o f

w s o c i e t y

e a u s t r a l i a i

j o u r n a l

a r t s o f

t h e ADORNMENT a s i a n

Rev

t h e

A

S

A A

VOLUME 18 NO. 3 SEPTEMBER 2009 T contents

Volume 18 No.3 September 2009

3 EDITORIAL: ADORNMENT TAASA REVIEW Josefa Green THE ASIAN ARTS SOCIETY OF INC. Abn 64093697537 • Vol. 18 No. 3, September 2009 ISSN 1037.6674 4 MAGIC, MYTH & MICROCOSMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN JEWELLERY Registered by Australia Post. Publication No. NBQ 4134 Anne Richter

editorIAL • email: [email protected] 7 NOMAD CULTURE, GREEK STYLE: STEPPES JEWELLERY AND ADORNMENT General editor, Josefa Green Heleanor Feltham publications committee 10 GIFT OF THE GODS: JEWELLERY TRADITIONS FROM BOROBUDUR, THE BAYON & BALI Josefa Green (convenor) • Tina Burge Melanie Eastburn • Sandra Forbes • Ann MacArthur Wendy Parker Jim Masselos • Ann Proctor • Susan Scollay Sabrina Snow • Christina Sumner 13 INDIA’S INSATIABLE PASSION FOR JEWELLERY design/layout Anne Schofield Ingo Voss, VossDesign

printing 15 HALCYON DAYS: KINGFISHER FEATHER JEWELLERY & ORNAMENTS OF CHINA John Fisher Printing Sheena Burnell Published by The Asian Arts Society of Australia Inc. 18 ALL THAT GLITTERS: A LOOK AT STRAITS CHINESE BEADWORK AND EMBROIDERY PO Box 996 Potts Point NSW 2011 Hwei-F’en Cheah www.taasa.org.au Enquiries: [email protected] 20 A HERITAGE PRESERVED: CHINESE REGALIA AT THE GOLDEN DRAGON MUSEUM, TAASA Review is published quarterly and is distributed to members Ben Langan of The Asian Arts Society of Australia Inc. TAASA Review welcomes submissions of articles, notes and reviews on Asian visual and 22 IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN: A MONGOLIAN ‘QUEEN OF GREAT BLISS’ AT THE NGA performing arts. All articles are refereed. Additional copies and subscription to TAASA Review are available on request. Christopher Haskett No opinion or point of view is to be construed as the opinion of 24 ‘ILLUMINATIONS OF THE HEART’: MUSIC FROM THE OTTOMAN COURT The Asian Arts Society of Australia Inc., its staff, servants or agents. Susan Scollay No claim for loss or damage will be acknowledged by TAASA Review as a result of material published within its pages or in other material published by it. We reserve the right to alter 25 Red Cliff: Re-imagining an Epic or omit any article or advertisements submitted and require John Millbank indemnity from the advertisers and contributors against damages or liabilities that may arise from material published. 26 BOOK REVIEW: KHMER GOLD. GIFTS FOR THE GODS All reasonable efforts have been made to trace copyright holders. Gill Green TAASA MEMBERSHIP RATES 27 CITO CESSNA (1945-2009) – AN ADVENTUROUS LIFE $60 Single Ray Tregaskis $90 Dual $90 Single overseas (includes postage) $30 Concession (students/pensioners with ID) 28 RECENT TAASA ACTIVITIES $95 Libraries (overseas, $95 + $20 postage) $195 Corporate/institutional (up to 10 employees) 29 TAASA MEMBERS’ DIARY $425 Corporate/institutional (more than 10 employees) $650 Life membership (free admission all events) 30 WHAT’S ON September - November 2009 advertising RATES TAASA Review welcomes advertisements from appropriate companies, institutions and individuals. Rates below are GST inclusive.

Back page $850 Full inner page $725 Half page horizontal $484 Third page (vertical or horizontal) $364 Half column $265 Insert $300

COVER For further information re advertising, including COLLAR, CHINA, 1880, HAND EMBROIDERED SILK WITH COTTON LINING. BENDIGO CHINESE discounts for regular quarterly advertising, please contact

ASSOCIATION COLLECTION, GOLDEN DRAGON MUSEUM, BENDIGO. SEE ARTICLE ON THE [email protected]

BENDIGO MUSEUM’S COLLECTION OF CHINESE REGALIA ON PAGES 20-21. The deadline for all articles for our next issue is 15 SEPTEMBER 2009 A full Index of articles published in TAASA Review since its beginnings The deadline for all aDvertising in 1991 is available on the TAASA web site, www.taasa.org.au for our next issue is 1 NOVEMBER 2009

2 TAASA committee EDITORIAL: ADORNMENT

Judith Rutherford • President Josefa Green, Editor Collector and specialist in Chinese textiles

Gill Green • Vice President Art historian specialising in Cambodian culture

ANN GUILD • TREASURER This September issue of the TAASA Review Anne Schofield’s talk focused on the rich Former Director of the Embroiders Guild (UK) focuses on the ever popular topic of jewellery jewellery legacies of the South Asian continent, KATE JOHNSTON • SECRETARY and accessories, and sets out to publish covering two aspects. One is traditional gold Intellectual property lawyer with papers presented at a packed one day or silver jewellery that, as in other traditional an interest in Asian textiles TAASA seminar on “Jewellery & Adornment societies, represents portable wealth but also Hwei-fe’n cheah of Asia”, held at the Art Gallery of NSW carries strong symbolic and ritual value. The Lecturer, Art History, Australian National University, with an interest in needlework on 25 July 2009. Six experts covered topics second is the elaborate and luxurious gem JOCELYN CHEY ranging from traditional to sophisticated studded jewellery of the Mughal court, a Visiting Professor, Department of Chinese Studies, court ornaments, geographically straddling hybrid of Hindu and Iranian designs that also University of Sydney; former diplomat East, Central, South and Southeast Asia. drew on western enamelling techniques. Matt Cox Study Room Co-ordinator, Art Gallery of New South Yet despite the variety of subjects presented, Sheena Burnell shared her passion for Chinese Wales, with a particular interest in Islamic Art of some common themes emerged from the jewellery, mainly hair ornaments, which Southeast Asia seminar, testifying both to common beliefs and incorporate the brilliant, iridescent feather of Philip Courtenay preoccupations found in traditional societies, the kingfisher bird. This form of decoration Former Professor and Rector of the Cairns Campus, James Cook University, with a special interest in and the cultural cross-fertilisation that has reached its peak in the Qing period (1644 – Southeast Asian ceramics always occurred through immigration, trade 1911) and particularly featured in the elaborate Sandra Forbes and territorial expansion. coiffures of Manchu court ladies. Editorial consultant with long-standing interest in South and Southeast Asian art Anne Richter set the scene by convincingly Personal adornment in the form of beaded Josefa Green arguing that, in the traditional societies of and embroidered accessories produced General editor of TAASA Review. Collector of Chinese ceramics, with long-standing interest in East Asian Southeast Asia, jewellery (particularly gold) domestically by Peranakan Chinese women art as student and traveller are not only items of value and decorative born in the Straits Settlements was the topic GERALDINE HARDMAN appeal, but can possibly be viewed as of the final paper of this seminar by Hwei- Collector of Chinese furniture and Burmese lacquerware sacred art - potent and rich with symbolism F’en Cheah. She painted a charming picture ANN PROCTOR connected to religious beliefs and traditions. of women grappling with modernity at the Lecturer in Asian Art, Sydney University Such jewellery could represent a microcosm turn of the 20th century, while producing this and the National Art School, Sydney of the universe, often combining female and very traditional domestic handicraft. ANN ROBERTS male related symbolism in a unified cosmos, Art consultant specialising in Chinese and the conversion of precious metals into The adornment theme has been carried through ceramics and works of art jewellery may have been seen as mirroring to most of the remaining articles in this issue. SABRINA SNOW the very act of creation, conferring power on TAASA Review is delighted to feature the Has a long association with the Art Gallery of New South Wales and a particular interest in the arts of China both creator and wearer. Chinese regalia collection at the Golden Dragon

CHRISTINA SUMNER Museum in Bendigo. It represents one of the Principal Curator, Design and Society, Wendy Parker further explores these ideas, largest Chinese textile ensembles on display in Powerhouse Museum, Sydney examining common decorative motifs and any museum in the world and demonstrates SPECIALIST ADVISOR ON NE ASIA forms in the jewellery sculpted in stone on the rich collections which exist in Australia’s Min-Jung Kim the marvellous statuary found on the great regional museums, which we hope to feature Hon. Auditor temple complexes of Borobudur in more in future issues. Rosenfeld Kant and Co and later at Angkor in . Traditions state representatives involving the making and wearing of highly Other items that should interest readers Australian Capital Territory symbolic jewellery survive to this day, as include our regular item “In the Public Robyn Maxwell testified by contemporary ritual ceremonies Domain”, featuring a description of a Visiting Fellow in Art History, ANU; held, for example, at Tenganan, Bali. charming Mongolian thangka at the NGA by Senior Curator of Asian Art, National Gallery of Australia Christopher Haskett. Gill Green provides a Northern Territory In a masterly presentation, Heleanor Feltham review of a recently published book on Khmer Joanna Barrkman provided an overview of Central Asian societies jewellery. TAASA Review’s commitment Curator of Southeast Asian Art and Material Culture, as they evolved from 3000 BCE to the present. to featuring performing arts is evident in Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory Cultural cross fertilisation through conquest Susan Scollay’s article on the Melbourne Queensland and intermarriage produced a distinctive based Nefes Ensemble, who perform music Suhanya Raffel steppes style in gold and silver jewellery. based on Ottoman Court traditions, while Head of Asian and Pacific Art, Queensland Art Gallery Here, jewellery represented portable wealth, John Millbank compares the newly released South Australia and its stylistic conventions mirrored the martial epic film “Red Cliff” to the classic James Bennett predominately nomadic preoccupations and Ming novel on which it is based. Curator of Asian Art, Art Gallery of South Australia beliefs of its creators. After 5th century BCE, Greek styles heavily influenced the region, Finally, TAASA Review features a celebration Carol Cains continuing to do so well into the Christian of the life of Cito Cessna by his friend Curator Asian Art, National Gallery of Victoria International era. Other influences, such as from China and colleague Ray Tregaskis. A well liked TASMANIA and Persia, were also evident, reflecting a and respected expert, and strong TAASA Kate Brittlebank complex history of migration, conquest and supporter, he will be very sadly missed. Lecturer in Asian History, School of History and Classics, University of Tasmania contacts throughout the region.

3 MAGIC, MYTH & MICROCOSMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN JEWELLERY

Anne Richter

Horned ornament, Tanimbar Indonesia, 19th century. Gold. Private collection

ational and regional museums, royal and N aristocratic families and private collectors in Southeast Asia hold collections of jewellery that are of outstanding beauty and technical complexity. Jewellery has often been thought of as a means of expressing political power and has been generally regarded as a status marker reflecting and announcing the wearer’s wealth, gender, age, condition in life as well as membership of a particular social or religious group. Jewellery also serves the talismanic function of deflecting ill-fortune. However, some Southeast Asian jewellery is unusually rich in symbolism and could possibly be placed within the broad category of sacred art.

This kind of jewellery is distinctively Southeast Asian and may originate from forms that are over 2000 years old. It comes from societies with an animist worldview and a characteristic art style, which the ethnologist Robert Heine-Geldern (1966) associated with the construction of megaliths. Others have stressed its essential connection to stratified societies in which ritual feasting is an important focus of communal activity.

Feasts are presided over by aristocrats, who display art works such as jewellery to enhance their own prestige and power and that of their ancestors, and also sponsor the sacrifice of animals - often buffalo. Societies of this type usually conceive of the universe as binary in nature with an upper world of brightness, heat, spirits, ancestors, deities and masculinity, which may be represented by images of the sun and the colour red. The lower world is contrastingly dim, watery, cool and feminine and is associated with human and agricultural fertility. A jewel, in which both upper and lower world symbols are combined, can be understood as a microcosm: an image of the world in miniature that not only represents but also invokes a unified cosmos in This basic double horned animal head form The animal forms found in the stone Vietnamese a state of dynamic equilibrium that is beneficial may be represented clearly or in a more abstract jewellery may have been influenced by the to humankind. form. It is evident in the gold pendants of the shamanistic religions of southern China (Frape Kalinga and Ifugao people of the highlands of 1997). Horned ornaments and headdresses Horns, Crescent Moons and Boats northern Luzon in the Philippines, in the tiered certainly recall the costumes of shamans A few types of Southeast Asian jewellery gold head ornaments of the island peoples consisting of animal skins, horns, antlers and appear to have been widespread for centuries of Nusa Tenggara province in Indonesia, masks that are worn to enter a trance state in if not millennia. One group displays a cluster and in the headdresses and painted wooden order to communicate with the upper world of forms and motifs that suggest animal hair combs from rural areas in Lampung in of spirits. Horns are also relevant to ritual heads, horns and the Cosmic Tree, or Tree of South . Some jewellery, which in offerings of animals. While clearly associated Life. The earliest ornaments of this type with other respects shows cosmopolitan decorative with the power and wealth of those who can clear links to later Southeast Asian traditions influences from China, India or the Islamic afford the loss of valuable stock, ritual offerings are the stone pendants with an horn-bearing world, such the gilded silver hair combs of are also a means of reinforcing relationships of animal head on either side dated to about 300 Palembang in east Sumatra, also bear double mutual obligation between human beings and BCE, found at Sa Huynh in central . horned heads in abstracted form. the spirits and ancestors of the upper world.

4 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 Head ornament, Flores, Indonesia, 19th century. Gold. Private collection

Buffalo, in particular, are normally sacrificed It thus refers to growth, sequence, potentiality singa bracelet of the Toba people, which against a special stake which can be understood and the rhythms of female fertility and fecundity draws its name from the Sanskrit for lion, as a connecting rod to the upper world and as a in humans and, by extension, agriculture. The displays a mixture of elephant and reptilian stylised representation of the Cosmic Tree. curving horn also resembles the hull of a boat. characteristics and bears three horns. In some societies in both Indonesia and the The Cosmic Tree is itself an image of the Philippines, ancestral clan houses not only The Stylised Womb tiered and unified cosmos. With its roots deep resemble boats, but are also imagined as such. The third group of Southeast Asian ornaments underground and its upper branches in the sky, The family, composed of its dead and living under consideration consists of pendants with it can be interpreted as a pathway linking upper members, journeys from the remote past to the a form based on stylised female genitalia. and lower cosmic realms. Mountain forms and ordinary, everyday concerns of the present, They display a central cavity accessed by images may serve a similar function. The links linking the spirit world with the human a narrow and elongated entry that evokes between horn forms and the Cosmic Tree domain. In some parts of the Philippines and the birth canal. In all the societies in which can be seen in the magnificently granulated Indonesia, the village is laid out as if it is a boat. they have been in recent or current use, necklace finials dated from 500-1300 CE found The position allocated to houses is determined feminine life-giving and life-protecting powers in Mindanao in the southern Philippines. These by the descent of the various householders have been attributed to them. The elongated show horned human figures possibly dancing from the ancestral helmsmen and pilots whose around the Cosmic Tree. More recent head mythic sea voyages led to the founding of the ornaments from the 19th and 20th centuries village. Thus the horn form may also refer to the in the Philippines are also formed as horns; Cosmic Tree, the crescent moon, boats, actual however, in addition they are decorated with houses, the families linked by descent to these clusters of feathers to indicate birds, and seem houses and entire communities. to fuse horns and trees into a single form. The fusion of horn and tree forms is also found in Composite Animals the head ornaments of the eastern islands of Another way of representing the layered Indonesia. universe is via forms and images of composite animals with a mixture of body parts from the It is more common for Southeast Asian avian, mammalian and underworld such as jewellery to be based on the horns of a single fish or reptiles. The Gajah Minong necklace of animal, shown without the animal’s head. In the of West Sumatra in this simplified form they may also carry other Indonesia derives its central motif from the references and ideas. A horn resembles, and Hindu makara or elephant fish, although the thus may be associated with, the crescent moon. creature represented resembles a crocodile. The Necklace finials, Mindanao, Southern Philippines,

500-1300 CE. Gold. Collection: Banco Sentral, Manila

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 5 Pendants, Northern Luzon, Philippines, 19th century. Gold. Villegas Collection, Manila

making the gold ear ornaments called loran. Their ancestors presided over the spiritually dangerous process of smelting gold coins, which were ‘killed’ to release the life force that would enter into and enliven the new jewels (MacKinnon 1991: 179-180, summary of Drabbe, 1940).

In the past, the Karo Batak goldsmiths of employed a special code language in which the hammer was called ‘the lightning that shatters’, the place where the smith sat ‘the high mother’ and the anvil was named after a mythical serpent. The heart, blood, liver and lungs of a hen were offered to the spirits residing in the tools before work was commenced (Jasper & Pirngadie 1927: 26-27). It is possible that these terms derive from ancient creation myths, and so the making of a jewel could be seen as analogous to the creation of the universe. Thus a jewel may not only have been considered a microcosm in so far as its forms and motifs represented the unity of upper and lower worlds, but the very process of making it was a repetition of creation.

It is unfortunate that most of these beliefs have only survived in fragmentary form into the 21st century, because they do provide an insight, even if it is only a faint and glimmering one, into the peculiar fascination that jewellery can exert. Jewellery is certainly communicative about the social world in which it is worn, but it may also place the entry, the presence of outward projecting Jewels of this type and especially mamuli, core wearer within the much larger context of the and applied elements and greater sculptural treasures of aristocratic households, which universe itself as well as the supernatural. three-dimensionality distinguishes them from bring the upper and lower worlds, feminine numerous earlier variations of flatter split ring and masculine into such an intense and Anne Richter has taught art, design and architectural pendants or ear ornaments in stone and gold, dramatic relationship, are considered living history at RMIT. She is the author of “Arts and Craft common throughout Southeast Asia from the things capable of radiating immense and of Indonesia” (1993) and “Jewelry of Southeast later centuries of the first millennium BCE to potentially dangerous power in their own Asia” (2000). about the end of the first millennium CE. The right. They are regarded as supernaturally stone pendants found at Sa Huynh in central ‘hot’ and must be cooled by sacrificial cooling REFERENCES Vietnam and dated to 300 BCE exhibit most ceremonies before they can be handled or Drabbe, P. Het Leven van den Tanembarees: Ethnografische of the characteristics of jewellery based on the even looked at. It was customary in the past Studie over het Tanembareesche Volk, Internationales Archiv fir form of female genitalia and may be a prototype in Sumba for important jewels and regalia to Ethnonographie, supplement to vol.37. of later and fairly widespread ornaments. be worn by a slave substitute rather than an Frape, C. 1997: ‘The Hardstone Earrings of Vietnam’ in Arts of Asia, September- October. aristocratic ruler himself. The adorned slave The stylised womb form is found in the double would engage in trance with the spirit world - Heine- Geldern, Robert. 1966: ‘Some Tribal Art Styles of Southeast Asia: An Experiment in Art History’ in D. Fraser, The Many Faces headed animal pendants from Northern a potentially perilous undertaking - on behalf of Primitive Art; A Critical Anthology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Luzon in the Philippines mentioned above, of the noble owner (Rodgers 1990: 164-196). pp.165-221. and also in the taiganja of central Jasper, H. E and Mas Pirgadie, 1927: De Goud and where the central cavity is often surrounded The idea that a jewel could be hot and powerful Zilversmeedkunst (volume IV of De Inlandsche Kunstnijverheid in by images of seeds and vigorous plant shoots to a dangerous degree was also held in other Nederlandsche Indie), the Hague. accompanied by outward projecting horn- Indonesian societies. In island off the Keene, W. 1988: ‘Shadows of Men and Spirits: Mamuli of Sumba’ like forms. The most spectacular of these west coast of Sumatra, new gold jewellery in Tribal Art (2). ornaments are the mamuli of east Sumba in was believed to be too hot and dangerous for Mackinnon, S. 1991: From a Shattered Sun: Hierarchy, Gender Indonesia. This fundamental female form the aristocrats who commissioned it. It was and Alliance in the Tanimbar Islands, Madison, Wisconsin. is often accompanied by applied elements first worn by a slave, who was subsequently Rodgers, S. 1990: Power and Gold: Jewelry from Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines, Munich. evocative of the upper world such as parrots, beheaded, to ‘cool’ it in preparation for its Schnitger, F.M. 1939: Forgotten Kingdoms in Sumatra, Leiden. masculine activities such as warfare and male use by the nobility (Schnitger 1939: 146- figures such as the severed heads of enemies, 148). In Tanimbar Island in Maluku Province and noble riders and warriors. Indonesia, only certain men could engage in

6 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 NOMAD CULTURE, GREEK STYLE: STEPPES JEWELLERY AND ADORNMENT

Heleanor Feltham

Animal combat belt buckle, South-western Siberia, area between the rivers Irtysh and Ob,

5th – 4th century BCE. Gold. Hermitage Museum Scythian Gold Collection

entral Asia is characterised by distinctive C zones. Mountains contain and define regions. Rivers descend from the mountains, often to lose themselves in arid deserts such as the Taklamakan, the Kara Kum and the Gobi. Oasis regions such as Samarkand and Kashgar were settled and extended by skilled irrigation agriculturalists such as the Sogdians and the Tocharians, while vast, treeless steppes stretched from the Ukraine to Manchuria, split centrally by the Altai mountains. In this steppe region, perhaps as early as 3000 BCE, a distinctive culture emerged, that of the nomadic pastoralists. Skilled horsemen, making use of wagons, chariots and short curved bows, they pastured their flocks of sheep, camels, cows and goats across the steppes, utilizing the wool of their sheep for felts and carpets and both trading and raiding the settled communities on their borders. Their lifestyle in many areas was interwoven with that of the oasis irrigation agriculturalists, and these two ways of life created an ideal interaction for long-distance trade. burials here and on both the eastern and the become eagle beaks, serpents grow wings, western steppes were in kurgans, lined pit lions have horns – sometimes lead to the Most of the early nomads spoke an Indo- graves that included horse and other sacrifices, creation of mythological species such as Eurasian language, related forms of which covered by a large earth mound. Both men griffons and dragons. The use of ‘s’ and ‘c’ include Greek, Celtic, Sanskrit, Persian and and women were buried in spectacular outfits curves to contort form and define musculature Tajik. Later groups spoke mostly Turkic decorated with gold plaques; they wore belts is also often evident. In the Western regions, languages such as Uighur, Turkish or with elaborate buckles, torques, necklaces, from the Ukraine, across Kazakhstan, up Uzbek. Although there were frequent mass rings and armband and carried decorative into Siberia and to present day Xinjiang, a movements of these nomadic peoples, often weapons and bow-cases. Often their horses confederacy of tribes referred to as Scythians resulting in relatively short-lived empires and were equally bejewelled, a custom which lasted by Greek historians, dominated the steppes. the invasion of neighbouring cultures such as well into the 20th century in Central Asia. China, Persia and India, the basic life-style One sub group, the Saka, probably the most remained the same over centuries. Power among the nomad tribes was vested easterly, created distinctive jewellery in in charismatic leaders who maintained both classic nomad style using turquoise inset in Their principal object of trade was the horse, intertribal marital and political connections gold. The Hermitage museum collection of though raw gemstones, textiles, jewellery and a committed group of warrior followers, Saka/Scythian jewellery from the Ukraine, and even steppes-grown wheat were all the comitatus. Loyalty was reinforced with the Pontic steppes, Kazakhstan and Siberia, important. The 6th-5th century BCE Apadana gifts of portable wealth, the best horses and includes a two-section gold belt buckle from staircase at Persepolis shows the nomadic livestock, Chinese silks, the most spectacular 5th-4th century BCE south-western Siberia. Scythians bringing horses, textile lengths jewellery. Poets acted as spin doctors, On each section, a winged and horned lion, and gold armbands to the Persian court. celebrating the lives of the leaders and were whose hindquarters become an eagle’s head, They alone of all the bas-relief dignitaries are also richly rewarded, though one disgruntled attacks a horse coiled into an ‘s’, decorated shown with weapons, since they alone are Irish bard wrote of his patron: with the eyes and beaks of raptors. independent delegates and not a part of the I’ve heard it said of him many times Persian Empire. He doesn’t give horses for ballads and rhymes. The steppes style could also be found in He gives what matches his soul anyhow; the jewellery of tribes such as the Xiongnu, Central to steppes culture was the Altai A cow. (Creekmore 1959) Yuezhi and Xianbe on the borders of China mountain range, a sacred zone that linked the from as early as the 5th century BCE. At its nomads of Mongolia and the Ordos with those Early steppes jewellery can be distinguished most sophisticated it can even be seen in the of Kazakhstan and the Ukraine. Grave good by several stylistic conventions. Among these gold jewellery, metalwork and sculptures of finds from this area include local jewellery, are combat themes, often between animals the Achaemenid Persians. Around the 5th carpets and felts, Chinese silks and Persian such as horse, deer, wolf, tiger, leopard and century BCE a change began in the western woollen textiles, Greek-style lion heads and eagle. Animal metamorphosis, where one steppes, which slowly spread across the coffins carved with tigers. Generally, nomad species segues into another – deer antlers entire nomad oecumene. Possibly in the 7th

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 7 Pendant showing the ‘dragon master’, tillya tepe, tomb ii second quarter of the 1st century CE,

gold, turquoise, garnet, lapis lazuli, carnelian, pearls, 12.5 x 6.5 cm, national museum of afghanistan

Greek style in sculpture, metalwork and jewellery and even textiles continued to be a major aesthetic in the region, reinforcing the existing nomad love of Hellenistic decorative motifs.

Meanwhile in the steppes area bordering China in the 2nd century BCE, two Indo- Eurasian speaking tribal groups were in conflict with both the Chinese and each other. The weaker of the two, the Yuezhi, were driven out in 176 BCE and migrated to the steppes regions of what is now Uzbekistan, eventually settling in Transoxiana in 155 BCE, just north of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. The other, the Xiongnu, continued to raid and trade with Han dynasty China, provoking the Emperor Han Wudi in 126 BCE to try to ally with the Yuezhi against them. While the Yuezhi rejected the alliance, the Chinese invaded Central Asia, formally establishing the Silk Road trade routes between east and west, enriching the city-states of Central Asia and providing new opportunities for trade and employment for the nomads.

The Yuezhi particularly benefited, slowly establishing a loose rule over the oasis cities and most probably blending their tribes with local Saka-Scythian nomads. From their Graeco-Bactrian neighbours they adopted coinage, alphabet and elements of Greek style. By the early 1st century CE, one branch of the Yuezhi, the Kushans, became particularly powerful, moving further into north India to establish a new empire which incorporated century BCE, Greek settlers began to colonize more it combined with traditional nomad both oasis cities and Bactrian and Gandharan the shores of the Black Sea, establishing styles. It reached the Altai at much the same kingdoms, and dominating commerce on the cities and coming into contact with the time that a major shift was occurring in the Silk Road. Scythian nomads of the region. They both West. In the mid 4th century BCE, Greece imported and created jewellery and other became united under Phillip of Macedon and Early in their move from tribe to empire, in objects in their home style, and established his son, Alexander (356-323 BCE). The previous the mid to late 1st century CE, the Kushans trade relations with their nomad neighbours, century’s conflict between the Greeks and the buried a small group of their royal dead in an buying especially horses and wheat. By the Persian empire was resolved with Alexander’s unusual necropolis, now called Tillya Tepe 5th century BCE, nomad human and horse defeat of the Achaemenid ruler, Darius, and (Hill of Gold). Discovered by the Russian jewellery increasingly utilized Greek themes his campaigns to incorporate the most distant archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi in 1978, seven and styles – realistic images of nomad life, satrapies of Persia, including the oasis cities royal graves were excavated before the lions instead of leopards and snow leopards, of Central Asia, Bactria (Afghanistan) and Afghan wars closed down the site. During images of Heracles and Aphrodite, Heracles Gandhara (Northern India/Pakistan). In the war, the more than 20,000 gold objects knots and Pegasus rhytons. Gold gorytus (bow these regions he settled soldiers from his found in the graves disappeared from Kabul cases) were decorated with complex bands armies, encouraging intermarriage, building museum, believed lost until 2003 but in fact of scenes including Greek male and female cities in the Greek style such as Termez and hidden by the curators. Six of the graves were figures, griffons, lions hunting and acanthus Ai Khanoum, and empowering his generals of women, one of a man. and grape motifs. Initially it was thought as local rulers. that Greek craftspeople made the spectacular The women were buried wearing the shalwar gold bow cases, bowls and jewellery, but After his death, Alexander’s empire broke kameez, the tunic over trousers still worn today it is generally accepted that the nomads apart, and eventually much of Persia proper in Afghanistan and the Punjab, heavily themselves were the originators. fell to the nomadic Parthians, splitting¯ the decorated with gold plaques. The man wore Greek-ruled kingdom of Bactria from the standard nomad dress, similar to that shown This new realism slowly travelled across Romano-Hellenic world. From the 3rd on Ukrainian metalwork, heelless boots, Central Asia as luxury goods were exchanged century BCE to the early 1st century CE, Greek baggy trousers and a short, belted kaftan over between tribes, though the further it moved kingdoms continued to exist in Central Asia, a shirt. His boots were decorated with buckles from its point of origin on the Black Sea, the but even after the last kingdom collapsed, of gold inset with a circle of turquoise leaves

8 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 Lionness Necklace with Pendant Horses, Mongolia, late 19th/early 20th century. Silver.

Collection and photo: Heleanor Feltham

the sculpture and jewellery of China and Japan, Cambodia and Indonesia alike.

But the jewellery forms of Tillya Tepe and other early nomad cultures would also continue; the lions, contorted horses, fish and deer, for instance, can be found as themes in Mongolian and minority Chinese jewellery and amulets well into the 20th century. In Central Asia, among both nomad and oasis cultures, men, women and horses alike were splendidly decorated: with headdresses, necklaces, gold and silver-set straps and sword belts, elaborately decorative weapons, earrings and rings whose forms, in many cases, echo the traditional jewellery of the early nomad cultures of the steppes. Greek style, nomad lifestyle, mutatis mutandi, still continues to enchant and inspire, and among today’s high fashion jewellers, the traditional gem-set lion- headed torque can be found in the work of the Greek goldsmith, Ilias Lalaounis.

Heleanor Feltham has a PhD from UTS (International Studies) and specialises in Central Asian material culture. She was a founding member of TAASA and the first Editor of the TAASA Review. surrounding a Chinese-style chariot, with a crown, and has a Buddha-like face with slanted square base and a circular canopy, drawn by eyes and a dot on his forehead. His costume is REFERENCES a pair of dragons and holding an elegantly a standard nomad short kaftan over a longer Anthony, David W., 2007. The Horse, the Wheel and Language: robed official. The buried man’s weaponry robe and he wears torque, armbands and belt. How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the also reflect Chinese influences, but his belt of His horned and winged dragons curve in an Modern World, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. braided gold chain with nine large medallions ‘s’ and their hindquarters feature eagle heads Beckwith, Christopher L., 2009. Empires of the Silk Road, Princeton features a figure which could be interpreted and horses hoofs in traditional nomad style. University Press, New Jersey. as either Dionysus or the Sogdian goddess Below the figures, and held by plaited gold Creekmore, Hubert (ed), 1959. Lyrics of the Middle Ages, Grove Press, New York. Nana seated on a panther. Since his headdress chains, are gold discs and stylised flowers; includes a very Persian gold ram and a tree the whole is set with turquoise, garnet, lapis, Hiebert, Frederik and Cambon, Pierre (eds.) 2008. Afghanistan, Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul. National of life, his weapons feature animal combat, carnelian and pearl. The form, minus the Geographic, Washington DC. bears and dragons along with Greek acanthus human figure, reappears in a remarkably The Hermitage Museum virtual exhibition, Scythian Gold. Available leaf motifs, and his clothing is sewn with similar piece from late 19th century Khiva. at www.hermitagemuseum.org.

Indian-style medallions, he is decoratively Kunst und Ausstellungshalle Bonn, 2009. Gandhara, the Buddhist multicultural, reflecting a history of tribal The ‘boy on a dolphin’ belt buckles are found Legacy of Pakistan, Exhibition Catalogue, Verlag Philipp von migration, cultural contacts, conquests and in two of the tombs, one pair features winged Zabern, Bonn. integration. cupids, the other rather more human riders. Reeder. Ellen D. (ed.), 1999. Scythian Gold: Treasures from Ancient Given the distance from any actual dolphin, Ukraine, Harry N Abrams, Inc., New York, New York. The jewellery, accessories and weapons in all their forms are remarkably true to Greek type, the graves exhibit an extraordinary range of though transmuted through a nomad vision influences. Siberian bears, Chinese dragons into somewhat squat and scaly giant fish. and Persian rams and lions vie with classical cameos, acanthus leaf designs and images The seven Tillya Tepe tombs reveal a world of of Dionysus and Aphrodite. One figure power and prestige where jewellery, portable alone, a plump golden Aphrodite, curves in wealth, was used lavishly as an indicator of a sensuous Greek style, has the wings of a status. They also reflect a complex history of Persian deity, and an Indian bindi between nomad migration and contacts; a world in her eyebrows. which exchange of goods, strengthened by Greek incursions into Central Asia, brought To me the two most revealing pieces are Greek mythology and symbolism into wider the pair of pendants showing the ‘dragon cultural context, creating new decorative art master’ and the double belt buckles of a boy forms. At the ‘high art’ end, the Kushan on a dolphin. The ‘dragon master’ strongly Empire would develop the seminal Buddhist resembles early Greek images of the ‘mistress sculptural style of Gandhara, and bedeck of animals’ goddess, standing between two bodhisattvas with arm-bands, torques, mythological beasts. The ‘master’ wears a necklaces and crowns. In turn, this influenced

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 9 GIFTS OF THE GODS: JEWELLERY TRADITIONS FROM BOROBUDUR, THE BAYON AND BALI

Wendy Parker Children and adolescent girls at Tenganan, Bali, 2009 wearing heirloom gerinseng

cloths and golden jewellery. Photo: Dr Robert Parker 2009

he small girl adorned from top to toe T with heirloom riches raises her hand in a movement matching the resonance of the ancient music. The gesture recalls an age-old grace, seen before and re-imagined. The child, and her companions from Tenganan village in Bali, sit above the level of the crowd as ancestral embodiments, swathed in cloths of antique and sacred pattern, their bodies embellished with protective golden circlets on wrist and neck, and crowned with golden flowers. With each inflection their heads tremble with floral jewels to the music.

The living rituals of contemporary Bali form a chain linked through golden flowers - lush, shining and incorruptible - to the ancient Hindu and Buddhist traditions of Early Classical , and of 12th century Khmer at Angkor. In each incarnation, flowers of gold, mostly depicting the lotus, are wrought to adorn buildings, analogous to the creation of the world. Smiths embellishment for the living body and a statuary and the human body. are a caste apart from others and are revered, reading of the adorned building as corporal and sometimes feared, by their communities. in the landscape. Surviving jewels, with their Golden jewellery in Southeast Asia is archetypes in stone, provide a palimpsest of preserved as both artefact (in museums and The origins of forms - floral and foliate, bird, images over time. collections), and as a living tradition. These are animal and demon - and their placement on linked through the use of precious material, the body are derived from Indian models. The Vickery (2007: 12) reminds us that: “Ever since their associated metal working technologies gold-smithing techniques of lost-wax casting, Europeans first saw the temples of Southeast and their decorative motifs and forms. The repoussé, chasing, engraving, filigree and Asia - Cambodia, Champa, Java, etc., it has jewellery is clearly depicted on the architecture granulation are all mastered. These techniques been a commonplace that they were examples and sculpture of the region, particularly the were transmitted at various times through of Indianized, even Hinduized, cultures.” temple friezes of Indonesia and Cambodia. trade as well as diplomatic and religious The amalgam of Indianised and indigenous Similar ornaments are depicted as objects that contacts. To some authors, “… the technical expressions in Southeast Asian art is the subject are worn on bodies of stone, bronze and living bravura and aesthetic confidence of Southeast of scholarly discussion. The jeweled ornaments flesh. Through these representations, insights Asian ornaments greatly surpassed that of the worn by contemporary Balinese and born on into personal adornment, ornamentation, dress original sources.” (Richter, 2000: 7) carved stone panels from Borobudur in Java, codes and cultural context are connected over and the Bayon in Cambodia, are derived from distance and time. Theories of cultural diffusion, as represented ancient Indian prototypes, which have been through jewellery found on both the body and adapted by indigenous influences. The golden, elemental substance used for these on buildings are fascinating, but speculative jewels occurs as alluvial nuggets or grains in in most cases. Do common characteristics The emergence of Indianised states in mainland rock. Gold-working in Indonesia, particularly emanate from a shared web of ancient ideals, Southeast Asia dates to the 1st century CE Sumatra, has a history of at least two thousand forms and technologies? settlement of the plains of the Mekong Delta years. In its pure state, gold is dense, soft and of southern Vietnam, and the establishment malleable. By alloying it with minute amounts In Southeast Asia, Mahayana Buddhism and of Funan and all its principalities covering of other metals it can be hardened and made Hinduism have historically found similar much of mainland Southeast Asia. more serviceable for use. expression for their religious, political and artistic goals. These imperatives were Funan’s founder was reputed to be an Indian In Hindu cosmology: “…the triple peaks of dispersed through coastal mainland Southeast Brahman, Kaundinya, who brought with him Mount Meru, the abode of the gods and centre Asia and onto the islands of Java and Sumatra. Indian religious and political institutions and of the world are made of gold, silver and tin. In these areas, reciprocal vocabulary for surrounded himself with bejewelled young Gold symbolizes superior moral and spiritual adorning the body and the building, survive women. status and the majesty of Hindu kingship” as a witness to a shared visual language (Richter, 1993: 25). This belief invests these and jewellery typology. For each cultural “His high pointed crown was adorned materials with supernatural significance. group, there is a similarity in terms of form, with golden flowers and set with precious Forging metals, transforming them from ore the use of gold and techniques employed. stones. He wore a golden belt, and golden and earth by passing them through fire is We can interpret an unbroken tradition of cords and necklaces. Great gold rings were

10 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 Stone sculpture, Borobudur, Java. 780-850 CE. Royal couple wearing golden

jewellery in the Indian style. Photo: Dr Robert Parker, 2008

suspended from his ears. In his hand he held a golden sword. Court dignitaries who prostrated themselves before him were similarly attired, but were not permitted to wear jewels of pure or solid gold.” (Richter, 2000: 19)

The gradual Indianisation of Java began in the 3rd century CE with temple builders in Java seeking elevated ground, and in turn transforming the landscape by constructing monuments mirroring mountain silhouettes. In a brief period between 700-900 CE, both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs were expressed through extensive building projects. The Hindu temple of Prambanan was built in 800-850 CE and the Buddhist monument and mandala of Borobudur was constructed over a period from 780-850 CE.

The royal family of the Sailendras, “Lords of the Mountain”, erected the Buddhist monument of Borobudur, as a holy man-made peak of impressive scale and astonishing sculptural detail, to engage both the mind and spirit. At Borobudur they built:

“… a series of concentric terraces of from Prambanan, provides further evidence angels, devatas and apsaras, are seen wearing decreasing size that rise like steps to the of exchange between the different cultural elaborate and highly detailed jewellery in a central peak.…The basic simplicity of form areas in Asia.” (Girard-Geslan, 1999: 16). synthesis of Indian and indigenous styles. is counterbalanced by the extraordinarily As Richter writes: “…this temple must rich and complex decoration. Most striking It was during this period of great temple surely rank among the most elaborate and of all perhaps, are the beautiful bas-reliefs, building on Java, that Jayavarman II spectacular hymns of praise to the beauty in all some 1460 carved stone panels…Set founded the great Khmer empire (802 CE), of the ornamented female body.” (Richter around the monument are 504 life sized which culminated in the glory of Angkor. 2000: 52). In the 1927 publication “Khmer stone Buddha statues.” (Miksic 1990: 39) Jayavarman II was thought to have been Costumes and Ornaments”, Sappho Marchal Javanese or Sumatran in origin or education, catalogues over 1700 individual headdresses To view all the gallery of reliefs in sequence, and the establishment of his rule coincided on the apsaras carved on the lower areas of the the pilgrim visitor must walk around the with the building of Borobudur. His regime, temple. (Marchal 1927: 2) terraces of Borobudur ten times, providing a supported by wet rice farming, enabled the transformative passage through the ten stages construction of pyramidal temple structures Marchal (1927) makes reference to the application of Buddhist development. Each statue, stupa and the formation of Indianised courts. As of gold to the building of Angkor Wat: and panel of stone tells a Buddhist tale. described by Richter (2000: 50): “The fusion of the inner nature of the king with the “These devatas, or at least all those found In the Indian tradition there was a copious Hindu deity Shiva, Lord of the Mountain, and in the sanctuary, must have been gilded or approach to bodily adornment with with the identity of the Buddhist chakravartin perhaps painted (gold or traces of red still representations of men and woman, human (turner of the wheel: the universal monarch) remain in the grooves on some of them); and divine, embellished from the top of their contributed to the elaboration of Khmer art this must have given a very different heads to their toes with significant jewels. The and politics”. appearance from the way they look now” repertoire of jewellery forms from Borobudur (Marchal 1927: 3) includes complex belts, necklaces, armbands, The Khmer temple structures have strong elaborate crowns, and jewelled chains and synergies with those of Java in the building The jewellery, as drawn by Marchal, is rings. Photographer Marcello Tranchini in his of pyramidal mountain monuments and in voluptuous almost verdant in its use of foliate introduction to “Borobudur Golden Tales of the their sculptural embellishments. According to forms. Lotus motifs are presented on buckles, Buddhas” describes Borobudur’s reliefs “…like Richter (2000: 50): “The similarities between bracelets, upper armbands, plaques, anklets a great collar of precious jewels set all around Khmer and Javanese architecture and and clasps on chains and in broad collars, the walls of the monument.” (Miksic 1990: 12) ideology are clear”. belts and ear ornaments, cast or wrought into detailed objects. Marchal describes the use of The archetypes represented on the panels From the 10th century, sculptural the flower: are reiterated by new finds of surviving representation of jewellery became more jewellery at Wonoboyo: “The discovery of lavish and abundant, culminating in the relief “ It is the lotus flower, complete or in part, the treasure (dating back to the late 9th or panels of Angkor Wat (1100-1175 CE). The that one encounters infinitely repeated early 10th century) at Wonoboyo not far bas-relief stone carvings depicting heavenly everywhere, from the architecture -

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 11 The Bayon, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap, Cambodia, 12th century. Photo: Dr Robert Parker, 2008

mouldings, the crowns of towers, and so forms that move sinuously on the body. In it is malleable and easily fashioned and has a on - down to the elements of the costume, all these jewels, the motifs are drawn from a tradition that is aligned with the beginning of of the ornaments, and in the hands of the repertoire of curling foliate forms, naga and civilisation. devatas. It is that which they hold most makara forms associated with aquatic fertility frequently” (Marchal 1927: 8) and regeneration. Equivalents of these jewels Today in Bali the use of ritually prescribed and motifs are commonly seen in the jewellery gold jewellery worn for ceremony persists. In The lotus-mountain pendant, detailed in the of Early Classical Java. Tenganan, Bali, the villagers are known for relief carvings of Angkor Wat, is exclusive to their double ikat gerinseng cloth. In north Bali, Khmer art. The details on the sculpture of the Bayon the closed and traditional smiths’ village of depict the world of golden ornaments that Tejukala specialises in metalwork. In this Bali The later 12th century Bayon was built by stretch from Ancient Classical Java through to Aga (original Balinese) village, the smiths can Jayarvarman VII as his central temple. Its contemporary Bali. Gold objects have always be observed at work on golden ornaments: religious orientation was Buddhist and its been seen as royal and divine, and the social using age-old materials, forms and techniques towers were sheathed with gold. The Chinese elite has adorned their bodies, their sacred to produce golden flowered jewels with the envoy Chou Ta-Kuan, writing in 1296, describes images, and their buildings with gold. The ambrosia of immortality. Angkor, the capital of the Khmer empire: elite presented gold objects as marks of esteem and these jewels in turn were often transferred Wendy Parker is a lecturer at the University of NSW, “At the (magical) centre of the Kingdom to sacred images. The relief panels and statues working as Coordinator of Postgraduate Research rises a Golden Tower (The Bayon) flanked of stone and bronze have detailed jewellery and of Jewellery and Object in the School of Design by more than twenty lesser towers and worked onto their surfaces. Until recent times Studies at the College of Fine Arts. She was a several hundred stone chambers. On the these records of sculpted jewellery have founding member of TAASA. east side is a golden bridge; two gold provided a more complete representation lions are placed to the left and right of the than could be gained from surviving items REFERENCES bridge. Eight gold Buddhas are arranged of jewellery. The recent discovery of jewellery Bunker, E & Latchford, D. 2008: Khmer Gold Gifts for the Gods. at the base of the towers.” (Chou Ta-Kuan hoards in Java and Cambodia has confirmed Douglas AJ Latchford and Arts Media Resources, Chicago. 1296 in d’Arcy Paul 1992: 2) the veracity of these sculptured versions. Chou Ta-Kuan translated by d’ Arcy Paul. 1992 (2nd Ed): The Customs of Cambodia. The Siam Society, Bangkok. The detailed sculpture from the Bayon The observed common characteristics Girard-Geslan, M. 1999: Indonesian Gold Treasures from the monument maps an extravagant use emanating from a shared web of ancient ideals, National Museum, . Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane. of jewellery repeating many of the types forms and technologies have given form to Marchal, S. translated by Hansen, M. 2005: Khmer Costumes and Ornaments of the Devatas of Angkor Wat, Orchid Press, Bangkok illustrated on the relief panels of Borobudur. great architecture and art. The compression The ornaments of the apsaras found there are of these intentions into a miniature scale can Miksic, J. 1990: Borubudur Golden Tales of the Buddhas, Periplus Editions, lavish. In addition to the more conventional be read through surviving pieces of gold Richter, A. 2000: The Jewelry of Southeast Asia, Thames & Hudson ornaments, they are adorned with chains jewellery, used as eternal emblems. Ltd, London. across the torso more commonly reserved for Richter, A. 1993: Arts and Crafts of Indonesia, Thames & Hudson male figures. Cambodian goldsmiths excelled Gold is the supreme material equated with Ltd, London. in chain making. Some elaborate garland the gods and thereby with royalty. In the Vickery, M. 2007: Inroduction in Clark, J. (Ed) 2007: Bayon: New necklaces, which are three-dimensional three cultural traditions selected in this talk, Perspectives, River Books, Bangkok golden facsimile of jasmine flower garlands, this is a consistent value. Gold is an element, are forged and soldered into complex linked pure and incorruptible. As a working material

12 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 INDIA’S INSATIABLE PASSION FOR JEWELLERY

Anne Schofield

Traditional ‘dowry’ necklace with 26 pendants in a shape symbolising fertility and the life force, India (Uttar Pradesh),

19th century. Gold. Collection: Anne Schofield Antiques. Photo: Richard Gates

hen I first went to India in the late 1970s, W I was astounded to see Indian women working on the roads, carrying baskets of huge rocks on their heads, wrapped in brilliantly coloured saris and wearing many gold bangles and necklaces. I soon realised that even the poorest Indian woman wears gold or silver jewellery. Gold, of course, is particularly treasured: worn by men, women and children, it symbolises not only wealth, but also energy, brilliance and truth. Hindus believe the goddess Lakshmi presides over jewels and precious metals in the womb of the earth.

Ancient texts describe the importance of gold jewellery in Indian everyday life. In the famous gambling scene between the Pandavas and the Kauravas from the Sanscrit epic Mahabharata (which dates back to the 5th century BCE), the first thing Yuddhisthira loses is a pearl, then many more ornaments and gems, and finally his kingdom and his wife!

The gold and gemstones of India have also been prized in the West from ancient times. As early as the 6th century BCE, Greek traders were sourcing Indian gemstones via the Persian court, and in the 1st century BCE the Roman Emperor Augustus initiated direct trade with India. India exchanged pearls, ivory, silk, diamonds and sapphires for gold to the need to live a healthy trouble-free life symbol of fertility; a pendant in the form of a and emeralds from Egypt, lapis lazuli from – to a belief in amulets, to a faith in symbols banyan tree leaf, symbol of longevity, good Afghanistan, turquoise from Central Asia and drawn from nature, and constant efforts to health and prosperity; a circular pendant with corals from the Mediterranean. A text from deflect the evil eye. stylised breast design; a necklace strung with c.60 BCE, called Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, gold coins, symbol of wealth; or a more simple written by an unnamed Greek merchant, gives The traditional jewellery of India is not merely thread thali necklace and pendant. Different a detailed account of trade with India: Egypt decorative but is imbued with religious and forms are used by particular religious sects or and Arabia sent Roman gold coins, topaz symbolic meaning. According to historian castes to indicate the wearer’s affiliation. and coral to India and India exported pearls, Usha Krishnan: ‘It expresses the essence of ivory, silk diamonds, sapphires, beryls, lapis Indian spirituality and emits metaphorical In India as in many other cultures, jewellery is and hardstones (Krishnan 2001: 24). signals in a code that is immediately worn as an amulet – to deflect danger, protect comprehensible to the initiated’ (Krishnan from evil and attract good. Design motifs are For the purpose of this discussion, I will 2001: 230). drawn from the planetary system and the classify Indian jewellery into two broad areas: natural world, flora (the jasmine bud, seeds the traditional gold ornaments of ancient At the marriage ceremony, jewellery is given to and flowers) and fauna. The snake is a potent stylistic and symbolic origin, often still in the bride as her personal property, to be used fertility symbol, the lion denotes strength, use today; and the famous jewellery of the in times of need. This elaborate ceremony, the and the peacock beauty. The crescent moon Mughal Empire (at its height from the 16th vivaha, is the principal sacrament for an Indian is auspicious for both Hindus and Muslims. to 18th centuries), among the most stunning woman. It begins with tying coloured threads For Hindus it is the emblem of the Mother examples of jewelled ornament the world has around the wrists of the bride and groom, Goddess, Shakti, who signifies female power; ever produced. and ends with the placing of toe-rings on the for Muslims it symbolises the Islamic faith. feet of the bride. The many items of bride Traditional Indian Jewellery jewellery might include the mangalasutra, Many earrings are in circular form, The use, form, design and location of the auspicious marriage necklace hung with symbolising the sun and denoting knowledge traditional Indian jewellery is directly related gold amulets; a jasmine bud fringe necklace, and the life force. The ear may be pierced at

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 13 Marriage necklace with rectangular pendant symbolising

the family unit, India (Rajasthan), 19th century. Gold.

Private collection. Photo: Richard Gates any position, but often the particular place enamels – a hybrid of Hindu and Iranian is determined by the religious and social designs. The art of enamelling came to India customs of a particular community. A special via Goa from the West: from Spain, Italy and diagram published in connection with the Portugal. Diamonds came from the famous Census of India 1961 (Madras) showed an Golconda mines in South India, rubies and elaborate ear ornament developed by the spinels were imported from Burma, goldsmiths of Tamil Nadu (illus. Oprecht and Sri Lanka, emeralds from South America, 1997:18). turquoise from Iran, jade from Central Asia and Burma and pearls from the Arabian and Astrology also plays an important part in Iranian Gulfs. Indian belief systems. Navaratna (‘nine gems’) is a system of gem organisation and a metaphor Mughal jewellery is not always of solid gold. It for the universe. Traditional jewellery pieces usually has a base of natural resin into which (rings, pendants, bangles and even necklaces) shapes are cut and the stones inset; the base is are therefore often set with nine gemstones then covered with a layer of gold to secure the which stand for the nine planets of Hindu stone (known as the kundan technique) and astrology, and are usually set out as: ruby decorated with brightly coloured enamels. (Sun), pearl (Moon), coral (Mars), diamond (Venus), blue sapphire (Saturn), emerald After the fall of the Mughal emperors in 1858, (Mercury), topaz or yellow sapphire (Jupiter), the traditions of their jewellery-making passed garnet (Rahu or north node of the Moon) and on into Indian princely families and continued cat’s eye (Ketu or south node of the moon). into the 20th century. Jaipur, Benares and (The last-named are of course not ‘planets’ in Lucknow are today the most important centres modern astrology.) The combination of the for Mughal-style jewellery production. nine gems is considered highly auspicious for the wearer, and also protects against danger The Nizam of Hyderabad, believed to be the and disease. richest man in the world in 1937, possessed a fortune estimated at 100 million pounds Mughal Jewellery in gold and 400 million pounds in jewellery. In the Persian literature of Iran and Hindustan Before Partition, in 1947, the collection was said are many references to magnificent jewelled to be so large that the pearls alone could have jewellery imbued with social and religious regalia - vessels, sword-belts and weapons as covered the pavements of Piccadilly Circus. meanings, handed down through family and well as items of personal adornment - given The collection included (and still includes) the tribal groups; the other continuing the traditions by the Mughal emperors (Akbar in the 16th 184.5 carat Jacob Diamond, which the Nizam inherited from the Mughal Emperors. Both century, Shah Jahan and Jahangir in the 17th found in his father’s slippers and used as a forms continue to generate enormous interest century) as status symbols or rewards for paperweight. Following the Nizam’s death throughout the world - the more affordable military prowess. in 1967, much of his wealth was used to traditional gold jewellery because of its very pay off debts or squandered on maintaining fine workmanship and exotic design motifs, A painting of Shah Jahan in 1631 by Bichatr, his palaces and the lavish lifestyle of his and the more costly Mughal-style jewellery for in the V&A Museum, London, shows him many descendants. In 1972, the remaining its brilliantly coloured gemstones and exquisite wearing regalia consisting of three necklaces jewellery collection was sold to the Indian enamel decoration. of pearls, all strung with large emeralds and government (for about 40 million pounds, rubies and one with an emerald pendant, with the proceeds divided between about 300 Anne Schofield is a member of the International a gem-set bracelet on each wrist and rings descendants) and sequestered in the vaults Society of Jewellery Historians and an Honorary on his fingers. His turban is adorned with a of the Bank of India. Following two more Associate and Life Fellow of the Museum of Applied pendant of pearls and rubies and a gem-set decades of legal argument, the 173 pieces Arts and Sciences, Sydney. She co-authored (with brooch holds an elaborate aigrette of feathers were finally put on public display for the first Kevin Fahy) the first comprehensive reference book in place. His dagger and belt are also studded time in New Delhi in 2001. Now, however, on Australian jewellery, Australian Jewellery 19th & with jewels (Jewellery Studies Vol. 10 2004:27). the Andhra Pradesh state government has Early 20th Century (1990). proposed that the collection be housed in a All the Mughal emperors encouraged the arts: special museum in Banjara Hills, Hyderabad, REFERENCES artists and craftsmen were part of the court where it is hoped it will become a major Keene M., with Kaoukji S. 2001: Treasury of the World: Jewelled and all jewellery transactions were recorded attraction for artisans, businesspeople, tourists Arts of India in the Age of the Mughals (The Al-Sabah Collection). and documented. Inspired by Islamic folklore, and the general public. Thames & Hudson, London, with the Kuwait National Museum. where the peacock was the guardian of the Krishnan, U.R.B. and Kumar M.S. 2001: Dance of the Peacock: Gates of Paradise, Shah Jahan designed his As anyone who has visited India - or even Jewellery Traditions of India. India Book House, Mumbai. own throne as a Peacock Throne, a lavish seen Indian movies like Monsoon Wedding - Jewellery Studies Vol.10 2004. Society of Jewellery Historians, London. jewelled sculpture, using 1150 kilos of gold and is aware, Indian men and women love their hundreds of layers of gemstones – diamonds, jewellery with a passion, whether they come Prior, K. and Adamson, J. 2000: Maharajah’s Jewels. Editions Assouline, Paris. rubies, sapphires, emeralds and pearls. from a wealthy, educated background or the Untracht, Oppi 1997: Traditional Jewellery of India. Abrams Press, poorest peasant family. The two forms of Indian New York. Mughal jewellery is set with precious stones jewellery have remained consistent over the and the reverse is often decorated with centuries: one, traditional silver or gold dowry

14 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 HALCYON DAYS: KINGFISHER FEATHER JEWELLERY & ORNAMENTS OF CHINA

Sheena Burnell

A buyao hair ornament incorporating an ear pick, China, late Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Kingfisher feathers

and a cabochon coral bead set in copper and brass. Collection of Dr Sheena Burnell. PhotO: Jenni Carter

“The halcyon kingfisher nests in the South Sea realm Cock and hen in groves of jewelled trees How could they know that the thoughts of lovely women Covet them as highly as gold?”

Ch’en Tzu-ang (661-702) Translation by Paul W. Kroll (Jackson 2001: 1)

ince the beginning of civilization humans S have sought to adorn themselves, and the Chinese were no exception. Inspired by the beauty and variety of the birds and animals around them, they sought from the very earliest times to emulate these seemingly perfect creatures, first by adorning themselves with their pelts and plumes and then, with increasing sophistication, by using these to not more, than gold. Excavations of Tang form whose artistic culmination was reached embellish their clothes and accessories. By dynasty tombs have revealed tiny kingfisher in the Qing dynasty when the Manchus took the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), highly-stylised jewellery pieces, probably used more in the control of imperial power. forms had evolved, supporting the existing manner of gems or decorative items. There social and political hierarchy and based on a are descriptions of a dying king from the Han Although they sought to enforce Manchu perception of the intrinsic characteristics of dynasty (206BCE- 220CE) detailing his private customs and language at the court from these creatures. This is famously epitomised by chamber in which there were “kingfisher the beginning of their reign in 1644, by the the bird and animal rank badges of that era. hangings on jasper hooks” and “bedspreads time of the Qianlong Emperor (r.1736-95) the of kingfisher all seeded with pearls” (Hartman ruling Manchus were increasingly concerned Drawn by their iridescent beauty, many 1980: 76). From the manner of their description, that, not only were the ethnic Han Chinese cultures have used feathers in particular as these were apparently not unusual objects for continuing to use their own style of dress, adornment or accessory. The earliest humans, the time. they were also influencing Manchu style. In including the Chinese, initially sought to 1759, the “Illustrated Precedents for the Ritual decorate themselves using entire feathers. We Beverley Jackson in her extensive book on Paraphernalia of the Court” (Huangchao liqi are all familiar with pictures of peoples, such as the use of kingfisher feathers recounts a tushi) was published, ostensibly in an effort Papua New Guinean tribes, who continue to do marvellous episode where the indefatigable to unify the country but in reality to control so, right up to modern times. Only the Chinese Oswald Sitwell is musing upon the glory that and impose their rule upon the Han (Garrett however evolved beyond this to incorporate was Angkor Wat. He concludes, somewhat 1997:10) beautiful feathers, whose colour and sheen they amazed, that such glories in a country with so admired, into something far more wearable, as few resources as ancient Cambodia must Under this system, clothing was divided into sophisticated and elegant (Hartman 1980: 80). have been provided by one thing only – the official and non-official wear, seasonal wear, enormous trade in kingfisher feathers for the styles, and colours, all based on rank. As Unsurprisingly perhaps, headgear and insatiable Chinese market (Jackson 2001: 5). women held no official role in the court, their hairstyles evolved in the most spectacular This rather startling observation provides rank was determined by their husband’s. Their manner, and the crests and head plumes some insight into the ubiquity and popularity dress, hairstyles and even hair ornaments of the birds the Chinese encountered of these exquisite objects, and certainly no became very formalised. Combined with provided inspiration over the centuries for museum collection of Chinese dress is without their immense wealth and leisure time, this an astonishing variety of hats, crowns, tiaras, at least one or two examples of this art. ensured that the art of dressing the hair hairstyles and of course, hair ornaments. and ornamenting the subsequent confection Indeed kingfisher feathers were employed reached new heights – literally in the case The most highly-prized of all were the flashing with dazzling effect in a large variety of items of Manchu women, who sought to develop iridescent turquoise and blue feathers of the for personal adornment including not only increasingly towering styles. Combined with little halcyon, or kingfisher bird, at that stage hair ornaments but crowns, wedding head- her extra physical height, floor-length robes plentiful in China as well as most of Asia. dresses, bracelets, nail guards, brooches, and 4-6” platform shoes, the Manchu court As can be deduced from Ch’en Tzu-ang’s earrings, pendants and occasionally even female was an imposing figure, and made poem, the use of kingfisher feathers appears larger objets d’art such as screens and tableaux. the shorter-statured, bound-footed Han well-established by the Tang (618-906CE) They were at their most spectacular when used Chinese woman look girlish and doll-like by and were clearly highly valued as much, if to decorate women’s hair ornaments, an art comparison (Johnson 2001: 61).

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 15 An elaborate chai hair pin, China, late Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Coral beads, carved coral and natural coral pieces,

small jade pieces, segments of kingfisher inlay and silk floss. Collection of Dr Sheena Burnell. Photo: Jenni Carter

hold the hair in place, as with the very large hair slide known as bianfang, which essentially supported the two side buns and was often decorated on one side with a large hanging tassel that swung as the wearer walked. Smaller pins and ornaments could be displayed entirely for their beauty and workmanship. The variety of materials used along with kingfisher feathers included gold or silver (depending on wealth and rank), pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, notably unfaceted rubies and sapphires, tourmalines and carnelians, the highly-valued Peking glass, coral, jade or jadeite, mother of pearl, and sometimes in the case of dangling hair ornaments (liusu) brass figures such as fish.

The ornaments themselves came in a huge variety of shapes including birds, animals, insects, flowers and other plant life including fruit and gourds, children or small figures, auspicious symbols including the shou “long life” and shuangxi “double happiness” symbols, shapes such as the Eight Precious Objects and even in the case of larger crowns and tiaras, small still life scenes depicting court life or famous scenes. The most popular themes were butterflies, bats, dragonflies, grasshoppers, fish and gourds (Garrett 1997: 19-35, Hartman 1980: 76-80, Jackson 2001: 97)

Apart from their intrinsic charm and beauty, these motifs held another type of significance. The is rich with homophones, words that sound like one another but have different meanings, with the result that saying one thing can evoke something entirely different, sometimes humorous or, for the superstitious Chinese, auspicious. Well-known examples of this include “happiness” (fu) and “bat” (bianfu), “prosperity” (yu) and “fish” (yu), or interesting Naturally in this era, no woman of rank the case of Manchu women however it was a combinations such as “butterfly” and “gourd” or wealth, Manchu or Han, did her own much more complex process and the gelled (guadie mianmian) creating a rebus meaning hair. In the case of the Manchu woman, and combed hair was then wound around “offspring for eternity”. Other motifs had if a hat was not being worn for an official elaborate frames made of horsehair. According their own inherent meanings, such as peaches occasion, the preparations for her coiffure to the dictates of her rank, a number of different and pomegranates (fertility), paired ducks could take some hours, especially with the types of styling followed, the best known of (marital happiness) cranes (immortality) and higher ranking princesses and empresses of which is the liangpa tou “two handle ends” lingzhi mushrooms (longevity). the court (Princess Der Ling 1911: 67). seen in many portraits of the day including that of the Empress Dowager Cixi, the power This resulted in a strong visual vocabulary, In order to keep the elaborate structure in behind the throne from 1861 to 1908. Against almost a type of ‘visual shorthand’, so that place, a gel-like substance was used called pao this towering backdrop (further augmented the use of certain animals, insects or symbols bua, derived from soaking fine wood-shavings in the late Qing by a similar structure made would result in a piece that was not only from a special tree in hot water until a sticky of black satin), numerous beautiful objects admired for its exquisite workmanship, but jelly was obtained. This was then combed such as sheng (combs), zan (hair slides), chai also held great meaning for the wearer and through the hair and then styled. In the case (hair pins) and buyao (hair ornaments) could all those around her and usually connoted her of Han women, unless their husband was an be displayed, along with fresh and artificial wish for a happy and fulfilled life, preferably official at the imperial court, this style would flowers, pompoms and tassels (Garrett 1997: with many sons (Hartman 1980: 76-80). have been in the fashion of the day, often a 76, Hartman 1980: 90, Jackson 2001: 61-63). simple coil or two braids at the nape of the The choice of background metal was again neck. Very few ornaments were used, often The hair ornaments themselves could be stipulated by formal decree, and gold was just fresh flowers or a couple of small pins. In functional or decorative. They could serve to generally only permitted for ornaments for

16 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 A pair of finely-worked filigree hair ornaments (chai), China, late Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

Kingfisher feathers set in brass on a brass post. Collection of Dr Sheena Burnell. Photo: Jenni Carter

extraordinary art form still survive today is a tribute to both the skill of the artisans and the timeless beauty of the pieces themselves.

Dr Sheena Burnell, an anaesthetist who currently lives in Shanghai, has been collecting Chinese dress accessories since the early 1990’s.

REFERENCES

Der Ling, Princess. 1911: Two Years in the Forbidden City, Moffat, Yard and Company, New York.

Dickinson, Gary and Wrigglesworth, Linda. 1990: Imperial Wardrobe, OUP, Hong Kong.

Garrett, Valery. 1994: Chinese Clothing: An Illustrated Guide, OUP, Hong Kong.

Garrett, Valery. 1997: A Collector’s Guide to Chinese Dress Accessories, Times Editions, Singapore.

Hartman, Ronald. 1980: Kingfisher Feather Jewellery, Arts of Asia, May-June.

Jackson Beverley. 2001: Kingfisher Blue: Treasures of an Ancient Chinese Art, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley. the ladies of the imperial court or the very The feathers themselves also appear to have Wilson, Verity. 1986: Chinese Dress, Victoria and Albert Museum, wealthy. Whatever the metal, it was wrought been used in a couple of different ways to London. into an astonishing variety of shapes, often create the jewellery. One technique, by far the Yuan Hongqi. 2006: Qing Palace Head Ornaments Worn by the three-dimensional, and was frequently slowest and most painstaking and most likely Court Ladies, Arts of Asia, September-October. worked as filigree. Design elements such used for Court jewellery, involved individual as stems, branches and leaves were quite feather filaments laboriously attached side by frequently fashioned with a springy copper side until the piece was covered and a solid ball so that they trembled when the wearer lacquer-like effect was achieved. Alternately moved or walked, adding to the charm and and possibly as demand for these objects grew, beauty of the final picture (Jackson 2001: 85). larger sections of feather were attached. This may also have been used for larger pieces. While it is acknowledged that the art of working with kingfisher feathers is one of What is certain is that, with the inevitable China’s traditional handcrafts (Yuan 2006: intermingling of the ruling Manchus 97), the actual construction of the pieces has and Han Chinese women, demand grew been the subject of some conjecture. What is as every women in China wanted one of known is that thin sheets of gold or silver these covetable and fashionable items. In were formed into the desired shape, with the addition, the increasing influx of Western appropriate ridges in the design fashioned visitors combined with the aesthetic of the Art with a tiny hammer and a surrounding lip Nouveau movement in Europe made these then attached, much in the fashion of cloisonné pieces desirable beyond Chinese shores, and (Hartmann 1980: 76). The pieces of feather demand eventually outstripped supply, with were then painstakingly laid in place and the eventual hunting to extinction of the little affixed with adhesive or glue. The fixing kingfisher bird in China. method may have varied depending on the way the piece was constructed and involved Fashions then changed, and with the either covering the entire finished product advent of the sweeping social changes that with a glue-like substance (Jackson 2001: were to befall China, this art, like so many 53-54) or affixing each piece individually, as others, was lost. The last factory producing in a fascinating eye-witness account of the these items commercially closed in Canton time which described how individual feather in 1930 (Hartman 1980: 78), and although filaments were dredged through the glue reproduction items are still produced in China before being laid flat upon the metal surface and the Philippines today, they are generally (Jackson 2001: 50) inferior and do not use genuine kingfisher feathers but rather dyed feathers from other Whatever the method used, the glue had to birds (Jackson 2001: 53). be invisible, and not discolour the feathers at all. The exact composition of this glue is not What is so remarkable is that the appreciation precisely known, although it was most likely of, and delight in these beautiful little objects a combination of adhesives derived from both endures in both China and the West. Even in animal (hide) and plant (seaweed) sources such a changed world as ours, the fact that which would have been plentiful and readily we can still admire and desire these gems, available at the time. and the very fact that so many pieces of this

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 17 ALL THAT GLITTERS: A LOOK AT STRAITS CHINESE BEADWORK AND EMBROIDERY

Photograph of a Peranakan Chinese bride in an Hwei-Fe’n Cheah embroidered silk baju panjang lined with rabbit fur, songket sarong and metallic thread embroidered slippers.

Penang, c. 1920s. Collection of Ken Yap, Lumpur eeming with images of auspicious motifs, the decorative repertoire in needlework to T the beaded and embroidered accessories include parakeets, roses, and spaniels in the of the Peranakan (or localised) Chinese born in early 20th century coincided with a shift in the Straits Settlements - Penang, Melaka and Straits Chinese attitudes towards women and Singapore - added colour to the ceremonies the educational opportunities for girls. at which formal dress was worn. As festive celebrations were streamlined in the first Although there were exceptions, few Baba half of the 20th century, traditional dress was families provided their daughters with an modified and the elaborate accessories were education in the 19th century. Towards the simplified or discarded altogether. Beaded and turn of the century, a coterie of progressive embroidered collars, pouches, headdresses, Straits Chinese intellectuals began to agitate for and footwear became reminders of bygone social reform advocating, among other things, ways. In the context of the fashions of the day, the provision of basic education for girls. the changing styles of these accessories reveal These proposals did not meet with widespread Peranakan Chinese women’s dialogue with approval initially and one reform-minded modernity in the former Straits Settlements. Straits Chinese even blamed the resistance on parents’ fear that literate daughters would Peranakan Chinese families maintained take to writing love-letters and convert to Chinese beliefs and practices, including Christianity (Song 1897: 17). Even so, the ancestor worship and a calendar of Daoist number of girls enrolled in formal education and Buddhist religious events. Their visual climbed steadily throughout the early 20th vocabulary, too, was drawn primarily from century, prompting a contemporary observer conventional Chinese imagery, dominated to note (although perhaps in exaggeration) by motifs of phoenixes, qilin, peonies, deer, that “girls now obtain as equal an education Ostensibly designed to produce good wives butterflies and marine life, symbols of with the boys as their parents’ purses can and wise mothers, girls’ school curricula abundance and happiness. The expansion of afford” (Lee 1913). included reading, writing, arithmetic, domestic skills, and needlework. Even a few years of formal education would have expanded a Woman’s slippers. Raised silk thread girl’s horizons. Pupils at the Convent of the embroidery (satin stitch). Singapore, early Holy Infant Jesus in Singapore were expected 1940s. Collection of Yvonne Khoo, Singapore. to speak French in class and were punished Photo: Ming/Surround. otherwise (Josephine Wee, pers. comm., 2003). Turn of the century photographs of girls working at their embroidery at the Light Street Convent show them at their embroidery frames stitching baskets of flowers, imagery which recurred in Peranakan Chinese beadwork from the 1920s.

Needlework designs also mirrored changes in lifestyle. Christine Wu Ramsay, born into a Penang Straits Chinese family, describes her affluent grandparents’ afternoon indulgence, when they “would dress up in appropriate motoring ensemble, he in a three-piece suit and a smart beret, and she in Victorian [Edwardian] dress and the most elaborate hat …[and] pick up other female friends who were just as flamboyantly decked out” for a leisurely drive through the streets of early 20th century Ipoh, a town near Penang (Ramsay 2007: 37). Motoring, a luxury and a mark of sophistication, was translated into cartoon-like images in needlework. Charming embroidered images of a couple holding hands also appear from the 1920s onwards. They hint of a more relaxed attitude Man’s slippers. Raised metallic thread and silk towards physical intimacy, borne out by thread embroidery (satin stitch). Penang, 1920s. studio photographs from this period (see Liu Collection of Ken Yap, Kuala Lumpur. 1995: 67, 79). Such images belie the scrutiny that marriage conventions, and polygamy in particular, were undergoing at this time. In 1918, a group of Straits Chinese women from Penang petitioned the Governor for the compulsory registration of marriages, a move that was opposed by Chinese men (Khoo 1996: 92). Chinese marriage rites and registration of marriages continued to be a thorny issue for the colonial government into the 1940s.

Some imagery of the 1930s, such as the busts of animals and doll-like figures, related to designs popular decades earlier. An image of a befrocked girl appeared regularly on clutch purses and slippers. Innocuous though this was, her brown locks and western dress must have reminded a viewer of alternative modes of being at a time when women were questioning their place in society. The stereotype of woman as wife was taken to task, with Straits Chinese women arguing that “[m]odern women the world over do not selective and uneven. In particular, metallic conceive that matrimony is the be-all and end thread embroideries remained dominated all of a woman’s life” (Neo 1932). by images of deer, dragons and qilin, long- established benedictory expressions. Their Fashion conscious Straits Chinese girls coexistence with silk thread embroidery and crimped their hair and donned cheongsams beadwork effectively provided the Peranakan tailored from fabrics in the latest designs, Chinese woman with choice, enabling her, looking to Paris and Shanghai for cosmopolitan through her embroidered accessories, to fashions. In the interwar years, Betty Lim and actively construct the way she wished to her sister Amy wore “three-quarter length situate herself as modern and “traditional”, cheongsams which had short slits. They were local and cosmopolitan. If her path to very fashionable. …Amy had her hair in a modernity was fraught, it was also heady traditional sanggul [chignon] but I had my with possibilities. hair in the style of a straight bob with a fringe” (Lim 1994: 17). As if to compensate Hwei-Fe’n Cheah completed her PhD thesis on the for the simplification of the primary motifs, beadwork of the Peranakan Chinese in Malaysia and the geometry and repetition of art deco Singapore in 2005. She is now a lecturer in the Art textiles found their way into beadwork as History Department, Australian National University. background patterning. REFERENCES The deployment of new subject matter and Lee, C. N. 1913: “The Chinese Girl in Singapore.” patterns appears, however, to have been The Queen, The Lady’s Newspaper, 27 September. Lim, Betty 1994: A Rose on My Pillow. Armour Publishing, Singapore.

Liu, Gretchen 1995: From the Family Album: Portraits from the Lee Brothers Studio, Singapore 1910–1925. Landmark Books, Singapore.

Khoo, Joo Ee 1996: The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History. Pepin Press, Amsterdam.

Neo, C.L. Kan 1932: “Women of Malaya. Their Ideals and Aspirations,” Woman’s Corner, Malaya Tribune, 23 January.

Ramsay, Christine Wu 2007: Days Gone By: Growing Up in Penang. Areca Books, Penang.

Song, Ong Siang 1897: “The Position of Chinese Women.” Straits Chinese Magazine, vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 16-23.

Peranakan Chinese girls. Melaka, c. late 1920s.

Courtesy of J. Chan, Singapore.

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 19 A HERITAGE PRESERVED: CHINESE REGALIA AT THE GOLDEN DRAGON MUSEUM, BENDIGO

Ben Langan

or those who’ve seen it, the Bendigo has been used in past Easter parades as in the Bendigo Advertiser on May 13, 1882, F Easter Parade conjures up rich, vibrant well as pieces that are currently in use. This giving us the late 19th century as the probable memories. It is an annual parade that has particular collection of regalia is one of the age for much of the collection. This dating been going since 1871 and every year the largest Chinese textile ensembles known to in itself adds to the collection’s significance: Chinese section of this parade is the most be on display in any museum in the world. It these pieces are excellent extant examples of poignant and memorable. In particular, the includes some truly beautiful and significant Chinese traditional textile crafts, handmade splendid and colourful procession regalia pieces, especially those pieces used in in workshops towards the end of the Qing of Bendigo’s Chinese community have left a processions during the late 19th century. dynasty, before industrial, mechanised deep and lasting impression on the city. factories were introduced in China. After the first few parades in the 1870s, the It is for this reason that the Golden Dragon Chinese in Bendigo raised over 750 pounds Most of the collection consists of richly Museum was constructed in 1991. It houses to purchase regalia from China. This amount embroidered silk costumes: spectacular pieces and preserves the collection of regalia that and the names of contributors were published that often overshadow the smaller items that were worn as accessories with the costumes. While not as conspicuous as the costumes, these accessories are very significant items in the collection. There are some stunning silk and gold bullion thread hats that were worn with matching garments, opera costume pieces that mimic both the court dress of that period and also older, more historical headgear. There are also canvas shoes with silk detail, as well as assorted silk costume adornments.

The embroidery techniques used are the finest examples of their disciplines. The couching around the gold thread is sparse and unobtrusive. Satin stitching has been executed to perfection for the smoothest of finishes. Chain stitches have been found in Chinese embroidery dating back to the Warring States period (403-221 BCE) and this stitch has been used in many of the museum pieces. Beijing (or French) knots are also used to great effect. The vivid colour, choice of design and extent of detail declare these items as Yue embroidery, which has its origins in province in China’s south and is one of the four schools of Chinese embroidery. This is in keeping with the fact that much of the Chinese population in Australia were from Guangdong province.

The collection includes many garments and items that are textile based but it also includes MAN’S HELMET, CHINA, 1880. SILK, PAPIER-MACHE, papier-mâché headdresses, shoes made from WIRE AND MIRRORS. BENDIGO CHINESE ASSOCIATION fine straw, hairpieces of horsehair and several COLLECTION, GOLDEN DRAGON MUSEUM, BENDIGO other hair accessories. The papier-mâché pieces are some of the most outstanding in the collection. The papier-mâché was used to mould the intricate designs of some of the headdresses. It is also used in a few extravagant banner heads. Gold leaf or gold paint covers the papier-mâché in extraordinary detail and to stunning effect. Mirrors also adorn some of the headdresses, a trait common to many

20 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 We also have a collection of costumes and adornments that used to belong to an English born gentleman named Charles Powell Hodges. He learned Chinese in Bendigo during the gold rush and later worked as a translator in the Melbourne law courts. He became disillusioned with the treatment the Chinese received in Australia and did his best to assist the Chinese community. In the late 19th century he was one of the few non-Chinese involved in Chinese processions and the only non-Chinese in the Federation parades. For his efforts he was awarded the rank of an official in the Qing court while living in China in 1890. The collection of garments and adornments he acquired during his travels has been donated to the museum by his granddaughter. This collection includes some truly stunning pieces, including a beautiful

FAN, CHINA, 1890. PEACOCK FEATHERS, fan with delicate Yue embroidery on peacock

SILK AND BONE. GOLDEN DRAGON feathers.

MUSEUM COLLECTION, GOLDEN DRAGON

MUSEUM, BENDIGO. The costumes and costume adornments that are displayed at the Golden Dragon Museum provide an impressive survey of China’s textile craft traditions. Apart from their historical and aesthetic value, they offer unique insights into Australia’s own history, particularly in relation to its flourishing Chinese communities in the late 19th and of the costume pieces. These papier-mâché Beechworth gifted their regalia to Bendigo early 20th centuries. The collection is on items are also some of the most fragile in the and more pieces were shipped in from permanent display in the Golden Dragon collection and throughout the years much China up until the end of the Qing dynasty Museum, Bendigo. effort has gone into preserving and restoring in 1911. The Federation celebrations were them. one of the collection’s most important and Ben Langan is a Museum Officer at the Golden memorable performances. It united many Dragon Museum, Bendigo. Preservation is a maxim at the Golden Dragon Chinese communities from around Australia, Museum. To preserve the colour of our many yet with Federation came the White Australia REFERENCES silk pieces, lighting, heating and humidity are Policy and an end to the influx of Chinese Golden Dragon Museum 1991: The Chinese Community in all monitored. But these are modern efforts. immigrants and culture. Ironically, this may Bendigo – a unique history. Golden Dragon Museum, Bendigo The collection is over a hundred years old have benefited the collection, as a lack of new Summerton, Michele 2008: Golden Dragon Museum Historical and only remains in its current state due to immigrants and money meant that instead Regalia Significance Assessment. Historica Cultural Heritage Projects, unpublished. the loving care of the members of the Bendigo of simply being replaced, costumes were Chinese Association. Often the pieces were preserved and collated from around Australia taken home and repaired by the early wearers to form the Golden Dragon Museum’s current or altered to hide wear and tear. collection.

One of the most significant aspects about this Bendigo’s Chinese regalia pieces are also collection is where it’s been. After the first redolent with Chinese symbolism - few extravagant Easter Processions during an important facet of all Chinese the 1880s, the collection became famous arts - and the rich meaning throughout Australia. The Chinese and their behind the decoration of these stunning regalia were in constant demand pieces enhances their appeal. - people all around the country wanted to Some examples include see it in processions. In 1891 it travelled to flowers to represent the Tasmania, in 1892 it travelled to Ballarat, seasons, bats for luck, Melbourne in 1893, Sydney for the Diamond symbols of longevity Jubilee in 1897 and back to Melbourne for the and much, much Federation celebrations in 1901. more.

Through all this period, the collection LADY’S FOOTWEAR, CHINA, 1880. HAND EMBROIDERED SILK. owned by the Chinese community in BENDIGO CHINESE ASSOCIATION COLLECTION, GOLDEN DRAGON Bendigo continued to grow. The Chinese in MUSEUM, BENDIGO.

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 21 IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN: A MONGOLIAN ‘QUEEN OF GREAT BLISS’ AT THE NGA

Christopher Haskett The dakini Dechen Gyalmo, Siberia, Buryatia, late 18th /early 19th century, pigments on cloth, 35.0 x 28.0 cm.

Collection National Gallery of Australia, purchased 1994.

espite the best efforts of curators the skulls of an adolescent Brahmin boy and D and designers, museum and gallery girl), whose sound proclaims great bliss. In her visitors all too often rush exclusively to the left is a kartika flaying knife, which symbolizes large, the intricate or the dramatic. While the severing of ignorance and the disturbing understandable, this means that many emotions. She stands on a sun disc (denoting wonderful works, whose restraint or plainness activity) atop a lotus, which is itself bounded belie a sublime beauty or rich history, are by the triangular dharmodayo, each of whose sometimes overlooked. One such work is the sides represents a door to the ultimate reality Mongolian painting of the Buddhist dakini symbolized by the complete shape. Dechen Gyalmo, which hangs in the NGA. In contrast to the near-tribhanga positioning of Dating from the late 18th/early 19th century her upper body and limbs, her legs and feet (or possibly earlier), and purchased in 1994, are quite straight and utterly static (described this charming little work is a gem in an as “standing and advancing” in the text). already rich collection. Measuring only 28 x While many Tibetan depictions of Dechen 35 cm, this simple work of mineral pigment Gyalmo show her with one heel raised, this on cotton could easily be dismissed as a poor is not mentioned in the text and thus points relation to the NGA’s larger, more complex to a regional stylistic difference rather than and colourful thangkas. But this would be an an iconic one. injustice to a lovely and fascinating piece of However, tsagli tend to be smaller and are Buddhist art and culture. The figure itself adheres broadly to usually rendered on paper. Rather, this is compositional guides used by the monastic likely to be an example of a burchan or “rite In Tibetan Buddhism, wisdom is regarded workshops, but the setting in which she is of passage” painting probably commissioned as a feminine principle (in complement to placed is worth examining for its less common for a lay person. These are traditional among compassion, which is male), whose visibility features. Its charm is partially due to its both the Khalka and Buriat cultures and is contingent on the practitioner’s realisation. somewhat unsophisticated execution. Though are usually made at the recommendation of Dakinis are the holders of this wisdom and the figure is correctly proportioned, the rest of the family lama or astrologer, sometimes in can be either peaceful or wrathful; their the painting strays a little into the bizarre in its times of illness or danger, but also at times appearance is determined by the knowledge conflicting planes and proportions. Given that to propitiate a fortunate marriage, successful they hold. Dechen Gyalmo (English: “Queen most of these works are the result of a number pregnancy, etc. The large number of peaches (a of Great Bliss”) is the peaceful representation of different artists all working under a master’s traditional sign of longevity) on the branches of knowledge transmitted in the Nyingma guidance, different qualities and styles within of the floral scrollwork motif might argue for lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. one painting should come as no surprise. this particular painting being commissioned in response to sickness. Though the practice text that describes her The sun disc she stands on is small and visualization does not enumerate them somewhat cushion-like. The triangular Christopher Haskett is completing an MA in Art explicitly, she is adorned with some of the dharmodayo shape enclosing her throne/base History and curatorship at ANU and has worked usual jewel adornments of a bodhisattva. Her is a common feature in her depictions, but as an assistant curator of Asian Art at the NGA. crown is ornamented with five skulls. These the way it truncates her lotus is unusual. Its Previously, he worked in the Tibetan Buddhist represent the “five poisons” (attachment, corners line up with the bottom of the figure’s Resource Centre in New York. hatred, ignorance, pride and jealousy) that are aureole making it appear more vertical than transformed, via enlightenment, into the five horizontal. Likewise, the floral scrollwork REFERENCES jewels seen in peaceful Buddha forms. Her in the foreground is unusual. Sitting on Beer, Robert. 2003: A Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols, large gold earrings are a sign of perfection of the surface plane of the painting, it seems Shambhala Publications, Boston. understanding and also that this deity is not intended to obscure the landscape in which Gordon, Antoinette K. 1959: The Iconography of Tibetan Lamaism, yet a Buddha (who has renounced worldly the figure stands. The “wrinkled” mountains Charles Tuttle, Rutland. jewels but still bears the stretched earlobes). as well as the complete symmetry of the Lijenbergl. Karen tr. 2006: The Queen of Great Bliss - Root Sadhana of the Mother Tsogyal downloaded from http://www.zangthal. The choker, armlets and bracelets are likewise setting are characteristic of Mongolian (and co.uk/ 1/7/09. common to deities of her status. more particularly Buriat) painting. Glenn Mullin and Jeff Watt. 2002: Female Buddhas: Women of Enlightenment in Tibetan Mystical Art, Clear Light Publishers, As described in the Longchen Nyingthig text What are we to make of this? Though the ritual Santa Fe. to which she is central, she is red (denoting empowerments and visualization practices Glenn Mullin – Private Correspondence passionate excitement and activity), naked relating to Dechen Gyalmo are common to Konchok Norbu – Private Correspondence except for the bone and jewel adornments and Nyngma practitioners, this painting was Tulku Thondup. 1996: Masters of Meditation and Miracles: The her pundarika (white lotus) garland, and in a probably not made for either purpose. These Longchen Nyingthig Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, Shambhala state of high arousal. In her right hand she holds little paintings are often mistaken for the Publications, Boston. a kapalika damaru tantric drum (fashioned from tsagli cards used by lamas during initiations. Jeff Watt - Private correspondence

22 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3

‘ILLUMINATIONS OF THE HEART’: MUSIC FROM THE OTTOMAN COURT

Susan Scollay Nefes Ensemble including their founder, cellist Rachel Atkinson (centre back), perform in Melbourne

with the Turkish ney master, Kudsi Erguner (2nd from R) and aboriginal didgeridoo players.

or lovers of the arts of Asia, one of the most F interesting musical groups performing at next year’s Adelaide Festival is Melbourne’s Nefes Ensemble. Comprising several classically trained members of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra and additional musicians of diverse musical and cultural backgrounds, the ensemble specialises in classical music from the Ottoman Turkish court.

Founded last year by Rachel Atkinson, a talented cellist with the MSO and Peter Daverington, a ney, or reed-flute specialist, Nefes (the word means ‘breath’ in Turkish) made their debut at the 2008 Melbourne Arts Festival. They joined Haydn and Mozart were influenced by the court music through his involvement with the internationally acclaimed ney master, Kudsi percussive rhythms of Ottoman music, and Mevlevi Sufi Order of Australia. Erguner, in a concert showcasing devotional in 1827 Guiseppe Donizetti, the brother of music of the Sufi tradition dating back to the renowned Italian opera composer, was The Nefes Ensemble musicians locate the the 7th century. This was followed by an appointed by Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808 -1839) scores of their repertoire through Turkish evening of “Sufi jazz fusion,” in which the to the prestigious position of court composer. musicians, sourcing them from libraries or the lyrics of mystic Sufi poetry, driving percussive many websites now dedicated to sharing this rhythms, the melodious notes of the reed- Apart from Sufi music, the earliest court resurgent art form. When the Republic of Turkey flute, kanun (plucked zither) and tanbur (long- composition in the Nefes repertoire is by was founded in 1923, Ottoman court music necked lute) were juxtaposed with Atkinson’s Abdulkadir Meragi (1383 – 1435), who was was actively discouraged as an unwelcome improvised cello sequences. born in Azerbaijan and composed for the reminder of an outmoded Ottoman past. Now Central Asian Timurid court and for the early there are state run ensembles in every major In other concerts and live broadcasts by Ottoman court at Edirne before the conquest Turkish city and a growing number in Europe. ABC FM, the Nefes Ensemble has combined of Constantinople and its renaming as Istanbul In the United States some recording labels have performances of Mevlevi Sufi music, with in 1453. His musical work, performed by begun to specialise in Ottoman court music, and Ottoman court works composed by and Nefes as an instrumental piece and as a song the related musical traditions of northern India for sultans, and chamber works by J. S. of love, is highly ornamented, with each and the Arab world. Bach and Tartini. For these, the core Nefes makam, or scale, of which there are more than musicians were joined by the Melbourne 500 in the classical tradition, contributing to This year in Victoria the Nefes Ensemble Symphony’s Janis Cook on harpsichord the emotional tone of the musical experience. has performed for schools in isolated and and Işin Çakmakçioğlu, a Turkish violinist, Each scale in the Turkish classical repertoire often drought-stricken rural communities. born in Germany and classically trained in was considered to have physical and mental For some students it was the first time they Istanbul, London and Vienna. healing properties, and hospitals such as the had experienced live music of any kind. early 16th century Bayezid II complex near the For the Adelaide Festival, Nefes will create During its political and military decline in the palace at Edirne, were dedicated to musical three performances together with the Baroque 17th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman Empire’s therapy and included court musicians in their violinist, Lucinda Moon, which will explore cultural life reached an impressive height. sophisticated treatment programs. the emotions of Joy, Sorrow and Glory through Several visiting diplomats noted with surprise Ottoman court music and the 17th century that chamber music was performed for the Rachel Atkinson’s aim in forming the Nefes music of Franz Ignaz Heinrich Biber. Each enjoyment of the imperial court several times a Ensemble is to expose Australian concert-going concert will end with a collaboration between week. Over 500 years, synthesising the mystical audiences to Ottoman court music. Her fellow these great eastern and western classical sounds of the 13th century Mevlevi Sufi sema, musicians have varied motives. “For Rolf traditions on the theme of transcendence. or turning ceremony, and the musical traditions Kuhlmann, principal bassoonist of the MSO,” of the Persians, Arabs, Jews, Armenians and she says, “it was to explore the possibilities Nefes Ensemble, “Illuminations of the Heart,” 3-5 Greeks living within the expanding borders of of the bassoon as an eastern instrument as it March 2010, Adelaide Festival of the Arts. the Turkish empire, the genre reached its artistic has been used in western classical music to www.myspace.com/nefesensemble peak in the 18th century. imitate eastern or exotic colours.” John Arcaro, a percussionist with the MSO, was initially Susan Scollay is a contributing editor of HALI: the By this time the Ottomans were becoming attracted by the elegant use of usul, the complex London-based journal of textile, carpet and Islamic increasingly westernised, and Europeans rhythms in Turkish court music. Nefes’ singer art. She is completing a Ph.D. at La Trobe University, under the sway of the ‘Orientalist’ movement and percussionist is Serif Resitoglou, a migrant Melbourne on the relationship between architecture were becoming more interested in eastern from the Turkish community of Western and art forms of the Ottoman Empire. culture. Composers such as Beethoven, Thrace in Greece, who found a love of Turkish

24 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 RED CLIFF: RE-IMAGINING AN EPIC

John Millbank

n late July 2009 director John Woo’s martial Red Cliff on the upper Yangzi in 208 AD and Xiao Qiao (Chiling Lin), wife of Zhou Yu I epic film Red Cliff reached Australian when Cao Cao, with a vast army and navy of but coveted by Cao Cao. cinemas in the abridged version distributed 800,000 men, invaded the South. outside Asia. TAASA Review readers might A curious difference occurs in relation to ask themselves how closely the film reflects Woo sometimes follows the original historical magical or supernatural practices. The film its original source, the classic Chinese novel chronicles more than the novel. Thus Cao downplays the magical element, so that in San guo yan yi, known in English as Romance Cao (Fengyi Zhang), invariably depicted as one key scene Kongming appears only as a of the Three Kingdoms. How does a director of ruthless, is also seen in the film as the great particularly competent meteorologist rather Hollywood action movies approach a classic poet-general he was, improvising poetry at than as Daoist manipulator of the elements. Ming text? the height of the battle. Liu Bei strangely This is presumably another instance of Woo goes absent for much of the film. In the preferring to stick to the historical sources. Three Kingdoms is set in the China of 165- novel a jealous Zhou Yu, Sun Quan’s chief 280 AD, its subject the downfall of the Han military commander (Tony Leung), is The actual battle of Red Cliff follows a dynasty and the fragmentation of the country constantly searching for ways to show up similar course as a dramatic set piece in both into three warring kingdoms. The main or, preferably, eliminate his younger rival, book and film. The ending though is quite characters are the three founding rulers of Kongming (Takeshi Kaneshiro). Woo shows different. In the novel (as in history) after the those kingdoms, Cao Cao of Wei in the north, them developing a close friendship, cemented battle the war continues for another 60 years Sun Quan of Wu, south of the Yangzi, and in a splendid musical sequence where the until a new force emerges and the Empire Liu Bei of Shu, roughly present-day Sichuan. new friends play an extended duet on their is once again united. Woo’s film ends with Also sharing the limelight are some of their qin. Kongming leading a young foal, symbol of military commanders, foremost among them peace, into a dreamy sunset. Many might Kongming, the brilliant strategist and Daoist Unsurprisingly, the film has more developed prefer the novel’s more hard-bitten attitude master whom Liu Bei has attracted to his female roles than in the Ming novel. The two to the realities of war. cause. The film’s scope is limited to a single main female characters play crucial roles in episode occupying ten of the novel’s 120 the battle. They are the feisty Shangxiang John Millbank is an independent scholar currently chapters: the epic land and river Battle of (Wei Zhao), who features as warrior and spy writing a book on the sacred mountains of China.

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 25 BOOK REVIEW: KHMER GOLD. GIFTS FOR THE GODS

Gill Green

domain. As the authors suggest, the containers choice of placement is not supported by close were buried to protect their contents, but examination of these details on 10th and 11th information about the archaeological context century CE sculptures of male deities or royal of the items would assist in appraising them animals. A similar comment applies to the as the work of Khmer jewellers. gold armbands with kala monster faces (2008: fig 4.24e) placed on this same Shiva image. In this latest publication, it could be expected From what can be seen on other Khmer stone that innovative research methods might have and bronze images, armbands only feature been applied with which to progress these floral motifs. The motifs, however, resemble difficult issues of dating and origin. This has the kala monster motifs on the armbands in been attempted with a cache of gold artefacts, the the Wonoboyo hoard. Wonoboyo hoard, excavated in 1990 in central Java. Among a range of forms, it contained The authors do comment several times about jewellery pieces and other objects very similar a possible relationship to the arts of Java in form to the mainland finds discussed in contemporary with this period and indeed in this book, including lidded bowls, containers, their conclusion state: “There is no doubt that necklaces, body bands and armbands with a some cultural contact with Java is responsible motif of a kala (monster) face. Plaques depicting for many artistic styles and jewellery forms Hindu deities were also found in the region that developed during the ninth through remarkably similar in form to those on the eleventh centuries in Cambodia, but how mainland. These artefacts have been dated to these features were introduced into the Khmer Khmer Gold. the 9th and 10th centuries CE based on stylistic world is unclear” (2008: 74). Gifts For The Gods comparisons supplemented with inscriptional by Emma C Bunker and Douglas Latchford and literary evidence. To progress these And just a niggly complaint concerns the Art Media Resources Chicago. 2008 studies, in 1994 a symposium was convened authors’ comment that Khmer dancers rrp A$75.00 at the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam to performing the Ramayana story in the present apply innovative scientific methods such as day “appear as if they had stepped down This volume is the third of Emma Bunker’s spectroscopy, microscopy and alloy analysis, from the walls of the [twelfth century] Bayon publications on gold jewellery attributed among others, to issues of age, authenticity and to entertain us”. This is quite inaccurate to the Khmer domain. In this most recent provenance. Such an approach would certainly as present day dancers’ ‘Ayutthaya’ style work, approximately a third of the jewellery advance the study and authentication of the costumes did not appear in the Khmer world items – rings, bracelets, body bands, pectorals, Khmer artefacts presented in this book. until the middle of the 15th century CE at the pendants, necklaces and belts – had been earliest, 300 years later than the Bayon. included in her 2004 publication. These are By now, it would be hoped that errors recurring now supplemented with images of gold bowls, from the two previous publications would Welcome as these additional images of gold lidded containers, statuettes, beads, plaques have been weeded out. The description of jewellery are, entering the public domain depicting Vishnu, and head pieces in the form “amulet” for the chunky, ring shaped artefact through this book, resolving issues in relation of chignon covers, crowns and circlets. worn as a pendant by a tiny proportion of to the origin, age and authenticity of gold the nearly 2,000 apsaras sculpted in bas-relief jewellery attributed to the Khmer awaits As in the previous two publications, the items at Angkor Wat is one example. An amulet the application of additional innovative are arranged chronologically spanning almost is worn as a personal protective device and methodologies. a millennium from “pre-600CE” to the late there is no evidence that it served this role for 15th century CE, therefore covering the pre- apsaras. Amuletic necklaces with tiger teeth Gill Green is Vice President of TAASA. She is the to late Angkorian period. The logic of this or claws do, however, appear on images of author of Traditional Textiles of Cambodia (2003) division arises from the stylistic method of warriors as depicted on walls of the lower and Pictorial Cambodian Textiles (2008) both dating the jewellery, which relies principally gallery of Angkor Wat. published by River Books, Bangkok. on comparing the form and function to that on sculpted jewellery on dated statues and Another recurring image that begs challenging REFERENCES bas-reliefs. is an image of Shiva adorned with a set of Brand, M. (ed) 1999. Indonesian Gold, Queensland Art Gallery.

gold jewellery from this collection said to Bunker, E. 2000. Splendour and Sensuality in Angkor Period The major problem with researching Khmer date to the “late tenth century CE” (2008: Jewellery, Orientations, March 2000, Art Media Resources, gold artefacts is the paucity of examples and fig Intro3). Body bands seen on all other Chicago. reliability of information on the origin and contemporary images are worn directly Bunker, E. and Latchford, D. 2004. Adoration and Glory, Art age of the items. Some of the pieces are said to against the body below the navel just above Media Resources, Chicago. have been excavated, secreted in containers, the hipwrapper. On this sculpture the body Kal, W (ed). 1994. Old Javanese Gold (4th –15th century), Bulletin no. 334, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. at locations in present day Cambodia or NE band has been repositioned, overlaying the Thailand, at that period part of the Khmer belt cinching the deity’s hipwrapper. This

26 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 CITO CESSNA (1945-2009) – AN ADVENTUROUS LIFE

Ray Tregaskis

Cito Cessna at Gallery Indigo, Paddington ito was born 64 years ago in Puerto Rico. C He was named after his father Ray, so the locals called him Raycito (which means little Ray) and the name stuck. His great uncle Clyde Cessna was the inventor of the aircraft of the same name. Unfortunately for the family, he was forced to sell his design in the 1930’s during the Great Depression. His father was an engineer and Cito was the eldest of three brothers, outliving his younger siblings. He still has a sister living in the US.

He was brought up in Ohio. He once told me that, as a child, he had looked out the window of the family home to see a tornado bearing down on the house. It miraculously changed direction and young Cito and the house were thankfully spared. He studied Arts at Ohio a serious interest in Buddhism, which was to I often visited Cito at Gallery Indigo, where University and was also a gifted sculptor lead him on a long spiritual path. In 1972 he he sat behind a large desk, with Muffin, the until he lost two fingers while using an and Lyn met another American, Bill Evans, Bouvier, always sprawled out on a nearby antiquated metal press in a machinery plant while scouring the markets and carpet shops carpet. A pot of tea was always available and to help pay his way. Though he moved to of Kabul. Their first shipment of antique rugs the conversation was never dull. Cito had Mexico City to further study art at the National was sent off to Sydney in 1972/73. an acute understanding of Middle Eastern University, he decided to leave for Europe society, culture and politics, not to mention less than two years later to visit the great art Also in 1973 their daughter Ariane was born religion. galleries of the world. In 1966 he travelled up in Kabul. Shortly after, King Mohammed to Canada, where he gained working passage Zahir Shah was deposed and they moved to a In 1997 Cito and Lyn bought what would on a Swedish vessel bound for Europe – he safer place, a house in Hunters Hill and later become Parkham Place Gallery in South thought. On questioning a fellow shipman as Lane Cove, where they ran Enshallah Trading Dowling St, Surry Hills. They launched to which European port the vessel was bound, Co. They continually returned to buy carpets its opening with their first exhibition of he replied “Rockhampton mate”. and in 1979 Lyn was alone in Kabul when the Buddhist Art on 16 October. From then on first Russian MIG fighters fired missiles over they held regular exhibitions of Himalayan In one of life’s strange twists, one of the first the Royal Palace. Afghanistan would never be art, including the collection of Alex Biancardi people Cito met when he arrived on our the same again. in October 1999. This show attracted serious golden shores was his future wife Lyn. The overseas interest. couple left Australia in the same year, and They had made many friends among the travelled the overland route through Asia Afghan rug dealers, many of whom moved Cito had an immense knowledge of Buddhist and the Middle East to Europe. They were to Pakistan. During the 1980’s Cito did most art. If I ever needed to identify a particular based variously in Kabul or Northern India, of his buying there, as well as travelling deity, it was always easier to pick up the where they sourced textiles, clothing and to the US and UK. In 1980 they bought phone to Cito, than to consult my reference Afghan jewellery, which they sold in Sydney Gallery Indigo in Glenmore Rd, Paddington, books. I am sure that his gift of a copy of and Germany. with Annette Marshall. Bill Evans went on The Gods of Northern Buddhism was a hint, to open Caspian Gallery, while fellow rug but I continued to call, although I always got In 1971 their son Jyoti was born in Almora, an dealer Ross Langlands also opened a shop in more information than was required. Every old hill station in the Himalayas. The family Cleveland St, later moving to Glebe. The three year their gallery was made available for the was part of a small community of ex pats that were close friends and became affectionately TAASA Christmas party. included celebrated authors and scholars Lama known as the “rug mafia”. Govinda and Robert Thurman. Every Sunday Cito led an adventurous but peaceful life. afternoon friends would meet at Govinda’s During the 1980’s, Cito attended a number of He will be remembered for many reasons: house for tea and philosophical discussion. In international rug conferences and gained his knowledge, his intellect, his wit, his the evening they had to walk back along a three international recognition for his expert humanity. He had friends and colleagues the mile track, to the sound of leopards, dodging knowledge in antique tribal rugs. Although his world over, and that is how I will remember the occasional king cobra along the way. Jyotis spiritual side may have preferred otherwise, him, as a friend and a colleague. first playmate in Almora was Uma Thurman. he also began dealing in Buddhist artefacts in the late 1980’s. It was around this time that Ray Tregaskis has been a Sydney antique dealer Cito had always been interested in theology, Victoria and I first met Cito and Lyn. We had since 1979 and with his wife Victoria runs Tregaskis but it was during this period that he formed a gallery just down the road. Oriental Art.

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 27 RECENT TAASA ACTIVITIES

TAASA VICTORIA cities of Uzbekistan, their galleries, markets, collector’s perspective. Ruth McDougall, monuments and of course the beautiful curatorial assistant, Asian and Pacific Art, ‘Other worlds: Tai textiles’ Exhibition - 13 June textiles that are still produced in the region introduced and provided a guided tour of Behruz Studio, Melbourne and which are the focus of her interest. Her the Gallery’s collection of historic Chinese Russell Howard introduced this exhibition, lecture was based on her extensive knowledge ceramics and of contemporary works in the drawn from his extensive collection of textiles of these textiles, accompanied by wonderful China Project exhibition in the Gallery of and costume of the Tai speaking peoples of Laos images taken on her trips to the region, which Modern Art (GoMA). A group of 19, including and Vietnam. Russell provided an introduction placed the art within the context of landscape, a number of TAASA members from Sydney, to the geography and the textile producing journeys and peoples, in the best tradition of attended the seminar, which was followed by groups of the border region, before guiding a inspiring armchair travel. a social function. large audience through the three levels of the Behruz Studio gallery where textiles produced TAASA NSW For those members with particular interests in by the Tai Muong, Thanh, and Tai Lao peoples textiles or ceramics, a material culture group were displayed. The exhibition revealed the ‘Jewellery and Adornment of Asia’ – 25 July has been established. A small number met for richness of the Tai textile tradition and the skill Art Gallery of NSW the first time on 17 May courtesy of Gallery of the weavers and dyers. Russell’s collection A record crowd of 150 attended this one day 159 in The Gap suburb. Future meetings were includes embroidered and woven funeral cloths, TAASA Seminar held in conjunction with discussed and most of those attending gave and costumes comprising skirts, jackets, shawls, VisAsia and the AGNSW. It complemented short show-and-tell presentations. headcloths and baby carriers. The afternoon the exhibition ‘Silk Ikats’ from the Islamic was a fascinating and detailed exploration of Arts Museum of Malaysia, currently on show this relatively unknown area of Asian art. at the AGNSW. Topics covered Southeast Asian, Indian, pan-Asian nomadic, as well as specialist Chinese and Straits Chinese themes. What was particularly informative was the cross-referencing of styles and motifs, though with localised connotations, that became apparent from the examples provided by our expert speakers, drawing on a broad and diverse range of traditions.

TAASA QUEENSLAND

Traditional arts of Uzbekistan: Cities and Antique Chinese Ceramics Seminar – 9 May museums of the Silk Road – 7 July With the co-operation of the Australian Centre Kazari Gallery, Melbourne for Asia Pacific Art (ACAPA), a seminar Laura Jocic, Curator of Australian Fashion on antique Chinese ceramics was held at and Textiles at the National Gallery of the Queensland Art Gallery. Questions and Victoria, is also a tour guide for Australians discussion followed talks by Dr Li Baoping on Studying Abroad, regularly conducting tours ‘The archaeology and art history of Chinese in Uzbekistan. She presented a lecture on ceramics and their cultural significance’ and the arts of Uzbekistan, introducing the main by Bob Maher, on Song ceramics from a

Thank you to Ruth Clemens and Ken Capes

Both Ruth Clemens and Ken Capes have with Russell Howard, Ruth produced a Treasurer in 2001 and managed all the resigned from the Victorian TAASA regular newsletter for TAASA Victoria accounting and related work for TAASA Committee in the past year. They have members until 2004. She was also the Victoria over the years. On behalf of all been longstanding and dedicated members Victorian representative on the TAASA members we would like to sincerely thank of the Committee. Ruth became secretary Management Committee for several years. Ruth and Ken for all their support and in 1998 and since then has been actively contribution to TAASA Victoria. Knowing involved in the many tasks required as part Ken became a member of TAASA in 1998 of their keen interest in Asian art, we look of the regular calendar of events, committee through his interest in Asian art, particularly forward to their continuing membership meetings and member activities. Together Japanese woodblock prints. He became and involvement with TAASA.

28 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 TAASA MEMBERS’ DIARY SEPTEMBER – NOVEMBER 2009

TAASA NSW EVENTS 6.30 to 7.30 p.m: Presentation for a Master of Art Curatorship at Melbourne “Cities of the Silk Road” – 5 September Cost: TAASA and AIIA members $15. University on Japanese artist Hiroshi Powerhouse Museum Students $10. Sugimoto and will be presenting The ‘Silk Road’ from Damascus, its western Non Members: $25 her findings to date. most entrepot, to Kashgar, the important For more information please contact market city of western China and the TAASA is holding a lecture and book launch Carol Cains 03 8620 2288. dynamic Central Asian trading cities in for Dr Solomon Bard’s autobiography “Light between, feature in this one day seminar. and Shade”, in association with the Australian TAASA QUEENSLAND EVENTS Distinguished speakers include Ross Institute of International Affairs. Dr Bard was Asian textiles seminar – Saturday Burns AM on Damascus, Leigh Mackay on born in Russia but lived most of his working life 26 September, 1pm – 4pm Bukhara, Heleanor Feltham on Samarkand, in Hong Kong, and is now retired in Sydney. Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane. Rae Bolotin on Tashkent and Dr Farid Living through ‘interesting times’, Dr Bard will This seminar will include lectures on central Bezhan on Kashgar. For more information share a fascinating life spent in pursuing three Asian and south Indian textiles and a floor please contact Gill Green on 9331 1810 and professions: medicine, music and archaeology. talk on the Gujerati influence on the Easton bookings to Judith Rutherford 9417 2585 or Pearson fashions currently on show at the [email protected]. TAASA VICTORIA EVENTS QAG. A social event will be held after the Tibetan Snow Lions – 1 September seminar. Queensland members will receive Textile Study Group 6pm for 6.30 full information and enrolment forms. Meetings are held at the Briefing Room, Speaker: Sybille Noras Other interested members are invited to Powerhouse Museum Venue: Room 613, 6th Floor, Nicholas contact Philip Courtenay on (07) 3289 5066 6 – 8 pm. Supper and wine $10 members Building, 37 Swanston St Melbourne or at [email protected]. and $12 guests. (Note: Please take the lift to the 6th Floor 9 September: Roz Cheney – The hijab, and follow the signs) the Muslim woman’s headscarf.. Cost: Members - $5.00; Others - $10.00 14 October: Soraya Raju and Raka Garg Sibylle Noras is a collector of snow lions. on Hindu wedding necklaces. Her talk will investigate the symbolism and 11 November: Chris Reid and Evi use of the snow lion motif in Tibetan art Thristiawati present the textiles of their traditional Lampung (South Sumatra) Japanese artist Hiroshi Sugimoto – wedding. November Contact Gill Green 9331 1810. Speaker: Julia Johnston Details of exact date and venue to be Book Launch – “Light and Shade” advised. by Dr Solomon Bard Julia Johnston works with the Arts and Tuesday 20 October, 2009 Heritage Collection of the City of Melbourne. The Glover Cottages, 124 Kent Street, Sydney She has recently lived in Japan for three 6 p.m: Refreshments years. She is currently completing her thesis

TAASA POLICY ON ADVERTISING TAASA recently clarified its approach to advertising through its various channels. This is published below for the information of members and others interested in advertising with TAASA.

Advertising revenue contributes significantly to TAASA’s funds. As may be seen on the inside front cover of the TAASA Review, there are a number of ways of advertising commercial events on offer. A range of space sizes in the Review, including the back cover, is available. In addition, leaflets and brochures are accepted for insertion in the Review. A discount rate for an annual commitment of four advertisements is offered. Not-for-profit activities and events are included at no cost in the ‘TAASA Members’ Diary’ and ‘What’s On’ section each quarter at the Editor’s discretion, depending on available space. TAASA is currently exploring the use of its Website to include not-for- profit notices as a service to members. These are the only ways that advertisements and notices can be circulated to TAASA members for a number of reasons. The Committee is concerned not to jeopardise TAASA’s relationship with those commercial interests that support the Society through their paid advertisements. In addition it is very conscious of privacy due to members who may not wish to receive unsolicited/unauthorised notices.

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 29 WHAT’S ON IN AUSTRALIA AND OVERSEAS: SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2009

A SELECTIVE ROUNDUP OF EXHIBITIONS AND EVENTS

Compiled by Tina Burge

AUSTRALIA wives and families of the Jodhpur rulers. works featuring Buddhist mantras written Later works depict epic narratives and on ice, tofu and lotus. Tsai will be artist- AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY demonstrate the devotion of Maharaja Man in-residence at the Foundation throughout Singh to an esoteric yogic tradition. October 2009. Tsai will also be included in Asia Art events the Asia-Pacific Triennial at the Queensland National Gallery of Australia, Canberra Events associated with the exhibition: Art Gallery, Brisbane from 5 December 2009 Various dates – 5 April 2010. 29 November 6-9 pm: Performances by For further information go to: 26 September, 2 pm: Indian Art floortalk, renowned Indian artists, Dr Natesan Ramani, www.sherman-scaf.org.au ‘Heavenly images, earthly delights: flowers playing the South Indian flute and Majiri in the art of Mughal India’ by Robyn Kelkar, a vocalist. For prices and bookings Zhongjian: Midway Maxwell, Senior Curator Asian Art. phone 02 9225 1878 or book online www. Wollongong City Gallery, Wollongong artgallery.nsw.gov.au/gardenconcert. 10 October - 29 November 27 September, 2pm: Film screening of ‘Dream Window: reflections on a Japanese Garden’. Meditation sessions, ‘Soul to soul: healing Following its tour of four major centres in music and nada yoga’ will take place on China, Zhongjian: Midway will tour to 14 21 October, 12.45pm: Lecture on the 8, 9, 15, 16, 22 and 23 January 9-10am. For Australian regional venues, commencing treatment and display of Indian paintings at bookings call 02 9225 1878 or book online at Wollongong City Gallery. The exhibition the Victoria and Albert Museum by Michael www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/meditation. consists of works by 15 contemporary Wheeler, Senior Conservator from the V&A, artists: Chinese nationals living and working London. For bookings call 02 6240 6504. Children’s performances on Tuesdays, in China, Chinese born artists living and Wednesdays and Thursdays in January, working in Australia, and Australian artists 7 November, 6.00pm: Film screening and 1.30pm. whose work has been closely informed by talk, ‘Eye For Architecture’. John Gollings Go to www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au Chinese culture. The exhibition includes will introduce this documentary by Sally for further details. work by several of China’s and Australia’s Ingleton on his architectural photography in most notable contemporary artists. India, Cambodia, Australia and China. Silk Ikats of Central Asia From the collection of the Islamic Arts Museum Kuala Lumpur Events associated with the exhibition include 15 November, 11am: Talk and Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney a lecture by Guan Wei and Laurens Tan demonstration, ‘Ikat textiles from Flores’ by 2 July - 11 October 2009 on 28 October, 3.30 – 5pm and a curator’s Alfonsa Horeng, founder of a women’s talk by Jin Sha in conversation with John dyeing and weaving cooperative, from East Brings together robes, tunics and textile Monteleone on 4 November, 12 noon. Flores, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, an panels that present the remarkable artistic area well-known for its magnificent ikat achievement and technical virtuosity of the On 25 October, 2-4pm: Readings by Chinese textiles silk designers, dyers and weavers of Central and Australian writers, followed by a Asia from the late 19th century. For more discussion on how their practice has been For further information go to: www.nga.gov.au. details go to: www.ag.nsw.gov.au influenced by working across cultures, in conjunction with South Coast Writers’ NEW SOUTH WALES Arts of Asia - Decoding Dress in Asian Centre. For details phone 02 4228 7500. Culture and Art For further information go to: Garden and cosmos: The royal paintings Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney www.wollongongcitygallery.com of Jodhpur Tuesdays 1-2pm in September and October The Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney A Sense of Place 29 October 2009 – 26 January 2010 Second term continues to focus on modern Casula Powerhouse Museum, Casula Asian dress. For a full listing of lectures go to 25 July 2009 – 11 October 2009 In a coup for the AGNSW, visitors will be www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/events/courses given a rare chance to see paintings from the where course bookings can also be made. Artist Danny Huynh has created a new body internationally renowned royal collection of of work inspired by the architecture and the Mehrangarh Museum Trust, Jodhpur. Water, Earth and Air: A series of intimate landscape of Shanghai. The photographic installations by Charwei Tsai exhibition explores the relationship between During the 17th to 19th centuries, the region Sherman Contemporary Art Foundation, Sydney the old and new Shanghai, recreating the of Jodhpur – in modern-day Rajasthan – 23 October – 19 December 2009 artist’s memories of the place and people. produced paintings that brought together traditional Rajasthani styles with styles Charwei Tsai was born in Taiwan and developed in the Mughal imperial court. presently lives and works between Paris, Paintings range from miniatures to New York and Taipei. This exhibition will monumental artworks depicting the palaces, include video, photomedia and performance

30 TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 Liverpool Art Society Exhibition 2009 2 December, 12.30pm: ‘The Tree of Life: THAILAND Casula Powerhouse Museum, Casula Textile Journeys East and West’ by Carol 11 July 2009 – 11 October 2009 Cains, Curator, Asian Art. Exhibition of Cambodian textiles 21 February, 2.30pm: ‘Made in China - Chiang Mai Bank of Thailand Northern Region An annual platform for local artists to Porcelain Production from Jingdezhen to Stoke Textile Museum showcase their ideas and creativity through on Trent’, by artist Alexandra Copeland. Opens 5 November 2009 an array of media. This year’s theme is ‘What is Asia?’, asking how Australians engage Fantasia: Chinoiserie Short Course, 2–3pm: This exhibition of stunning textiles examines with the vibrant influences of the Asia 15 November: ‘Sharawadgi and the misty the status of Cambodian textiles in the royal Pacific region. mountains: nature in Chinoiserie’ by court of Siam, expressions of faith and belief For further information go to: Carol Cains. inherent in Cambodian textiles and the www.casulapowerhouse.com 22 November: ‘Here Be Dragons: Imagining influence of Cambodian textiles on those of the Other’ by Dr Matthew Martin. lower Isarn, the northeastern province of QUEENSLAND 29 November: ‘Contemporary Chinoiserie’ Thailand. by Emma Mayall, Assistant Curator, Small acts Contemporary Art. UNITED KINGDOM Queensland Art Gallery, Gallery of Modern Art For more information go to www.ngv.vic. 25 July – 15 November 2009 gov.au/ngvinternational. Maharaja: the Splendour of India’s Royal Courts Features artists’ videos including early Ancient Hampi: A Hindu Kingdom Victoria & Albert Museum, London works by Nam June Paik and Yoko Ono bought to life 10 October 2009 - 17 January 2010 as well as contemporary works by artists Immigration Museum, Melbourne including Tsui Kuang-yu, Ghazel, Kimsooja 13 November 2008 - January 2010 Includes both Indian and Western works and Song Dong. from the collapse of the Mughal Empire For further information go to: This interactive exhibition offers visitors in the early 18th century to the end of www.qag.qld.gov.au the opportunity to immerse themselves in British rule in 1947, featuring paintings, the stunning World Heritage site of 14th photography, textiles and dress, jewellery, VICTORIA century Hampi in southern India. For more jewelled objects, metalwork and furniture, all information go to www.museumvictoria. explored within a broader historical context Chinoiserie: Asia in Europe 1620–1840 com.au. Go to http://place-hampi.museum of princely life and ideals, patronage, court National Gallery of Victoria, International, for more information about the international culture and alliances. Melbourne digital project. For further information: www.vam.ac.uk 9 October 2009 – 14 March 2010 INTERNATIONAL USA European fascination with exotic materials like lacquer, silk and porcelain, combined EAST TIMOR Devotion in South India: Chola Bronzes with a lack of accurate information on Asia Society, New York the great civilizations of Asia, gave rise to Heritage and Culture of Timor-Leste – October 6, 2009 – February 7, 2010 European artworks that reflect, not the real Symposium world of Asia, but European fantasies of Casa Europa, Dili Presents, for the first time, the entire collection the civilizations of China, Japan and India. 14-17 October 2009 of Chola bronzes from Asia Society’s Mr. Chinoiserie reached its climax in the mid- and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection, 18th century where it informed some of An international symposium examining the along with select bronzes from significant the most delightful and beautiful artistic culture heritage of East Timor. National and collections in the New York area. productions of the period. international experts on culture and cultural For more information go to: heritage management will speak including: www.asiasociety.org Drawing mainly from the NGV Collection, Joanna Barrkman, Senior Curator from with a few key loans, this exhibition covers a the Museum and Art Gallery of Northern Emerald Cities: Arts of Siam and Burma range of media including ceramics, furniture, Territory on MAGNT’s involvement in Asian Art Museum, San Francisco glass, textiles, painting, prints and drawings. the preservation of East Timor’s cultural October 23, 2009 – January 10, 2010 Exhibits will be placed with examples of heritage; Professor Tony Fry, Queensland Asian art that illustrate both the inspiration College of Arts, Griffith University on This exhibition of decorative and religious for the European productions and how these creative industries in East Timor; Ros arts explores Thailand and Burma’s shared depart from their Asian models. Dunlop, from the Sydney Conservatorium aesthetic culture in more than 100 artworks, of Music, who has recorded much of include gilded and mirrored ritual vessels, Events related to the exhibition include: the traditional music of East Timor, and black lacquer and mother-of-pearl inlaid Professor Amareswar Galla, Queensland furniture, and vibrant, colourful paintings. Floor Talks: University on the relationship between East For further information go to: 11 October, 12.30pm: Exhibition Introduction Timor and Southeast Asia. www.asianart.org by Dr Matthew Martin, Assistant Curator, For further information contact Nuno International Decorative Arts & Antiquities. Oliveira at [email protected]

TAASA REVIEW VOLUME 18 NO.3 31