as seen in grade transcripts. In this study, an apparent concern is related to the provision of a robust assessment framework. It seems vital to ensure whether or not such guidelines exist as well as to examine the nature and cognitive depth of

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such guidelines when they do exist. We will examine potential use of such guidelines and explore in further depth existing grading practices.

This article draws on data collected from a case study of a science/engineering course at a research intensive institution, here called the subject university. Our study was conducted during a period of reform when professors were urged to adopt a broader range of assessment formats to promote learning and to solidify the evidence base of grades. In our course, the final examination had been replaced by two oral exams, a mid-term and a final, both counting towards the final grade. The underlying concern that informed our study did not pertain specifically to the quest for improved learning, but to the extent to which grades actually represented individual achievement, and not something else.

This study draws extensively on work of Royce Sadler (1989; 2005; 2009a; 2009b; 2010). Sadler was the first researcher to introduce the construct of grade integrity stipulating that each grade awarded should be “…strictly commensurate with the quality, breadth and depth of a student’s performance” (Sadler, 2009b, p. 807). Sadler’s contribution has been to address the value of grades from a conceptual perspective, which also motivated this study. In addressing some of those issues, we first draw a distinction between the intrinsic value of a grade, and the grading practice. The intrinsic value, or merit, is what grade integrity is about. In essence, this implies that a student’s work should be graded according to its value without a view to the candidate’s previous achievements, other students’ performances or issues such as gender, age or ethnicity. Grade integrity is concerned with implications of criterion-based assessment, consistency and fairness as well as maintaining same value of grades within and across educational programs and institutions (Sadler, 2005).

Theoretical background The centrality of assessment in education is well documented (Brown & Knight, 1994; Gynnild, 2001; Rust, 2002). Whilst historically the quality of teaching attracted the bulk of interest at the subject university, this has changed over the last two decades. In particular, different assessment formats and types of tasks have attracted increased interest as vehicles for improving student learning. The new slogan around the turn of the century was that of formative assessment, or assessment for learning as opposed to summative assessment. This linguistic distinction and the call for improved learning stimulated the introduction of a range of innovative assessment formats. Typical examples are continuous assessment formats which exclusively, or in combination with an end-of-term examination, counted towards the final grade. This wave of reform was justified by the quest for improved learning, while potentially troubled areas were ignored. The scholarship of assessment later made significant steps forward and helps us elucidate the remaining problematic. The provision of new concepts represents a valuable contribution to the scholarship of assessment as does the literature addressing the links between assessment theory and practice.

Three requirements are proposed for the aspiration of grade integrity to be realised: “assessment evidence [should be] of a logically legitimate type;

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evidence [should be] of sufficient scope and soundness to allow for a strong inference to be drawn; and a grading principle [should be used] that is theoretically appropriate for coding the level of a student’s performance (Sadler, 2009b, p. 807). Whilst there are convincing arguments for these propositions, demands for improved learning may overshadow issues such as the application of appropriate reference frameworks, and the need for sufficient sampling of tasks to make strong inferences about students’ achievements.

Oral assessment is used in a variety of settings; however, relatively little research has been conducted on this format (Pearce & Lee, 2009). Most of what we know about oral assessment is from the examiners’ perspective, and apart from anxiety studies, little is known about students’ experiences (Joughin, 1998). Generally, oral assessment represents a flexible assessment format with a reputation for authenticity and content validity that may be hard to achieve in written assessments, particularly when communication or problem-solving skills are deficient (Joughin, 1998). Although interactivity generally carries positive connotations, it is not unproblematic in oral assessment. Some degree of unpredictability is always inherent in such sessions because of the potential interaction range between the presentation pole and the dialogue pole (Joughin, 1998, p. 371). The former resembles written examinations in that students respond largely uninterrupted, to set tasks. In the latter case, interactivity is pervasive, at the potential cost to the student of being able to address only a fraction of the pre-scheduled items. The uneven distribution of power between the student and the examiner may harm the progression of the questioning schedule and negatively affect the assigned grade. In our case, questions varied at both sets of exams. Exercises 1-3 had been assigned to the mid-term examination and exercises 4-10 had been assigned to the final examination. Believers in this format still argue that the pros far outweigh the cons: “If we want to truly know what students know about, what they can do in and how they are disposed towards their chosen field, at some point we must get them to talk to us!” (Joughin, 2011, p. 3).

Context and research questions Oceanography is an elective in the third/fourth year of the Master of Science programme, with an estimated weighing of 7.5 credits from a total of 60 credits annually. The aim of the course was to help students understand the physical phenomena involved in the interaction between the earth’s atmosphere and oceans. Learning objectives were created for the mid-term and the final examination, but the 20 minute sessions addressed only a selection of those objectives. Unlike written examinations, questions varied according to selections of content area, based on a draw made on entering the examination room, one taken from exercises 1-3 at the mid-term and one taken from exercises 4-10 at the final examination. Assigned scores accounted for 30 (mid-term) and 70 per cent (final) respectively towards the overall course grade. The syllabus was divided into three parts: wind, waves, and currents, each of which was fully covered in the textbook, as well as in lectures and three hours of weekly exercises. Students in engineering programmes typically have to complete such weekly tasks but in this course, approval of submitted work was not mandatory. The 26 persons on

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the course included Norwegian and international students. The latter group was questioned in English, whilst all native students were allowed to use their first language at both sets of examinations.

Letter grades (A, B, C, D, E and F) were used to represent achievement. The introduction of alphabetic grades was originally intended to allow translation from one set of grading symbols to another. However, the Ministry decided to adopt this grading scale for all higher education. An official memorandum from 2004 stated that grading should be based on descriptors, and that additional guidance would be provided for the application of this framework. There should be “no predefined distribution of grades …” (Johansson & Kjellemo, 2004, p. 1), thus indicating the adoption of a criterion based grading principle. Although the application of grade descriptors is a mandatory requirement, it was never used during the course of this study. Letter grades are purely nominal, but were converted into numerals for research purposes (A=5; B=4; C=3; D=2; E=1; F=0). Students’ grades were allocated by assigning all aggregates according to institutionally predefined numerical ranges, as illustrated in Table 1:

Table 1: Aggregate score ranges used at the Subject University

A B C D E F 100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0

The adoption of aggregate score ranges simplifies data management, “giving the impression of openness, objectivity and comparability across courses” (Sadler, 2009b, p. 815). However, the uneven score ranges still raise concerns related to the construct of grade integrity that will be discussed later in this article. The following research questions are explored: Is the grading principle appropriate for coding the level of a student’s performance? (1) To what extent are assessment and grading practices compatible with grade integrity? (2) How could grade integrity possibly be improved in the course under scrutiny?(3)

Methodology and scoring procedures The application of a case study “…is not a methodological choice, but a choice about what is to be studied” (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 211). This approach is claimed to be appropriate for asking “how” and “why” questions (Yin, 1994) in the systematic examination of one or more events. The purpose of our study is to gain a deeper understanding of appraisal and grading in the selected course, and to identify issues of grade integrity to be addressed in the future. The focus is therefore on one particular element of the case being investigated. Hence, the choice of methodology is determined by our research questions, which also called for an intervention to promote grade integrity. We found principles of action research appropriate for our work as it involves learning about learning with a view to improved practice (Zuber-Skerritt, 2002).

Observational evidence of achievement was obtained through two sets of oral examinations, in which each candidate was assigned scores ranging from 0-100 by an external examiner and the professor teaching the course. The latter

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conducted the interrogation of all candidates while the external examiner observed and took notes, and only occasionally asked questions of clarification. Slightly different procedures were used for the allocation of scores at the two assessment points. Prior to the mid-term examination, no deliberations took place on the selection of potential themes and questions. The professor had assumed this responsibility for years and so could draw on his experience, without any explicit and shared assessment framework having been elaborated. First, both examiners assigned scores individually for each candidate, followed by a brief discussion between the two. Calibration of standards took place progressively. First, both graders assigned scores based on experience and tacit knowledge. Second, candidates’ performances were compared, especially those who received near-identical scores. The professor set the standard for the allocation of scores, while the external examiner routinely adjusted his scores in events of a disparity of 10 percentage points or more. On completion of the examination, an average score was assigned based on the previously adjusted scores assigned by the external examiner and the professor.

Due to conflicting commitments, the external examiner serving at the mid-term exam was replaced by a younger post doc candidate at the final examination. This time the author served as an external consultant to assist with the implementation of a criterion-based grading framework, which in this course was an innovation. With the mid-term examination in mind, the purpose was now to introduce assessment rubrics, focused in content areas and transparent in terms of academic requirements. In theory, this would promote greater fairness in grading, and serve as a frame of reference for those who might later seek an explanation of their score. Content areas and weightings were negotiated before, rather than during, the examination. Scores were assigned out of a maximum potential score for each selected topic. Total scores were allocated as an average of assigned raw scores with no scope for progressive moderation.

Content areas addressed in the weekly exercises (4-10) served as the guiding principle for the rubrics. Selected content areas were covered in the textbook as well as in the set of exercises; however, the oral examinations featured larger emphasis on conceptual understanding and less weight on doing calculations. Table 2 portrays the rubric related to one of the selected content areas (waves). Similar, but not identical rubrics guided the questioning of candidates based on their individual draw of content area on entering the examination room.

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Table 2: Excerpt of assessment rubric used at the final examination

To be Assessed Expected Knowledge Scores and (The “What”) (The “How Well”) Comments on Performance Max Assigned Score Score Topic 1 2 60 A ~a cos( kx  t )  ~ a cos 2 kx   t nd Stokes waves, 2 linear order Free surface elevation; make a sketch 2  gktanh kh  Properties From 3rd order:  also depends on a compared  Higher crest, lower trough with linear - crest increases as h waves decreases - trough decreases as h decreases  water particle motion; not closed particles as for linear waves

Topic 2 15  phase velocity cwA g() h  Solitary waves  sketch  - high and narrow crest versus linear - low and wide crest waves

Topic 3 k nonlinearity 10 U A  Ursell number r ()kh 3 dispersivity

Topic 4  crest angle at max steepness 120o 15

 Breaking  uc w criteria  vertical acceleration downwards = g/2  wave steepness sH/ 1/ 7 Strictly properties of highest and steepest Stokes wave Total 100

The quest for grade integrity has comprehensive implications, such as the application of an appropriate reference framework and the selection of grading standards and criteria. Attention has to be paid to the selection of content, ways of assigning scores, weighting of assessment items and allocation of grades. While institutional guidelines provided some basic information, such as an outline of the grading scale and suggested grade descriptors, the assessment panel enjoyed great freedom in adopting operational procedures for the oral. This format offers challenges due to the dialogic nature of the questioning, the uneven power distribution between the parties and the non-identical tasks to be addressed for the various candidates.

Analysis Given the current procedure for determining mid-term scores, we examine how assigned scores depend on scores suggested by the professor and the external

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examiner. At the mid-term examination scores were assigned progressively by comparing and negotiating suggested scores suggested by the external examiner and the professor. The more experienced professor assumed a hegemonic role over the external examiner in deliberations taking place in the aftermath of each candidate’s performance. In effect, this meant that the assessors contributed unequally to the agreed mid-term score. A regression analysis is used to explore the relationship between the independent variables (individually assigned scores) and the dependent variable (final mid-term score). This was estimated by a regression equation in which M is the final mid-term score; M1 is the professor’s mid-score and M2 is the score of the external examiner: M = 0.675M1 + 0.328M2. The professor’s score accounts for 67.5 % of the final mid-term score, while the external examiner accounts for 32.8 %. On average, the external examiner assigned higher scores than the professor, meaning that the average score at the mid-term would have been higher only if the average of the two sets of scores had been used. The same score pattern emerged at the final exam as the professor’s average score was 72.88, with standard deviation (Sd) 31.75 while that of the external examiner’s was 74.96 (Sd31.36). This time both examiners contributed almost equally towards each individual score.

As indicated, the sets of exams contributed unequally towards the final score, as indicated by the following equation (R = final total score; M = score at the mid- term; E = score at the final exam): R = 0.3M + 0.7E. Our goal is now to examine how final scores depend on initially suggested scores, at the mid-term as well as the final examination. This is achieved by conducting a regression analysis based on our data, and the regression equation is: R = 0.201M1 + 0.0979M2 + 0.339E1 + 0.365E2. R is the final score based on the mid-term and final examinations; M1 and M2 denote assigned scores by the professor and the external examiner at the mid-term examination, while E1 and E2 are scores assigned by the professor and the new external examiner respectively at the final examination.

It appears that the professor’s scores account for about 54% towards the final scores, while the external examiner’s score accounts for about 46%. The introduction of a grading rubric enabled a more consistent allocation of scores than those allocated at the mid-term examination. The rubric featured a set of agreed themes to be addressed, including specified questions and their respective weightings towards a composite score. This time, the assessors shared their interpretations of expectations and reached consensus before, rather than during, the examination. This resulted in increased inter-rater reliability and higher correlation of scores at the final exam compared with the mid-term; (E1, E2) = 0.99; (M1, M2) = 0.95.

Finally, we compare correlations of scores for three selected samples of students at the mid-term and the final exam respectively: Minimum score range [0-40], medium score range [40-80] and maximum score range [80-100]. Table 3 features average scores for the three samples at the mid-term (M1, M2) and the final examination (E1, E2) and final result (R).

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Table 3: Means and correlations for three groups of students

Minimum Medium Maximum Mean (M) 27.00 57.56 92.83 Correlation (M1, M2) 0.53 0,59 0,82 Mean (E) 38.40 71.56 90.75 Correlation (E1, E2) 0.99 0.98 0.97 Mean (R) 35.20 67.49 91.41

While correlations of scores assigned at the final exam correlate well for the three categories of students, this is not the case at the mid-term. This time, the correlation is high for the sample of academically successful students (0.82) while the two remaining categories exhibit much poorer correlations (0.53 and 0.59) indicating that the negotiated criteria utilized at the final exam provided a more robust framework compared to the mid-term scoring system. On average, students’ scores were poorer at mid-term compared with the final, implying that grades would have been better without the mid-term scores included.

The mid-term exam had been introduced to comply with requirements announced by the Ministry (KUF, 2001, p. 31-32) suggesting that teaching, assessment and grading should be combined to avoid cramming and facilitate progression. Later, the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) gave rise to concern over cumulative assessment practices by requiring time-framed learning objectives. Knowledge acquisition was to be demonstrated at the end of, not during the course. In this study, the formula for final scores marginalised the effects of the mid-term, which accounted for only 30% of the final grade. The impact of cumulative assessment may still affect the final grade. The sketch in Figure 1 illustrates issues of three hypothetical students in the same course.

Figure 1: Attainment paths and impacts caused by the mid-term examination

Student A entered with higher qualifications than B and C, who had identical entrance qualifications, but pursued different learning paths. A, B and C achieved identical scores at the final examination, but due to scores assigned at

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the mid-term may not get the same grade. Differences in scores at the mid-term exam are marked as ∆1, ∆2 and ∆3. The final grade is of course affected by the weighting of any assessment point introduced throughout the semester.

We then explored effects of different weightings of the mid-term examination of the course. Table 4 illustrates the impact caused by differential weightings of the mid-term examination. As expected, the greater the weighting of the mid-term examination, the greater the distribution of the spectrum of grades. Two students lose A grades, and two others lose B grades due to the mid-term score, contradicting the popular notion that, as a rule, mid-term examinations benefit students by allowing them to focus on smaller areas of content at a time.

Table 4: Grade distributions as a function of differential weightings of mid-term scores

A B C D E F Mid-term accounting for 0 % of final grade 11 5 6 0 0 4 Mid-term accounting for 15 % of final grade 10 5 7 0 0 4 Mid-term accounting for 30 % of final grade 9 3 10 0 0 4 Mid-term accounting for 50 % of final grade 9 3 8 2 0 4 Mid-term accounting for 100 % of final grade 10 2 3 4 3 4

Often, however, learning does not adhere to a linear path, but occurs in stages, sometimes towards the end of the course, as seen in recent research on threshold concepts (Land, Cousin, Meyer, & Davies, 2005). Deep learning takes time and normally requires a greater thematic focus and contextual overview than can be attained in a few weeks, during which there are time constraints due to other courses, part time jobs and other commitments.

Examination without tight adherence to set items compromises the rigour of oral assessment. In this study, examination questions as well as the order of topics were constructed in advance along with weightings of each assessment point (see Table 2). This added rigour to the examination in the sense that students were asked the same questions and assigned scores according to agreed criteria and standards. If students were unable to respond adequately, the professor intervened by posing scaffolding questions to help them back on track again. Students could neither select items, nor their order as seen in this quote:

“Obviously, I need to know the premises of the exam, e. g. that the duration is 20 minutes and that there are four questions to be posed. By comparison, you don’t get access to questions one at a time in any written exam … There should be no other surprises other than the exam questions themselves. … This runs counter to the interests of the candidate unless the questions to be answered are exhibited to the student at the outset of the oral exam, or when there are questions that remain unanswered during the interrogation” (Student NN).

The chart in Table 5 exhibits the weighting of assessment items associated with exercises 4–10. The different thematic areas feature three or four tasks, but the

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weighting of items is not transparent to the student. While the order of tasks was decided by contextual logic, as seen in Table 4, task 1 in Ex4 and Ex5 carries a lot of weight, while this is different in Ex6 – Ex10.

Table 5: Weighting of tasks associated with content areas at the final exam

Ex 4 Ex 5 Ex 6 Ex 7 Ex 8 Ex 9 Ex 10 Task 1 60 60 20 40 30 20 40 Task 2 15 15 10 30 40 60 40 Task 3 10 10 30 30 30 20 10 Task 4 15 15 40 10

General access to the entire set of questions to be posed at the exam, including their relative weighting, would empower students and increase reliability in grading by enabling them to respond to the entire spectrum of themes, rather than having decisions made on their behalf by the examiner. In this study, the problem is not only the inconsistency of questions asked to each student, but the examiners’ assumed authority in deciding the order of questions, timing and progression. One argument in favour of the current practice is that the order of questions may be set by factors inherent in their subject matter. In such instances it could potentially add to the student’s confusion and increase problems.

The algorithm for combining scores is also of interest to this study: “Aggregation is the process of combining a series of module scores, or degree classifications derived from such scores, into a final unique degree classification” (Morrison, Cowan, & Harte, 1997). Methods belong to one of two broad groupings, “namely, 'grade combination' or 'mark aggregation' methods, where the former involves a summation of grades, and the latter a summation of marks” (Morrison et al., 1997). Because the former method takes no account of students’ raw marks, grade combination algorithms may be uninformative. This was not an issue in this study because global scores incorporated raw scores from both exams. However, the inclusion of scores assigned at the mid-term examination compromises the integrity of the grade, and final grades would have been more accurate without the inclusion of the mid-term scores.

Unlike random error, bias is systematic and is present in all forms of assessment, probably more so in oral assessments than in written work, which can be further checked at a later date. Although we have no evidence of any bias caused by ethnic, language or gender partiality, our data indicate that the external examiners were slightly more lenient in their grading than the professor (see Figure 2). This runs counter to one of the assumed responsibilities of the external examiner, namely to ensure academic standards and avoid grade inflation.

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Figure 2: Professor’s and examiner’s scores at the mid-term and the final, including “best fit”. Professor’s scores on the horizontal line & Examiner’s scores on the vertical line

However, this cannot be deemed as bias because there was no “official” rating of performance. The use of a scoring rubric at the final examination reduced the need for an external examiner compared with the holistic assessment at the mid- term examination. In the latter case, the calibration of scoring practices evolved progressively through reference to prior performances, while at the final this process was largely settled before the examination. This contributed to greater consistency in scoring and thereby to the integrity of the grade. While rubrics do not by themselves guarantee high levels of reliability in grading, they may be helpful in identifying and making explicit standards and criteria to be applied.

Yet another issue is to secure a match between individual achievements with accurate representation of these achievements. Misrepresentations can occur in a number of ways, e.g. in methods used to collect raw scores (norm-based or standards-based assessment), or in the conversion of scores into grades. In this study, grades were assigned according to score ranges laid out in institutional policies. In our study, the cut-off ranges have been adjusted to show a normal distribution curve. The wide score range for “C” (79-60) increases the likelihood of a bell-shaped curve, but compromises grade integrity. Students therefore appear to be graded unfairly at policy level. If the university were to retain its principle of standards-based grading, the implementation of equal score ranges for all categories of grades would increase grade integrity. In Table 6, this scenario is explored based on scores assigned in our course:

Table 6: Grade distributions according to two different scenarios of cut-off scores

Letter grades A B C D E F Score ranges, scenario 1 100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0 Grade distribution 1 9 3 10 0 0 4 Score ranges, scenario 2 100 - 88 87 - 75 74 - 62 61- 49 48 - 36 35 - 0 Grade distribution 2 11 4 7 0 0 4

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At first glance the application of score ranges gives the impression of accuracy and objectivity. However, these are not standardised units, and distributions ranging from 1-100 percentage points therefore do not tell anything about achievement in an absolute sense. The source of error is with selected score ranges as well as in judgments made by examiners. In this study, identical score ranges for all passing grades would have yielded more students receiving better grades. The use of cut-off scores facilitates the management of initially scores as the conversion into other grade distributions is purely a technical operation.

Discussion With what certainty can we claim that the current assessment and grading design constitutes a sound and legitimate way to judge achievement? Some strengths are obvious, especially that the oral format enables comprehensive interactivity in the examination room. Oral examinations also effectively prevent common issues of academic integrity, such as plagiarism and unintended peer collaboration. Knowledge and reasoning may also be probed in greater depth than would have otherwise been possible. The setting allows the examiner to gauge skills and competencies progressively; however, the random selection of items of varying levels of difficulty may raise concerns. While assessment items in written exams are identical for all examinees, the asynchronous nature of oral assessment requires non-identical assessment items. This does not represent an issue by necessity as tasks may vary, yet still be of the same academic standard.

The brevity of the interrogation sessions may be more of as serious matter. With what certainty can we argue that our assessment evidence is of “sufficient scope and soundness to allow for strong inferences to be drawn in terms of scores and grades”? (Sadler, 2009a, p. 2). Given the theoretical emphasis of the curriculum, oral assessment offers opportunities that are non-existing in written formats. Candidates were allowed to reason and make drawings and calculations on the blackboard, and the professor helped clarifying potential misinterpretation of questions posed. A mixed design combining diverse assessment formats would have extended the evidence base grades, but would have been more resource intensive for the assessment panel, and for the students.

Examinations provoke anxiety and disadvantage students to varying degrees, but the rarity of oral examinations and the short time span in an unpredictable setting may have added to tensions before and during the interrogation session that may have misrepresented achievement. The same applies to language proficiency. English was the spoken language for international students, though not their first language, whereas Norwegian students were examined in their native tongue. It requires integrity of the examiners to differentiate between the “the student's command of the medium itself, i.e. the student's oral communication skills in general or language skills in particular; and the student's command of content as demonstrated through the oral medium” (Joughin, 1998, p. 367). The purpose of examinations is not to measure oral ability, but to test “cognitive knowledge, understanding, thinking processes, and capacity to communicate in relation to these” (Joughin, 1998, p. 368).

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At the final examination, the assessors were largely in agreement for the entire range of the scale (0-100), while inter-rater agreement increased towards the upper end (70-100) at the mid-term examination This may be evidence of the effects of the shared interpretations of the rubric, enabling more accurate judgments of performance levels for the entire scale, not only towards the positive end. While in theory deficient language skills may impact graders (and grades), there is no evidence of such potential flaws in this study. An indicator of the robustness of assigned grades (and the integrity of the graders) is shown in Table 6. While policy decisions on score ranges by implication impact grade distributions (Table 5), data presented in Table 7 shows a relatively high degree of consistency in score allocation. The underlying attainment appears to be well represented in the assigned grades; however, as seen in Table 6, differences in grading still occur because assessment is not and can never be an exact science. Table 7 indicates that the professor contributes to upholding academic standards by consistently assigning poorer grades as compared with the external examiner.

Table 4: Grade distributions if assigned either by the professor or external examiner

Letter grades A B C D E F Score ranges 100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0 Only professor 7 4 10 1 0 4 Only external examiner 8 5 9 0 1 3

How may grade integrity be improved in the selected course? Assessment and grading are socially constructed activities with a long history of discourse and collaborative inquiry. Grading panels share authentic challenges contributing to skills development and shared understandings within a community of practice (Wenger, 2000). While shared knowledge generally remain implicit in the act of completing tasks, they become operational in recognition of similar, if not identical tasks (Polanyi, 1958). “The shared repertoire in a community of practice refers to a pool of resources that members not only share but also to which they contribute on an ongoing basis” (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 206). An apparent risk is that communities develop cultures featuring weak ties to institutional policies and the repertoire of theoretically based reference frameworks. Who knows if the integrity of grades is well taken care of across the range of such communities of practice? Neither students nor employers can be sure of the meaning of grades since so little is known about their theoretical underpinnings and the locally grown cultures that maintain and solidify established practices.

The beliefs, skills and knowledge acquired in appraisal of student achievement may be viewed as a social and cultural capital formed out of comprehensive experience and peer socialisation. This is the collective habitus of a community of practice (Jawitz, 2009, p. 604) which is the shared repertoire of beliefs, skills and knowledge associated with appraisal of work. The situation for a newcomer into the community has been described as a process of harmonisation “arising out of the interaction between the agency of new academics and these key contextual aspects within the workplace” (Jawitz, 2009, p. 605). It has been

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assumed that newcomers to communities of practice initially adopt a peripheral participation after which they progressively adopt shared beliefs and practices from the collective habitus. The uneven power distribution between a newcomer and the community of practice typically sets the direction of the harmonisation process, but this was reversed in this case.

The new external examiner was a post-doctoral student and completely new to the assessment and grading community. He assisted in the implementation of the scoring rubric, and negotiated interpretations of questions and weightings towards the final score. The increased consistency in scoring was clearly a contribution to the integrity of the grades. In this case; however, the construct of the harmonisation between the newcomer’s individual agency and collective habitus does not quite fit in. The absence of the long-standing external examiner altered the conditions of the grading panel by making it more susceptible to new practices. The new examiner’s cultural capital greatly supported the intervention because it was aligned with practices with which the new examiner was already familiar. The change was enabled by the abandonment of the existing collective habitus and guidelines suggested by Smith Macklin (2007, p. 212), which may also be helpful to other scholars in similar, if not identical, educational settings:

“Creating situations where the group needs to develop interpretations of their experiences (1); Structuring interactions so that these interpretations can be tested, assessed, extended, refined, rejected, or revised for a specific purpose (2); Providing tools (artefacts, symbols, and language) to facilitate the construction of ideas and models (3); Using formative feedback and consensus-building to develop and improve thinking (4)” (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 212).

Undertaking this clearly presupposes professional external support, mutual trust and respect to degrees that cannot be expected to happen overnight. In the fortunate event that these qualities do exist, successful interventions may set examples for the dissemination of new practices.

Concluding remarks Practices associated with assessment for learning have been widely embraced in higher education while issues of concern related to this approach are often left unattended. While administrative rules and regulations are provided by the university centrally, in practical settings examiners are often left alone to deal with issues of theoretical as well as practical nature in this area. Dealing with the quest for grade integrity is just but one example. This study has demonstrated some benefits of sharing own practices with and external expert, and the value of structuring interactions in order for new practices to be tested and revised. In this study, the impact of the external examiners was minimal, which supports the notion of the teaching professor as the prime carrier of assessment criteria and academic standards. The application of a rubric served as a useful frame of reference for the graders to ensure shared understandings of selected content areas, to harmonise expectations and reduce the risk of bias an error in assigning grades. Such efforts are likely to be of great significance to new assessors, and would help experienced examiners to become more reflective in their practice.

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Acknowledgements Thanks to Professor Dag Myrhaug, NTNU, for letting the author reproduce parts of his assessment rubric, as seen in Table 2. Thanks also to Eirin Tangen Ostgaard for helping with the statistical analysis.

References Brown, S., & Knight, P. (1994). Assessing learners in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Gynnild, V. (2001). Læringsorientert eller eksamensfokusert? Nærstudier av pedagogisk utviklingsarbeid i sivilingeniørstudiet. Dr. philos, Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Pedagogisk institutt, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Trondheim. Jawitz, J. (2009). Learning in the academic workplace: the harmonization of the collective and individual habitus. Studies in Higher Education, 34(6), 601-614. Johansson, T., & Kjellemo, B. T. (2004). Retningslinjer for bruk av det nasjonale karaktersystemet, from http://matematikkradet.no/dokumenter/2004-05- 10_bokstavkar.pdf Joughin, G. (1998). Dimensions of Oral Assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 23(4), 367 - 378. Joughin, G. (2011). "Speaking of which ...": The Intriguing Case of the Spoken Word in Assessment. HERDSA news, 32(8). KUF. (2001). St.meld. nr. 27 (2000-2001) Gjør din plikt - Krev din rett Oslo: Retrieved from http://www.regjeringen.no/Rpub/STM/20002001/027/PDFA/STM200020010 027000DDDPDFA.pdf. Land, R., Cousin, G., Meyer, J. H. F., & Davies, P. (2005). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (3)*: implications for course design and evaluation. In C. Rust (Ed.), Improving Student Learning Diversity and Inclusivity. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development. Morrison, H., Cowan, P., & Harte, S. (1997). The Impact of Modular Aggregation on the Reliability of Final Degrees and the Transparency of European Credit Transfer. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 22(4), 405-417. Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Rust, C. (2002). The impact of assessment on student learning. Active Learning in Higher Education, 3(3), 145-158. Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative Assessment and the Design of Instructional Systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119-144. Sadler, D. R. (2005). Interpretations of criteria-based assessment and grading in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), 175 - 194. Sadler, D. R. (2009a). Fidelity as a precondition for integrity in grading academic achievement. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. Sadler, D. R. (2009b). Grade integrity and the representation of academic achievement. Studies in Higher Education, 34(7), 807 - 826. Sadler, D. R. (2010). Assessment in higher education. In M. Baker, B. & Peterson, P. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of education. Oxford: Elsevier. Smith Macklin, A. (2007). Communities of Practice. In G. M. Bodner & M. Orgill (Eds.), Theoretical Frameworks for Research in Chemistry/Science Education (pp. 204-227). New Jersey: Pearson Education. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E. (2000). Communities of Practice and Social Learning Systems. Organization, 7(2), 225-246. Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: design and methods. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2002). The concept of action learning. The Learning Organization, 9(3), 114-124.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 157-171, January 2015

Creativity within the Academy: A Subjective Academic Narrative

Dr Josie Arnold Professor of Writing, Writing Discipline. Swinburne University of Technology Australia

Abstract. This paper practises a subjective academic narrative to tell my scholarly story of creativity within the academy. In doing so, it considers the self as data and refers to ego histoire as well as narrative discourse. In considering the role of storytelling as creativity within the academy, I also develop a sense of the importance of scholar-practitioners and of practice as academic scholarship, identifying Enlightenment practices as ‘eurowestern’. I survey the Cartesian binary and argue for laterality. As the academy grows more at ease with including creative practicum within its knowledge domain, many more PhD candidates are undertaking their studies in the artefact and exegesis model. This paper utilises my experience in founding and supervising this model within Swinburne University of Technology to make a narrative that explores how practicum- and theoretical reflections upon it- together bring breadth and dynamism into scholarly discourse.

Keywords: Self as data; Ego Histoire; The subjective academic narrative; Creativity within the academy; Scholarship as/and practicum

Introduction Gregory Ulmer in his discussions of ‘electracy’ or e-media literacy discusses a scholarly methodology that he calls a ‘mystory’. Ulmer (1989) describe this as producing a ‘mystorical’ approach to thinking and research. Ulmer’s ‘mystory’ challenges and even erases claims to fact, empirical certainty and even authenticity in writing. He claims that all writing is personal and also quite mysterious (my story and mystery). Much scholarly work claims to be both authentic and yet depersonalised. Ulmer’s work challenges this and shows all academic texts to involve a more complex knitting together of the academic, the personal narrative and the cultural positioning. Thus it both questions and opens up new possibilities by such questioning of the academy’s Enlightenment analytico-referential model of knowledge. In doing so, it is in accord with much postmodernist discourse about oneself, one’s culture and also the world itself as a constructured text able to be deconstructed, read, critiqued and even read against (Derrida 1978-1984; Barthes 1977).

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This is mystory of thinking about the opportunities presented by the creativity and research nexus as potentially transformative for scholarship. This nexus provides scholars with academic prisms that enable looking at the world in novel ways, looking through different theoretical lenses and through other narratives so as to develop new knowledge (Liu & Lazlo 2006). Ulmer’s personal and mysterious model of academic writing opens up opportunities for scholarship. Academics can speak gives in many models of ‘voices’ that illuminate knowledge as both personal and professional experiences. Such open discourse models act not only to challenge the expectations of the establishment/academy, but also to bring into knowledge structures a richer understanding of the academic discussion and its relevance to the lived experience. It also acts to bridge the negative aspects of the ‘qualitative/quantitative’ binary (Mello 2002). It may then be seen that when empirical knowledge structures are revealed as creative non-fictional constructions, new possibilities may emerge both of knowledge and contributing more fully to knowledge models and discourses. Elsewhere, I have called this ‘fictional truth’ (Arnold 1994) and ‘the subjective academic narrative’ (Arnold 1994-2012).

Through their creativity, practitioner-academics make strong research contributions. Relatively new qualitative methodologies based on personal narrativity and practice led research (PLR) express a movement towards a resolution of the tension between the academy and such knowledge construction as occurs in the art world, creative industries, and through arts practitioners (Makela 2007).

These practitioner academics come from such areas as film, multimedia, dance, architecture, design, drama and writing. Yet clarifying practice is intellectual knowledge is a challenge in an academic environment that finds it difficult to align has not always seen practice and knowledge (Rinne & Sivenius 2007). In PLR we reject the idea that only traditional models of scholarly discourse are scholarly, and that the exegesis provides an academic element that acts to legitimise creativity. Bringing creativity into the academy acts itself to legitimise creative works and provides an acknowledgement of creativity as knowledge and not just the object of study.

Creative industry itself is as an area of artistic exploration, and bringing it into traditional research is challenging. In PLR, such challenges include the struggle against reducing the artefact or the creative work by becoming over- explanatory when analysing such a non-traditionally academic practicum from a traditional scholarly position, and the setting up of academic priorities for creative works. Today there are numerous models for undertaking PLR. One resolution of this tension between theory and practice is PLR, a form of scholarship that honours practicum within the academy. The most prevalent example of this is the artefact and exegesis PhD model. For example, in writing today there are 26 Australian Universities that offer a PhD in writing by artefact and exegesis As a result there is an increasing pressure to understand such illustrate non-traditional methodologies within a traditional framework (Maarit 2007).

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The subjective academic narrative There is a growing sense of the subjective self as a singular aspect of knowledge production. This has become known as the ego histoire in the study of history, and this is a useful term within PLR methodology and in my own subjective academic narrative. This term indicates that the scholar inevitably inserts her or himself into the academic discourse. In exploring the application of the qualitative methodology of the ego-histoire within the academy, this paper relates it to the subjective academic narrative. In doing so it recognises the contributions that life stories make to scholarly knowledge, and shows the importance of recognising the academic work as coming from the autobiographical status of the subjective self (Spry 2001; Holt 2003). Thus the disinterested critical and analytical model that has grown from the Enlightenment is challenged not to defeat it, but to expand it from its narrow traditional and quite dominant trajectory within the academy (Arnold 2010- 2012).

This paper explores how the personal elements of autobiography are extended- as within ego-histoire- to place the individual scholar within an academic context and how such work facilitates the scholarly exploration of practicum. In doing so it develops further insights into the importance and contribution of the integration of hitherto peripheral or under-recognised forms of knowledge into the academy.

Revealing, describing and using as data the relationship of self within scholarly discourse has become more and more acceptable, and even sought-after, as qualitative methodologies have entered the academy. This is so not only of the humanities and the social sciences, but also of the traditional ‘hard sciences’, even within the Enlightenment templates that many quantitative studies follow.

PLR within the artefact and exegesis PhD

The PhD process is made more complex for both candidates and supervisors when PLR challenges Enlightenment empiricist research models (Denholm & Evans 2007). In my experience, such PLR supervision has its own particular trajectory that calls for particular interactions over the course of the PhD project. There is an upward curve over the first year of candidacy when the supervisor acts as a helper. Such an interaction between supervisor, candidate and the project draws on a working diary, to result in the first rough draft of the artefact. At this time the guidelines for the exegesis drawing are been developed and a working bibliography established. Readings for this come from the writers’ own insights into and reflections about the creative work, other exemplars from writers’ work and reflections and, most importantly, from current academic discussions about issues raised.

As the candidate takes more and more responsibility for researching the academic dimensions of the exegesis and their relationship to their practice, this trajectory flattens. This is both a difficult time for the supervisor who must become more hands-off whilst still interacting with the project and candidate. The supervisor enables the student to begin to find their scholarly ‘voice’ and to

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utilise their reflections upon their creative process to enter into academic discourse (Nelson 2004).

After writing the artefact and reflecting upon it in a working journal, working on the exegesis itself becomes appropriate and possible. By following threads revealed through reflection upon the artefact, the exegesis can be developed by the practitioner. The exegesis, then, becomes a more scholarly ‘voice’ that still has strong elements of creativity and re-invention through narrativity. It is complementary to the artefact and lies alongside it as together the PLR dialogue offers new ways of clarifying the project and situating it more clearly within current academic discourse, showing how such creativity is both new and significant as a contribution to scholarship. By drawing together these 2 complementary elements of PLR, methodology is developed about the artefact and the theoretical aspects of the project in the exegesis. It is, then, a space in which the candidates’ practices are shown as seeking definition and understanding rather than being constrained by a given model. PLR enriches the academy through experimentation within a given genre of work and through learning from this practice what theoretical models are appropriate for the development of the scholarly observational and reflective ‘voice. Thus, PLR brings to the academy creativity in both elements of the artefact and exegesis PhD.

Addressing the examiners is the final high-point of supervision and follows the period in which we as supervisors become quasi-examiners. The Indian cultural theorist Gayatri Spivak words provide guidance here: ‘…leaders read the world in terms of rationality and averages, as if it were a textbook. The world actually writes itself with the many-leveled, unfixable intricacy and openness of a work of literature (Spivak,1988)

University Practices and Qualitative Research.

A foundational aspect of the challenge to Ethics Committees for artefact and exegesis PhDs is expressed by considering Barbara Myerhoff’s statement: ‘…thinking with my viscera, feeling with my brain’ (1992). A number of exegetical PhDs act to develop artefacts that are personal insights, and narratives that bring forward scholarly opinions. Such artefacts are the data for the exegetical component of the PhD (Arnold 2005.) These often include identifiable photographs and refer to lived experiences that contribute to the richness of stories and to the new and significant contribution to knowledge of the PhD by exegesis. (Bochner & Ellis 2003). This storytelling must inevitably involve references to other people involved in the storytellers’ lives. Where these are direct quotations it is appropriate that clearances should be sought and/or pseudonyms used. In other cases, for example observed family histories from a personal perspective, pseudonyms are inappropriate and/or unsustainable. In most cases, however, the stories involve PhD candidates retelling their own perspectives of people involved in their lives. These are personal opinions, yet still need a clearance, as there are significant ethical questions inherent in writing one’s own story as qualitative research.

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An intrinsic question has arisen in the postmodernist moment about the ownership and the telling of one’s own story. This is embedded in the proposal that all discourse is a created narrative that is personal and subjective. Yet a gap still exists between ‘real’ methodology and ‘other’. In this mystorical paper, I am proposing that important qualitative research methodology is situated within postmodernist theories of discourse that show it to be fragmented, personal and non-replicable (Smythe & Maurray 2004).

My interest in such alternative research methodologies arose initially in my own PhD where I discuss postmodernist textuality (Arnold 1994). From this arose my work of entering into such academic discussion of the personal in the scholarly through reading and responding to significant academic works and commentaries (e.g Barthes 1977, Derrida 1978, 80, 82,84; Cixous 1991; Eagleton 1989; Norris1985). I became (and remain) engaged in revealing in scholarly discourse in all areas of knowledge production the acknowledgement of the personal being an inevitable and even central part of research. This enables an enrichment, a deepening and a broadening of the dominant Enlightenment model of analysis of a given research question that dominates the scholarly mileau on which much university research is modelled. It demonstrated that all research can be seen to be a ‘narrative’ or a story told by particular researchers within a particular research culture and hence following or promulgating a particular Enlightenment based research methodology.

Such a model of academic discourse as Gregory Ulmer’s (1989) mystorical approach involves a recognition that there is no singular reading available for any text up the text: there is no ‘one way’ to understand its content. This challenge to an authoritative reading and/or discourse shows the frail nature of knowledge itself. This brings forward many possibilities for scholars. Academic writing can be undertaken as being dynamic and ever-shifting. It is quite galvanising to be involved in academic debate that is explorative rather than aiming to be definitive. Like all forms of written discourse, scholarly writing is aware of its own frailty as an expression of ideas, opinion and data arising from the self as well as from the project. Thus it respects multiple ways of knowing, and brings the persona of the scholar forward as an integral aspect of data production.

Rather than espousing a form of mere relativism, postmodernist theories and practices of scholarly textuality and discourse show us that Enlightenment models of linear and analytico-referential knowledge need no longer dominate scholarship. They are able to be embedded in a more lateral postmodernist discourse model that acknowledges the frailty of the ‘author as god’. This is discussed by John Caputo (1987) as a dispersal of certainties and by Ulmer as a ‘mystory’; others call it a pastiche. This debate flourishes as it addresses the limitations of the Cartesian binary when it’s applied to the Arts and Social Sciences.

The established the quantitative model espoused by the natural sciences has arisen based upon the Cartesian binary of ‘Cogito ergo sum’: I think, therefore I

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am, and it has produced many wonderful advances in the natural sciences. Unfortunately, this influential and productive scientific model has become the qualitative vs. quantitative debate. In many areas of scholarship, then, the quantitative has been valued over the qualitative. Nevertheless, there has been an increasing use and acceptance, following the postmodernist dispersal of paradigms, of alternative ways of knowing. These bring together many ways of thinking, enquiring, researching, theorising and practicing scholarship (Midgely 2004; Gallop 2002; Deleuze and Guattari 1981).

Cartesian-based norms become a dominant methodological modality in the academy. Mary Midgely ascribes this to our being seduced in our research models through the seeming simplicity of Enlightenment models (2004:5). She asserts, however, that: ‘science, which has its own magnificent work to do, does not need to rush in and take over extraneous kinds of questions (historical, logical, ethical, linguistic or the like)’ (2004:6). Ulmer is far more critical as he sees such knowledge models as producing for the academy a ‘collective blindness’. The Enlightenment paradigms and norms have dominated scholarship and, moreover, have not solved the dilemmas of being human in this world. He asks: ‘How do we account for the persistence of error in our lifeworld even after centuries of adopting scientific method as the dominant mode of collective reason?’ (1999-2000:15). Ulmer playfully expresses ideas through producing neologisms so that he can express himself more freely and more freshly. One that challenges traditional is the ‘emplyrical’. Such a new knowledge model combines the empirical with the lyrical so that data production is both personal and poetic and scholarly and orderly. This will enable us to to grasp holistically the true condition of our problematic world.’ (1999-2000:19).

This can be seen in the work of anthropologist Barbara Myerhoff who realised that the scientist inevitably inserted themselves personally in any project: ‘I felt more of my reactions being used, wholistically, the way we are taught to study societies. I was thinking with my viscera, feeling with my brain, learning from all my history and hunches and senses…..I could never imagine trusting my own or anyone else's work as fully again without some signposts as to how the interpretations were arrived at and how the anthropologist felt while doing so’ (1992:294-5). Acknowledging both the visceral and intellectual aspects of her knowledge production. Myerhoff’s work accords with Ulmer’s mystory and the subjective nature of academic knowledge that I espouse.

It has been a significant achievement in the academy to accept into PhD credentialing the artefact and exegesis model of creative and academic research. Bringing together what has been separated as a binary opposition has many advantages such as acknowledging and utilising theory and practice as complementary ways of knowing within the academy; encouraging the self- reflexive nature of all research and drawing practice into academic and intellectual preserves for academics and artists. In doing so, it challenges the insular eurowestern ways of knowing that underpin traditional academic knowledge models, thus enabling a new dynamism to enter the academy

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through the scholarly realisation that all research is a narrative based upon the self as data (Riley & Hawe 2004).

There continues to be a lively discussion about practice led/based research or studio research or any practicum that enters the research domain. I utilise PLR as an umbrella term to describe/hold this qualitative methodology that I call ‘a dynamic way to knowledge’ (2007). Yet such ‘subjective academic narratives’ appear to have to continually defend themselves from critics within as well as from a broader academic research community that has a great deal of difficulty in acknowledging the place of practicum within the academy. The Australian Association of Writing Programs (AAWP) provides a good example of this tension. On the one hand, it has been a fundamental supporter of PLR in its various iterations and modes. On the other, it appears to be as unsure of this in its 2012 special edition on PLR as it was with its germinal publication in 2002 (Brooke & Magee 2012).

One of the tensions that is central to the artefact and exegesis model of the PhD is the freedom from a regulatory form that enables not only the artefact but also the exegesis to display knowledge in modes other than the traditional Enlightenment based PhD model. Each artefact is by its own genre quite singular: there is no central research question being addressed. What is being addressed is increasing scholarship through reflections upon one’s practice, creative input, choice of genre etc. Supervising such a project is exciting as there is always a dynamic activity being undertaken by the candidate in developing the artefact (Arnold 2012).

As each artefact differs from any given formulae or research question, so each reflective working journal identifies the contribution to academic knowledge that self as data can contribute. Elsewhere, I have shown how the journal entries provide issues for the exegesis and illuminate the process of PLR (Arnold 2005). Thus each exegesis develops a sense of the authorial voice that complements the practicum artefact by recording the intellectual journey made and by placing it within current academic discourse.

So it is that there is great difficulty in making pronouncements about how the exegesis might be written. No one research methodology should be brought to bear as a model: there is space within the academy for variation. Underpinning this assertion sits my belief that all knowledge production is personal and subject to the cultural impacts upon the researcher even as it enters into the privileged academic discourse about the matter, it makes a story albeit one told within that scholarly/creative discourse. Discussing PLR lends itself readily to comparisons and the use of metaphors, for they provide new ways of thinking through new connections and analogies. In doing so, they provide ‘an important way of using language to explain abstract ideas or to find indirect but powerful ways of conveying feelings’ (Cameron & Maslen 2010. Intro).

As always, a metaphorical example clarified for me the challenge to linear academic discourse dominated by Enlightenment and Eurowestern (Achebe

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2009; Spivak 2004) values that exemplifies much academic discussion and debate. My own subjective academic narrative is founded in postmodernism and feminism (Arnold 1995 ) two words often used to describe a binary but that I show as having complementary elements. In this paper, my chosen metaphor refers to architecture, where one may well have thought that building was within strict parameters. This drawing together of different structural elements is today practised in the post-postmodernist architecture of parametrics. Enabled by electronic programs and new apps that permit architectural patterns to be challenged, parametrics shows that even the solid buildings are a narrative expression of the subjective self of the designing and supervising architect. I would compare this to poetics, especially feminist poetics that give me deeper personal and academic insights into non-linear thinking and practice that lie within my appellation ‘the subjective academic narrative’. Such ‘performative architecture’ in the words of Salisu Abubakar and Mukhtar Mahommed Halilu is ‘… giving the architect new controls over his designs and restoring the architect back to his pedestal as master builder’. In other words, they are drawing together theory and practice into ‘parametric worlds’ that offer new and dynamic ways of enacting space and time in buildings. Mahesh Senegala describes how everything in the universe is mobile and now in architecture the static building is able to be replaced by a kinetic one: He calls upon the rhizomatic in the work of Gilles Deleuze to demonstrate that ‘instead of working within a dualistic and outmoded framework of space and time (or timeless space), the new architectures altogether dump that framework’ this is because ‘the world is now a colloidal network’ that can be experienced with ‘simultaneity’ (45). Particularly appealing to me in this context is his assertion that ‘time-like architectures now present time as a non-linear, fragmented, non- geographical tapestry of spatially distant but temporarily adjacent spaces, surfaces, information and global connections’ (45).

The poetic, the rhizomatic, the narrative discourse, are affecting knowledge debates and research activities in a manner that invites theory and practice to enact itself as a singular, personal story that interfaces with the academic in the carefree yet dynamic growth patterns of rhizomatic grass that in architecture Senegala describes as a ‘colloidal network’. These I describe in textuality and discourse as ‘a subjective academic narrative’ such as this paper displays. One purpose of such academic discussions as this is to continue developing insights into the ways in which practice and theory can be drawn together within the academy by such research activities as PB/LR.

Theory and practice as complementary ways of knowing within the academy.

There has long been an uneasy relationship between these 2 aspects of human endeavour within an academy formed and informed by the Enlightenment. Theory has gained precedence over practice as it is seen as not subject to the vagaries of the individual but as meeting scientific requirements of proof. The scientific model is simple and has been very successful: there is a proposition; this is studied under strict guidelines that make it able to be evaluated by peers & then replicated. In Cartesian terms, the doubt has been followed until it is resolved. This empiricist view of knowledge is positivist and leads to an

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unfounded belief in a natural order of things. It thus leads to a knowledge/power regime that does not recognise the dynamism offered to knowledge constructs by destabilisation brought about by transgression and diversity and leading to transformation.

Yet the broader acceptance of multiplicity means that speculative guidelines are appropriate for all research activities. As I have shown, today, even ‘architecture faces a radical reshuffling of a number of its principal underpinnings such as context, place, orientation, boundary, space, adjacency, contiguity, connectivity and materiality’ (Senegaal 48). This strikes me as relevant to what Shane Strange (2012) discusses as the ‘radical gesture’ provided by ‘creative research’. Such research is put forward by Strange (2012) as having multiple positive attributes for the academy. These include not only meeting the demands of knowledge production in new and dynamic ways that invigorate the academy, but also both contributing to creative industries and at the same time acting potentially ‘as a means of the transcendence of capitalist social relations’. Rather than discussing creative research, then, as a means of introducing multiple ways of knowing into often rather hidebound empirically based and/or judged academic structures, Strange discusses PLR as offering new research opportunities that challenge (and overcome?) ‘orthodox research paradigms’. As he argues, the theory that is in the exegetical material does not justify the practice: the 2 are 1. A metaphor for this is one-ness such as in the egg with its white and yoke, or, as Donald Winnicott (1989) asserts, as is mother and baby. Investigating this one-ness, Strange points out that research is not hampered by creativity: it is itself in all its modes, a creative activity. This is an important point, as it takes practicum from an exteriorised position within the academy to a central one in which an inefficient binary ceases to exist. This position enables other cultural ways of expressing knowledge and research to extend the eurowestern domination of knowledge production within the academy.

The self-reflexive nature of all research challenges eurowestern knowledge paradigms. It is possible to discuss all research as being a subjective narrative within the academy rather than an objective search for proof of givens. Strange has an interesting take on this: that science ‘is based upon the objectivising process of fracturing subject from object and of reifying human activity’ (Strange 2012:7). That is, creativity is not a separate human activity but a central ‘human practice, of purposeful activity…’ (8). Thus research and creativity are brought together and the ‘artist-academic’ (Webb 2012: 2) appellation is true of all research scholars.

In PLR, a creative practice leads to and relates closely to the exegesis. The practice explores the practicum and in reflecting upon it enables issues to come forward that lead to an intellectual and scholarly journey that continues it rather than validating it for the academy. Exploring self as data in an autoethnographic study of the creative project applies a qualitative research method that relates autobiographical personal experiences, analysing and interpreting the self as data. Whilst its beginnings can be trace to anthropologists who immersed themselves in their own data, it is now a metaphor for much self-reflexive

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scholarship. ‘Stemming from the field of anthropology, autoethnography shares the storytelling feature with other genres of self-narrative, but transcends mere narration of self to engage in cultural analysis and interpretation’ (Chang 2008: 43).

Drawing practice into academic and intellectual preserves for academics and artists and other practitioners

Praxis is a central aspect of bringing together the practicum itself with well- established academic ways of knowing. Such praxis honours both the academic credentialing structure and the practice itself and draws the 2 together as having equal measures of importance within the academy. In doing so it adds dynamism to the academy (Arnold 2007) and enriches practice with self- reflexive observations that review the literature and add to the current privileged academic discourse about ways of knowing. It also acts to challenge the insular eurowestern ways of knowing that underpin traditional academic knowledge models.

In addressing the idea that the academy is an Enlightenment utopia, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak agrees that a ‘white mythology of reason’ makes for a ‘subordinate culture’ whilst arguing that this involves all rural poor as ‘subaltern’ or ‘removed from lines of social mobility’ (2004:531). In education, she recommends reading literature because ‘a training in literary reading is a training to learn from the singular and the unverifiable’ (532). Spivak describes the non-western modes of knowing and even of being as subaltern and alienated by, as well as distanced from, the postmodernist discourse that underpins the dominant western social and cultural landscape that informs the academy. She states that: ‘It is impossible for contemporary French intellectuals to imagine the kind of Power and Desire that would inhabit the unnamed subject of the Other of Europe’ (Spivak 2002:265). This exclusion of non-Europeans is exacerbated by the assumptions underpinning such colonialism that continue to exist both within the colonised and colonising society and that are shown too often and too certainly as ‘norms’ within the privileged discourse of the academy.

In his reflections upon his Igbo boyhood lived less as a Nigerian than as a ‘British-protected child’, Chinua Achebe reveals the depth of the ‘million differences-some little, others quite big-between the Nigerian culture into which I was born, and the domineering Western-style that infiltrated and then invaded it’ (2009:68); nor is this over. He describes in details his discovery that his 4 year old daughter is being taught reading from a book that valorises a white boy and shows the problems of a black boy dominated by superstition. Achebe describes these books as ‘poison’ (2009:71). Achebe is very aware of eurowestern influences that linger still in the postcolonial era: this, he sees, as having given Africa a ‘tarnished name’ in which Africa has ‘…come to occupy in the European psychological disposition the farthest point of otherness…’ from Europe. Much of this he ascribes to sensationalist literature that in its own way supported the commercialisation of Africans as export materials in the slave trade. However, even more confronting is his assertion that Joseph Conrad in a ‘serious’ and permanent piece of literature in ‘The Heart of Darkness’ has

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delivered a ‘coup de grace’ to the African: ‘Were these creatures really human?’ (81). Achebe says there is a strong belief from this (and preceding narratives) that has developed a tradition that ‘has invented an Africa where nothing good happens or ever happened’, an Africa that waits for Europeans to come and ‘to straighten it up’ (85). Arising from this is the concept that Africans always have a heart of darkness as well as dwelling within it so that ‘a highly educated African might be shown sloughing off his veneer of civilisation along with his Oxford blazer when the tom-tom begins to beat’ (88). Africa then is always the other of Europe and always holds a subordinate and suspect position vis a vis its culture.

The eurowestern enculturisation of Achebe (and his daughter) is recorded throughout his reflections upon his life as well as in his fictional narratives. They indicate that the ways of knowing that are available in African culture are unaccepted and unacceptable in the academy. Nor is this confined to academic practices: Africa has been riddled with opposing ideologies generated from the cold war in Europe ‘which encouraged the emergence of all kind of evil rulers able to count on limitless supplies of military hardware form their overseas patrons, no matter how atrociously they ruled their peoples’ (2009:93). The collapse of the cold war, says Achebe, has resulted in ‘war, genocide, military and civilian dictatorships, corruption, collapsed economies, poverty, disease and every ill attendant upon political and social chaos!...evil thrives best in quiet, untidy corners’ (93). Underneath this is Achebe’s insight that ‘Race is no longer a visible presence in the boardroom. But may lie, unseen, in our subconscious’ (95). If Western imperialism is to be addressed about this ‘cultural bondage’ then the academy has an important part to play.

Showing the encultured and narrow nature of eurowestern academic patterns of knowing

The quantitative ways of knowing that came to the academy from the Enlightenment reasoning and subsequently dominated academic methodologies are very successful in their application within science. Mary Midgley says that their success should be acknowledged and respected but not built into a singular model for the social sciences against which other ways of knowing are evaluated within the academy. The academy is flexible enough to be enriched by multiple ways of knowing that come to it from non eurowestern academic patterns of knowing.

This is currently an on-going struggle as eurowestern cultural colonialism has not been able to be fully rejected in the struggle for independence of ex-colonies. The challenge for postcolonial knowledge structures to develop and expand within the academy is on-going. Too often multi-perspectivism is derided as mere relativism yet many perspectives exist beyond eurowestern certainties. As Achebe indicates precolonial ‘nations’ did not exist. He takes us into his Igbo people’s postcolonial ‘nation’ of Nigeria to show that:

‘...in precolonial times was not quite like any nation most people are familiar with. It did not have the apparatus of centralised

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government but a conglomeration of hundreds of independent towns and villages each of which shared the running of its affairs among its menfolk according to title, age, occupation, etc; and its womenfolk who had domestic responsibilities, as well as the management of four-day and eight-day markets that bound the entire region and its neighbours in a network of daily exchange of goods and news, from far and near’ (2000:6).

The coloniser’s ‘absolute narrative’ (2000:24) changed that, and Africa as the heart of darkness, a place that harboured ‘the grotesque imagery of the African mind (Achebe 2000: 68) began. The subaltern is ‘the West’s constructed culture of other’ (Abuker & Halilu 2009:3). The language of Western discourse is seen as gendered by Luce Irigary (1985), but for non-europeans, it is also a way of reproducing knowledge patterns that are in sympathy with such eurowestern models. This indicates the encultured nature of knowledge within the eurowestern based academy that focusses upon a linear discourse based on scientific modes or evaluated against them and too often found wanting.

Creative Industries: Creative scholarship

Enabling a new dynamism to enter the academy through stories bridges multiple gaps. For example, Donald Winnicott notes that: ‘…for the purpose of statistical inquiry simplifications have to be made…’ (Winnicott 1989:424). His reflections are based upon the consideration that ‘something new and valuable always turns up when old things are stated in a new way’ (Winnicott 1989:427). This adds scholarly and practicum knowledge to the realisation that all research is a narrative based upon the self as data.

Creativity as scholarship provides a great deal to the academy. Another example arises from a study by Ann Markusen et al (2008) that emphasises the economic importance of what they call ‘the creative economy’ in developing ‘creative cities and cultural industries’ (2008:24). They note that in the USA as elsewhere, many artists and creative workers are self-employed (33). This makes it difficult to categorize creative industry members and furthermore, ‘all efforts to operationalize the cultural economy are forced to work with industrial and occupational categories that have been many decades in the making’ (36). Today the term ‘creative industries’ has become commonplace within the academy as well as more generally within society. This has led to the establishment of what is broadly called ‘Creative Industries Groups’ in many universities. Their goal is to show how many of our graduates from a variety of courses, but most particularly from practice-based courses, are employed in areas that are not always seen as ‘business’ oriented. This group might contain design, visual arts, new media, creative writing, dance, theatre arts, circus arts and general writing undergraduate and postgraduate courses that lead to graduate employment in many areas.

Throughout our Eurowestern economic, cultural and social fabric, creativity can be shown to be an important contributor to both the economy and the personal and cultural well-being. Indeed, as in the USA, Creative Industries contribute

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significantly to Australia’s economy. For example, The Department of State and Regional development report ‘NSW Creative Industry: Economic Fundamentals’ 2008 defines creative industries rather traditionally as: advertising; architecture; design; visual arts; music; performing arts; publishing; film; television; radio electronic games’ by their own scope rather than including ‘downstream stages…such as manufacturing, wholesale, distribution, retailing and second hand sales (2008:7).

The report goes on to state that: The creative industry is a significant component of NSW’s economy, employing over 5 per cent of the workforce (of 150,000) Further, over the 10 years to 2006, employment in the creative industry increased by 28 per cent, against 13.5 per cent for all industries (2008:8).

It adds a further note that : ‘creative industry employment growth across Australia was marginally higher than for NSW’ (2008:10). So, creative industries employ large sections of the Australian community quite directly. The above report quotes the OECD estimates of cultural/creative contributions in Australia as 3.1% of the GDP, comparable with Canada at 3.5%; France at 2.8%; and the U.S .A. at 3.3% but outflanked by the UK at 5.8%. (2008:8). Such industries also engage informally and more indirectly many creative artists.

Conclusion

The strong narrative that is central to much eurowestern knowledge construction began with Rene Descartes. The Cartesian emphasis upon reason and the proposition that thinking leads us to identify reality is basic to Rene Descartes’ main and most influential principle: that intellect is separate from the imagination, the senses and memory. This Cartesian binary has dominated knowledge in the academy as it proposes that all knowledge should arise from the mind: cogito ergo sum. I think, therefore I am. Such critical, intellectual and scholarly thinking leads us to doubt and resolving such doubts takes our rational thinking to a point where the doubt is replaced by absolute certainty. This thinking was ratified by Enlightenment influences, and still underpins much of how we think of scholarship and knowledge. This narrative has come under strong challenges from the mid 20th century with its development of feminism, postmodernism and narrative discourses.

As she discusses of the need to rethink and then redress the Cartesian binary, Midgely contends that ‘…all reasoning is powered by feeling and all feeling has some reasoning as its skeleton. Thought and reasoning are not opponents, any more than shape and size’ ( 2004:9). In accepting that co-existence, scholars can practise outside the givens and norms that traditional research structures have declared as logical and reasonable frameworks.

This has led increasingly to the insertion of life stories into academic narratives and autobiographical and cultural references. Like the self, history is evanescent and subject to cultural and personal interpretations. Ego histoire is a concept clarified by Pierre Noris in the 1980’s of the academic inserting themselves into

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historical data indicates the movement of boundaries between the public and the private within scholarship itself (Popkins 2007). The ego histoire ‘approach to the autobiographical act links our notions about processes of self-inscription to our understanding of the ways historical and cultural knowledge and discourse are produced’ (Davis 2001). As history claims to verify a lived cultural reality, the acceptance of the subjective self within the study indicates a willingness to develop different ways of viewing scholarly research. The Enlightenment developed the eurowestern view of the rational as the basis of scholarship. In challenging this template, scholarship tolerates ambiguity rather than acts to resolve it. These involve the recognition of a certain singular scholarly narrative as being creative non-fiction. Rather than align itself within the concept of perspectivity, then, such research demonstrates its own style of productivity through singular scholarly ‘subjective academic narratives’.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 172-190, January 2015

A Study on the Impact of ICT on Collaborative Learning Processes in Libyan Higher Education

Thuraya Kenan, Abdussalam Elzawi, Crinela Pislaru and Maysoun Restoum School of Computing & Engineering, University of Huddersfield Huddersfield, England

Abstract. This paper presents the conclusions of a study on the impact of ICT on collaborative learning processes in Libyan Higher Education (LHE). The quantitative analysis of the answers to a questionnaire (completed by Libyan full-time lecturers at the universities of Tripoli, Garyounis, Gharian and Ezawia) shows the necessity to design and develop more classroom activities and interactive online applications, enabling the development of team-building skills required by employers. The influence of limited Internet bandwidths in Libya on collaborative learning processes in HE is then presented. It is obvious that HE institutions need to develop proactive strategies that envisage and anticipate learners‟ future learning needs and requirements in this transition period of moving towards an increasingly digitalized, networked and knowledge-based society. The paper also contains the analysis of a SWOT model considering the factors that must be considered in relation to collaborative learning within the university teaching process, such as intelligent multimedia, Internet technologies, and knowledge management. The employment of modern technology will enable the development of innovative and inspiring collaborative learning environments where lecturers are expert designers of intellectual experiences for students, who become active participants to the learning processes.

Keywords: ICT; Internet Bandwidth Constraints; Collaborative Learning; E-learning; SWOT analysis.

Introduction:

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now considered an integral part of people‟s whole lifestyle. It has been adopted in the field of Higher Education Institutes (HEIs). Initially, a number of key challenges have faced educational organisers; decision makers and management teams as a result of adopting ICT and computer networks in the educational environment. These challenges are related to the ability to identify a suitable long-term strategic visualisation. The identification of a strategic visualisation can be effectively delivered by embracing better strategic management techniques,

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which can assist the HEIs in balancing the stresses of change, continuousness, stability and resources. Libyan higher education institutions (LHEIs) need to make more efforts to increase the use of ICT in teaching and learning processes.

With an increase in the number of students enrolling in colleges, compared with a decline in the number of qualified teachers, and their ICT experiences and the increasing demand for accountability, and anxieties about the social and economic position of higher education, LHEIs have forced employment for “successful, self-sustaining client oriented providers of education in a rapidly changing borderless education world” (Till, 2003). The rapid progression of ICT has also reacted to different approaches to knowledge creation, management, and delivery methods. LHEIs have remained behind other areas in embracing improvement and ICT. On the other hand, they do not have clear ideas about ICT‟s role in improving the learning process to involve all stakeholders and organizational structures. Rhema& Miliszewska (2012).

Limited connections have been found between the provision of ICT and the higher education improvement process in Libya. ICT tools were separate from the improvement process, except for departments such as electrical engineering and computer science that facilitate additional technological tools. Interestingly, in the mid-1990s LHEIs started implementing the improvement process; this proceeded without changes in academic work practices. Recently, it has become apparent that higher education improvement cannot take place without paying attention to ICT, specifically those applications that affect education management and administration, and support of teaching and learning. (Kenan et al., 2013). The future of LHEIs and universities in Libya should not only be imagined or perceived; it should be executed and implemented. Therefore, there is a need to adopt a suitable strategic architecture or a planning design to perceive the future of these HEIs, as well as to increase competitive advantage in the changed educational situation. This trend is dependent on the presence of larger leadership, complex communications, and teamwork. Thus, those HEIs which acquire and use new technical knowledge can increase and improve competitiveness and formulate an effective strategy. Critically, the LHEIs seek to follow the international standard and compete with other countries‟ HEIs. This goal is an important mission by the LHEIs in moving toward a knowledge society in which ICT is considered a prerequisite.

E-learning implementation in LHEIs:

LHEIs are still facing a critical absence of skilled specialists who recognize basic and progressive programming for planning, designing, and implementing branched information systems and managing huge scale e-learning projects. The

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high turnover rate of skilled technical staff is another problem in the LHEIs, which have seen continuous deterioration in their ability to recompense salaries, which were previously competitive with the private companies (Artemi & Aji, 2009). The LHEIs have found it difficult to motivate the technicians to assist them in expanding and building wide networks, and developing and managing administrative systems, research, the curriculums of the courses and the applications. A number of LHEIs have worked hard to solve this problem by launching wide-ranging and continuing professional development programmes for their staff and utilizing their computer science and electrical, network, and computer engineering departments. There are also a number of challenges affecting Libyan students in the learning process, which can be improved through using ICT and intelligent multimedia, which includes text, sound, animations, colourful and moving images. This can increase the educational benefits for students, as well as developing their skills (Rhema& Miliszewska, 2013). The teaching load in Libyan universities is notably heavy; on average, the number of teaching hours for academic staff is 24 hours/week and sometimes more. Libyan universities have not yet established a scientific research tradition (Artemi & Ajit, 2009); (Lishan, 2003). Hence, even Professors deem that it is difficult to find time for research activity and educational development. (Porter & Yegin, 2006). Interestingly, a number of academic staff do undertake extra activities such as writing and publishing, for example: textbooks, to increase their income (Kenan et al., 2011); Elzawi et Al., (2012) and Rhema& Miliszewska (2010). Kenan wrote in 2011, the LHEIs have taken collaborative learning into consideration as a valid mode for educational processes. As a result, the Libyan Business Executive Survey/ Global Competitiveness Report (LBES/GCR) has ranked Libya to be 97th out of 111 countries in university/industry research collaboration. The majority of the LHEIs have not appointed a staff member with formal qualifications in either distance learning or E-learning (Twatti, 2006).

In fact, the Ministry of Libyan Higher Education, which is the legislative body responsible for endorsing degrees from foreign universities, does not endorse a degree obtained through either distance learning or E-learning. Without the approval of the Ministry, students cannot gain any advantage in the workplace from their degrees (Elzawi & Wade; 2012). This is of great significance and could be developed.

Investigation of the technological contexts for e-learning implementation:

Teaching and learning are the cornerstones of most LHEIs. However, maintaining the quality of such processes is a continuous challenge Kenan et al.,

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(2011). The main teaching methods used by LHEIs are traditional for three main reasons: - The annual increase in the number of students enrolled. - Restrictions on financial resources and staff training. - The administration system. In spite of the known weaknesses of such an approach, traditional teaching has provided teachers with the means to deliver the required course materials to an ever-increasing number of students and provide those students with a clear-cut minimum of materials such that they can easily memorise them (Sarayrah, 2003). Therefore, generally HE students do not contribute to the learning process in the classrooms. They are only listening and taking notes. Furthermore, the use of new technology in LHEIs (such as computers and multimedia in general) is way behind international best practice. But to involve students effectively in the learning processes, the HEI should adopt an "active learning" approach – whereby the students use resources outside classrooms, in libraries, the Internet, interviews or focus groups, to obtain information approach (Bhatti, et al., (2005). There are relationships between students, academics, administrators and technical staff, which are confirmed through observations, experiences; many survey results and other studies. These have represented many attempts to analyse IT implementation by using the SWOT model in different LHEIs since 2003 (Othman et al., 2013). Also, Kenan et al., in 2013 have presented the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) as a model for a new IT strategy; other factors that must also be considered in relation to collaborative learning within the university teaching process. The SWOT analysis model shows that the strategy is useful for determining methods to achieve successful implementation of IT in the LHEIs by including intelligent multimedia and Internet technologies. (Artemi & Ajit; 2009). This strategy aims to help decision-makers at departmental level to decide on opportunities with respect to the experience as well as the perceptions of instructors, students, administrators and technical staff about using web-based instruction with the institution Kenan et al., 2013. Collaborative learning and IT strategy can offer a framework for assessing the impact of all implementation stages. The strategy should be appropriately flexible to accommodate changes and developments in online learning products, services and technology. The implementation stages in an official setting also need to include strategic planning. (Keats, 2002).

The methodology:

This research was conducted using both a quantitative and a qualitative approaches. The quantitative approach in order to collect statistical data for a large group of participants that reflects their perspectives (Creswell, 2009); while the qualitative approach in order to result about the duration of Internet usage;

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frequency of Internet usage and the place of Internet usage thought three interviews and answering many questions. This paper will present the relevant responses from participants of Department of Engineering School of Tripoli University. A questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data. It is considered to be the most common instrument used in academic research (Bryman, 1989). The questionnaire was designed using an online package (Smart survey) to avoid missing answers. This confirms that the Internet technologies work is parallel with all education applications. Thus, the classroom activities and interactive online applications enable the development of the team-building skills required by employers.

The questions of the interview: The responses from participants indicated that Internet usage was not common among academics at Department of Engineering School of Tripoli University (ES/TU). In other words, most of the participants mentioned that they did not use the Internet as a communicational means to exchange information or opinions with their students. Only two participants had previous experience in using this technology, and that was only a short-term. For instance, one mentioned that he had started using the Internet only one year previously, with the purpose of communicating with his students when they were away from the university. Specifically, he said that: “I started using the Internet for contacting students only two year back. The aim was mainly to contact students who studied away from the university campus” (ES/TU1). Some academics realized the importance of online communications with students and intended to use this means of contact in the future. “I look forward to being in touch with my undergraduate students in the virtual environment. However, I haven’t implemented it yet” (ES/TU2). On the other hand, some academics did not seem to be very interested in using these tools for interacting online with their students. Nevertheless, it turned out that they used the Internet as a communicational means only, in order to contact colleagues, educational institutions and other organizations for official communication. “Actually, I am not in contact with my students through the Internet. I use the Internet only to contact my friends, colleagues” (ES/TU3). Finally, it seems that some participants did not want to start interacting online with their students, as one of them stated: “I do not use the Internet to communicate with my students” (ES/TU1). However, Academics at DEL generally used the Internet in different places, such as their own offices, the faculty computer laboratories and their homes. For instance, one of the academics said: “Sometimes, I use the Internet in the computer lab at the Faculty of Engineering. However, some other times, I also use it at my home” (ES/TU1).

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About the frequency of Internet usage, the participants showed that academic staff members at ES/TU used the Internet on a daily basis. And they did not specify the frequency or length of Internet use for communicating with their students. Their answers in this regard were general and vague. This indicated the nature of their use fluctuated that based on their attitudes and needs. “Usually I spend around one- two hours daily on the Internet but in terms of searching time I spend much longer” (ES/TU3).

Sample and questionnaire: This article aims to present the results of a questionnaire distributed to a sample of 41 Libyan lecturers (17 Libyan lecturers work as full-time in different LHEIs, plus 24 Libyan lecturers study in the UK to get their higher degree) who were also full-time lecturers at the universities of Tripoli, Garyounis, Gharian and Ezawia.

The results (Participants’ Profile):

These were taken into consideration as important aspects of data collection that identify the characteristics of participants. Table 1 outlines the profiles of the participants under investigation

Statistic Data Categories UK (%) Libya (%) Age - 30 year 8.33% 5.88% 31 -35 16.67% 0.00% 36-45 29.17% 64.71% 46- 55 41.67% 23.53% + 55 year 4.17% 5.88% Gender Male 37.50% 52.94% Female 62.50% 47.06% Qualification Higher National 0.00% 5.88% Baccalaureate 10.53% 5.88% Diploma 0.00% 5.88% Master 42.11% 64.71% M.Phil. 21.05% 5.88% PhD 26.32% 11.76% Teaching - 2 years 20.83% 17.65% experience 2-5 45.83% 17.65% 6-8 4.17% 35.29% 9-11 4.17% 11.76% 12-15 4.17% 5.88% 16-20 8.33% 11.76% + 20 years 12.50% 0.00% Faculties Science 12.50% 47.06% Medicine 8.33% 5.88% Arts 0.00% 0.00% Engineering 25.00% 76.47% Education 20.83% 11.76% Languages 12.50% 5.88% Business 29.17% 11.76% Info. Tech. 25.00% 17.65% Other 8.33% 5.88%

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Table 1: Participants’ Profile Table 1 summarises participants‟ profiles, comparing between Libyan lecturers who studied in the UK, and others who worked full-time in Libyan universities. The majority of the participants who studied in the UK (more than 40%) belonged to a group aged (46-55), while the majority of those who worked in Libya (approximately 65%) belonged to a group aged (36-45). Furthermore, the majority of the participants based in the UK were female (more than 60%), whereas there was no significant difference in gender between the participants involved in Libyan universities. Furthermore, approximately (47%) of the participants in the UK had M.Phil. and PhDs, while less than (20%) had the same qualification in Libya? In addition, more than (45%) of the participants based in the UK had (2-5) years of experience, while approximately (35%) of the participants in Libya had 6-11 years‟ experience. Finally, for the faculties, the majority of the participants in the UK studied in the Business faculty, while the majority of those in Libya worked in the Engineering faculty.

Teaching time: The participants were asked to determine how many hours they spent weekly in terms of teaching. See Figure 1.

45.00% UK Libya 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Less than 5 hours 5-10 hours 11-15 hours 16-20 hours more than 20 hours

Figure. Hours of teaching time per week

Figure 1 shows that Libyan tutors who worked in Libya spent more time teaching than the Libyan tutors in the UK; approximately 40% of the participants working in Libya spent between (11-15) hours per week in teaching, while the percentage was less than 5% of the participants studied in the UK. In contrast, more than (20%) of the participants studied in the UK spent between (16-20) hours, while it was approximately (6%) for those who worked in Libya. That reflects that the lecturers spent a long time teaching. The overloading of teaching might affect the quality of teaching or might affect time available for research or developing skills. This result confirms the findings of (Artemi & Ajit; 2009) and (Porter & Yegin; 2006), which addressed how teaching overloading and long

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teaching hours in Libyan universities influences tutors in terms of decreasing research activities and educational development. Time spent on the Internet: The participants were asked to determine the amount of time spent using the Internet in general per day. See Figure 2.

80.00% 70.00% UK Libya 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Less than 2 hours 2-5 hours 6-9 hours More than 9 hours

[ Figure 2. Time spent using Internet per day

According to Figure 2, the time spent by the participants who worked in the UK was more than the time spent by those participants who worked in Libyan universities. The majority of the participants spent (2-5) hours daily using the Internet. More than 70% of the participants working in Libya spent (2-5) hours per day using the Internet, while more than 45% of the participants based in the UK spent (6-9) hours per day. These results assert the findings of many studies as Till in 2003; Bhatti, et al., (2005) and Elzawi & Wade (2012). The style of education system in Libya, based on traditional ways of teaching, might affect the participants‟ usage of the Internet. That reveals that the quality and the accessibility of Internet technology in the UK might be better that the Internet in Libya, or that there might be a lack of skills.

The value of using Internet technologies and intelligent multimedia: The participants were asked if they believed that using Internet technologies and intelligent multimedia could add value to their lectures. See Figure 3.

70.00% 60.00% UK Libya 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Yes Maybe I don't know No

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Figure 3. Rating the value of using Internet technologies

As seen in Figure 3, the participants working in the UK were aware of the value of the internet and intelligent multimedia more than those who worked in Libyan universities; however, more than 50% of the participants in the UK and Libya found that it was useful to adopt IT to enhance their lectures and support the curricula; nobody indicated that it was not useful. That might demonstrate their awareness in the educational process. This demonstrates that the lecturers were interested in using IT applications to support their lectures, which agreed with [Libyan Business Executive Survey] and Kenan et al., 2013, which showed that LHEIs were aware of the importance of adopting ICT in the academic field. That awareness might be reflected in the participants‟ perspectives.

Time spent using technology in teaching: The participants were asked to determine the amount of time spent weekly using technology for teaching. See Figure 4.

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00% UK Libya

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Less than 2 hours 2-5 hours 6-9 hours more than 9 hours

Figure 4. Time spent using technology in teaching per week

According to Figure 4, of the majority of the participants worked in Libya, approximately 52% spent (2-5) hours per week, while approximately 5% of them spent (6-9) hours weekly. In contrast, more than 40% of the participants based in the UK spent (2-5) hours weekly using the technology in teaching, whilst approximately 9% used it for (6-9) hours per week. Thus, it appeared that the time spent using technology for teaching per week was inadequate, comparing this result with the time spent in teaching per week. This result confirms the need to implement an active learning approach Bhatti, et al., (2005).

Benefits of e-learning implementation:

It was crucial to identify the benefits that would be obtained from implementing e learning in LHE. See Figure 5.

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Libya

UK strongly strongly agree

Libya disagree UK

Libya nutral nutral UK

Libya agree UK

Libya

UK strongly strongly agree

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

increasing teaching efficiency flexiblity curriculum development.

solving some educational problems motivating students obtaining IT skill

time management learning other languages

Figure 5. Benefits of e-learning implementation

As seen in Figure 5, the majority of participants agreed or strongly agreed that implementing e learning in LHEIs would increase achievement and provide a set of benefits. On the other hand, more than 5% of the participants strongly disagreed that implementing e-learning in LHEIs would assist in solving some educational problems, while approximately 4% of the participants based in the UK strongly disagreed that e-learning would help in developing the curriculum, motivating students, obtaining skills, managing time and learning other languages. This reveals that the participants might be aware of the importance of adopting e-learning systems. This result confirms the results of Kenan et al., 2013, Kenan et al., (2011). Thus, implementing e learning in LHEIs is useful in terms of enhancing the teaching and learning process.

Important elements of e-learning implementation:

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The participants were asked to select important elements that affect the successful implementation of e learning. See Figure 6.

Figure 6. Important elements for successful e-learning implementation

Figure 6 shows that the most important element of e-learning implementation was the development of ICT; this was agreed by more than 95% of the participants working in Libya, and more than 75% of those who studied in the UK. In contrast, activating e-courses was the least important element, with less than 50% of both participants acknowledging it; this disagrees with the results of Kenan et al., 2013, where implementing e learning required the development of ICT tools for better achievement.

Barriers to e-learning implementation:

However, the participants were aware of the importance of applying e learning in LHEIs; the participants faced a number of barriers. See Figure 7.

50.00% UK Libya 40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Technology Culture Mismanagement Other

Figure 7. Barriers to e learning implementation

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According to Figure 7, mismanagement barriers were the most significant barriers confronting both sets of participants, with a response of approximately 40% by both of them. These barriers might be related to a lack of legislation, a lack of education strategy, and policy rules. On the other hand, cultural issues were less important barriers for the participants who worked in Libya (approximately 15%), while they accounted for more than 20% for those based in the UK. Cultural barriers may refer to the rejection of a change in the education system, or it might be as a result of a lack of skills. Furthermore, approximately 5% of the participants working in Libya indicated other barriers that were about security, cost and free time. There are numerical references to confirm this, which are Rhema& Miliszewska (2013); Othman et al., (2013). and (Keats, 2002). Adopting a SWOT analysis approach is useful in terms of identifying the main barriers that faced the participants in terms of implementing e learning.

Satisfaction with the Internet speed on-campus:

Participants were asked to evaluate their satisfaction level with the Internet speed operating on-campus. See Figure 8.

50.00% 45.00% UK Libya 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Strongly satisfied satisfied neutral unsatisfied Strongly unsatisfied

Figure 8. Participants’ satisfaction with the Internet speed on campus According to Figure 8, the majority of the participants working in Libya (approximately 45%) were dissatisfied with the Internet speed provided on campus, while approximately 10% of them were satisfied. In contrast, approximately 20% of the participants in the UK were strongly dissatisfied, whilst more than 30% of them were neutral. The dissatisfaction of the participants working in Libya might because of a lack of Internet network, disconnection or slow network. Critically, it was unexpected that the majority of the participants studied in the UK would be neutral. That might reveal that they do not consider the importance of Internet quality in enhancing the educational process. The authority of the Ministry of the LHE can affect participants‟ dissatisfaction. Furthermore, all barriers and difficulties facing the participants can be reflected in their satisfaction level, either negatively or positively.

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Cost of Off-campus Internet Access:

Finally, the participants were asked to identify whether Internet cost outside of the campus was expensive. See Figure 9.

Figure 9. Cost of off-campus Internet access

In Figure 9, the majority of the UK participants (approximately 50%) were neutral, in comparison with more than 25% of those who worked in Libya. That might be because they used the Internet from their offices. On the other hand, more than 30% of the participants working in Libya indicated that the cost of the Internet off-campus was normal, while approximately 20% of them mentioned that the cost was expensive. Hence, implementing e-learning and collaborative learning can decrease the cost of access (Othman et al., 2013).

Libyan Internet bandwidth constraints: Bandwidth in Libya suffers from a lack of ICT resources, mainly in the HEIs. This is as a result of participating in the educational institutions and increasing license costs for authorisation to connect Lishan; (2003). Most countries in Africa do not have satisfactory international bandwidth. According to Jensen in 2012, almost 60% of African countries have satisfactory bandwidth Lishan; (2003) however, this percentage is less than the normal average of HEIs in developed countries. Only six African countries have a reasonable bandwidth (Jensen, 2012); Libya still needs huge efforts to jump actively into a significant stage of improving the performance of HEIs. Table 2 shows the distribution of outgoing bandwidth in Africa.

African Outgoing Bandwidth Countries Bandwidth % (Mbits/sec) Egypt, South Africa, Morocco 100–500 6 Algeria, Senegal, Tunisia 50–100 6 Botswana, Gabon, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, 10–50 13

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Tanzania, Zimbabwe Angola, Cameroon, Côte d‟Ivoire, Libya, Mali, 5-10 15 Namibia, Uganda, Zambia Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central Less than 5 60 African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, DR Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-issau, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé & Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Swaziland, Togo Table 2. The bandwidth in Africa (Jensen, 2012).

LHEIs try to override additional challenges that should be concurrently addressed in order to find a suitable improvements policy aiming to address access and high costs of bandwidth: 1. Cost of Megabits of connections is expensive. This affects the availability for the majority of LHEIs. 2. Most LHEIs do not have policies regarding ways in which to optimize their existing bandwidth and manage the circulation and usage. 3. The current infrastructure such as electricity, local intranet and the technical team‟s skills, is still underlying. It is insufficient to provide high bandwidth exhaustive applications. 4. There is a lack of suitable strategic will and district cooperation between the LHEIs to profit from an economy of balanced or accumulated bandwidth. 5. Incomplete knowledge and limited information about appropriate technologies (optical fibre, satellite types, other bandwidth tools) fit for distinctive settings in the LHEIs. It is obvious that the limited Internet bandwidth in Libya negatively affects the effectiveness of collaborative learning processes. It is, therefore, necessary to develop ICT strategies, which will contain solutions aiming to improve current learning performance in the LHEIs.

The modern SWOT analysis for the ICT in the learning and teaching in LHEIs: The SWOT analysis is an essential step to analyse various factors before implementing any solution to improve ICT in teaching or develop collaborative learning at any institution. The success or failure of any collaborative learning system initiative will be directly related to the quality of strategic thinking that underpins it. It is thus important to have a collaborative learning strategy in place before the starting in stage from the implementation process. See Table 3. The collaborative learning initiative must be tied to the institution‟s core business to ensure that the quality of the educational processes is enhanced Kenan et al., 2013. SWOT analysis should help the decision makers at departmental level to decide on opportunities with respect to choosing the

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appropriate policy issues for it, and the following factors should be considered: improvement of learners‟ knowledge, learning outcomes, efficiency of the teaching and learning processes, and the reductions of costs.

Strength points Weakness points 1. Annual increase in student numbers 1. Lack of training courses for 2. The proliferation of digital technology, students, technical and academic because the majority of people are using staff. computers and social media channels. 2. Lack of technological support and 3. The need to eliminate the maintenance for the Lab tools and administrative corruption aspects. computers. 4. Libya has a strategic geographical 3. Lack of online library catalogues in location in Africa. They could use the LHEIs. collaborative learning packages 4. Mismanagement. developed by companies situated in the 5. Post-war chaos that pervades all south of Libya. sectors of Libyan society. Opportunity points Threat points 1. The government policy system that 1. Numerous barriers related to looks to support the LHEIs has been collaborative learning processes changed since 2011. stages. 2. Official recognition of education 2. Preference for using only certificates of distance or collaborative traditional academic methods in learning. education. 3. Create new business strategies to attract 3. Lack of support from the students from other African countries. government. 4. Reduce the migration of skilled and 4. Increased migration of skilled and intelligent people from Libya. intelligent people from Libya. 5. Create a competitive educational environment with neighbouring countries.

Table 3. SWOT analysis for the ICT in LHEIs.

Collaborative learning and the quality of Internet technology:

Collaborative learning has an essential impact on the development of higher education. It has been practiced in various sectors, whether public or private, and in education and business (Keats, 2002). However, collaborative learning could be a constituent part of traditional learning, alongside e learning. It encourages students to achieve their qualifications in higher education, especially those who are located far away. It can also be low-cost and timesaving for both lecturers and students (Othman et al., 2013).

There is a requirement to redesign the current curriculum in LHEIs in order to find a more comprehensive method, and to adopt intelligent multimedia in the current system. In the educational process, there is a need to place emphasis on the basic concepts of acquiring information, providing feedback sessions on the

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information, and consider different information processing methods and characteristics (Salmon, 2005). Firstly, there is a need for students to acquire basic skills for finding information, categorising it and broadcasting or publishing it (Othman et al., 2013). Internet technology is used for improving these skills and obtaining the right perception of the information revolution. The massive recruitments of students in terms of gaining such technological understanding can serve Libyan development plans through their future participation in manufacturing, marketing and global competition Kenan et al., 2013. Secondly, there is another need for the educational curricula in the Arabic world to apply and include Internet technologies.

The means offered by intelligent multimedia, such as the Internet, e-mail, e- motivations, educational videos, and other applications should be used as methods of teaching and learning. Thirdly, it is necessary to work on creating a digital environment such as an Arabic information network, in collaboration with all Arab countries. It should contribute to a higher extent to feed Arabic educational political and economic systems with all necessary data and information. Improving the performance of the HEIs in Arabic countries can therefore be done by adopting collaborative learning, including the courses of training, which should be offered for Libyan lecturers to assist them in finding appropriate methods of electronic data processing, and to achieve the purposes of courses they teach.

Furthermore, the students enrolled in different courses should be trained in the practice of Internet technologies to improve their skills, thereby, attaining better results (Elzawi & Wade, 2012). The lecturers play a fundamental role. They can use and develop different Internet applications and tools such as intelligent multimedia and collaborative learning, which assist them in delivering information to students. Offering appropriate training for the lecturers is necessary to enhance their knowledge and skills, which are relevant to their work performance. However, they are not the only group to successfully adopt and implement it. The students can also reflect a positive learning environment. The training is the main concern of the LHEIs in implementing any form of collaborative learning methods. “Lecturers with inadequate training of e- learning in the real educational environment can pose a problem in balancing the learning process with students” (Kenan et al., 2013).

Conclusion This paper has displayed the current state of ICT and collaborative learning systems that show that, despite some progress, LHEIs are at a crossroads in formulating ICTs beneficial to their academic projects; it also considers implications for learning and teaching and their development. Regardless of the huge potential profits, it is still unclear as to what influences ICTs may have on teaching and learning. In considering Libya‟s agenda in research on the ICT and

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the higher education system, it is critical to consider the difficult negotiations between different actors such as local different areas, different education levels and the implications of ICT applications to social and organisational development in the LHE system. More coordination and resource sharing between LHEIs could be beneficial as universities move to combine ICT fully into their teaching and learning. The creation of regional policies for sharing information on ICT strategies and courseware and exchanging experiences are critical to increasing the positive contribution of ICTs to higher education.

The LHEIs cannot actually build a respectable collaborative learning or e- learning environment without developments in teaching, research, good networking connections, modern software, and contemporary computer applications development. The highly skilled human resource development is also a foundation of ICT in higher education institutions. The networked learning environment in higher education requires significant government intervention. Government policy has a real impact on strategic initiatives in universities and often determines the parameters of such initiatives through laws, regulations, and the allocation of funds. At the same time, the LHEIs should play a key role in articulating national e-strategies. Universities could play a monitoring, mentoring, and evaluation role in shaping ICT laws and regulations.

This paper focused on the analysis of ICT impact on the effectiveness of collaborative learning processes in LHEIs; though the interview questions with some academics in Engineering school in Tripoli University and Mature Libyan students, divided into two categories, completed a questionnaire: the first category is a group of researchers in the UK who were also full-time lecturers from different universities in Libya; the second category is full-time lecturers from the same universities. Their answers referred time spent on the Internet; time spent using technology in teaching; the value of using intelligent multimedia applications; benefits of e-learning implementation and the barriers that face it. Satisfaction with Internet implementation and cost of off-campus access were also considered.

The findings showed that the participants in the UK were aware of the Internet and intelligent multimedia value, and they spent more time using the Internet than the participants who worked in Libyan universities; however, participants who worked in Libya spent more time in teaching than those in the UK. Furthermore, there was an agreement between both groups of participants that implementing e learning in the LHEIs would increase achievement and that it provided a set of benefits. The most important element of the e-learning implementation was the development of ICT. On the other hand, the main barriers that can face both groups were mismanagement and technological challenges. Additionally, the participants who studied in the UK were more satisfied with the Internet speed provided on-campus than those in Libya were.

Finally, the cost of the Internet off-campus was problematic for participants who worked in Libyan universities. Likewise, the paper has presented other factors

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such as intelligent multimedia, internet technologies, knowledge management and how these have a significant influence on creating innovative and inspiring collaborative learning environments, where lecturers are expert designers of intellectual experiences for students who become active participants in the learning processes. In addition, the fundamental role of the lecturers and students in development of the LHEIs was discussed. Finally, the paper concluded that some LHEIs have already shown success in the implementation and management of collaborative learning and Internet technologies and applications; those institutions should be encouraged to share their success with other institutions. There should be cooperation between government teams responsible for the LHEIs. Governmental departments and the private sector should be encouraged to sponsor the development of Internet technologies in HEIs that can produce staff that are competent in such technologies.

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