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The Case of the Nomadic Pastoralists in the Aru Basin, Tibet

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The Case of the Nomadic Pastoralists in the Aru Basin, Tibet Living With Risk and Uncertainty: The Case of the Nomadic Pastoralists in the Aru Basin, Tibet By Marius Warg Næss Thesis submitted as part of the Cand. Polit degree at the Department of Social Anthropology, Faculty of Social Science University of Tromsø. 2nd Edition May 2004 Living With Risk and Uncertainty: The Case of the Nomadic Pastoralists in the Aru Basin, Tibet By Marius Warg Næss Thesis submitted as part of Cand. Polit degree at the Department of Social Anthropology, Faculty of Social Science University of Tromsø. 2nd Edition May 2004 Foreword to the 2nd Edition This is the 2nd edition of the thesis submitted as part of the Cand. Polit degree at the Department of Social Anthropology, Faculty of Social Science University of Tromsø in 2003. There has been no major revision of the content of the original thesis, but some minor changes have been undertaken for the sake of “textual flow”. Marius Warg Næss Tromsø, 27.05.2004 I Acknowledgments A long time dream of mine has been to visit Tibet. When I finally decided that I was going to do my master in social anthropology, I thought doing fieldwork in Tibet would be an excellent way for me to combine personal interest with study. However, since I knew that travelling to Tibet, not to say doing fieldwork there, was somewhat difficult, it was of paramount interest for me to study for my honours degree at a university with connection to Tibet or The People’s Republic of China (PRC). Luckily, I got in touch with Prof. Per Mathiesen at the Department of Social Anthropology, University of Tromsø, who together with, Dr. Joseph L. Fox, an ecologist at the Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, was about to start a project in Tibet financed by The Network for University cooperation Tibet – Norway, and in cooperation with the Tibet Autonomous Region Forestry Bureau (TARFB). The aim of this project was to investigate the interaction of nomadic populations and wildlife, hopefully providing information as a base for successful management of the Western Chang Tang as a part of a nature preserve established in 1992. To include an inexperienced student of anthropology in this project seemed to me to be connected with a great deal of risk, but I am ever grateful to Prof. Per Mathiesen who had enough faith in me to send me into the field. For this I thank him with all of my heart: without him my dream would never have been accomplished and this thesis would never have been written. I would also like to thank Dr. Joseph L. Fox for invaluable help both during and after the fieldwork. I would like to thank the Network for University Cooperation Tibet – Norway, based at the University of Oslo, for financial support. I would especially like to thank my good friend Christopher Ladue, who without I might have starved to death upon arrival in Lhasa, and also for helping me with the Wylie transliterations. I would also like to thank Rune Vik-Hansen and Bård Jørgen Bårdsen for proof reading my thesis and giving invaluable comments. The late Wang Wei Min deserves a great deal of thanks for his help in arranging my stay at the Tibet University. I would also like to thank Mrs. Drolma Yangzom and Mr. Abu at TARFB for their cooperation in this project. I would also like to thank my translators, Ms. Beimathso at the Tibetan Academy of Social Science (TASS) and Dondrup Lhagyal, also with TASS. Their insights and help proved to be invaluable, and for that I am ever grateful. i I also would like to thank my travel companions, especially Mr. Tsering from the Biology Department of Tibet University, and Mr. Migmar Wangdwei from the same department, but also Mr. Xu Binrong from TARFB, Mr. Denda, Mr. Chamba and Mr. Chala from the TARFB Police. I would also like to thank Mrs. Wei Hong and Mr. Sotra at the Foreign Affairs Office at Tibet University for their help in obtaining a travel permit for me, making it possible for me to go out to the Aru basin. Last, but not the least, I would like to thank the nomads of the Aru basin. They opened up their tents for me, and shared what little of food they had with me. All of you are forever in my mind, and I hope life will be easier for you in the near future. This thesis is dedicated to all of you. Marius Warg Næss Tromsø, 06.06.2003 ii Note on Transliteration Tibetan Tibetan words are transliterated according to the Wylie (1959) system of transliteration in the text. Wylie transliterations are written in italic and are only given the first time a word is mentioned. However, some words are not known in its correct Tibetan form, and appear then in phonetic transliteration only. When words appear in both phonetic transliteration and in the Wylie form in the text, the Wylie form is written in brackets and italic. Chinese Chinese words are mainly written in the official pinyin system in use in The People’s Republic of China (PRC) today. However, words such as place names are given in their most common form, regardless of the proper pinyin form. iii Table of Content Foreword to the 2nd Edition .................................................................................................. I Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................. i Note on Transliteration ....................................................................................................... iii Part One: Introduction and Theoretical Perspectives ........................................................ 1 Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Focus of Thesis ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1a Nomadic Pastoralism: Towards a Working Definition ......................................... 1 1.1b The Pastoral Production System: Living with Risk and Uncertainty .................... 4 1.2 Chapter Preview ........................................................................................................ 8 1.3 Doing Fieldwork ...................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods .................................................................. 10 1.5 Participant Observation ......................................................................................... 10 1.5a Locality and Timeframe ...................................................................................... 11 1.5b Information Gathering ......................................................................................... 12 1.5c ‘Status’ ................................................................................................................. 12 1.5d The Use of Translators ........................................................................................ 13 Chapter Two: Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Nomadic Pastoralism ................ 15 2.1 “The East African Cattle Complex” ...................................................................... 15 2.2 Towards a Generative Model of Nomadic Pastoralism ....................................... 16 2.3 Nomadic Pastoralists as Risk Avoiders ................................................................. 19 2.3a Risk and Uncertainty: A Definition ..................................................................... 21 2.3b The Environment ................................................................................................. 23 2.3c Variability and Unpredictability .......................................................................... 24 2.3d Cultural Responses To Variability ...................................................................... 27 2.3e Levels of Risk Response ..................................................................................... 29 Part Two: An Introduction to the Field of Study .............................................................. 31 Chapter Three: Ethnographic Background ...................................................................... 31 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 31 3.2 The Origins of Nomadic Pastoralism in Tibet ...................................................... 32 3.3 The Tibetan Plateau ................................................................................................ 33 3.4 A Historical Survey of Modern Tibet and Tibetan Nomadism ........................... 34 3.4a Tibet Under Chinese Rule ................................................................................... 34 3.4b Traditional Political Organization ....................................................................... 36 3.4c The Cultural Revolution ...................................................................................... 38 3.4d After the Cultural Revolution .............................................................................. 39 Chapter Four: The Aru Nomads: Distribution and Social Organisation ........................ 41 4.1 The Aru Basin .......................................................................................................... 41 4.2 Traditional Use of the Basin ................................................................................... 42 4.3 Modern Use of the Basin ......................................................................................... 43 4.4 Distribution of People and Animals ......................................................................
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