Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003, ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003.

Historical earthen architecture and construction in the Mediterranean Region. What future for such an exceptional culturallegacy?

Hubert Guillaud Alejandro Alva

The historical earthen architectural heritage HISTORICAL EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE IN THE represents a remarkable cultural significance in the MEDlTERRANEAN REGION whole of historical resources, as it shows an evident express ion of the memory of the builders of The primitive periods humanity, since the most ancient times. Earthen architecture is present on all the continents. The regions of the Mediterranean Levant and of the Moreover, the building cultures based on the use of Taurus-Zagros Arch the unbaked brick was the vector raw earth (wattle and daub, adobe, pisé) are of a fantastic urban development during the IV,h and omnipresent in the history of Mediterranean III'd millennium B.C. despite this building culture has civilisation. been emerging since the VIIIlh millennium as the Facing the challenge of the conservation and «mise famous site of 1ericho has testified. At that time, the en vaJeuf» of the Mediterranean earthen architectural habitat is settled on hill slopes, both embedded in the heritage, we can certainly propose drafting thickness of the soil and partially aerial. It is basically orientations and strategies for the future that would oval and round shaped. The walls are erected with a push on the development of integrated activities in the kind of small hand-shaped earthen «breads» which following correlated fields: education (for teaching a seem to have been built at their plastic state, without discipline), research (for elaborating a specific any mortar. This technology has been also observed science), application and situated projects (for on the site of Mureybet, Syria, where the common developing a professional practice), advocacy (for people's houses of the VIl,h Millenium B. C. are raising an institutional and public awareness), round-shaped, partially embedded in the slopes of the knowJedge basis (for structuring a discipline), and a tell, exhibiting small indoor spaces typically data base (for more information accessibility). This organised around a central space. Apart from approach is proposed by the «Project TERRA»I archaeologicaI sites which are exhibiting remains of jointly developed by CRATerre-EAG, ICCROM and entrance gates covered with arches and barrel or the Getty Conservation Institute. inclined vaults built in unbaked bricks, the The pro po sed communication should brief1y excavations carried out in the territories of Near present the importance of the historical earthen Orient have given few examples of the use of vaults architectural heritage in the Mediterranean region, its or cupolas for the common roofing of vernacular general state of conservation and the paths for people's houses of ancient times. Some clues of the developing a cultural management which are possible design of these people's houses, during the proposed in the «TERRA-Med Project». AssyrianTimes, have been given by graffitis which 1108 H. Guillaud. A. Alva have been observed on the site of Niniveh. It seems marked by the development of the construction that the conical-shaped vault, or corbelled cupola, adopting the apsidal megaron type of layout, mainly might have been used. We could compare the built in stone and protected by thick defending walls morphology of this design to the shaping of some including oval shaped towers (acropolis of vernacular houses in actual Syrian villages of the Kalandriani, at Syros, sites of Paros and Melos). On region of Aleppo which are today much more rare but Crete, during the Ancient Minoan (2700 E.C.), at testifying of this legacy tracing back to ancient times. Vasikili, the «house on the hill», with its irregularly In Thessaly, Greece, primitive human settlements designed rooms, seems to announce the future palatial of the Mediterranean Europe are dated from the mid- complexes. The earth might have been used, VIlth millennium (around 6500 E.C.), tracing back to according the «cob» technology, piled up in casings at the protoneolithic phase, so before the apparition of its plastic state. The larger use of the unbaked brick the ceramic. This primitive habitat settled on the seems to have colonised the Peloponnese just before border of the Aegean Sea, in the deep layers of the lIndmillennium. In the deep layers of Lerne IlI, the Sesklo, show huts presenting variable layouts, lightly «house with tiles» is erected within a fortified buried in the soil. They are constructions made of perimeter in the centre of which the American wooden poles probably supporting walls in wattle and excavators have found this large building (25 x 12 m) daub (<wattle and daub and unbaked bricks. During the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 B.C.), They look much more structured and they adopt the a very clear fracture can be observed between the rectangular layout. These houses should have been continental Greece, which is submitted to Indo- two slopes roofed and some of them should have been European invasions and a cultural regression, and the two-storied. Earthen walls are insulated from the Cyclades which seem to face a sudden rise of humidity by stone basements, as the stone is also used civilisation. In fact, in the Peloponnese, the for the defending walls and for some outdoor terraces Mycenaenan fortifications are increasing. These of the site. However, these houses are still settled as fortified positions (Mycenae, Tyrinth, and Pylos) are independent farms and they are not really showing a protecting a rural habitat of shepherds, which is social villager organisation. But, at that time, the settled all around them. This habitat is not well basic layout of the habitat is evolving to the known but seems to have been very precarious and «megaron» typology which will predominate in the maybe built in both wattle and daub (for inside Ancient Greek architecture: one main room with a partitions), and unbaked bricks (for main walling). hearth slightly embedded in the soil, preceded by an The «house of the wine merchant», and the «house of open hall without frontage except a portico supported the oil merchant», so called by the excavators, by one or two massive poles. The same type of habitat describe the characteristic megaron in three parts, has been found at Dimini (South of Sesklo) and will inherited from the Thessalian Neolithic, with the predominate during the Recent Neolithic Ages «prothyron», or portico with two columns in antes, (4400-3000 B.C.), even if there is an evidence of a the «prodomos», or small anteroom, and the hierarchical society which is testified by the existence «domas», or larger room organised around the hearth. of some more important dwellings, settled on top of But there is no many remains of such habitat, except the hills of Sesklo and Dimini. some smaller villages that are conserving their fortifications built up in unbaked bricks.2 After the The Aegean World and the continental Greece brightening up inputs of the Ilnd millennium, some have spoken of a «coming back to the degree zero of In the Aegean world, the Ancient Bronze Ages the architecture». At the same time, the insular (3000-2000 B.C.) which corresponds to the first context of lhe Crete is favouring the harmonious civilisation of the Cyclades all over the islands, is development of the Minoan Civilisation. The superb Historical earthen architecture and construction 1109

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The French campaigns of excavations carried out on are contlrming two Villanovian hamlets which have the HilJ of Byrsa, by 1974-76, directed by Serge been excavated on the Palatine. These hamlets seem Lancel,4 are c1early showing that Carthaginians have to have been unified around a kind of common civic firstly use the slopes in order 10 establish a necropolis, centre settled on the actuaJ Forum area. At that time, the tombs of which being dated from the VIIIth up to the habitat is still very primitive. lt gathers huts or the VI'h centuries. Then, this necropolis has been wooden shanties, rectangular or oval shaped, embanked to settle a neighbourhood of metalworkers supported by a central wooden pole and perimetric with their forges and workshops. It is only by the smaller poles. It is slightly embedded in the soil. The beginning of the lI"d century that this site has roof might have been in thatch and walls in wattle and welcomed planned people's housing units, the famous daub. In that way, Rome, at the beginning of the Vph «Hanniba!'s neighbourhood» and its housing blocks century is just an agricultural township when it is A, C and E which can be visited today. These housing influenced by Hellenic inputs which were previously units exhibit a standard layout organising the rooms introduced by Greek colonists settling in Campania around a small indoor yard that is accessible by an by 750 B.C., and then transmitted by the Etruscan entrance corridor. As confined spaces for the starting domination. By that time Centralltaly knows a real of staircases (probably in wood) are visible, these metamorphosis. The wooden huts, plastered with units might have been two or three-storied high. They earth and thatch-roofed of the primitive Rome, are have been settled according an orthogonal urban gradually giving place to rectanguJar houses built in design which looks typically Hellenistic. Today, unbaked bricks. Similar1y to the first Etrurian looking at the houses walling remains of the famous temples, the first sacred and pubJic monuments of the Blocks B and C, along Street n, one can clear1y see the Republic (IVth and III,d centuries) should have been eclecticism of the Punic building culture were, the use erected with unbaked bricks and tile roofings of the blocking stone masonry cohabits with unbaked gradually replace the thatched roofs. An orthogonaJ brick and «pisé» masonry, bum brick elements. This is town planning takes the place of the previous modest the typical «opus mixtum» or «opus africanum» and disordered settlement. Great rectangular housing (masonry within structural pilJars in stone or bumt blocks, sometimes fortified by an embankment of bricks) which has been related by the Roman. Only the earth, the «agger», preceded by a large ditch, are main fa,building material is much more used for the purpose, to warrant the stability of the new construction of modest people's housing, for indoor development ground and fond the edifices, the Roman partitions and most of the time for filled up post and have erected in compacted earth numerous thick beam structures. This popular technique of wood and footing columns some of them reaching a height of 9 earth construction will be used up to the epoch of m. These impressive footings in «pisé» are still Nero (37-68 A.C.) and a lot of housing units have visible. been destroyed during the dramatic fire of the year 64. The same building process has been commonly Italy and southern Gaul employed for the construction of numerous new settlements of the Roman colonists when the Empire The site of Rome was already occupied during the will extend in actual Europe, particularly in Gaul. So Bronze Age as the findings of the Forwn Boarium, many remains of such building practices have been dated from 1500-1400 B.C., are testifying. Later, at found on French Gallo-Roman sites, in Lyon, Vienne the beginning of the Iron Age (VIllth century B.C.), or V aison-la- Romaine, in Nímes, Lattes or Aries. The several of the famous seven hills were inhabited as recent works ofthe French archaeology carried out on Historical earthen architecture and construction 1111 the Mediterranean regions are confirming a large use consideration, recognising «its greatest utility so long on the unbaked brick, but also of the «pisé» during as it does not 10ad the walls too much». He willingly these epochs (!Il'h to Il"d centuries B.C.).5 Gn the calls for its use «so long as someone building with it Celto-Gallic territories, the lron Age develops a shou]d take the necessary care for putting it up habitat settled in oppida gathering small wattle and correctly». He precises that to build with several daub or cob houses. In southern Gaul, on actual floors, the unbaked brick construction should be twin territories of Provence, from Languedoc to ]ayers bonded (< (1, ]4,4), building practices is visible on sites as Ruscino, Varron evokes the «pisé» construction as regards as Enserune, La Lagaste or Entremont. Simultaneously, rural fencing walls (<

Tacitus in «Germaniw> (XVI, 3), on the subject ofthe with a 2 cm thick lime mortar. Again in Thysdrus, the German housing was noting that «they do not make «House of the death masks », which is of Punic type, is use ofstones nor ti/es; for every building purpose they built in «pisé» with 50 cm thick walls erected on top use raw materiaL\' (<cistern» located nearby the North Gallo-Romans «villae», as far as over the actual of the triumphal arch. This large dwelling, dated from northem territories 01' France, in Picardy, that have the Ilnd century A.C. was covering a private bath of been identified by the famous aerial archaeology about 150 m2 that has been dated from the 1st century works carried out by Roger Agache and Bruno where «all walls are presenting a stone basement at a Bréart,9 are confirming the existence ofbasements put variable height, when the elevation was in «pisé» or up in blocking stone rubble-masonry (<soils gathered in a very dense cluster, all buiJt in unbaked showing darken spots attesting 01'the ancient presence bricks laid on with a clayey mortar on top of 80 cm of buildings. The more elaborated «villae» have often high basements in stone blocking. The size of the made a distinction between the use of the earthen common bricks is 44 x 28 x 8 cm. building technique, mainly reserved for the «pars agraria» (agricultural outbuildings), and stone or The common andent earthen building cultures bumt brickwork technique for the residential building legacy in the Mediterranean region or «pars urbana». Beyond the Fall of the Roman Empire, the earthern In North African countries, or «Maghreb» buildings practices will quasi definitively mark the rural and a great part of the urban people's housing In Tunisia, from the beginning of the pt century to the construction, particularly over the Mediterranean Illrd century A.e., the unbaked brick or «pisé» regions, up to the modern times. This cultural legacy construction was very common in the Province of has resisted to the coming back to the dark times of Byzacena as are testifying excavated dwellings in the High Middle Ages (from the Vth to the Xth Acholla, the famous «House with red columns», centuries) that have known a regression to more «Asinius Rufinus» House» or «Neptune 's House», common and simple building practices. In Italy, which are dated from the reign of Marc-Aurele, or by where various rural traditions can be still observed; 170--180 A.e. In «Neptune's House», the <architectures are a typical feature of the rural covering the field of earthen architecture.11 In landscape in almost all regions of the country. The Sardinia, an important programme for the northern territories are typically con cerned by the conservation of the traditional architecture of the tradition of the construction in posts and beams «Campidani», built in «ladriri» «England, Italy, Germany, Czech Republic, development» -or maybe «post-development»-, favouring the creation of several lCOMOS «Sub- the new paradigm of the IIlrd millennium founded on Committees on the Study and Conservation of the a global alliance aiming at protecting the biodiversity, Earthen Architecture». The «Project TERRA» has also haven't we the obligation to preserve and pass on launched and supported several scientific research the cultural memory which is conveying intangible activities. Among them can be raised up the sense and values that are so indispensable to every Historical earthen architecture and construction 1115 living society? Is not there any alternative for that could raise a «vision» for a recreated future of the conserving our architectural heritages expressing earthen architectures usefu1 for the coming out of shared universal values? On such a point of view, more viable societies generating new specific as the earthen architectures -existing over al! di verse equilibriums between «men», their continents- should not be essential to this protection environments and their cultures. and passing on of our inherited cultural, bio and The erosion of the techno-diversity comes under a techno-diversity? Might not they offer an alternative cultural amnesia, the consequences of which could be to this homogenising building and architectural dramatic for the worldwide socio-economical system. transculturation that could be devastating? In this The preservation and the revival of this techno- way, it should be upon the indissociable triptych diversity are becoming a factor of vitality for the «conservation -sustainable deveJopment- modernity» future ofthe planet. Sut, considering the chaIJenge for

Project objectives

TERRA-MED Project

CONSERVA TION AND MISE EN V ALEUR OF THE EARTHEN ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SPACE

Objective: A recognized heritage

CO-OPERA TION

Objective: A regional Mediterranean network

EDUCA TION RESEARCH APPLICATION A W ARENESS

Objective: Objective: Objective: Objective: A taught discipline A specific science A professional practice A social endeavour

KNOWLEDGE BASIS

Objective: A structured field

DATA BANK

Objective: An accessible knowledge 1116 H. Guillaud, A. Alva

the coming out of a sustainable development, we have more then 300 in the Alps of High Provence and more to produce a huge effort for taking stoke of our than 200 in the Gard, all actua1 territories of southcrn techno-diversity, for a better knowledge and more France. understanding of this «building intelligence» and go 7. Fiches, Jean-Luc, «Habitat et fortijieation.l', la civilisation des oppida» (Habitat and fortifications, the on updating, enriching our culturallegacy by a more civilisation of oppida), in Archaeologia n° 35, June appropriate use of the potential of our technologies. 1979, pp. 67-75. But, there is another danger: to be frozen in an 8. Vitruvius, «De Architeetura», Livrc l, 3, 8, and Livre «il\usion of the permanence», that is also an 1I,3, translation by Claude Perrault, ed. J. B. Coignard, untenable «reactionary» attitude. Based on such Paris, 1674. considerations, the conservation of the earthen 9. Agache, Roger and Bréart, Bruno, «La terre ente dans architectural heritages, the sustainable development les eonstructions traditionnelles» (The unbaked earth in of a scientific research and specialised education in traditional constructions), in dossiers histoire et this field, today, are undoubtedly a decisive archéologie n° 79, Dec. 1983, Jan. 1984 (pp. ]6-23). 2, op.cit., note 29, contribution for tomorrow; this is part of a shared 10. Slim, Hedi, «La Tunisie», in DAF n° pp. 35-45. effort -to be developed at the world scale- aiming 11. These groups are set in the universities of Torino, at reconcile Man and History, and with its cultural Milano, Genova, Udine, Venecia, Firenze, Macerata, diversity that we have now to consider as a paramount Pescara and Cagliari option and vector for a «loca!» development to be 12. This meeting was following previous scientific events balanced with a «globa!» development. This is a covering the topic: in November 1972, Yazd, Tran, possibility for opening new paths to a «post- ooFirst lnternational Conferenee on the Conservation of development» which could not be only based on the Monuments built in Unbaked brieks»; in March 1976, omnipotence of money (profit) and macro-techniques still in Yazd, o. 13. See: «projet Gaia projectN, «Bibliography on the NOTES Preservation Restoration and Rehabilitation ofEarthen Arehitecture», ed. CRATerre-EAG-ICCROM. Rome, 1. The Project TERRA on the Study and Conservation of ltaly, 1993, 136 p. (900 documentary references). The Earthen Architectures has been inaugurated in «Researeh Index» has been published by the "Pn,jeet Novembre 1997, following a previous project called the TERRA». Based on a wide survey carried out close to «Gaia Projeet» which was created in 1984 by architectural conservation professionals, it precises the CRATerre-EAG and lCCROM. main scientific research directions for the next years, 2. According a description written by May Veber, according the professionals' needs and expectations. «Mycenes, creuset tumultueux de I 'Hellade N, 1980. The «Literature Review», prepared and draftly written 3. According the historian, geopgrapher and philosopher by CRATerre-EAG (Arch. H. Guillaud), and then Dicearque (347-285 BC), quoted by Lewis Mumford in revised by a corpus of North American and European his «La Cité a travers I'Histoire», ed. 1e Seuil, Paris, scientists covering various fields of research, will be 1964. published by the GCl late 2002. The research on the 4. Lancel, Serge, «Byrsa 1» ami «Byrsa lb>, Mission cohesion and loss of cohesion of the earth material is archéologique fran"aise ii Carthage, rapports driven by CRATerre-EAG (Eng. Hugo Houben), in préliminaires des fouilles (1974-1976 and 1977-1978), partnership with GCI and ICCROM Research Units and vol. 41, ed. De Boccard, Rome and Paris, 1979 and several other Research laboratories and Units of French 1982, respectively, 381 p and 382 ilL, 417 p. and 613 ilL uni versities- U MR-CNRS. 5. Sec Desbat, Armand, «La région de Lyon et de Vienne», 14. This communication is integrating contributions of (The region 01' Lyon and Vienne), in DAF other researchers of CRA Terre-EAG, particularly for (Documentation of the French Archaeology) n° 2, the last part dealing with the presentation of the «Architeetures de terre et de bois» (Earth and wood «TERRA-MED Project». We particularly raise up here, architecture), ]985. as main contributors: Eng. Hugo HOUBEN and Arch. 6. 277 units of oppida have been identified in the Var, Eng. Marina TRAPPENIERS. Historical earthen architecture and construction 1117

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