Tengger Javanese A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Yale University in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Thomas J. Conners Dissertation Director: Dianne Jonas May, 2008 © by Thomas J. Conners All rights reserved ii Abstract TENGGER JAVANESE Thomas J. Conners, Ph.D. Yale University 2008 This dissertation provides a description and analysis of salient aspects of the grammar of Tengger Javanese. The data collected for and described in this work is the result of the author’s year and half long fieldwork in the volcanic highlands of the Tengger Massif in East Java, Indonesia. The first part of the dissertation focuses on the history, sociolinguistic setting, and lexicon, phonology, and basic morphology of the dialect. The second and larger part of the dissertation describes and explores aspects of the morphosyntax and syntax of Tengger Javanese. The language is placed within both a synchronic perspective, though a comparison with other dialects of Javanese and other related languages, and also a diachronic perspective, through comparisons with Old and Middle Javanese. Issues relevant to Austronesian studies in general such as voice systems, word order, constituency, and applicatives are all addressed. The approach taken is empirical, with the primary goal of the dissertation to accurately explicate the complex linguistic patterns found within the Tengger dialect itself. Through the synchronic and diachronic comparisons, the Tengger dialect is placed typologically both within the Austronesian language family, but also comparatively with non-Austronesian languages. iii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Thomas J. Conners received his BA in Linguistics from Yale University in 1995, writing his thesis on the syntax of Old Icelandic. He continued his studies in the Linguistics Department at Yale University, earning an MA and MPhil in 2000 and 2001 respectively, writing about the phonology and syntax of Indonesian. In the summer of 2000, Tom took an intensive course and earned an advanced certification in Indonesian at the Universitas Sam Ratulangi, in Manado, Sulawesi. After several summers spent collecting data around the Indonesian archipelago, Tom lived in Ngadas village, East Java, Indonesia for a year and half in 2003-2004 on a Fulbright Scholarship, conducting intensive field work on Tengger Javanese, for his Ph.D. from Yale University. Since February 2005, Tom has worked as a researcher for the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Jakarta Field Station, living full time in Jakarta, conducting a Javanese dialect mapping project. iv This dissertation is fondly dedicated to the memory of my grandparents, Thomas J. and Eleanor P. Conners, who were here to see the beginning of it, and doubtless are proud of its completion. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe the deepest and warmest thanks to the Tengger people, and all the people I have met in Indonesia, who have welcomed me into their homes, shared their food, and spent endless hours cheerfully discussing their languages. The Tengger specifically and Indonesians in general are the warmest, most welcoming people, who invite you in and accept you as family. I hope in some way that this dissertation can repay in some small part the countless kindnesses which have been shown to me during all my years in Indonesia. To my colleagues at the MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station I owe a great debt. I would never have finished this dissertation, or come to have the deeper understanding of Indonesian and Javanese that I do now without their help. To Antonia Sorriente, Betty Litamahuputty, Singgih, Dalan, Dini, Okki, Olly, Sarah, Tessa, Lani, Dian, Joni, Febi, Erni, Diana, Yanti, I thank you all. In particular I need to mention both David Gil and Uri Tadmor, who not only gave me a job in Jakarta, but pushed me to finish my dissertation. If not for a series of conversations in a ‘café’ in Manokwari, Papua with them, I would never have completed this work. The theoretical aspects of the dissertation owe an incalculable debt to many late night discussions in a blessedly warm apartment during the cold German winter of 2007- 8 in Leipzig with David Gil. Without his expertise, encouragement, enthusiasm, and probing mind, this dissertation would never have become what it is. vi I also benefited enormously from my conversations and long walks in Leipzig with Peter Cole, Gabriella Hermon, Jaklin Kornflit, and Andrej Malchukov. My years spent at Yale were some of the best of my life. There are myriad people there who have helped me during various phases of my studies, and with the dissertation in particular. Specifically, I would like to thank my fellow graduate students, my many professors, and my friends, all from whom I have learned so much. Stanley Insler has been a constant friend and profound teacher. To my dissertation advisor, Dianne Jonas I give my thanks. I also owe my deepest thanks to J. Joseph Errington, who always managed to find time and provide exceptional insights into Javanese and Indonesian. I am humbled greatly by his vast knowledge of things Javanese, and I am grateful for his sharing some of that with me. To my many other friends in the US and in Indonesia who have always supported me through all of my endeavors, I thank you all. I would like to thank those who provided me with financial support over the years, including Yale University, the Council on Southeast Asia, the Graduate School, Fulbright, and Fulbright-Hayes My family has been my greatest source of strength and encouragement throughout, Pop, Gran, Nora, Frank, Frankie, Tommy, and more recently Adam, I love you and thank you all. The one person who, more than any other, gave me constant support, encouragement, advice; the only one without whom I would not be who I am today, and would never have achieved so much, to my mother, Chris, I owe the world. From vii beginning to end, without fail, without doubt (of which I had plenty), she has always been there; she is my rock. Thanks mom, for everything! viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi PART I: BACKGROUND CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Organization of the Dissertation 2 1.3 Field Work and Data Collection 4 1.4 Methodology 11 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Austronesian/Western Malayo-Polynesian Foundations 15 2.3 A Short History of Java, Tengger 19 CHAPTER 3: THE TENGGER LANGUAGE 3.1 The Sociolinguistic Setting of Tengger 32 3.2 Speech Levels in Javanese and Tengger 36 3.3 A Grammatical Sketch: Lexicon, Phonology, Morphology 43 3.3.1 The Tengger Lexicon 45 3.3.2 A Brief Overview of Tengger Phonology 50 3.3.3 An Overview of Tengger Morphology 54 PART II: MORPHOSYNTAX/SYNTAX OF TENGGER CHAPTER 4: WORD ORDER AND CONSTITUENCY 4.1 Introduction 61 4.1.1 A Note of Verbs and Null Elements in Tengger 67 4.2 Unmarked Word Order 69 4.3 Javanese and Tengger as Strict Word Order Languages 77 4.4 Constituency in Tengger 87 4.4.1 A Note on Categories in Tengger 88 4.5 Constituency and Categories: Prepositions in Tengger 97 4.6 Is There a Verb Phrase in Tengger ? 104 4.7 Restrictions on Word Order 112 4.7.1 Modals in Tengger 112 4.8 Summary 128 4.9 Diachrony of Tengger Word Order: Word Order in Old and Middle Javanese 128 ix CHAPTER 5: VOICE AND THE CLAUSE IN TENGGER 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Voice Markers in Tengger 132 5.2.1 Active Voice in Tengger 133 5.2.1.1 The Nasal Prefix N- 134 5.2.1.2 The Active Prefix M- 140 5.2.2 Passive Voice in Tengger 144 5.2.2.1 The Passive Markers DI-, TAK- 146 5.2.2.2 The Accidental Passive, Ke-(an) 166 5.3 Voice in Standard Javanese 169 5.3.1 The Passive in Standard Javanese 169 5.4 Voice in Old/Middle Javanese: Diachrony of Tengger Voice 174 5.5 Typology of Voice: Symmetric Voice Systems 178 5.6 Summary and Conclusion 187 CHAPTER 6: MORPHOSYNTAX 6.1 Introduction 190 6.2 Mood In Tengger 191 6.2.1 The Propositive 198 6.3 Mood in Standard and Lowland Javanese 200 6.4 Mood In Old Javanese 202 6.5 Applicatives 204 6.5.1 Applicative I 205 6.5.2 Applicative II 210 6.5.3 Applicatives Compared 218 6.6 Verbal Suffixes: Clitic or Affix? 222 6.7 Applicatives: Voice and Mood 229 6.8 Standard Javanese Verbal Paradigm 232 6.9 Applicatives and Causatives in Old Javanese 239 6.10 Summary 244 6.11 Analysis 245 6.12 Conclusion 264 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY 268 APPENDIX 283 x PART I: BACKGROUND CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview This dissertation presents a description and aspects of the Tengger dialect of Javanese, spoken in the mountainous region of the Tengger massif in East Java, Indonesia, by approximately 30,000 speakers. The language of the Tengger is extremely threatened as this once isolated people have increased contact with lowlanders who speak the prestige variety of East Javanese. Further, there have been large scale conversions to Islam in recent years, which have weakened the connection of the Tengger to their unique code. While some past work has been conducted describing anthropological aspects Tengger life (Hefner 1985) and sociolinguistic aspects of their language (Smith-Hefner 1983), no significant work has ever documented, described, and analyzed formal aspects of Tengger language. This dissertation provides a description and analysis of salient aspects of the grammar of Tengger Javanese. The data collected for and described in this work is the result of the author’s year and half long field in the volcanic highlands of the Tengger Massif in East Java, Indonesia.