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Gendered Perspectives on Resistance and Peace in North Sumatra, Indonesia

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Gendered Perspectives on Resistance and Peace in North Sumatra, Indonesia Uncovering: Gendered Perspectives on Resistance and Peace in North Sumatra, Indonesia By Maria (Masha) Kardashevskaya A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Peace and Conflict Studies University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2020 Maria (Masha) Kardashevskaya Table of Contents Abstract..................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................iii Dedication..............................................................................................................................v Glossary.................................................................................................................................vi List of Tables.........................................................................................................................viii List of Maps...........................................................................................................................ix List of Photographs................................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Introduction..........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Situating the field: districts of North Tapanuli, Toba Samosir, and Humbang Hasundutan in the province of North Sumatra, Indonesia..................................17 Chapter 3: Theoretical framework.........................................................................................69 Chapter 4: Methodology and methods..................................................................................118 Chapter 5: Losing, resisting, and reclaiming the land...........................................................141 Chapter 6: Engendering resistance........................................................................................188 Chapter 7: Looking back and moving forward: addressing challenges and envisioning peace...................................................................................................................237 Chapter 8: Conclusions.........................................................................................................270 Appendices............................................................................................................................278 Photographs...........................................................................................................................290 Works cited...........................................................................................................................295 i Abstract The current research responds to calls for decolonization of resistance and peace and conflict studies as well as the lack of research about women and their roles within grassroots nonviolent resistance and peacebuilding. This research, built on the ethnographic fieldwork in the villages of North Sumatra, argues that women and men play culturally embedded gendered roles within resistance. The women and men in my case study have developed their own methods of nonviolent resistance, which I define as protective and proactive nonviolent resistance. The methods they developed are culturally gendered, for example, farming as resistance is led by women, whereas discursive/dialogic resistance is employed more widely by men. Based on my data, I argue that women, despite their disproportionately dominant roles within grassroots nonviolent resistance, are still facing gender-based discrimination and violence, and the identity- based organizing does not provide enough space to address the question of gender justice within its current framing. This calls for a critical exploration of organizing and analysis of these gendered dynamics of resistance to critically assess these campaigns for local NGOs, so that they are more inclusive of women and women’s issues. My case study indicates that women often face gendered discrimination and violence that remain unaddressed by the local civil society organizations and their international partners due to the focus on other more potent issues. However, it is exactly within a process of transformative events, such as overt social conflicts, that lies an airy window of opportunity for a positive social change and re-restructuring of power-laden relationships, including gendered ones. ii Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been submitted without the support of numerous people I have met throughout my studies and before I even started envisioning the project. I remember Mama Salo, Theresa, Patrick, Yulianus, and Theo and my teammates, Esther, Jacob, Meriam, Harold, and Katrin in Papua. My time in Papua, conversations with my teammates and our “partners” shaped the way I perceive and think today. I have spent most of my time in Papua with Esther and Jacob, and they will always remain in my memory as the people who shaped me in numerous ways through our conflict, where femininity and masculinity clashed and made us all aware of how powerful the dynamics can be in very real ways and affect our personalities and passions in fundamental ways. I am also grateful for the experiences following this, especially with Serge and Gemma. The research project we worked on together made me forever curious about social movements in connection to culture and the film projects we produced and disseminated eventually connected me to KSPPM and North Sumatra. My committee worked very hard to ensure I produce quality work and was very supportive throughout. Dr. Hamdesa Tuso (my initial advisor), Dr. Maureen Flaherty (my subsequent advisor and previously, a committee member), Dr. Mia Siscawati, and Dr. Fabiana Li. I am honoured to have worked under their supervision. Each of them brought into the committee their own expertise tacitly encouraging me to be aware of various theoretical approaches to the concepts of peace and conflict. They also have been highly supportive probably without being quite aware how grateful I have been throughout and felt 100% supported all the way through. Dr. Flaherty managed to adjust quickly to her new role as a supervisor and managed it superbly. For this, I will be grateful forever. I am also deeply honoured to have worked with numerous activists and community members. I am grateful to Suryati Simanjuntak, Delima Silalahi, David Rajagukguk, Rindu Capah, Esther Simanjuntak, Ibu Dewi, Fransiska Sinaga, Angel Manihuruk, Nando Nainggolan, Doharta Sirait, Kelok Sirait, Iwan, Bobby, Roganda Simanjuntak, Ruth Tambunan, and other former and current staff members of AMAN TB, the Sitompul family in Siantar, Prof. Bungaran Antonius Simanjuntak, Saur Situmorang of Komnas Perempuan, Devi Anggraini of Perempuan AMAN, and Andiko. My deepest appreciation to KSPPM and AMAN Tano Batak as organizations that supported me in my fieldwork. I am greatly indebted to my host families in the villages I have stayed in, the Lumban Gaol, the Lumban Batu, the Sihite, and the Sinambela families in Pandumaan and Sipituhuta, the Simanjuntak family in Nagasaribu, the Sumanjuntak iii families in Sabungan Nihuta V and IV, the Sitorus family in Lumban Sitorus, and the Barimbing family in Sugapa. I also thank all the women in these villages. They have all been given pseudonyms to follow the Ethics requirements of my university and have been informed about this when I was living and conversing with them. I am grateful to the Arthur V. Mauro Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Manitoba, and the Province of Manitoba for scholarships and awards that supported me throughout my studies. I am grateful to the International Centre on Nonviolent Conflict (ICNC). The funding received from ICNC enabled me to spend as much as I needed in the field. I hope that this study can contribute to greater knowledge about the gendered dynamics of nonviolent resistance and enrich theoretical discussions, but most importantly contribute strategically to social justice for the women and the villages across the world to gain land rights for sustaining and relational peace. I also hope the study contributes to our understanding of social conflict dynamics, which then eventually helps to make policy-making socially just for the most vulnerable in our society. It would have been harder without the administrative support of Annette, Jason and Susan at the Mauro Centre. Finally, I am grateful to my own family, my in-laws, my friends I have kept in touch with and who supported me throughout my studies, Dani, Wei, Dan, William, Pervin, Sardana Nikolaeva, Suzanna Eddyono, Yulia Sugandi, Agustini Hutabarat, Anggara Sitompul, Janine Tijhoff, Lars Stenger, Cheria Noezar, Eduardo Soto Parra, Wendy Kroeker, Olga Skarlato, David Timothy, Marion Kiprop, Arthur and Meyta, Tessa, my girls from my undergraduate studies, but most of all, my husband Heru and my daughter Noeme for their patience, love, and support. iv Dedicated to my hard-working, positive, fun-loving and supportive parents, Khristina and Anatoly, and all the villagers, both women and men, who opened their doors and hearts to me. v Glossary AMAN Alliance of the Indigenous Peoples of the Archipelago, Aliansi Masyarakat Adat Nusantara AMAN TB AMAN branch in Tano Batak ATR/BPN Ministry of Agrarian
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