Expo 2015 an Opportunity to Relaunch Italy Against the Background of Local and Global Challenges

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Expo 2015 An Opportunity to Relaunch Italy against the Background of Local and Global Challenges

Renata Lizzi

In Italy, the year 2015 will be remembered for the Universal Exposition held in Milan between 1 May and 31 October, which was certainly one of the most important events of the year. The six months of Expo 2015 were the culmination of a journey that had lasted nine years. After the city’s bid in 2006 and its win in 2008, there followed a long period of controversial governance, due to delays in the planning and launching of the works. Starting in 2013, the event was placed under administration, allowing the organizational machinery to become operative and the works to be accelerated, with completion being reached just in time for the opening. Yet despite the years-long process that was involved and due to a series of occurrences, this event became closely linked to the Renzi government and to the rhetoric that the prime minister used on a number of occasions, both in Italy and abroad, when describing it as an opportunity for the country to relaunch itself. The celebrations and the visits from heads of state and foreign delegations put Matteo Renzi firmly under the spotlight, and they were recurrent themes in his media and political strategy. His approach to politics underlines the importance of the communicative element, ranging from symbolic appeals to opti- mism, from appeals to the active forces in society to public statements attacking critical and dissenting voices—a style that appears to be taking Italy toward a “leader-led democracy” (Calise 2015).

Italian Politics: Governing under Constraint 31 (2016): 209–224 © Berghahn Books doi:10.3167/ip.2016.310113 210 Renata Lizzi

While Renzi contributed to the success of Expo 2015, as well as ben- efiting from it, there were other factors that proved crucial for a positive outcome: the conceptual and global importance of the theme, the large number of countries taking part, and the resources and synergies put into operation by the various institutions involved. Nevertheless, the staging of Expo 2015 both united and divided at the same time. It certainly galvanized public actors and economic and social groups on the theme of nutrition, but it also caused tension between power brokers and institutions when it came to the governance of the project. Over the course of the years, a large number of actors were involved, and this led to a multiplicity of relations of a diplomatic, political, commercial, and social nature. This also resulted in repercussions at various levels, not just local and national but also international. Expo 2015 was exploited as a means of promoting Italy’s high-quality products and its traditions and material and non-material heritage with the aim of attracting investments into areas far outside the boundaries of the host city. The theme chosen to hold together the various compo- nents and objectives—“Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life”—reflected a global ideal rooted in the history of nutrition and food that also had the potential to link tradition with innovation, values, and interests. This chapter will be divided into sections covering the following topics: (1) the initial stages of the exposition, (2) the events in 2015 connected to the completion of the works and the staging of the event itself, (3) the legacy in terms of the exposition’s theme, and (4) the most immediate impact of the event in economic terms and in terms of Italy’s image in the world. In the concluding section we shall dis- cuss the challenges that Milan and Italy will need to face in order to build on the exposition’s positive legacy.

Winning the Bid and the Difficulties in Setting Things in Motion

The first stage of Expo 2015, narrated as an Italian success story (Cas- tellini Curiel 2015), began in 2006 with the presentation to the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) of the Prodi government’s bid to host the exposition in Milan. This candidacy had already formed part of the electoral program of Letizia Moratti, the mayor of Milan from 2006 to 2011, who immediately made it a top priority, drawing on an extensive network of personal relations with the world of business, the voluntary sector, and international partners (Gallione 2012). A group of experts worked intensively for two years under Moratti’s leadership, with the aim of preparing the bid, deciding on the theme, and Expo 2015 211 winning the majority of votes from the BIE’s member countries, which numbered 98 in 2006 and had grown to 154 by 2008. The dossier pre- senting the bid listed the positive features of the city as well as details about the surrounding areas and how they could be relaunched and their appearance reshaped on the basis of innovative ideas (Castel- lini Curiel 2015). During those years, Milan was on the move, having already initiated a number of urban regeneration projects that were designed to give it the image of an international metropolis for the service sector, whose main strong points were research, fashion, and advanced industry (Gallione 2012; Lo Ricco et al. 2015). Building on this momentum, Milan could attract the world’s attention and become once again the economic and moral capital of Italy. Even the choice of the theme seemed to be crucial for winning the bid: it needed to continue along the same lines as the themes chosen for the previous expositions, but also to emphasize humankind’s central role with regard to technology and globalization in an effort to forge a strong link between the cultures, innovations, and traditions in Milan and Italy and those of the rest of the world. Just a few days before the deadline set by the BIE, Milan’s bid was officially presented by Moratti and the then prime minister, Romano Prodi. There followed a year of intense work by the “Milanese diplo- mats,” consisting of politicians and representatives from the business and cultural worlds, in an effort to use every possible channel to win the support of the majority of countries when the time came to vote (Gallione 2012). In Paris, on 31 March 2008, Milan came out ahead of I˙zmir, obtaining 86 votes against the 65 for its Turkish competitor from the total of 154 voting nations. As several commentators have observed, it was a victory for a countrywide team effort that involved various levels of government and various economic and social actors. This had been helped by the bipartisan spirit shown by members of the government (from the center-left) and by various local councils (from the center-right), but also by the broad agreement on the theme, the sense of belonging to the city and to the country, and the involve- ment of economic and financial organizations.1 Dissenting voices were few and far between, and they came only from minority groups. For example, the Comitato No Expo (No Expo Committee) was founded in 2007 to campaign against Milan’s candidacy, and over the years it was to play a critiquing role.2 Despite the initial enthusiasm, the spirit of collaboration began to waver immediately after Expo 2015 was awarded to Milan. Setting the exposition into motion meant selecting the works to be carried out and covering the financial costs with binding commitments set out in a second dossier to be presented to the BIE. In order to prepare for the 212 Renata Lizzi

event, it was necessary to establish and activate a chain of command and complex organizational machinery, which called for the involve- ment of various levels of public administration (Pasini 2015). The issue of governance immediately triggered divisions that at times created conflict: while it was mainly the responsibility of the government, the various institutional levels (region, province, council) maintained their normal powers and functions, to the point that each of them was playing its own cards and attempting to pursue its own objectives. In particular, tension mounted between the Milan council and the Lombardy region and their respective leaders (Letizia Moratti and Roberto Formigoni), even though they belonged to the same center- right coalition.3 The Italian government, nevertheless, took steps to allocate the necessary funds with Law No. 133/2008 and the confer- ral of tasks.4 The mayor was appointed special commissioner for the most urgent preparatory work, and the governor was given the task of chairing an institutional board to coordinate all the levels and sectors involved in regional and supra-regional interventions. The aim of the law was to give the local powers a key role and thereby resolve the tensions that were beginning to cause delays in the planning process and to block decision-making in the implementation of the event (Violini 2015). Thus, Expo 2015 SpA was set up on 1 December 2008 as the operational tool to get the exhibition under way, working in partnership with the Italian government (with a 40 percent share), the city of Milan and the region of Lombardy (with a 40 percent share), and the province of Milan and the Chamber of Commerce (with a 20 percent share). However, tensions failed to diminish, and other factors arose that exacerbated them. A decree was put forward by the government, then led by Silvio Berlusconi, on the chain of command, although it was subsequently withdrawn as a result of strong opposition. There was also resistance from the minister of the economy, Giulio Tremonti, in providing adequate resources.5 The contrast between different visions and interests also impacted on the planning. The first version of the master plan in 2009, which gave concrete form to the theme with some hugely innovative elements, was often amended from 2011 onward. The advent of new political figures, managers, and external partners (following the general elections, and later the decision to place the exposition under administration) resulted in dropping the idea of the planetary garden and of the large open spaces without buildings. The Tree of Life idea6 was retained, but more traditional projects were pre- ferred, with the aim of keeping costs down and of meeting the expec- tations of sponsors and professional experts (Gallione 2012). Subsequent prime ministerial decrees (issued on 1 March 2010 and 15 June 2012) set out to revise the list of essential works and to reassign Expo 2015 213 competences. In his role of special commissioner, the mayor of Milan, Giuliano Pisapia, a center-left politician who had taken over from Moratti in 2011, was set the task of representing the government with the BIE and of coordinating the preparatory activities and the organization of the exposition. As general commissioner, the president of the Lombardy region—Formigoni until 2013, and then, following the elections, Roberto Maroni, the then-secretary of the Northern League— was tasked with supervising the implementation of the infrastructural works, with extraordinary powers in case of necessity or urgency. The frequently changing set-up did not allow the necessary steps to be taken quickly, for example, with regard to purchasing the privately owned land in the Rho-Pero area that was earmarked for the exposition. In order to break the deadlock, at the end of 2011, a majority state- owned company, called Arexpo, was especially set up to purchase the 1 million square meters of land required for the exposition at a cost of 1.3 billion euros. This was a particularly complex and murky operation (Gerevini and Coppola 2011; see also Gallione 2012; Perotti 2014). Even the 2013 report of the Court of Accounts pointed out that the chains of command and of responsibility provided no guarantee of transparency and efficiency, and this made it necessary to modify the governance arrangements once again.7 Finally, with a prime ministerial decree dated 6 May 2013, approved by the Letta government, the decision was made to appoint a special government commissioner with sole responsibility for Expo 2015, covering the roles of the two previous commissioners. The “technician” who was appointed to this position, Giuseppe Sala, was given far-reaching powers of coordina- tion and supervision compared to the politicians, to the extent that this was referred to as nothing short of “politics under administration” (Violini 2015; see also Pasini 2015).

The Race to the Opening Day and the Demonstrations

As mentioned earlier, Renzi’s government and the prime minister himself had a significant part to play in the concluding stages of Expo 2015—in the most difficult stage of the completion of the works and the handling of a series of emergencies and in the more satisfying stage of the opening, the meetings with foreign delegations, and the positive feedback received. As far as the completion of the works was concerned, the Renzi government decided to move things forward in June 2014 after finding out about the first cases of rigged contracts and bribes. The solution was to grant greater powers to the head of the National Anti-corruption Authority (ANAC), Raffaele Cantone, but this 214 Renata Lizzi was only a partial solution, given the impossibility of intervening with urgent legislation in such a delicate matter.8 The reaction of the media to this second “Bribesville” scandal in Lombardy was a statement that Prime Minister Renzi frequently repeated: “We shall stop the thieves and delinquents, but we shall not hold up the works for Expo” (Conti 2014; see also Folli 2014). This response pointed out the two things that were needed—to complete the works, but also to doggedly investigate any irregular or illegal acts. Later in June 2014, the BIE inspection, which also came about as a result of the judicial scandals, revealed the delays, but it also acknowledged the fact that, thanks to the role of the special commissioner, the works were proceeding speedily. The 2014 report of the Court of Accounts also highlighted the delays in the works, but at the same time it pointed to positive results, such as the high number of countries already committed to participating (14) and of the contracts awarded, which came to a total value of 288 million euros (Monaci 2014a). The year 2014 was coming to a close with an organizational machine that appeared to be working and a close collaboration between the technical bodies that were responsible for running the tendering processes, the works themselves, and the supervision of operations. At the beginning of 2015, about 120 days before the opening, Com- missioner Sala gave a report on the state of activities. He revealed that the plans to enhance the underground railway and local public transport were still not completed and confirmed that the planetary botanical garden would no longer be realized, due to the high costs anticipated for maintaining and running it. Also, in order to make up for the delays, some adjustments were to be made to simplify the design of the Italy pavilion, while the tendering process for the controversial Tree of Life was to be closed. After more than 250 communications between the ANAC and Expo SpA, the most complex phases for the completion of the works were over (Finizio 2014; Monaci 2014b). On 13 March, 49 days before the opening, Renzi went in person to check out the progress of the works, meeting some of the thousands of workers engaged in the building of the pavilions9 and the structures of the exposition site, and he expressed a considerable degree of opti- mism: “The Expo will be a success because it is based on shared deci- sions. When Italy is all pulling in the same direction, things happen and dreams become reality, in spite of what all the harbingers of doom and the hyper-critics say” (Monaci 2015). This message, which the prime minister was to repeat on a number of occasions, provides an example of his favorite communication strategy: appealing directly to the active forces in the economy and in society, while sending an opti- mistic message in response to the culture of complaints and pessimism Expo 2015 215

(Escobar 2015). Alongside his media strategy, Renzi worked on weav- ing close diplomatic ties, inviting heads of state to attend and obtaining promises from many international leaders who pledged to be present. Every foreign trip and every meeting with foreign delegations gave him an opportunity to promote Expo 2015 and to attract visitors. The same was true for the president of the Republic, Sergio Mattarella, for the ministers most closely involved with the exposition, and for the various representatives of local authorities and public economic bodies. The publicity campaigns, both in Italy and abroad, were stepped up, and as a result the foreign press devoted a considerable amount of space to the event in Milan.10 The opening ceremony was held on the exposition site on 1 May in the presence of dozens of heads of state and representatives of the exhibiting nations, with Renzi at center stage. The event was designed to be broadcast all over the world and to showcase the main attractions of the city of Milan and of Italy. However, there was a protest demonstration in the city center organized by the No Expo Committee that led to riots and destruction, due to the infiltration of around 100 members of the so-called Black Bloc.11 The prime minister, adopting his usual media approach of simplifying the message and the reality, responded by saying: “A handful of spoilt little thugs are not going to ruin our party” (Galluzzo 2015). And there was a united response from the citizens of Milan, who voluntarily turned out to clean up the streets and piazzas (Lerner 2015). The media acknowledged the importance of this intervention and also praised the courage, skill, and commitment of the forces of law and order in dealing with the riot without resorting to the use of violence, as well as the efficient organization of security checks around the exposition site for the official visits during the first few days. This occasion brought about positive results in terms of the synergy and cooperation between various levels of government and actors (Santucci 2015). The closing ceremony, which was held on 31 October 2015 in the presence of President Mattarella, among other ministers, became an occasion for celebrating the success of Expo 2015 and its importance for the regeneration of Milan and for the relaunching of Italy. There had been displays of public spirit, efficient organization, and the capacity to ensure that public order and good transport systems could be provided, along with a warm welcome for tourists and a wide range of cultural offerings, both in Milan and elsewhere. All this had improved Italy’s image around the world. On this occasion, too, there were flattering comments in the press: Expo 2015 had been a cultural event with pavilions telling the story of humankind through food and a new model for an inclusive Universal Exposition rather than simply a showcase for 216 Renata Lizzi food, nutrition, and technology.12 Obviously, there was no lack of critics, ready to point to an excess of rhetoric on themes that were repeated so often as to lose all meaning and to find fault with the attractions that resembled an amusement park and with the large number of catering outlets (Olmo 2015; see also Lewanski 2015).

The Importance of the Theme

In order to understand the thread of ideas running through Expo 2015, it is useful to examine the reasoning behind the initial choice of theme. There are those who say that it came about by chance, as a last-minute idea (Castellini Curiel 2015; Gallione 2012). In reality, it can be seen as a continuation of the big themes of the preceding expositions,13 but it also picked up on the content of the first International Conference on Nutrition organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, which was held in Rome in 1992. Some of the UN Millennium Development Goals for 2000–2015—among which are eliminating poverty and hunger, ensuring the sustainability of the envi- ronment, and developing a global partnership for development—were all included in the Milan Charter. Plus, it adopted a new vision for nutrition and the right to food, known as “food security,” and not just food safety (Ramajoli 2015). Furthermore, the link between nutrition and sustainable development is placed in the context of multifunctional agricultural policies and rural development, which make up the leitmotif of the new European agricultural policy (Molders 2013) and are very much in line with the specific features of Italian agriculture. Italy is the larg- est producer of typical products certified by the EU, and it provided a successful model of food security during the years of the mad cow disease. Italy also recently combined agriculture and environmental themes by framing “food-related issues within the context of global challenges arising from various sources” (Giardullo and Neresini 2015: 220). Finally, food and nutrition have become important topics for the cooperation policies of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and for the decentralized cooperation programs drawn up by local authorities (Stocchiero et al. 2005). So it was reasonable to expect that the choice of the theme for Expo 2015—possibly an “eccentric” one for the city of Milan (Pasini 2015)—would be shared and also strategic, capable of attracting large crowds and generating the income required to cover its expenses. The criticisms leveled by some (Off Topic and Maggioni 2013) pointed out the risks posed by sponsorships and the influence of some Italian Expo 2015 217 food brands and of multinationals at the exposition site. In reality, the strategic decision set out to bring tradition and innovation together in a country where food and food production play an important part in the local and national economy, in this way promoting high-quality, typical “made in Italy” products. The food produced in the agri-food sector actually leads the way in terms of exports, and the sector is the driving force behind the development of local areas, tourism, and the manufacturing sector (Marini 2015). The challenge that Expo 2015 faced, then, was the attempt to achieve these objectives and to combine them with the innovative ideas that were presented when the bid was made and that then went into the 2009 master plan. The ideas were to be developed through an exposition that would be able to give significant representation to new worldwide perspectives in the fields of food science, technology, and sustainable development. In this way, all of the participating countries—whether they were established or emerging or developing—would be able to give their interpretation of the theme in relation to their own culture and traditions. Some commentators have pointed out that the challenge was already partly lost during the construction phase, due to various modifications that were made to the original ideas and because some projects were dropped. The innovative philosophy of Milan’s 2009 master plan was to go beyond the concepts behind previous expositions, which focused on large monumental buildings, and instead offer visitors a direct experience of the theme of nutrition while also touching on environmental sustainability. The exposition was initially conceived as a large, planetary botanical park, a global garden, a place where agriculture and city could meet. The layout of the Roman city was the inspiration behind the two perpendicular avenues, the Cardo and the Decumanus. The spaces allotted to the pavilions were to be filled with crops, gardens, and greenhouses (Schiavo 2009). The changes to the 2009 master plan came about as a result of differences of opinion, delays, and the difficulties referred to earlier. Of the original concept of the planetary garden, there remained the vertical garden in the US pavilion and the horizontal garden in the French pavilion. The plan for open spaces and cultivated gardens was replaced by ecological and reusable pavilions consisting of actual structures. For instance, Austria planted a real alpine forest for visitors to experience, while Great Britain built a huge beehive out of steel. The sustainability theme was also interpreted in different ways in the various pavilions, while the theme of nutrition, of the earth, and of humankind was celebrated in the exposition’s own Padiglione Zero (Pavilion Zero), designed by Michele De Lucchi, which was poetically described as an “exciting fragment of nature” (Molinari 2015). The 218 Renata Lizzi problems of overproduction and of food scarcity were addressed in the Swiss pavilion and some others. Each of the 54 pavilions bring together the various aspects of the theme: the nine thematic clusters dealt with the sub-themes of food chains and raw materials (rice, coffee, cocoa, etc.), thanks to the collaboration of the developing countries. The Italian pavilion combined tradition and innovation, showcasing typical regional products, on the one hand, and a super- market of the future, on the other. Finally, the multinationals (e.g., McDonald’s and Coca-Cola) and the big Italian food brands (such as Eataly) had their own spaces, which brought criticism from the No Expo groups, the associations of organic farmers, and some parts of the foreign press (see, e.g., Donadio 2015). it is hard to say whether the theme of “Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life” was picked up by all the visitors. Many said that the challenge was won in part by the clever idea of organizing the exposition along two axes, the Cardo and the Decumanus, onto which the many thematic pavilions opened out, and in part by the Tree of Life, which lit up the area around it, encouraging some visitors to stay late and others to arrive only in the evenings (see, e.g., Maugeri 2015; Soglio 2015). The deep meaning of the theme, however, remains etched in the Milan Charter, the document that traces the pathway of Expo 2015 and represents its ideational legacy. This charter was strongly desired by the government and by its delegate for Expo 2015, Maurizio Mar- tina, the minister of agricultural, food, and forestry policies. It was the fruit of contributions from experts, researchers, and outstanding personalities in the fields of cooperation and communications. When the charter was delivered to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki- moon on 16 October 2015, it represented the climax of a long journey that had begun when it was first presented on 7 February 2015 during the “Expo of Ideas” at the HangarBicocca exhibition space with over 500 experts split up into 42 thematic tables, in the presence of Renzi, seven ministers, and Pope Francis via a video link. Some of the main topics covered in the final seven-page document were access to healthy, sufficient, and nutritious food; clean water and energy; the importance of the role of women in nutrition and in education; respect for the soil and for natural resources; and the sustainability of production processes. At the heart of the document there is also the theme of responsibility, both individual and collective, to be demonstrated in concrete, well-thought-out commitments by citizens (in their everyday lives), associations (which gather and disseminate the requirements and needs of civil society), companies (the productive heart of the economy), and governments and institutions (which must provide political guidance for change). Expo 2015 219

The Results and the Future Prospects

While the first legacy of Expo 2015 is connected to the general theme, repeated and developed in the Milan Charter, it is worth examining some significant data on the immediate impact of the event, in terms of participation and some of the economic and environmental effects, even though they cannot be fully analyzed until the publication of official reports. When the Universal Exposition opened, it was hoped that over 20 million visitors would attend, considering the fact that 10 million tickets had already been sold before the opening ceremony. In the end, there were 21.5 million visitors, of whom 3.6 million came from abroad and 2 million were students on school trips. There were more than 300 official visits, including 60 heads of state and government, among them Vladimir Putin, François Hollande, David Cameron, Mari- ano Rajoy, Angela Merkel, Benjamin Netanyahu, and Uhuru Kenyatta, as well as UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The participants included 145 countries, 4 international organizations (the UN Nations, European Union, Caribbean Community, and Pacific Islands Forum), 63 third-sector organizations, and 13 non-governmental organizations. As far as the economic effects are concerned, 800 business projects were registered by the Milan Chamber of Commerce; 191,000 jobs were created, and there were 23.6 billion euros of value added; 29 million foreign tourists came to Italy in 2015; 12 billion euros were directly invested in the country, and more than 70,000 temporary jobs were created (140,000 in related industries); ticket sales generated 373 million euros (compared to the 450 expected); and sponsorships brought in 223 million euros. However, it is Italy’s agri-food sector that obtained the biggest boost in terms of image and in the amount of exports, which had a value of 36 billion euros—an increase of 8 percent compared to the previous year. The boom in sales of food made in Italy was particularly noted in the US (up 28 percent), China (up 18 percent), and the Asian markets (up 24 percent).14 In contrast, the estimated costs at the beginning of 2015 amounted to 1.3 billion euros, compared to a forecast of 1.6 billion (of which 311 million were earmarked for the management of the semester, 178 for goods and services, 185 for advertising and communications, and 45 for general operating and personnel expenditures). In addition, a further 70 million euros will be needed for soil remediation, and between 500 and 700 million euros will be required to make the site usable for other purposes. From the point of view of environmental sustainability, the 13,000 trees that were planted will remain in the area, and 40 percent of the exhibition space, that is, 1.1 million square meters, will remain as a park. Expo 2015 won the sustainability challenge, 220 Renata Lizzi receiving two awards for the environmental management of the event, with 67 percent of waste being separated for recycling and 40 tons of saved food being used to create 11,800 meals that were distributed to the needy (Cianciullo 2015; Foschini 2015). Finally, there is the issue of what use the site is going to be put to in the future. When the Arexpo company was redefined, it was expected that a project would be launched to create an innovation hub, known as Human Technopole Italia 2040, which would be realized with the support of the government and with the assistance of national and regional research centers. Minister Martina, who is responsible for the post-exhibition stage, supplied more details, although there were still uncertainties in terms of resources, timescales for implementation, and governance. In November 2015, the government passed a decree (Prime Ministerial Decree No. 185/2015) to allocate the first tranche of funding to mobilize national research centers in a joint framework with the centers in Lombardy to determine powers and responsibilities. On 10 November, Renzi himself unveiled the project in Milan in his usual style, declaring that the government was ready to provide all the necessary resources to make the Rho-Pero area the Italian equivalent of Silicon Valley—to be accomplished through the creation of a large center for genomics, big data, nutrition, and sustainability that would be home to 1,600 researchers from all over the world (Santin 2015).15

Conclusions

In spite of the initial difficulties and the various issues that arose along the way, many consider Expo 2015 to be a success, one that could not have been taken for granted either for Milan or for Italy. This outcome was the result of different and at times conflicting dynamics, which reflected the complexity of the event. As for the future, there are still some important challenges ahead. The first of these concerns the city of Milan and its capacity to live up to the image it projected during Expo 2015 and to maintain the synergies that it had set in motion in 2006, despite the occasional complication. In the past, divisions within the city’s ruling class had prevailed (Dente et al. 2005), and the process of modernization came to a halt in the 1990s, partly as a result of the “Bribesville” scandal and partly due to the city’s incapacity to bring culture, business, science, and technology together. The model and the impact of the Universal Exposition could provide very sound foundations for a new start for the city (Di Vico 2015). The second challenge concerns Italy and Prime Minister Renzi. Will the lesson be learned that racing against time, speed, and opportunism (Pasquino Expo 2015 221

2015) can constitute good practice only in exceptional circumstances, but that good administration and effective policies cannot be impro- vised? Even the adoption of a direct and functional media style so as to attract visitors or to build consensus should not be carried too far in an attempt to hide the complexity involved in every political issue. The third challenge, and perhaps the toughest one, concerns the general theme of the exposition, set out and developed in the Milan Charter. This seven-page document, signed and supported by over a million people, including political figures and public officials but also ordinary visitors, provides a legacy that reminds every citizen, asso- ciation, company, and institution, both national and international, to take responsibility for safeguarding food supplies for future genera- tions, so that everyone can enjoy the right to food.

— Translated by David Bull

Renata Lizzi is Associate Professor of Political Science at the Univer- sity of Bologna.

Notes

1. For example, the Amici di Expo (Friends of Expo)—a group of entrepre- neurs set up by Diana Bracco, the president of Assolombarda—made available 10 million euros for international projects. Some banks joined the effort, as did the Azienda Promos of Milan’s Chamber of Commerce and the Fiera Foundation. 2. At first, the No Expo Committee had successfully opposed the canals project (also getting committees of citizens involved). In 2013–2014, other criticisms surfaced, in particular on the Lavoce website, http://www. lavoce.info/. 3. The conflict between Moratti and Formigoni was over their respective powers and their vision for Expo 2015. Their disagreements also arose because they belonged to different relational and social contexts, as reported by Gallione (2012) and Castellini Curiel (2015). See also Giannat- tasio (2008). 4. The funds provided by the Italian government totaled 1,486 million euros for the 2009–2015 period. The Lombardy region also provided a significant amount, injecting 35.18 million euros for the 2009–2013 period and 123.82 million euros for 2013–2015. 5. The Northern League and Tremonti had not found agreement on Milan’s candidacy, and now the first effects of the outcome were beginning to be 222 Renata Lizzi

felt. There were budget constraints and other areas of disagreement that, in the case of the center-right, also came alongside internal equilibria and other national issues, further unsettling the Milan-Rome relations (Gal- lione 2012). 6. Positioned at the crossroads between the two axes, the Decumanus and the Cardo, this 35-meter sculpture symbolizing Expo 2015 would be made up of millions of bulbs that would light up the evenings. 7. “Expo 2015: Corte Conti, avvio incerto ora rispetto crono opere (1 Upd),” Agenzia ASCA, 2 August 2013, http://www.askanews.it/economia/expo- 2015-corte-conti-avvio-incerto-ora-rispetto-crono-opere-1-upd_711177680. htm (accessed 30 December 2015). 8. The draft anti-corruption law had ben sitting in the Senate for over a year, but for a number of reasons it was not possible to speed up its passage, which was not completed until May 2015. Thus, the granting of greater powers to Cantone was based on a decision shared between the prime minister, Minister Maurizio Martina, Pisapia, Maroni, and Cantone himself (Mauro 2014). 9. Numbering 3,500 at the time, the workers were to be increased to 7,000 in the days immediately before the opening. 10. For example, the New York Times put Milan at the top of its list of must-see destinations in 2015, and Les Echos stated that Expo 2015 would be the real test of Italy’s recovery. However, there were also criticisms: several articles in Le Monde and in The Economist highlighted the delays and the many difficulties that had arisen during the construction of the site. For a fuller picture, see “EXPO 2015: Per la stampa estera è occasione fra luci ed ombre” reporting opinions hosted on the Osservatorio della stampa internazionale dell’Expo from 2008 to 2014 (http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/ news/economia/11589356/expo-2015-per-la-stampa-estera-e-occasione-per -italia-tra-luci-e-ombre.html). 11 The protest had been organized by the No Expo Committee, which openly distanced itself from the violence carried out by Black Bloc (Pisa 2015). 12. For details of the press comments, see Rizzato (2015). 13. The benchmarks were Expo 2000 in Hanover, with the theme “Human- kind, Nature, Technology” (166 hectares for the exposition, 155 exhibiting nations and 18 million visitors), and Expo 2005 in Aichi, with the theme “Nature’s Wisdom” (173 hectares for the exposition, 127 exhibiting nations and 22 million visitors) (Castellini Curiel 2015). 14. For these and other figures, see Milan Chamber of Commerce, “Libro bianco su 800 idee di impresa per Expo,” March 2015, http://www.tavoliexpo.it. See also Ventimiglia (2015) and Soglio (2016). 15. See “Milano, Renzi: Expo sarà un centro di ricerca mondiale,” http:// www.milano.repubblica.it, 10 November 2015. For more critical comments, see Franco (2015) and Gallione and Pagni (2015). Expo 2015 223

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