Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Home , Blue Shift (short story), Subject 9

‘Maybe It Was Too Much to Expect in Those Days’: The Changing Lifestyles of Barnard’s First Female Students | Visual Forms, Visceral Themes: Understanding Bodies, Pain, and Torture in Renaissance Art | Fabrication and Execution: The Lycambids and their Iambic Aptitude | Gendered Classrooms and Gendered Attire: Doing Gender on a College Campus FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

The Fordham Undergraduate Research Journal will “Preoccupied Main Street” Table of Contents Leena Mancheril, FCRH ’14 p. 5 soon be accepting submissions for our third issue. “Fordham’s First Rooftop Garden’ Elaine Park, FCRH ’14 p. 7

“3000-year-old animal bones from Iran” FURJ welcomes original research articles, short Michael Rametta, FCRH ’13 p. 9 “‘Maybe It Was Too Much to Expect in Those Days’: “WISDM Creates Android App to Track Couch Potatoes” research communications, book reviews, and review The Changing Lifestyles of Barnard’s Xavier Griffiths, FCRH ’14 p. 11 First Female Students” essays to be considered for publication. p. 16 Jennifer Prevete, FCRH ’12 “Spotlight: Modern Languages at Fordham” p. 13 “Visual Forms, Visceral Themes: Understanding Bodies, Pain, and Torture in Renaissance Art” Visit www.furj.org for information and p. 21 Helena Guzik, FCRH ’12 “Fabrication and Execution: submission guidelines. Please send questions to The Lycambids and their Iambic Aptitude” [email protected]. p. 27 William Bruckel, FCRH ’11 “Gendered Classrooms and Gendered Attire: “Interaction of Particle Beams with One-Dimensional Doing Gender on a College Campus” Potential Barriers” p. 32 Jeff Lockhart, FCRH ’13 Sheehan Ahmed, FCRH ’11 p. 39

“Synthesis and Characterization of Mono- and Di-O- p. 37 Research Mentor Award Alkylated Derivatives of Methyl 3,5-Dihydroxyl Benzoate” Want to work for FURJ? Michele Paccagnini, FCRH ’12 p. 41 “Tending the Flowers, Cultivating Community: Gardening on New York City Public Housing Sites” FURJ is always looking for peer reviewers, Lauren Sepanski, FCRH ’12 p. 43 staff writers, copy editors, and more! “Algebraic Detection of Flexibility of Polyhedral Structures with Applications to Robotics and Chemistry” Stephen Fox, FCRH ’11 p. 46 Michael E. Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution: Visit www.furj.org for more information Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign “Fabrication of CdS Nanoparticle Coated Jasmonate Policy from the Cold War to the Present Conjugates and their Interactions with Mammalian Cells” and to access the application. Please send p. 53 reviewed by Margaret Dunbar, FCRH ’14 Nazmul Sarker, FCRH ’13 p. 50

questions to [email protected]. Benjamin H. Dunning, Specters of Paul: Sexual Difference in Early Christian Thought p. 55 reviewed by Andrew Steffan, FCRH ’13

DM Lyons, S Chaudhry, and P Benjamin, “Synchronizing real and predicted synthetic video imagery for localization of a robot to a 3D environment”; DM Lyons and P Benjamin, “Locating and tracking objects by efficient comparison of real and predicted synthetic video imagery” p. 57 reviewed by Lilia Nikolova, FCLC ’14 Selected Research Accomplishments p. 59

Contributing Authors p. 61

Photo Credit: Bill Denison. FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Editorial Board Faculty Advisory Board Staff To the Fordham Community: Alexandria DeCapua-Guarino, Co-Editor-in-Chief Dr. Ipsita Banerjee Coty Brennan, FCLC ’12, Copy / Peer Reviews FCRH ’12: Biology, Anthropology Chemistry Elizabeth Carlson, FCRH ’14, PR Luther Cenci, FCLC ’15, Design Kevin Jordan, Co-Editor-in-Chief Dr. Michelle Bata Navena Chaitoo, FCRH ’13, Peer Reviews First and foremost, we would like to thank the Fordham community for making last year’s issue FCRH ’12: Biology FCRH Dean’s Office of FURJ—the inaugural issue—an incredible success. We are pleased to present the second issue Jessica Cheung, FCLC ’15, Copy Dr. Michael Baur Elizabeth Cole, FCLC ’14, PR Stephen Frayne, Peer Reviews Co-Editor of FURJ. This year we are bigger and better: Fordham College at Lincoln Center has joined this Philosophy Rachel deLacy, FCRH ’12, Design FCRH ’12: Chemistry amazing project, we have launched an official website (www.furj.org), and we are expecting to Dr. Susan Berger Michael DiTanna, FCRH ’13, Web Helena Guzik, Design Editor circulate even more copies. Once again, our staff has worked tirelessly to create another issue, Political Science Aaron Dowdell, FCRH ’12, News / Peer Reviews FCRH ’12: Art History, History Andrés Durán Rueda, FCRH ’14, Copy showcasing works on topics as diverse as the interaction of particle beams with one-dimensional Dr. Mark Botton Leena Mancheril, News Editor Caleb Faruki, FCRH ’13, Design / Book Reviews Natural Science potential barriers to community gardens in the Bronx. In addition to our student research, FCRH ’14: Economics Corinne Fitamant, FCLC ’15, Design Dr. Greta Gilbertson Rachel Gibbons, FCRH ’14, Copy reviews, and news articles, this year we are also excited to announce the research mentor of the Stephen Moccia, Photography Editor Sociology Xavier Griffiths, FCRH ’14, News / Copy year award. This award is an exciting step in recognizing the talented and dedicated faculty who FCRH ’12: Theology, Political Science Tory Guarino, FCRH ’15, Peer Reviews Dr. Richard Gyug invigorate and guide our students’ passions for research. Xavier Montecel, Book Reviews Co-Editor Justin Henry, FCRH ’12, Peer Reviews History FCRH ’12: Theology Robert Johnson, FCRH ’15, Sales / PR Second, we are proud to continue playing an integral role in the University’s dedication to Dr. Susanne Hafner Connie Kim, FCRH ’14, Design Michele Paccagnini, Peer Reviews Co-Editor Modern Languages Angelo Labate, FCRH ’12, Copy undergraduate research. We believe Fordham has planted itself firmly at the forefront of the FCRH ’12: Chemistry Dr. Donna Heald Jeff Lockhart, FCRH ’13, Peer Reviews / Book advancement of undergraduate research, and we believe there is something distinctly Jesuit Margaret Palazzolo, Managing Editor Reviews FCRH Dean’s Office about this endeavor. As students of this University, we have been taught the value of applying FCRH ’13: History Noelle Makhoul, FCRH ’12, Peer Reviews Dr. Karina Hogan Megan McDonald, FCRH ’14, Peer Reviews our knowledge for good; we have learned, as they say, the value of contemplation in action. Not Andrew Steffan, Copy Editor Theology Megan McLaughlin, FCRH ’15, Copy only does our research capture the Jesuit essence of magis, striving for more, but it also captures FCRH ’13: Political Science, Theology Dr. Michael Latham Gaetano Migliaccio, FCRH ’15, PR John Turiano, Web Content Editor Megan Mitchell, FCRH ’13, Copy / Book Reviews our dedication to our brothers and sisters. As we work hard to unravel and understand the world FCRH Dean’s Office FCRH ’14: International Political Economy Tara Paccagnini, FCRH ’12, Peer Reviews around us, we do it with an eye toward each other. A quick look through this journal clearly Dr. Frederick Marotto Sarah Sullivan, Public Relations Manager Elaine Park, FCRH ’14, News indicates that, while our students are dedicated to their research, they are also dedicated to each Mathematics Alexander Profaci, FCRH ’13, Book Reviews FCRH ’12: History, Medieval Studies other. Being men and women for others is what we believe makes Fordham’s undergraduate Dr. Nicholas Tampio Michael Rametta, FCRH ’13, News / Peer Reviews Victoria Yang, Sales/Advertising Manager researchers and faculty mentors extraordinary. Political Science Erin Regan, FCRH ’14, PR GSB ’14: Finance Michael Rezin, FCRH ’14, Photos Dr. John Wehr Last, we would like to thank our amazing staff for working so hard to make this journal a great Nazmul Sarker, FCRH ’13, Peer Reviews Biological Sciences Juliana Troisi, FCRH ’15, PR / Copy success. We would like to give our greatest thanks to Dr. Michelle Bata, Assistant Dean and Monica Tyson, FCLC ’13, Sales / PR Director of Undergraduate Research, and Dr. Michael Latham, Dean of Fordham College at Acknowledgments Jade Vargas, FCRH ’14, Design Anthony Vespa, FCRH ’12, Book Reviews Rose Hill, without whom this journal would not be possible. Unfortunately, for some of us on The FURJ staff wishes to thank the Lai Hiu Wan, FCRH ’13, Sales following for their support: the editorial board, this is our last issue as we prepare to graduate in May. We would like to Patrick Wester, FCRH ’12, Peer Reviews thank the graduating seniors on the executive board: Stephen Frayne, Helena Guzik, Stephen Fordham University’s Office of Brian Williams, FCRH ’13, Peer Reviews Moccia, Xavier Montecel, Michele Paccagnini, and Sarah Sullivan. They worked tirelessly Marketing and Communications, the faculty and students who setting the foundation for a journal that did not exist two years ago, and their hard work will be served as faculty and peer remembered and carried on for years to come. reviewers, the FURJ Faculty The Fordham Undergraduate Research Journal (above) The 2011/2012 FURJ editorial board. Pictured (counterclockwise): Sarah Advisory Board, and the FCRH Volume 2, Issue 1, Spring 2012 Sullivan, Alexandria DeCapua-Guarino, Andrew Steffan, Margaret Palazzolo, Kevin and FCLC Dean’s Offices and their Jordan, Victoria Yang, Leena Mancheril, John Turiano, Michele Paccagnini, Stephen Cover: Jean Milles de Souvigny, The estrapade, or question Frayne, Xavier Montecel, and Helena Guzik. student workers extraordinary (det.), 16th century. Sincerely, (below) The 2011/2012 FURJ Staff. Photography by Stephen Moccia, FCRH ’12. Picture Collection, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations.

The positions expressed herein reflect the personal opinions of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of FURJ or the Fordham community. FURJ does not independently verify the information provided by our contributors.

FURJ is published annually and debuts at Fordham College at Alexandria DeCapua-Guarino Kevin Jordan Rose Hill’s Undergraduate Research Symposium. Fordham University, 441 E. Fordham Rd. Co-Editor-in-Chief Co-Editor-in-Chief Bronx, NY 10458

Features against corporate-led globalization and instead focused on trying to prevent wars in Afghani- The institutional channels for change stan and Iraq. Gautney suggests that the Oc- are very eroded in this country. The cupy movement is a return to the original issue, Preoccupied saying that “the project of corporate globaliza- ballot box is a very unfulfilling way of Features tion got derailed by the war and Occupy picked getting politically engaged. it right back up again.” The purpose of the Occupy movement is to - Dr. Heather Gautney, hold a peaceful occupation of Wall Street in or- assistant professor of sociology Main der to protest corporate influence on American politics and publicly to oppose the lack of legal action against those responsible for the global financial crisis. One of their major concerns is the increasing wealth disparity, explained by the movement’s slogan, “We are the 99%,” a reference to the major gap between the wealth owned by the top 1% of income earners and the rest of the country. According to Gautney, “When you have 1% owning 40% of all privately held wealth in the country, you have a real Street problem on your hands. Wealth is home ownership but it’s also property you make money off of. Mitt Romney made 20 million dollars this year off of his investments alone. When you control a lot of the wealth, that’s a real marker of power. Not your ability to create more wealth but your ability to control politics.” Following the recession of the late 2000’s, many have argued for higher income tax rates on the 1%, reinforcing the current belief that by Leena Mancheril, FCRH ’14 the majority is obligated to compensate for the mistakes of the top minority. Occupy protestors seek to create a more democratic, participatory form of government. In the midst of budget uring the past two years, protests have spread around the world as quickly as fire. The Arab Spring cuts and the loss of public resources, people are growing disillusioned with politics. “The institutional channels protests from late 2010 ignited global revolts in Sub-Saharan Africa, Greece, the European Union, for change are very eroded in this country. The ballot box is a very unfulfilling way of getting politically engaged,” and most notably in the United States. In early June 2011, members of the Adbusters Media Foun- Gautney said. The protests on Wall Street are a turning point in recent history because more people are becoming Ddation, a Canadian based not-for-profit, anti-consumerist, pro-environment organization sent an email activists. “Protests are dramatic and they bring a lot of attention. They epitomize the outrage people express and to its subscribers proclaiming that “America needs its own Tahrir.” On Sept. 17, 2011, an occupation was there is a certain catharsis,” Gautney said. The media has helped amplify their voices, and the movement has spread held in the financial district of New York City, beginning the Occupy Wall Street movement. Dr. Heather not only to other U.S. cities, but also to countries overseas. Gautney, assistant professor of sociology at Fordham University, is currently writing a book on the Occupy Wall Street movement, linking it to a protest she covered in the mid to late ’90s called the Global Justice Despite their similarities, however, Gauntey also notices some differences between the GJM and Occupy Wall Movement (GJM). Gautney regularly visits the Occupy camps, interviewing participants and recording her Street. The latter is much more grassroots and localized, and many more people have already taken part in the Oc- observations. Her book will focus on the resurgence of activism and the prominent critique of inequality cupy movement compared to the number of attendees at the summits in front of the WTO. Although her previous that characterized the GSM and is now present in the Occupy movement. work focused on international issues concerning profit-led globalization and labor standards in low-income countries, Gautney is now interested in the events in the United States. “Americans can support [international protests] More than ten years ago, the GJM carried the same energy and frustration that Occupy has today. People from and create an international solidarity, but people have different relationships with their government. We can share around the world were connected by their opposition to the free trade rules and economic conditions set by the our support for one another, but we have to be really sensitive to the nuances of people’s context.” Many people World Trade Organization. It started with a group of Mexican peasants called the Zapatistas, who used the rela- were upset over the Adbusters call for “another Tunisia.” A decade in tively new Internet to their advantage, translating their local resistance into a global strike against free trade rules. a recession is very different from living under a money-laundering, They were opposing the recent passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, signed drug-trafficking president for three decades. Yet the Occupy move- by the United States, Mexico, and Canada to eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers. NAFTA also cancelled Ar- ment is doing important work changing people’s perceptions of their ticle 27 of Mexico’s constitution, which protected Indian communal lands from privatization, giving the state the own political involvement and encouraging policy change. “For me, right to privatize and sell the land on which the Zapatistas had been living. According to Gautney, “the Zapatistas I’m American, and I think it’s really interesting what is happening in used the Internet to couch the resistance in terms of a global struggle, showing the way in which corporate-run America with Occupy. It hasn’t happened in my lifetime, this kind of globalization was affecting people, and this resonated not only with other peasant communities but also with movement, and my interest is in the national scene,” said Gautney. If people around the world, particularly students in the United States, who were organizing against sweatshop labor Occupy Wall Street can continue to gain momentum with nonvio- and environmental issues.” A multitude of causes brought together people from around the world to meet at large lence and not get sidetracked by other issues, it has the potential to summits in front of trade organizations like the G8, the World Trade Organization, and the World Bank. In 1999, improve the plight of Main Street. the movement attracted a lot of attention in the U.S. when activists successfully shut down the annual World Trade ■ Organization meeting in Seattle. In fact, the GJM seemed to be on the verge of making significant changes to the free trade rules made by the World Trade Organization, producing larger and more popular summits everywhere the World Bank or the G8 would meet. However, in 2001 at a G8 meeting in Genoa, Italy, a protestor was killed by the police. This led to “a lot of internal problems in terms of questions of violence,” Gautney said. However, num- Dr. Heather Gautney at an Occupy Wall Street rally. Image courtesy of Dr. Gautney. bers were still increasing until three months later, on Sept. 11. Activists got sidetracked from supporting the cause 5 6 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Features Ame Anteyi is a pre-med student, and the scientific methods involved in Aloioso’s work and his love for experimenting was enough for him to get involved. This past summer, Anteyi assisted Jason with making soils and plant- Fordham’s First Rooftop Garden ing seeds. From Anteyi’s perspective, the world of ecology makes a huge impact on the world of medicine. “I like to open my eyes into a whole new world outside, how environment affects health and diet. I’m really interested in

ecology and how it affects the human population, and if it can affect obesity,” says Anteyi. Aloisio is also mentor- Features ing Ame in another research project, which studies the effect of heavy metals on plants. Both Clonan and Anteyi’s projects are near completion. To set up the green roof, Aloisio created a list of plants to test whether certain combinations of plants would improve ecosystem services. He decided to let nature decide what plants would grow well on the roof, letting “media grow naturally over the course of the summer, with the idea that whatever performs well, we should look at those a little more closely.” Aloisio realized that some edible plants were surviving and thriving on the rooftops. One by Elaine Park, FCRH ’14 species, the Amaranthus, more commonly known as amaranth, is a grain and vegetable producing crop and, while not commonly eaten in the United States, is eaten in various other parts of the world. Another species, Portulaca oleracea, or purslane, is a variant of a succulent plant, which boasts a high omega fatty acid content among other ery few individuals on Fordham’s campus would think to go to the rooftop of the garage to observe lush health benefits. When asked how the green roof plants tasted, Clonan and Anteyi greenery. Yet this past summer, Jason Aloisio, a PhD student in the Biology department at Fordham Uni- were surprisingly eager to say, “Purslane looks like a weed on Eddy’s, but it’s good. versity, along with a team of undergraduate students, conducted a project to build a garden containing It was weird, it looks like a weed, but it was actually pretty good.” Vdiverse green plants on the barren, concrete roof. Aloiso sums up his passion succinctly: “I grew up being in love with nature.” He focuses on urban ecology and sustainability in his research, and is currently performing his dis- Although Aloiso has previously cultivated many rooftop gardens, including the sertation research on rooftop agriculture and the natural succession of green roofs over time. Brooklyn Grange and the Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, this is the first garden in which he let nature take its course. This experiment not only tested which plants Green roofs have been in existence since the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans, yet they have never gained were suitable for rooftop agriculture but also showed whether the type of soil widespread popularity. The most basic form of a green roof simply has plants growing on a rooftop. These plants played a role in yielding more growth. In order to investigate the latter, Aloiso are most often “sedum,” a hardy type of succulent plant and are planted in a special kind soil. Green roof garden took three types of soil: a typical sandy green roof media, a nutrient rich potting soil can be a complicated issue since load capacity is a major issue for rooftops that were not built with the inten- soil, and “Gaia soil,” a lightweight growing medium with high Styrofoam content. tion of growing plants atop them. Also, since potting soil and other dark soils soak up a lot of water, green roof He grew four different plants in each soil type, measured how much edible plant media has to be sandier and have less organic material than one might find in ground level soil. material they produced, and compared the different species of amaranth to see In the summer of 2010, Aloisio conducted a project that studied naturally colonizing plants in New York. His re- which fared best in the harsh rooftop habitat. Aloisio knew that purslane would do search was conducted for two reasons. First, there had not been much research in the New York City area about well because “it is adapted for hot, dry climates.” He also had buckets underneath what kinds of plants would naturally colonize empty spaces. Already-established green roofs require labor to pull the containers to collect the draining water and to measure both how much run- Pictured: Jason Aloisio, leader of the rooftop garden out unwanted plants. By allowing these “unwanted plants” to naturally colonize a bare plot of land, Aloisio could off each soil gave off and the nutrient content inside the water. project. Photography by Stephen Moccia, FCRH ’12. gather and study a list of plants that could potentially be eliminated from roof agriculture. Second, research has With regard to his findings, Aloisio clarifies that “there is not enough literature in shown that plants with different morphologies (sizes and shapes) actually improve the ecosystem services of the peer review journals, no data that says yes or no or maybe or quantifies anything. However, the data is showing that green roof. An ecosystem service is one provided by the environment for us, such as clean air, water habitat, there is a lot of nutrient run off. It also suggests that you need to water a lot to keep the plants growing because it recreation, and carbon fixation. In a mutual relationship, these ecosystem services can keep the temperature of is very dry up there. It’s a difficult environment to grow on.” The nutrient-filled runoff also runs through the sew- the green roof lower than sedum can alone, lowering energy consumption for heating and cooling costs in the age system and into rivers and streams. This problem, called eutriphication, can lead to algal bloom, the invasion building. A variety of different plants can also appeal to a variety of different species, thus creating a more diverse of foreign species and a shift in the water’s pH, among other environmental changes. For this reason, Aloisio says habitat for organisms. that it is “questionable at this point in time whether rooftop agriculture should be promoted. We need to have more In the summer of 2011, Aloisio enlisted undergraduate students studying in the sciences to start the rooftop studies done; it’s not a complete picture yet.” Furthermore, since different soils hold different amounts of water, project. Kyle Clonan, FCRH ’14, and Ame Anteyi, FCRH ’14, are two undergraduate students who met Aloisio there must be a lot of thought put into different watering regimens. “The technology is there; people just need to in their freshman core classes, where he worked as a teaching assistant. Clonan, an environmental science major, use them.” However, Aloisio emphasizes that getting decent yields is plausible in green roof agriculture. had envisioned himself working someday in the wilderness, but after working with Aloisio he realized that “it’s not Like Aloisio, Clonan and Anteyo would like to see environmentally conscious changes enacted in the near future. always realistic. Right now I’m trying to help make a bigger change in civilization to make it more environmentally Clonan says with regards to green roof projects, “There are cool experiments going on up there. With what [Al- sustainable. And green roofs are a great way to do that, and they have lots of potential.” Clonan has helped Aloisio oisio] finds, if they find a way to implement it, it could be a great thing for the city and for the people.” Hopefully, with the planting and watering of purslane and amaranthus on the green roofs this past summer. He also worked Aloisio’s project will continue and provide the onset for a green initiative across campus. No matter what their in the lab gathering data and measuring run-off, soil depth, pH, and biomass growth. conclusion may be, their work has already proven that living in the city is no longer an excuse not to be environ- In turn, Aloiso mentors Clonan with his own research on the amount of energy costs that could be saved if Ford- mentally responsible. ham were to install a green roof on top of O’Hare Hall. The New York City Department of Environmental Protec- ■ tion gives a grant to anyone who reduces significant rainwater runoff. They hope to present their findings by the end of the semester. 7 8 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Features donkeys, or onagers (a species similar to a large wild donkey native to Asia), Gilbert hypothesizes that these bones came from animals that were deliberately hybridized thousands of years ago by humans living in Mesopotamia. If so, these findings would significantly impact the understanding biologists and anthropologists have of Bronze Age Did you know... that professors humans. “Ancient writing,” Gilbert pointed out, “attests to the practice of cross breeding,” though “the products of such hybridizing have not yet been identified with certainty among the skeletal remains recovered archaeologi- Features Allan Gilbert cally.” The decision to hybridize two animals relies on the awareness of the somewhat complex concept of “hybrid vigor,” or the creation of a superior offspring as result of the mating of two different yet closely related animal species. Gilbert adds that “since Godin Tepe lies on an important trade route linking Mesopotamia with the Persian (anthropology) plateau and places eastward, the presence of remains from caravan animals specially bred for burden would be expected.” Gilbert’s data, however, is still inconclusive on account of several biological reasons too technical to and Evon include here. Nonetheless, the project has been significantly advanced by the addition of new technologies, such as the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a method for amplifying specific genes. Hekkala Back at the lab, Hekkala testifies to several difficulties involved in working with extremely old genetic material. First, much of the nuclear DNA has been broken down because of the age of the samples. The “abundant” presence (biological of mitochondrial DNA is only marginally helpful because it is only maternally inherited. Uncovering both the ma- ternal and paternal genetic contributions would best determine whether these bones came from a hybrid whose sciences) are parents were from different species. Another issue for Hekkala and her undergraduate researchers is the high risk of contaminating these ancient specimens. She and her students must be extremely careful to keep their own DNA from coming into contact with the bones. Hekkala cautiously researching excised the samples at the American Museum of Natural His- tory (where she conducted her doctoral research) under strict- Hekkala noted that “ninety- 3000-year-old ly regulated conditions. At Fordham, students working with nine percent” of her research the samples sterilize their equipment under a special ultravio- is performed in collaboration animal bones let hood. If such precautions are not taken, the PCR machine, which prefers to amplify intact DNA to broken genetic mate- with her students. from Iran? rial, could end up copying the DNA of the human researchers. Gilbert and Hekkala both regard their undergraduate researchers as absolutely vital to the success of the project. Hekkala noted that “ninety-nine percent” of her research is performed in collaboration with her students. She tested the bone specimens herself a couple of years ago, but now her students do most of the day-to-day work, extracting and amplifying DNA specimens and comparing them to control samples, such as the DNA of a modern- day horse. Hekkala is pleased that the project includes both biology majors and students from other disciplines, by Michael Rametta, FCRH ’14 creating a rich and valuable diversity in backgrounds and methods. Gilbert treasures the students’ experience in learning different scientific processes and approaches. Any scientific inquiry, according to Gilbert, “is full of n any given week, a group of dedicated undergraduate biology and anthropology students can be found ups and downs and failures and successes,” and it is im- in a laboratory at Larkin Hall. Under the guidance of Dr. Evon Hekkala, a professor in the biological sci- portant that students are acquainted with both. Scientific ences department at Fordham, they extract, amplify, and analyze DNA from a set of 3000-year-old bones. research is a slow process, and Gilbert believes that the OAcross campus in Dealy Hall, Dr. Allan Gilbert, anthropology professor and department chair, tries to historically project has shown students the importance of patience in contextualize these biological findings. These bones have a long and interesting history. Initially excavated between the sciences. Given the number of unknown variables in 1965 and 1973 from an archaeological site in western Iran called Godin Tepe, the bones are believed to belong to this project, the students also learn to avoid what Gilbert some kind of equine species, though the exact identities of these specimens are still under investigation. The bones Images courtesy of Profs. Hekkala and Gilbert. calls “easy” hypotheses and instead focus on thinking of were crucial in Gilbert’s doctoral research in the late 1970s. Since the Fall of 2010, however, they have been at the alternative and original ideas. center of an innovative interdisciplinary research project at Fordham University involving about a dozen biology Hekkala, Gilbert, and their undergraduate students thus enjoy a fruitful, interdependent relationship. Just as Gil- and anthropology majors. bert depends on Hekkala’s laboratory findings to support or contradict his hypotheses, Hekkala’s research needs Even though Gilbert studied these bones as a graduate student three decades ago, his research efforts were supple- Gilbert’s anthropological expertise to contextualize the specimens. The student assistants also undoubtedly ben- mented considerably by the addition of Hekkala, an expert in ancient DNA, to Fordham’s biological sciences fac- efit from the exposure to scientific research afforded by these two professors. Incidentally, however, Hekkala and ulty several years ago. As a result of their collaborative work, Gilbert and Hekkala have been able to determine the Gillbert also depend on their undergraduate assistants to approach their research with creativity, innovation, and kind of animal from which these ancient specimens originated. Although it is possible they were zebras, horses, perseverance. ■ 9 10 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Features WISDM offers some advantages over other data collection methods that allow other smart phone us- WISDM Creates ers to document your activity. Data mining is not subject to the bias of what people want to report about themselves. The team has developed models sophisticated enough to recognize the unique walking pace of 222 people with perfect accuracy after less than five minutes of recording. This method has great implica-

Android App to Track Features tions for security and privacy. Based on such precise metrics, your phone will be able to identify you when you carry it in your pocket. The next phase of the project seeks to detect what the team calls “soft biometric Couch Potatoes traits,” which refers to predicting a person’s height, weight, sex and even hair color based on mined sensor data. “Anything you can think of, we’d like to try and predict. How fit you are, how long you spend studying, although most of those will be hard,” Dr. Weiss admits. by Xavier Griffiths, FCRH ’14 The WISDM project aims not only to mine sensor data but also to explore app development for smart phones. our smartphone says a lot about you, including your age, In fact, the WISDM team has already built an app called the ActiTracker and it is currently available for Android preferences, and current whereabouts. Imagine an app phones. In its current form, ActiTracker is not optimized for use by the general population. Its purpose now is to that can monitor your physical activity, letting you know collect data from the project’s volunteer subjects. Yby the end of the day if you’ve been as inactive as a couch potato. According to one of its developers, Tony Pulickal, FCRH ’13, ActiTracker was “created as a means for people to An undergraduate research team in the Computer Science de- understand more about themselves. As the phone collects data which we can use to analyze them [the user], they partment at Fordham is currently building that app. Their proj- can also use it to assess their own basic activities.” The team identifies a report from the World Health Organiza- ect, called WISDM (Wireless Sensor Data Mining) will deter- tion, which cites that 3.2 million people die each year due to inactivity. mine how information, such as whether or not you are walking or running, can be derived from the sensors included in most Even in its unfinished state, the app exhibits impressive functionality. One feature graphs the activity of a phone’s smartphones. The WISDM team hopes that this app will be use- accelerometer in real time, responding quickly and accurately. ActiTracker also features a map view based on ful for many people, especially those in the medical field. Google Maps for Android which alludes to the project’s prospective interest in GPS-based data mining. The app can also record a user’s activity, such as speed and altitude in real time. The WISDM project focuses on the accelerometer sensor, which is often used either to change the orientation of the screen or as Essentially a fitness app, ActiTracker also has a training feature. A user can complete pre-set activities, such as an input method for games in most smartphones. According to Jeff Lockhart, FCRH ’12, “the goal of the WISDM standing or jogging, for a set period project is to take the sensor data and try to get computers to learn meaningful patterns out of that data.” The app of time and be rewarded by unlock- can accurately identify a user based on his or her biometric identification, which includes the user’s name, age, ing achievements, like playing a vid- weight, height and hometown. Based on the information gathered by the accelerometer, the team has developed eo game on Xbox LIVE. machine models that can differentiate between when a specific person is walking, standing or performing some The team plans to support Acti- other activity such as jogging. Tracker with constant updates even WISDM has its origins in the honors thesis of Jennifer Pappas, FCRH ’09. Since its creation, the project has been after it is made available to the pub- largely composed of undergraduate researchers. At first, students focused on dedicated sensor units furnished by lic. One plan is to give users access Sun Microsystems instead of experimenting with smartphone devices. Now under the guidance of Dr. Weiss, chair to records of their activity online of the Computer Science department, the WISDM project has expanded to include about a dozen undergradu- and also the ability to share that in- ates. However, their work goes beyond simply writing code. The team is split into four separate groups working on formation with friends. The WIS- everything from smartphone development to man- DM project hopes to have a wide re- aging relations with clients. Moreover, every paper lease of ActiTracker for the general Data mining is not subject to the produced by the project credits one or more of its population by the end of the sum- bias of what people want to report undergraduate students as an author. mer. Amidst previous claims that technology discourages people from about themselves. According to Dr. Weiss, WISDM “isn’t just an aca- exercising and physically exerting demic exercise. These students are actually doing themselves, ActiTracker may prove The WISDM team. Photography by Michael Rezin, FCRH ’14. original research and getting things published. So it benefits the university because we are supposed to be teach- to be the exception. ing, and it benefits the students because they are actually producing things that can help them get jobs and get into ■ graduate school.” The WISDM project is funded through a variety of grants and endowments. There are Summer Science Research Internships for students who wish to work on WISDM over the summer. Dr. Weiss has also received a Faculty Re- search Grant from the university as well as a Google Faculty Research Award worth $25,000. However, the biggest contribution so far has been the National Science Foundation Grant, which gave $420,000 to “fund undergraduate and graduate student researchers involved in the WISDM project for the next three years,” Dr. Weiss claims. 11 12 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Features

Alessia Valfredini Features

Lecturer in Italian

Fordham College at Rose Hill Faculty Spotlight Modern Languages at Fordham

Dr. Lise Schreier

Associate Professor of French

Fordham College at Rose Hill

Pictured: Alessia Valfredini and her daughter. Image courtesy of Prof. Valfredini.

In the past, researchers largely believed that learning a second language was an interference, cognitively speaking, with academic development. However, professor Alessia Valfredini, of the Modern Languages and Literature department at Fordham University, claims that this is a misconception. According to Valfredini, “research has found that writers use the same resources and methods they use to write in English when they write in a foreign language.” She is currently doing her doctoral dissertation on foreign language writing, focusing on the way students approach writing using their native and foreign language resources. The pilot study for her dissertation is based on the composition experiences of about fifteen anonymous students from the intermediate to advanced Italian classes. “The perspective of the students was missing [in previous research which] looks at the final product of the writing. But I wanted to know about their experience,” Valfredini said. Pictured: Lise Schreier. Image courtesy of Dr. Schreir. The students answered general questions about their writing process in a foreign language. A year spent studying French with Dr. Lise Schreier is not only a trip across the French-speaking world but also Valfredini subsequently followed up with the same students to learn about their writing experience with the a voyage across time, from Napoleonic Egypt and post-Revolutionary France to modern day Haiti. Schreier English language. Her findings were consistent with recent research that claims students use the same tools is presently at work on a book entitled The Playthings of Empire: Exoticized Children and the Politics of French they use to write in their native languages to support their foreign language writing. “Most of the students felt Femininity, 1780-1895. With the support of a Fordham Faculty Research Grant, Schreier is undertaking ashamed or embarrassed about it,” says Valfredini, “but it’s actually positive support. Writing is a very recursive methodical and original archival research in Paris. Her goal is to shed new light on the ways French women process and personal process.” Instead of forcing students to follow a standard writing method, such as outlining contributed to the process of empire-building during the Colonial period, when those who were culturally and before writing, Valfredini argues, that it is more efficient for students to learn to write in a foreign language using racially marginalized figured heavily in 18th and 19th century French society. the same tools and methods they use to write in English. She wrote about her results in a paper that has been As a specialist of literature from 19th century France and the North African region known as the Maghreb, accepted to the American Educational Research Association. Schreier actively involves her undergraduate students in her research in a variety of ways. She not only offers Valfredini has wanted to be a teacher since childhood. She started teaching Italian twenty years ago in Italy to upper-level courses on her areas of expertise, such as Franco-Caribbean literature, but she also frequently advises second-language learners. Her focus on writing grew out of her work in academia, explaining that it became “a students completing theses in the Honors Program and the Comparative Literature major. Several of her students pillar of instruction” when she started to teach Fordham’s Eloquentia Perfecta program. Her love for language is have also recently presented their works at the Fordham Undergraduate Research Symposium. also apparent at home. By the age of three, her daughter was extremely proficient in both Italian and Spanish. Schreier regards her relationships with her students as “very precious,” particularly because they allow her Since starting school in the city, English has become her second language, followed by Spanish. “It’s my aim in to refine and challenge her own understanding of French literature. In order to foster a vibrant “intellectual life to keep her proficient in Italian,” Valfredini says. collaboration” of dialogue in- and outside of the classroom, Schreier focuses on finding a balance between by Leena Mancheril, FCRH ’14 her own voice and those of her students. She is especially satisfied to be able to work in a variety of contexts with students who share her passion for scholarly inquiry and debate on French and Francophone culture and literature. by Michael Rametta, FCRH ’13

13 14 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Jennifer Prevete, FCRH ’12 ‘Maybe It Was Too Much to Expect in Those Days’ The Changing Lifestyles of Barnard’s First Female Students Research

From 1890 to 1920 higher education witnessed a marked increase in female matriculation among select East Coast institutions. This paper explores the personal narratives of these pioneering women to illustrate how societal forces strongly influenced these women’s college experiences. Existing discourse emphasizes the difficulties female university students faced as they tried to pursue both careers and families. Scholars claim that an unusual number of college-educated women did not marry or married at a later age. This paper examines first-hand perspectives drawn from the Barnard College Archives to supplement current secondary data. Alumnae biographical questionnaires reveal how women reconciled opportunities with societal pressures. Compromises included socio-political activism as mediatory outlets for energy. Ultimately, while a college degree allowed women at the turn of the twentieth century to pursue a life with a career as the focal point, graduates became pulled between tradition and opportunity; a woman’s college education American Studies was seemingly incompatible with the female roles of the family unit.

Research Articles From 1890 to 1920, the female graduates who matriculated from Patterns of Family and Employment institutions along the East Coast became some of the first women and The Evolution of Women’s Education to attend college in the United States. Existing discourse empha- Generally, the first several generations of women to attend col- sizes the difficulties women faced while pursuing both a career lege in the United States were white, emerging from middle so- and a family after graduation. These women engaged in new edu- A research article reports original cio-economic status (Gordon, 2002). As increasing numbers of cational initiatives during a time when the female’s role remained women began to attend college at the turn of the century, pat- within the domestic sphere. Consequently, they struggled with the terns involving marriage and reproduction rates emerged. Pres- research and assesses its contribution costs of their unusual choice. I explore the complex social present-day scholars work to identify these patterns and isolate the sures surrounding women pursuing higher education during this socio-economic forces behind them. Various sources approximate to a particular body of knowledge in time period. I first examine statistics about marriage and family that “60 to 70% of the first generation of graduates from women’s from this time period. From the available data involving the turn colleges did not marry and many pursued specifically identifiable of the century, scholars suggest that an unusual number of col- a field of study. All research articles careers” (Conway, 1974). Mary Cookingham conducted a popu- lege-educated women did not marry following their graduation lation study in the 1980s which tracks the “V-shaped pattern” or at a later age. In order to provide context for these numbers and must contain the student’s own of marriage rates for women graduates from 1865 to 1910. Ac- explain alterations of the woman’s place in society, I describe the cording to Cookingham’s work, nuptials for these women were at creation and the nature of women’s colleges in the mid-nineteenth conclusion. For the purpose of FURJ, a the lowest point from 1885 to 1910. This pattern indicates some century. Aside from the existing interventions on this topic, I used unique elements of education or society within that time period accounts from the first students at Barnard College, founded in to produce the trend (Cookingham, 1984). Cookingham favors an research article must be performed at 1889, to supply a better understanding of a college education’s ef- economic explanation: the “marked decrease in the opportunity fects upon women of the time period. Biographical questionnaires cost of remaining single for college women” (Cookingham, 1984). least in part by the student and should allowed alumnae to comment upon their experience decades after According to Cookingham, women balanced social and institu- attending Barnard. These firsthand accounts help explain the tra- tional restrictions with the amount of available opportunities. She jectories of family and employment in an individual’s life. They demonstrate the student’s own ideas. supports this idea because the employment for young educated also help uncover why so few of these women acted as both a pro- women coincided with the lower nuptial rates. Variations in the fessional and a wife and mother. labor market determined whether or not it was in women’s ability Ultimately, higher education conferred a new way of life that some to postpone marriage in favor of pursuing employment (Cook- women embraced through socio-political activism and employ- ingham, 1984). Claudia Goldin engages in her own study and di- ment after graduation. Oftentimes, employed women defied do- vides different generations of graduates into cohorts on the basis mestic roles and never married. Many who did marry attempted of their career and family outcomes throughout the twentieth cen- to enact their education through organizational activities. The tury. Without the opportunity to embrace a family and a career graduates’ feelings toward their alma mater are complex, but their simultaneously, graduates of the first twentieth century cohort, individual responses illuminate the social pressures they experi- from 1900 to 1920, made the decision between the two. In other enced at the time. Consequently, I assert that while a college de- words, women secured either marriage or career but not both si- gree allowed women at the turn of the twentieth century to pursue multaneously (Goldin, 2004). Goldin analyzes the marriage and a life with career as the focal point as opposed to family, gradu- reproduction rates in each cohort and compares the differences in ates became pulled between tradition and opportunity because a rates among educated and uneducated women of the time period. woman’s college education was not compatible with female roles She observed that more than 30% of female graduates in the 1900 in the family unit. to 1920 cohort never married by the age of fifty. Only about 8% of

* Thank you to Professors Julie Kim and Oneka LaBennett and the Barnard College Archives. 15 16 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research the female counterpart with no college education remained single demic disciplines within their occupations (Conway, 1974). From ucation to Columbia College, although the institution’s president most significant resources are the Biographical Questionnaires, by the age of 50. By age 40, over 50% of the college women in the the social changes following the Civil War, scholars note the first at the time, Frederick A. P. Barnard, campaigned diligently for conducted by the Associate Alumnae. 1900 to 1920 cohort were childless. In contrast, the work-rate for definitive group of college women. Similar to the women who women’s integration. President Barnard exemplified the vision- The Associate Alumnae sent out questionnaires in 1956 and re- those women who graduated college and did get married is low, participated in the feminist abolition movements, women who aries who supported coeducation. He “believed [women] would ceived responses back from all the graduating classes, including with only 20% of married graduates working at age 45 (Goldin, did attend college at this time faced the difficulties of pursuing an thrive at Columbia” and that female presence in colleges was “dis-

the very first in 1893. The earliest graduation years submitted the Research 5004). The generation of women graduating from 1890 to 1920 unpopular course in life. The first generation of women to attend tinctly conducive to good order” (Rosenberg, 2004). Throughout fewest responses, due most likely to the small class size and to old was particularly significant because their marriage and birthing college in the United States, from 1860 to 1890, was not of the his presidency, Barnard became progressively more inclusive of age (average 85 years) of the alumnae at the time of the question- rates indicate some of the non-traditional choices they made. highest socioeconomic class. Families of elite status believed high- those who could serve as contributing members to Columbia’s naire. The questionnaires of the women who did reply included These notable patterns begin toward the end of the nineteenth er education would potentially “make women unmarriageable” reputation for excellence and leadership. Opposite President Bar- the answers to over 60 questions. They provided vital statistics century, but women’s entrance into higher education involved (Gordon, 2002). From 1859 onwards, women contended with nard was John Burgess of Columbia’s School of Political Science. about self and family, education, activities as alumnae, organiza- preceding events. The social implications of women’s admittance fears that education would make women unfit or malcontent to To Burgess, a university was the domain of “‘the best of men,’ tional and leisure time activities, employment, and home-making. into college correspond to the pressures they experienced. remain within the home. From these sentiments, some promoted which is to say well-familied, white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant The final section asked graduates about their opinions of Barnard. women’s education as a way to enhance traditional socio-cultural males” (McCaughey, 2003). In this case, the intersection of gender According to present-day scholarship, women’s involvement in I examined 40 questionnaires in detail of the graduating classes roles (Gordon, 2002). Many of the coeducational institutions of and race debates seen in the Civil War continued as the exclusivity family and career varied over the nineteenth and twentieth cen- from 1893 through 1920. Notable patterns of work and activity the nineteenth century thus emphasized the differences between debate engaged women and even ethnic minorities. With learned turies. Women who graduated from college between the years emerged from their listed information. The specific responses of men and women, even as changes to education in the 1860s and professions becoming more common, the question of expansion of 1890 to 1920 comprise the second generation of collegiate fe- the alumnae at the end of the questionnaires revealed an individ- 1870s increased career opportunities for women (Abrams, 1979). extended to women as well. Barnard College conducted classes in males. Development of women’s higher education emerged after ual’s opinions about college education and female societal roles. a rented brownstone at 343 Madison Avenue, until the institution a number of societal transformations in the nineteenth century. Coeducational schools first arose in the 1830s beginning with Oftentimes, an individual’s perspective of her time at Barnard moved to Morningside Heights in 1898 (McCaughey, 2003). De- Beginning in 1820, girls increasingly received schooling beyond Oberlin College in 1833, however, women in the eastern United depended upon her life ambitions and how far college took her spite the physical separation of Barnard College from Columbia’s bare literacy (Green, 1979). The educational reformers who ad- States struggled to find institutions conferring degrees of equal towards her goals. From the supplementary responses at the end campus, the classes, curriculum, and instructors were to be in ev- vocated this change hoped girls’ continued schooling would help merit to women until the emergence of the Seven Sisters from of the questionnaires, the simplified categorization of the reason ery way the female counterpart of the already existing university stabilize and reaffirm the traditional authoritative positions of the 1865 to 1894 (McCabe, 1893). The Seven Sisters colleges—Mount why a student would not choose Barnard again ranged from: I entities (Rosenberg, 2004). Barnard’s curriculum included classes community, church, and family. In short, education would en- Holyoke, Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Radcliffe, Bryan Mawr, and would not choose Barnard again because it did not properly pre- in mathematics, English, and languages. It also admitted a limited hance a woman’s abilities to act in her previously designated roles, Barnard—were designed for the education of women from their pare me for a life of domesticity, or I would not choose Barnard number of students into special subjects such as botany (Rosen- mother and wife of a household, for the overall benefit of society. inception. Contemporary sources explicitly praised the Seven again because it did not provide me with the range of opportuni- berg, 2004). The school provided these women with a number of While female education at this time emphasized maintenance of Sisters for promoting the academic development of women and ties I desired. In other words, students remarked upon their pref- new opportunities with corresponding challenges. Barnard not traditional domestic roles, Nancy Green remarks that the young maintaining the standards of the men’s colleges of the day (Mc- erence for either traditional values or increased opportunity. The only used Columbia’s curriculum and instructors, but its critical women’s assimilation into secondary school acted as a precursor Cabe, 1893). In contrast, coeducational Oberlin dedicated its women most likely to report no regrets worked for many years method of teaching. Female students struggled with mild culture to the movement for women’s colleges (Green, 1979). Paradoxical- academic efforts towards creating a domestic workforce for men. and remained unmarried. Respondents often found education shock upon encountering the unfamiliar collegiate atmosphere ly, the educational reform efforts of the mid-nineteenth century Their curriculum included laundry duties, during which female either valuable or lacking, dependent upon their life trajectories and analyses. Even the chance encounter with males could serve intended to stabilize the family unit would eventually lead women students would wash and repair male students’ clothing, as well following graduation. as a source of stress. For example, social standards of propriety did outside the home. Once greater numbers of women began to at- as the daily tasks of cooking and cleaning (Conway, 1974). Many not prepare women for interactions with unfamiliar men that held Many women who graduated from Barnard found employment tend college, leaders in politics, education, and eugenics noted who supported female higher education did not advocate a cur- the door for them on the way out of the university library (Rosen- or engaged in organizational activities clearly influenced by their changes in women’s marriage and reproduction rates. riculum identical to that of men’s colleges. According to G. Stanley berg, 2004). A Barnard education also led to changes in thought. time at Barnard. These women, usually single, noted their satisfac- Hall, who founded the Child Study Institute at Clark University, The movement for women’s colleges emerged from the antebel- At times, when opportunity allowed, women withstood the pres- tion of how higher education helped them advance in life. One of the biological and sociological differences of women needed to be lum and Civil War eras in the United States as a consequence of sure to remain inside the home and embarked on career paths in the first students, Eva S. Potter, exemplifies this type of alumna. considered in educational components. He saw education as an shifting societal values during the nineteenth century. The ideal which they would either postpone or forego marriage. Eva Potter graduated in 1896 and became the Second President of opportunity to train young women for their roles in motherhood. woman of the Victorian era engaged in “passive femininity” as she the Alumnae Association. Miss Potter never married or worked, To him and many others, the delay and denial of marriage in fe- Created in 1963, the Barnard College Archives is now the perma- dedicated herself to traditional domestic duties (Abrams, 1979). but she became extremely involved in her community. She along male college graduates was one of the major detriments of equal nent home for all records of the college (Archives). Within the At this time, coeducational institutions advocated, above any with another alumna organized the Employment Committee of education (Jenkins, 1979). Some colleges incorporated domestic Archives, the records of the Associate Alumnae of Barnard Col- other purpose, schooling for women’s betterment in her existing the Alumnae Association, which was later taken over by Barnard science into the curriculum in order to refocus women on their lege provide a wealth of information about life outcomes of the traditional roles in society. Jill Conway observes that the period College. Miss Potter dedicated an entire extra page in her ques- duties of motherhood in a time of increased worry over the de- graduates. Based upon the existence of the Alumnae Employment following the Civil War generated a shift in education as greater tionnaire to elaborate upon her activities with the Friends of Chil- clining rate of reproduction (Jenkins, 1979). Women who gradu- Committee, the College undertook efforts to send women into the numbers of women pursued independent careers. Previously, dren’s Museums and Pilgrim Slate Hospital. Her extensive answers ated after 1890 could receive training that demanded independent working world. The records of Appointment Work of the Com- women were mothers to their biological families and nurtured and activism speak to her pride in attending college and extending effort. This education’s purpose could not be fulfilled “within the mittee in Employment for the years 1919 to 1920 display some of the next generation of civically and morally responsible citizens. her efforts to society. Her participation in the social sphere became narrow confines of domestic life” (Conway, 1974). College educa- the Associate Alumnae’s achievements. Reflective of the obstacles During the Civil War, female activists began to challenge their a full-time endeavor enhanced by Barnard (Associate Alumnae). tion prepared women to pursue careers as teachers, social work- of the time, the numbers of both the applications and placements gender roles through “their attempts to act out the now-accepted Other graduates who obtained jobs gave similar praises about ers, nurses, librarians, and secretaries. The Seven Sisters allowed of women seeking temporary positions increased from 1919 to women’s role of guardian of society’s moral standards through their educational experiences. Eliza J. Jones, class of 1894, taught graduates to become more involved in their occupations and so- 1920 while permanent full-time positions declined. According to a concern for the situation of slaves” (Conway, 1974). Entrance full-time in a high school from 1905 to 1936. She never married, ciety. records, women most commonly found placement as teachers, into the political sphere through abolitionist movements marked but agreed that Barnard could not have trained her better for life governesses, and clerks. Notably there were many more applica- a change in consciousness for women. Feminists who challenged than it did (Associate Alumnae). In the 1900s, Barnard graduates Barnard College and the Archives tions than placements as women struggled to find openings in the their subordinate position faced opposition. While the conclusion reported more diversity in their jobs but still maintained the same market (Associate Alumnae, 1921). Among its other functions, of the Civil War brought an end to some of this activism, these An analysis of Barnard College, from its first graduating class in positive attitude towards their alma mater. Some women in the the Associate Alumnae employed its available resources to ad- revolutions in thought led to significant consequences for college 1893 to 1920, shows how perceptions of women’s education devel- education field secured greater responsibility. For example, Esther vance the position of graduates who sought activities outside the females. The conflict over feminine roles continued after the Civil oped over time. From its inception in 1889, Barnard College ex- W. Hawes, a graduate of the class of 1914, worked in College Ad- home. The Archives contains alumnae magazines and bulletins War as intellectual life became professionalized. Women who pur- isted as one of several colleges within Columbia University in New ministration from 1921 to 1952. She was also actively involved as well as information about individual Barnard experiences. My sued higher education had more opportunities to use their aca- York City. The addition emerged after a failure to introduce coed- in several women’s associations (Associate Alumnae). Others ex- 17 18 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research plored the non-traditional realms of math and science, such as Marion (Franklin) Loew exemplifies this situation. She married Conclusion: Accomplishing Something Remarkable Evelyn M. Baldwin who graduated in 1920 and never married. At at age 21 and had two children. She received her medical degree The questionnaires as a whole revealed some of the common be- the time of the survey, she still worked as a full-time employee of in 1920 and found employment in the clinical and research fields. haviors and factors of the graduates. A look at the employment Bell Telephone Lab on the technical staff team. She too noted her Mrs. Loew worked from 1930 to 1953 under the New York City experiences of women also elaborates on the difficulties of assimi- approval of education at a women’s college (Associate Alumnae). and New York State Health Departments as Assistant Director.

lation and advancement in various fields. The teaching profession Research While various women had positive responses, others elaborated She remarked that if she could enter college again, she would recruited high numbers of Barnard graduates. The educators that upon domestic pressures. have chosen coeducational college (Associate Alumnae). Cer- emerged from Barnard College in general had a positive response tain fields, such as the sciences, were more difficult for women Several survey respondents commented upon qualities they found to their single-sex education, and expressed contentment with to enter. As a result, a coeducational college might have provided lacking in a Barnard education. One of the most common com- their life and education choices. After the first decade of Barnard’s a better opportunity to various professions. Several alumnae, in- plaints was a lack of preparation in domesticity. While Edyth existence, areas of employment extended beyond the teaching cluding Mrs. Loew, highlight this relationship among career am- Fredericks, a single teacher from the class of 1906, ultimately ap- realm. With this variation in occupation, the opinions of gradu- bition and coeducational colleges. Graduate of the class of 1917, proved of the way Barnard educated its students, she recognized ates varied as well. Because the respondents answered the surveys Therese (Hiebel) Bernhard married between the ages of 26 and 30 a need for Barnard to accommodate the values of the time. She in 1956, the alumnae answer their questions with the knowledge to an electrical engineer and had one son. She worked as a full- wrote, “American Civ would have been useful, also courses in that more colleges have opened their doors to women since the time mathematician for Bell Telephone Lab and eventually found home-making” (Associate Alumnae). She noticed her education’s time that they attended Barnard. As a result, those women who a passion in painting. Her mathematical skill and artistic talent incompatibilities with reality. Some Barnard graduates achieved sought more ambitious employment, unusual for women at the led her to long for a different career. She wrote, “If I had to do it both a family and employment, however, these women were not time, often elected not to attend Barnard again should they have over again, my choice of occupation would be in architecture and wholly satisfied with their college instruction. Elizabeth S. (Day) had the opportunity. As opportunities increased, more women training in that field could be had to better advantage in a coedu- Fowles, class of 1905, married at age 24 and had four children. In acknowledged the limitations they had faced at the time and com- cational college … maybe it was too much to expect in those days” her spare time, she joined a women’s club and the school board of mented upon their hardships in their responses. (Associate Alumnae). Mrs. Bernhard realized that she would have her children’s school. She worked part-time, but her life revolved enjoyed working in a field that was unusual for women in her Some alumnae never worked a day in their lives, instead, they around the home. She would have rather attended “a college of- time. Decades later, women possessing this amount of ambition joined organizations as outlets for energy. This involvement is fering domestic science courses” because “circumstances led me perceived the obstacles that prevented them from reaching their particularly significant for women who reconciled domesticity into a life where a classical education did not help me” (Associate goals. with activity outside the home. Political groups included the Re- Alumnae). Also from the class of 1905, married Christian worker publicans Club, the National Association for the Advancement of Florence I. (Nye) Whitwell was of a similar disposition as Mrs. Respondents often encountered a world that was unwilling to Colored People (NAACP), the American Association of Univer- Fowles and desired more home economics classes (Associate accept their increased participation in society. While several sity Women (AAUW), the League of Women Voters, and various Alumnae). These married graduates felt that college did not prac- women succeeded against social pressures by both raising a fam- Women’s Societies. Social and philanthropic causes were Chil- tically serve their domestic livings. An alumna from the class of ily and obtaining a fulfilling career, others found purpose in or- dren’s Welfare League, Children’s Museums, Red Cross, the Young 1920 desired the same changes. After graduating, Lois M. (Wood) ganizational activities for extensive and important causes. These Men’s Christian Association, Service League, Overseas Division, Clark married and taught English in high school for nine years. alumnae engaged in lives of domesticity but found a mediatory References and Parent-Teacher Association. Church organizations featured In her opinion, Barnard could have trained her better for life be- outlet for their energy. In general, contemporary sources provide Abrams, A. U. (1979). Frozen goddess: the image of woman in turn-of-the-century American art. In M. prominently as well from involvement in Methodist and Unitar- cause “there were no courses which served as preparation for mar- that a majority of women during this time period pursued a job Kelley, Woman’s being, woman’s place: female identity and vocation in American history (93-108). Boston: ian denominations to membership in the Catholic Daughters of G.K. Hall & Co. riage and home-making” (Associate Alumnae). As a woman who for an “outlet in energy” rather than “financial necessity” (Col- America (Associate Alumnae). The varied and extensive media- Associate Alumnae. Biographical questionnaires. New York City: Barnard College Archives. married between the ages of 26 and 30 years, she may have felt lier, 1926). Bertha S. (Van Riper) Overbury, class of 1896 was a tory activities complicate the life narratives of purely-career or disadvantaged for marrying later in life. As alumnae responded wealthy alumna who possessed a house of high value as well as a Associate Alumnae. (1921). The bulletin of the associate alumnae of barnard college (Vols 1). New York City: purely-family. Organization memberships, especially in political Barnard College Archives. to the questionnaires, they recognized the fact that college educa- housekeeper and chauffeur. Mrs. Overbury married but never had form, echo the efforts of women as moral guardians for society Barnard College. Archives. About the archives. Retrieved from http://barnard.edu/archives. tion in the early 1900s was not necessarily compatible with their children. She never worked but participated in a number of orga- during the Civil War. Community participation demonstrated the lifestyles. nizations, commenting the most on her involvement in Friends of Collier, V. M. (c1926). Marriage and Careers. Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America. influence college education could have beyond employment. Retrieved from: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:RAD.SCHL: 150389. Huntington Library and the Manuscript Society. Her collection At the opposite end of the spectrum, several ambitious women felt Conway, J.K. (1974). Perspective on the history of women’s education in the United States. History of educa- of over 2000 books included works of notable American women Students emerged from Barnard changed by the years that they that Barnard did not allow them to advance enough in life. Alice tion quarterly, 14, 1-12. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/367602. authors. She also held autographed manuscripts from Harriet spent there. Women could have high expectations of their oppor- (Kohn) Pollitzer, graduate of the first class in 1893, commented Cookingham, M.E. (1984). Bluestockings, spinsters, and pedagogues: women college graduates, 1865-1910. Beecher Stowe and Emily Dickinson. Mrs. Overbury donated her tunities after college, however, those ambitions became tempered Population Studies, 38(3), 349-364. upon what areas Barnard should focus on in consideration of sev- compiled works to Barnard College where it exists today as part of by realistic expectations of the time period. Adelaide Hart, class of eral deficiencies. Mrs. Pollitzer had two daughters and completed Goldin, C. (2004). The long road to the fast track: career and family. Annals of the American academy of the special collections (Associate Alumnae). These efforts became 1906, wrote, “I am proud of being a Barnard graduate even though political and social science, 596, 20-35. various types of work in the fields of education and social work. Mrs. Overbury’s expression of her education. Similarly, Ruth A. I have not set the world on fire with anything remarkable” (As- Gordon, L.D. (2002). Education and the Professions. In N.A. Hewitt (Ed.), A companion to American She commented, “In my day Barnard ignored the important areas (Reeder) Arbuckle, class of 1905, balanced marital life with social sociate Alumnae). The women who graduated from Barnard and women’s history (227-249). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. of sex, religion, and politics, including the issues of the time” (As- activism. Mrs. Arbuckle never worked or had children, but she from other colleges at this time may not have set the world on fire, Green, N. (1979). Female education and school competition: 1820-1850. In M. Kelley (Ed.), Woman’s being, sociate Alumnae). She experienced Barnard in its first stages of woman’s place: female identity and vocation in American history (127-141). Boston: G.K. Hall & Co. did participate in religious and socio-political organizations. Over but they did accomplish something remarkable. During a time development and, perhaps, its most tentative instruction. An ac- 50 years after she graduated she wrote: “The men and women who in which women’s higher education for purposes beyond tradi- Jenkins, W.D. (1979). Housewifery and motherhood: the question of role change in the progressive era. In count from graduate Adelaide Hart class of 1906 summarizes the M. Kelley (Ed.), Woman’s being, woman’s place: female identity and vocation in American history (93-108). planned the curriculum and policies of Barnard at the turn of the tional feminine roles seemed unnatural, the first Barnard students Boston: G.K. Hall & Co. opposing pressures for females pursuing higher education dur- century were conditioned by the fact that they could not possibly enrolled in an institution that worked to further their potential. ing that time. Miss Hart remained single and became a teacher. McCabe, L.R. (1893). The American Girl at College. Schlesinger library on the history of women in America. have foreseen … the tremendous changes in the status and role While many alumnae assumed traditional feminine roles, others Retrived from: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:RAD.SCHL: 450867. Miss Hart struggled to reconcile the “purely academic” subjects of women” (Associate Alumnae). Mrs. Arbuckle noted advance- embraced lives as single women, professionals, or activists. Bar- McCaughey, R.A. (2003). Stand, Columbia: a history of Columbia University in the city of New York, 1745- she studied with her need “to earn a living” (Associate Alumnae). ments in women’s status since her time. Women such as Arbuckle nard students at the turn of the century helped lay the ground- 2004. New York: Columbia University Press. According to her, the practical and cultural sides of life did not and Overbury found methods outside limited employment to use work for later generations of college women to succeed in new, Rosenberg, R. (2004). Changing the subject: how the women of Columbia shaped the way we think about sex necessarily reconcile upon graduation. Later graduates sought to and politics. New York: Columbia University Press. their college education. non-traditional areas. enter new areas of employment but simultaneously encountered social and educational limitations. Graduate of the class of 1905, 19 20 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research Helena Guzik, FCRH ’12 the early modern conception, would undoubtedly want to confess in opposition to the depraved worldly body’s wishes. Depending on whether or not the sinner repented his or her crimes, the pain Visual Forms, Visceral Themes suffered at the hands of the torturer and the executioner either echoed the cleansing trials of Purgatory or was a preemptive taste Understanding Bodies, Pain, and Torture in Renaissance Art of the pains of Hell. Assuming repentance and remorse, torture Research and painful execution were a way for the criminal to take on Art History Art similar qualities as martyrs or Christ, thereby making salvation more likely. Conversely, if no repentance occurred, the pain that Despite its relevance to modern discussions, the scholarly treatment of torture in art is relatively infrequent. This project explores, the criminal suffered would have been justified as an enactment through the visual evidence of artistic works, the implications of Renaissance philosophies surrounding the human body in the con- of God’s wrath and a reinforcement of the divine order. Either text of pain and particularly the physical suffering endured during torture. By examining varying techniques of representing the hu- way, the state had done its duty in terms of acting as the spiritual man form across an array of artistic media, this article strives to illuminate the struggle between the rise of scientific naturalism and guardian of its citizens. prevailing currents of spiritual dualism when considering the question of the body in torment. In highlighting the artist as narrator of Renaissance society’s moral, spiritual, and political tropes, this research sheds additional light on Renaissance humanity’s understand- Part of the explanation for early modern acceptance of torture ing of itself in the intensified instances of physical suffering at the hands of the state. In analyzing images of torture in light of Renais- rests implicitly in their understanding of the dualistic relationship sance understandings of the body, this article seeks to contribute a more contextual perspective on these types of representations to between body and soul. This separation may, in fact, have served the ongoing academic dialogue. as a coping mechanism for suffering. As Nigel Spivey points out in Enduring Creation, “… dualism also serves as a sort of psychoso- matic defense. If the human self lies beyond flesh and bones, then harm upon humans is hard to inflict.”3 This concept is carried out As the members of society entrusted with the craft of interpreting human-societal relationships. The systematic infliction of pain visually in Michelangelo’s Dying Slave (and numerous others of and visually representing events and transcendent experiences, by the state, or torture, muddies these relationships even further. the same transcendent ilk) (Figure 1).4 In this sculpture, a male Renaissance artists were in a unique position to not only study An assault on the individual’s integrity, rather than just his or her nude, bearing only subtle suggestions of armor and toned to ana- and observe the workings of the human form, but to demonstrate physical presence, torture fulfilled various roles in the context of tomical perfection, stands contraposto with his head falling back the conceptions of their societal milieu that surrounded the body the individual’s spiritual wellbeing, the community’s security, and in a gesture of submission. His embrace of death is evident in the and its significance for both the individual and the community at the cementing of the state’s power. Renaissance artists, in a visual sleepy visage of his face and the relaxed and heavy quality of his large. As the concept of genius emerged during the Renaissance language discernable by all, demonstrated prevailing conceptions limbs, the overall impression of his stance being that of one ready and artists were increasingly seen as and portrayed themselves to of torture in the context of a shifting understanding of the human to sink gently into a position of sleep. The physical suffering of be the recipients of divine inspiration, those who were trained in body. the captive is overshadowed by the seemingly exultant and erotic the creative crafts and possessed skills that made their works wor- For the early moderns, torture held much more significance than release of his soul from its earthly bonds. Indeed, even his lifting thy of widespread renown became integral to the purveyance of just as a means of punishing individuals who had transgressed of his tunic is suggestive of disrobing to a state of purity and in- ideas through visual means and significantly shaped the impres- the laws of the Church or governing body. By putting criminals nocence in preparation for death. Though pain was a useful tool sions of society at large about religious stories, historical events, through physical ordeals and ensuring proper punishment for for extracting the truth from uncooperative bodies and took on and political practices.1 As Moshe Barasch, on Renaissance phi- their wrongs, leaders of the state were able to fulfill their respon- a purifying role in the case of the convicted criminal, the “true” losopher Bocchi’s recognition of the emphasis placed on physical sibility to the spiritual wellbeing of their populace. In a society person, in the form of the soul, would remain unscathed in spite expressions in art, writes: “The work of art, by making us grasp its where legality was so inextricably linked with religious sensibili- of physical duress, even throughout the process of torture and ex- expressive character instantaneously, wields a certain power over ties, crimes carried more weight from a spiritual sense than we ecution. our minds and souls.”2 Figure 1 generally conceive of them as having today. For a criminal to fail Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Dying Slave, ca. 1513-14. Nevertheless, the power of bodily desecration as a deterrent for Studies of the human body in the Renaissance are particularly in- to repent his or her crime was a moral stain on the community Réunion des Musées Nationaux / Art Resource, NY. potential criminals was uncontested. The concept of one’s body teresting because artists of this time period were confronted with as a whole. As officials were responsible not only to their people in torment was such a powerful one that it was not uncommon anything against the preceding [statuses] should be painted on the conflicting roles and expectations: on the one hand they were but also to God, ensuring the moral good standing of their city or for images of the criminal undergoing his or her physical pun- Palazzo Communale, by the Commune and at the expense of the charged with depicting the human experience as it pertained to town was their utmost responsibility. Securing a confession and ishments to be painted in places of high traffic for all to witness, Commune; and that his name, forename and the charge [against spiritual truths, on the other they faced the increasing responsibil- reinforcing the severity of the transgression through pain made to the shame and infamy of the transgressor. In the sense that it him] should be inscribed beneath him in large letters.”7 Freedberg ity to accurately observe and document the natural world. Where torture an effective way, in the eyes of early modern leaders, of functioned as a record of the ability to overcome, punish, and suggests that “the legal aim … was the deprivation or impugning this dichotomy is particularly salient is in depictions of instances atoning for the citizen’s sins on behalf of the rest of the communi- dispense with society’s miscreants, the artistic representation of of reputation and status ….”8 Interestingly, the creation of these of suffering. Pain links the body to the physical world and solidi- ty. Similarly, it was seen as serving the practical purpose of deter- torture served a purpose for the community as a whole as an in- images reflected on the painter’s character as well as his subject’s.9 fies the corporeality of an individual; in torture the infliction of ring potential criminals, under the threat of the violation of their dicator of the domination of the bodies of criminals by the state Because notions of honor were intimately connected to an in- pain is transformed into a systematized kind of art form of its own bodies, from transgressing the law. The side effect, also, of and was a means of psychologically punishing the transgressor by dividual’s involvement, even conceptually, with sinful dealing, own. Artistic representations of torture are therefore poignant consciously and subconsciously reinforcing the power of the state making use of the rigid conceptions of honor that pervaded the “[s]uch a stigma attached to the job that no painter of sound mor- studies in the manifestation of philosophies of the body and pain: likewise had its obvious advantages for the rulers of early modern early modern mindset.5 als could be seen to be associated with it.”10 snapshots of the body at its breaking point provide evidence of populations. the prevailing worldviews (scientific, spiritual, or a mix of both) In some instances, images were effective punishments in and of Two high-profile victims of execution at the hands of the state While torture took care of legal responsibilities for the rulers, it held by the artists who created them. Though it is one thing to themselves. David Freedberg expands on “images of infamy,” not- that pervaded the awareness of all Renaissance Christians were was also seen as beneficial for the criminal. Ordeals undergone in represent an ideal of the human form, it is quite another to de- ing that their official use in Italy began in the late 1200s.6 Though the two thieves held to have been crucified alongside Christ. Act- pursuit of securing a confession (the “release” of truth) assumed pict that form as gripped by the agonies of suffering; this sort of such a method was generally reserved for cases when a corpo- ing as examples of the execution of typical, high-profile criminals a cleansing quality and were a way to overcome the body’s mo- portrayal carries with it a whole other set of commentaries about real execution was not possible (as in instances when the criminal in the first century, depictions of the crucifixion of the thieves nopoly on the soul, which, naturally drawn toward the good in fled), images of infamy had their place definitively in law codes of evolved throughout the medieval and early modern periods. Be-

This is an excerpt from a paper written for Dr. David Myers’s 2011 seminar, “Torture and the Western Experience.” The author would like to thank Dr. Myers for his tireless mentorship, invaluable advice, and unfailing support. the period: “Item: It is decreed and ordained that anyone who does cause the scene was such a common topic for representation, art- Without his input this article would not have been possible. 21 22 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research dergoing some of the most brutal torments in artwork of the Renaissance. For these, though, suffering and pain took on the function of imitating Christ’s torments, thereby leading to a salvific religious awareness. For some religious fanat- ics, pain carried such desirable connotations to Research Christ’s life that it became self-imposed. Zealous asceticism had been a fixture among seriously committed believers almost since Christianity’s beginnings as an organized religion. It was not uncommon for the devout of antiquity and the Middle Ages to remove themselves from social contexts and undergo self-imposed discomfort in an attempt to mirror Christ’s suffering. Athana- sius’s Life of Antony details the extremes to which the eponymous saint went to achieve a purer relationship with God.13 Martyrdom, continuing in its inherited tradition from antiquity, was heavily present in the Renaissance conception of religious devotion and virtue. As Spivey points out: “Christianity thrived because it mined for virtue in striations of distress.”14 The martyrs, in their submissive attitudes and “clean” disfigurements, echo the form of pain often presented in depictions of Christ. Despite their intense physical suffering, the tranquility and fulfillment of the inner soul is con- veyed through their physicality. While the images would still be received with pity, they served more to inspire admiration and perhaps even a desire for emulation among the pious communities of the early modern period. Operating under the same principle of Christ-emulation as asceticism did, the suffering of martyrs may have

Figure 3 elicited envious emotions from those who would Vincenzo Foppa, Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, late 15th century. wish to demonstrate the same level of fealty to Alinari / Art Resource, NY. their faith. not only was he not guilty of the crime of which he was accused, Still, the most prevalent suffering figure in the minds of early but he also used his suffering as a tool for salvation and redemp- modern Europeans would have been the sacrificed Christ. Sub- Figure 2 tion. This, however, is decidedly not the case of the thieves, who jected to torture and the most cruel, and self-admittedly barbaric, Lucas Cranach the Elder, The 15 Crucifixion; Calvary, 1502. remain bound to the earth and their physical torments by their form of execution employed by the Roman Empire, Christ in Image copyright © The humanity compounded with the burden of their guilt and desert many ways was the quintessential body-in-pain of late antiquity Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, of their punishments. Their corporeal disfigurement serves as a and the Renaissance. Representations of his suffering body as an NY. foil to the tormented, yet fundamentally uncompromised, body of idealized form proliferated, and given the pervasiveness of this Christ. The early modern notion that a lack of confession or sur- concept/image, it is no wonder that those who found themselves ists felt the need to distinguish themselves in their interpretation The key component of the painting worth noting is that while render in torture (in theory) demonstrated the innocence of the in situations of agony turned to this symbol for a sense of empa- of the image in some way. This often took the form of elaborate Christ’s body, serene and yielding, follows an elegant geometrical victim strengthens the reason for the contrast between Christ and thy. Specifically, depictions of Christ in a very realistic portrayal of and inventive ways of “crucifying” the criminals, at times even go- and symmetrical layout, the thieves writhe, contorted and disfig- the thieves: the nature of death, suffered in innocence as opposed agony serve to more fully emphasize his humanity and place him ing beyond what would have been physically feasible for execu- ured by their suffering, on their crosses. In their torment their to guilt, and the extent to which physical torment wracked one’s on a relatable level with the viewer. The champion of this rapidly tioners to implement. Their contortions took on increasing levels physicality serves as a foil to Christ’s tranquility and apparent lack form was seen as dependent on the goodness of the individual. growing religion, Christ, as a human demonstration of fortitude of disfigurement and inspired varying degrees of discomfort in of suffering. This distinction, outstanding in most variations of and piety in the face of extreme pain, became glorified in his suf- the viewer.11 Lucas Cranach’s scene of Calvary is a prime example this scene, raises the question of whether the extent to which a Depictions of the suffering bodies of the morally depraved allow fering: “whereas the Classical Greek hero demonstrated his status of the way in which the crucified thieves are made to undergo the tormented individual suffers from his or her torment depends on for reactions of revulsion and a lack of sympathy for the torture/ by a tally of swerving feats and prodigal slaughter graced, it may maximum amount of pain during a method of execution already his or her level of guilt. At this point in most depictions of the execution victim as well as a sense of justice and fulfilled duty at be, with scars, and showing some insouciance towards staying at the forefront of Roman cruelty (Figure 2).12 Crucifixion, Christ has resigned himself to God’s will, thereby ac- destroying society’s monstrosities. However, it was not only those unharmed the Christian martyr gained veneration from spiritual tualizing the ideals of humility and virtue by the Christian model. who may have deserved it who were depicted as suffering: saints Cranach’s representation of the crucifixion follows the iconic com- indestructibility. Such heroism was as feasibly demonstrated by a His divinity and status as fully human, to the extent that he gives and martyrs, those who were most in touch with what was holy positional format of this scene, with Christ’s cross positioned in woman as by a man; and nobility of birth was no qualifying con- himself over to God, contribute to a lessening of his suffering; and in keeping with Christian values, also were portrayed as un- the center of the image, flanked by the crosses of the two thieves. dition.”16 The ability to suffer and withstand pain while retaining 23 24 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research spiritual integrity was a unifying theme across the parts of them, in the interests of pictorial accuracy. Presumably, Notes

Christian faith and made depictions of Christ, they would have used the same bodies available to their contem- 1 Maria Ruvoldt, The Italian Renaissance Imagery of Inspiration: Metaphors of Sex, Sleep, and Dreams, (Cam- even the most gruesome ones, desirable as means porary anatomists, that is, “the marginal members of their own bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). of connecting to the miracle of Christ’s death and societies—the criminal, the poor, the insane, suicides, orphans, 2 Moshe Barasch, “Character and Physiognomy: Bocchi on Donatello’s St. George a Renaissance Text on resurrection. even, simply, ‘strangers.’”2 Expression in Art,” Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 36.3 (1975). 3 Nigel Spivey, Enduring Creation: Art, Pain, and Fortitude, (Berkeley: The University of California Press, Research This understanding of suffering to be a positive -oc It is a point of curiosity that representations of the human form 2001).

currence, when undertaken with the purity of the that were a patchwork of an artist’s studies of severed body parts 4 Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Dying Slave, ca. 1513–1515. Réunion des Musées Nationaux / Art Resource, soul as a ballast, pervaded the early modern con- could be received well and even lauded as beautiful by an early NY. sciousness to such an extent that representations modern audience. Despite the Renaissance emphasis on observa- 5 Paul McLean, The Art of the Network: Strategic Interaction and Patronage in Renaissance Florence, (Durham: of suffering bodies altered to reflect it. There are tion of the natural world and accurately conveying exactly what Duke University Press, 2007), 59–65. often key visual distinctions in depictions of indi- the artist was depicting, the acceptance of bodies that had been 6 David Freedberg, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response, (Chicago: The Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1989), 248. viduals that suffered innocently or for a religious pieced together from various elements, which, taken in their ac- 7 Statuta communis Parmae digesta anno MCCLV, A. Ronchini ed., Monumenta historica ad provincias purpose from those whose fates were justified by tual context, would have been abhorrent, suggests a willingness on Parmensem et Placentinam pertinentia, I (Parma, 1855), 441, in Freedberg, The Power of Images. guilt. Bodies, even in their disfigurement, were the part of Renaissance audiences to look past the purely physical 8 Freedberg, The Power of Images, 248. depicted with delicacy and a suggestion of purity. to something more transcendental. While there existed (and still 9 Artists often emphasized the beauty of martyred does exist) a certain delight in the mere appearance of the body, Ibid., 250. forms, as if to imply that though they were sub- the visible presence of an intact soul behind the façade of the hu- 10 Ibid. (emphasis added). jected to such cruel fates, their status as exem- man form is what imbues images with appeal for the Renaissance 11 Mitchell Merback, The Thief, the Cross, and the Wheel, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998).

plary human beings was undiminished and that audience. The artist’s ability to convey humanity and a spiritual 12 Lucas Cranach the Elder, Crucifixion; Calvary, 1502. The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Art Resource, NY.

they were, in fact, resplendent in their holy role. presence behind the corporeal surface suggests that not only was 13 Athanasius of Alexandria, Vita S. Antoni [Life of St. Antony], 356-362, in Internet Medieval Sourcebook, Those for whom pain serves some higher purpose adherence to naturalistic depiction not necessarily the only focus ed. Paul Halsall, last modified November 1998, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/vita-antony.asp.

often have their faces inclined toward the heavens of an artist, but that it may not even have been the primary one. 14 Spivey, Enduring Creation, 40.

and, though their bodies undergo mutilation and 15 In the context of torture and the deliberate infliction of suffer- Ibid., 44. even mild contortion, their form is often drawn ing at the hands of the state, artists would have had an intimate 16 Ibid., 51. in a languid pose that mirrors the easy stances of perspective on the incident of the body in pain. Commissioned 17 antiquity (Figure 3).17 This is not the case for those Vincenzo Foppa, Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, late fifteenth century. Alinari / Art Resource, NY. to create images of suffering and torment, the artist would draw 18 being punished for their own wrongs, however. In Jean Milles de Souvigny, The estrapade from Praxis criminis persequendi, (Paris) 1541. In Lisa Silverman, upon not only his training as a skilled craftsman who could trans- Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth, and the Body in Early Modern France, (Chicago: The University of Chicago cases of torture, the body of the criminal is almost pose what he saw to the canvas, but also upon the philosophies Press, 2001). Image: Picture Collection, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. always contorted grotesquely in a manner that re- 19 of the day that dictated differing views of what humanity meant Freedberg, The Power of Images, 5–6. flects inward on itself rather than outward, bar- in the context of agony and death. Where these commentaries on 20 Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture, (London: ring the necessities of pose demanded by certain dualism, transcendence, and experience contrasted was where the Routledge, 1995), 3. torture devices. Their gaze is frequently directed artist assumed the role of interpreter and necessarily expressed downward toward the things of the earth, if at his own viewpoint in the images he created. Charged with observ- all—shut or partially closed eyes are prevalent in ing and imitating life as well as communicating to their contem- images of punishment more so than in depictions porary audiences, artists clearly did not work in a vacuum. They of unwarranted pain (Figure 4).18 were subject to the traditions and prejudices of their time, per- Nevertheless, the role of torture as cleansing the haps more so than any other member of Renaissance society. As victim of his or her crimes persisted despite the such, it is no wonder that preconceived notions of morality played trends of artistic delineation, and was brought into their interpretations of instances of suffering. In torture, es- into practice physically in instances of execution: pecially, were their biases in place, as the subtle variances in tech- … in Italy between the fourteenth and seventeenth niques of showing a criminal in pain versus a holy individual be- centuries, brotherhoods were set up to offer a kind of Figure 4 ing scourged demonstrate. Innocence and guilt, like the character solace [to those about to be executed]; and the instru- Jean Milles de Souvigny, The estrapade, or question extraordinary, 16th century. traits that certain artists saw as permanently evident in the physi- ments of consolation were small painted images. A fair Picture Collection, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. ognomy of an individual, inevitably colored their visual accounts number of these tavoluccie, or tavolette, as they were al- of the events. By grappling with their studies and masterpieces, ternatively called, survive, and their use is attested by a For traditional portraits and scenes, this need could easily be sat- considerable amount of supplementary visual evidence. isfied by a live model who would hold the requisite pose for the not only with their personal beliefs but also with the philosophies Each tavoletta was painted on both sides. On one side artist to observe, interpret, and document. However, the situation informing artistic endeavors of the day, artists acted as the Renais- was a scene from the Passion of Christ; on the other became more challenging when the subject being portrayed was sance’s interpreters and translators of competing concepts about side, a martyrdom that was more or less relevant to the of the human form mangled and/or deceased. More difficult to the body, pain, and torture. punishment to be meted out to the prisoner.19 come by than an uncorrupted human body, mutilated body parts Proffering such images to criminals in their last moments attests demanded of the artist a strong comprehension of anatomy and to the belief in the ability of images to direct focus toward the di- the ability to improvise and invent the look of a convincingly vine, and thereby becomes a healing tool and a means of imbuing tormented human form. The ubiquitous image in popular con- the execution with religious purpose. ceptions is that of Raphael carrying the severed limbs of corpses through the streets from the charnel house to his studio and, As observers and documenters of the world around them, artists though often exaggerated for all the titillating shock value that necessarily had to draw upon the resources at hand for models accompanies hyperbole, was probably not completely inaccurate. from which to craft accurate representations of the human form. To depict realistic corpses, artists had to study corpses, or at least 25 26 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research William Bruckel, FCRH ’11 metaphorically referring to sexual behavior. Also illustrative of dence comes in the form of a passage in the etiological Homeric the typical vulgarity of iambus is Archilochos’s reputation in an- Hymn to Demeter: tiquity. Examining his dubia—works attributed to but most likely τὴν δ’ αἰδώς τε σέβασ τε ἰδὲ χλωρὸν δέος εἷλεν• Fabrication and Execution not written by Archilochos—affords one an idea of this reputa- εἶξε δέ οἱ κλισμοῖο καὶ ἑδριάασθαι ἅνωγεν. tion. A number of these works are not only vulgar in that they ἀλλ’ οὐ Δημήτηρ ὡρηφόρος ἀγλαόδωρος The Lycambids and their Iambic Aptitude deal with matters of sexuality, but are explicit in a way that is un- ἤθελεν ἑδριάασθαι ἐπὶ κλισμοῖο φαεινοῦ, Research characteristic of works we know to authentically Archilochos. The ἀλλ’ ἀκέουσα ἔμιμνε κατ’ ὄμματα καλὰ βαλοῦσα, πρίν γ’ ὅτε δή οἱ ἔθηκεν Ἰάμβη κέδν’ εἰδυῖα Classics works scholars attribute to him tend to be artful and metaphori- πηκτὸν ἕδος, καθύπερθε δ’ ἐπ’ ἀργύφεον βάλε cal. For example, prostitutes are known as “[γυνή] δῆμος (public κῶα<ς>. The Lycambids were a family believed to have personally known the archaic poet Archilochos of Paros. Tradition tells of their col- woman),”10 rather than πόρνη (whore); and instances of explicit ἔνθα καθεζομένη προκατέσχετο χερσὶ καλύπτρην• lected suicide being motivated by criticisms launched at them in his Iambic verse, and this is sometimes mistaken for historical fact. sexual action are described metaphorically. In the dubia, however, δηρὸν δ’ ἄφθογγος τετιημένη ἧστ’ ἐπὶ δίφρου, However, analysis of the conventions of the Iambic genre reveals that it is not sincere invective that Iambus is composed but rather references to sexual behavior are more vulgar, with lewd language οὐδέ τιν’ οὔτ’ ἔπεϊ προσπτύσσοετο ὄυτέ τι ἔργωι, ἀλλ’ ἀγέλαστος ἄπαστος ἐδητύος ἠδὲ ποτῆτος humorous mockery. Inconsistencies in the characterization of the Lycambids in these verses, and the aptitude of those verses for and explicit references to male genitalia and sexual intercourse. sympotic ritual, are considered in light of this understanding to demonstrate that this tragic family is most likely a figment of Archi- ἧστο, πόθωι μινύθουσα βαθυζώνοιο θυγατρός, The dubia is nearly stylistically antithetical to the authentic Ar- πρίν γ’ ὄτε δὴ χλεύηις μιν Ἰάμβη κέδν’ εἰδυῖα lochos’s verse designed to increase the breadth of his art. chilochean fragment. However, its attribution to Archilochos il- πολλὰ παρασκώπτουσ’ ἐτρέψατο πότνιαν ἁγνήν lustrates the ancient conception of iambus as being characterized μειδῆσαι γελάσαι τε καὶ ἵλαον σχεῖν θυμόν• by vulgarity, since he is seen as its inventor and finest artist.11 ἥ δή οἱ καὶ ἔπειτα μεθύστερον εὔαδεν ὀργαῖς Accounting for the nature of his work and underscoring his repu- attack on the Lycambids. The Greek ear was extremely sensitive The Mnesiepes inscription, which was found on Paros and relates (The queen was seized by awe and reverence and tation as the prototypical artist of his genre, it is said that the iam- to meter. Different meters were utilized to achieve different ends. myths about Archilochos devised by his hero cult located there, sallow fear; she gave up her couch for [Demeter], bic poet Archilochos loved the daughter of an individual named For example, Homer and Hesiod both write for different reasons, understands vulgarity not only as characteristic of the iambic and invited her to sit down. But Demeter, bringer Lycambes, who denied the couple marriage, and so ridiculed him yet each is considered an epic poet since each uses hexameter. genre, but also as one of its virtues. Archilochos, it says, having of resplendent gifts in season, did not want to be with his poetry that he and even his children hanged themselves Since hexameter is also the meter of choice for Herodotus’s Pythic recently been given the lyre and its gifts by the muses, improvises seated on the gleaming couch, but stood in silence, out of shame. Some consider these characters to be figures of his- decrees, it emerges as the meter of the learned and instructive. her lovely eyes downcast, until dutiful Iambe set a a poem at a Dionysian festival on Paros. For this Archilochos is jointed stool for her and laid a shining white fleece 12 torical fact. However, this supposition relies on a misconceived According to West, however, iambus is not categorized this way exiled as his verses are deemed “too iambic.” Since it is unlikely over it. There she sat, holding her veil before her notion of the nature and intended ends of iambic poetry as sincere since poems using both iambic trimeter and trocheic tetrameter, that meter would offend a group of Parian citizens celebrating the face, and for a long time she remained there on the in its ferociousness. Rather, iambus directs its force toward the as well as epodes, have all been considered iambus in antiquity.1 festival of Dionysus, one can conclude that the use of “iambic” re- seat in silent sorrow. She greet no one with word or generation of humor, often by combining it with lewd imagery or The termiambus seems to have been more indicative of purpose fers to the content of the poem and implies that its audience found movement, but sat there unsmiling, tasting neither crude subject matter. Since these elements manifested themselves and content since, in the tradition of ancient literature, it and its food nor drink, pining for her deep-girt daughter, such subject matter immediately scandalous. The inscription goes until at last the dutiful Iambe with ribaldry and in vituperation, the more abuse a poet could issue, the better the various grammatical uses were all associated primarily with the on to describe a plague that descends onto the Parian citizenry. many a jest diverted the holy lady so that she smiled quality of his iambus. Therefore, to better his art he would need to practice of ridicule. Indeed, West notes that, the verbs ἰαμβίζω This pestilence is sent by Apollo, who, associated with the muses, and laughed and became benevolent—Iambe who extend his invective range so that it might be as diverse as possi- and ἰαμβόπτειν come to signify satirization.2 Such an instance prizes Archilochos as their servant, underscoring his skill with ever since has found favor with her moods).14 ble. In order to do this, an iambic poem should be able to chastise can be found in Aristotle’s Poetics: “For these the iambic meter verse and lyre. The “iambic” nature of the poetry, thus, is seen as The first and most obvious point to be made about the passage either the same individual for more than one thing or more than was fittingly introduced and that is why it is still called iambic, a virtue because Archilochos’s verses are protected by a divinity, is the character whose behavior, which seems jocular and witty, one individual for the same thing. At the same time, it should cast because it was the meter in which they lampooned each other.”3 casting the vulgarity as a virtuous aspect of the genre. Moreover, is named Ἰάμβη. While the exact etymological roots of the terms some individuals as good for the sake of comparison. Archilochos According to Rosen this notion, which Aristotle refines into a sort even if Archilochos had been exiled in historical fact and the in- ἴαμβος, Ἰάμβη and ἰαμβίζειν have yet to be demonstrated, the con- does this when he intends to chastise, but then he instantly reverts of “ἰαμβική ἰδέα (iambic idea),”4 “denotes the many features that scription does no more than offer an etiology, his penchant for nection between the figure of Ἰάμβη and the poetic genre are un- to vituperation of his former subject. recur in poetry and help to define it…. Whether the poet sings of the artful rendering of vulgarity is still cast as pleasing to Apollo; deniable. Furthermore, almost her entire name is contained in real, fictional, or even semi-fictional people, he must conform to Compositions about an enemy that would facilitate such diverse thus, it is one of the virtues, if not the primary one, of his work. “Λυκάμβης,” which itself seems to merely to be the result of a com- the demands of [the] literary tradition.”5 This component of iam- blame are a requirement of generic quality. The construction of Furthermore, if his exile is a fabrication, then the inscription bares bination between Λύκος (wolf) and Ἰάμβη, preserving even the first bus becomes the first basis of the virtue (ἀρετή) of the poet. The Lycambes’s family, as reflected in the Archilochos fragments, is a narrative that resembles hero cult myth in that he is deified and declension and cementing the connection (mythological, religious, quality of the iambic poet was determined in part by how well he deliberately designed to meet this condition. The plot of the fam- his invective skill is celebrated as a divine attribute, thus illustrat- or otherwise) between the two characters. And, while it is unclear could lampoon his subjects. Generally, the effect of blame that re- ily’s relationship to the poet, the composition of the family itself, ing the importance of such content to the genre. whether this section of the hymn is either an etiology for the prac- sults from iambic poetry is known as “ψογοs.” The successful and and the characterization of each member therein form a network tice of iambic poetry, as the whole hymn serves for Eleusinian cult artful application of “ψογοs” to one’s (supposed) enemy6 is one of To suppose the tradition of the Lycambids as historically factual of premises that can be used to ridicule its figures by conjunction practice, or an indication that worship of the goddess gave rise to the two virtues of iambic poetry, “the outstanding feature of the relies on the supposition that iambic poetry is genuinely vicious, or contrast in any combination of ways. This gives Archilochos the genre, it is hardly deniable that της Ἰάμβης behavior serves as genre,” according to West.7 Archilochos “know[s] how to repay owing to its satyrical nature and vulgar content. However, closer ample fodder for creative insult, and marks his place as an iam- a model for iambic execution. Thus her motive, the generation of love with love and hatred with hate and biting abuse,”8 and thus examination of the genre and Greek religious and literary tradi- bic poet. This ethos is reflected in discrepancies in the character- humor and levity in her audience, is a model for the ideal iambic embraces the ἰαμβική ἰδέα. tion reveals that the intended effect of the amalgamation is humor. ization of some members of the Lycambids, which indicates that The mix of an abusive attitude and a loquacious yet vulgarly con- effect. Indeed, Ralph Rosen confirms this inclination: concerns for consistent illustration were subjugated to interests The second virtue, the one that governs content, is the artful use cerned vocabulary can serve, it seems, only two possible primary Since Iambe herself is emblematic of the iambus, one might appropri- in maximizing blame and casts doubt on their historical person- of vulgarity. Indeed, according to the Cambridge Companion to purposes: either the intentional derision of its object or the elicita- ately look to the episode for commentary on the ways in which the liter- hood. Furthermore, this varied characterization illustrates a per- Lyric Poetry, “[other] archaic verse lacks the explicitness of iam- tion of humor from the audience by way of this derision. That a ary genres of this sort, genres of abuse and mockery, behave. The Iambe/ fomative as well as aesthetic motive, helping Archilochos’s work bus…. The three major archaic exponents of iambus also share poet would set out to unleash genuine anger at another person is iambus connection, in short, allows us (and ancient audiences likewise) conform to the varied ritual demands of poetry in symposia. and interest in details and incidents from everyday life … in par- to read the episode as programmatic of the entire genre, and to analyze not inconceivable. However, it is unlikely that such a poet would the mockery of Iambe in terms of the poetic performance to which she ticular, food and sex.”9 This is clear when one considers that a Though the iambic genre is associated with a collection of me- be considered virtuous and that this effect would become the de- lends her name.15 great deal, perhaps even the majority, of the Archilochean body ters, it can best be recognized by its humorously satirical telos fining characteristic of a genre that later developed its own meter. is either explicitly vulgar or can only make sense by reading it as As Rosen further explains, “an awareness of the mediating force of and vulgar content. This diminishes the sincerity of Archilochos’s Furthermore, there is concrete reason to believe that humor was indeed the goal and characteristic effect of iambus. Besides the representation … mitigates the aggressiveness of the mockery and 13 A debt of my most sincere thanks is owed to Alex Buzick for his time, patience, and generosity in providing comments on this paper. fact that Archilochos literally tells us via comparison, this evi- transforms the target into an accomplice for the sake of the audi- 27 28 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research ence’s pleasure.”16 This awareness, according to Rosen, is betrayed (though far from always) morally corrupt Neoboule, Soror is de- chilochos characterizes Neoboule as very beautiful, reveling in A third invective episode is clear in a grouping of fragments that both by Iambe’s confidence in mocking the goddess and Demeter’s picted as virtuous and pure. “[σὺ],” Archilochos writes of her, “μὲν her “ἐσμθριχμένας κόμας καὶ στῆθος, ὡς ἄν καὶ γέρων ἠράσσατο take Neoboule’s physical figure as being ugly, fat, and worn out unexpectedly positive reaction. Ἰάμβη, he postulates, had to have γὰρ ὄυτ’ ἄπιστοσ ὄυτε διπλόη/ ἥ δ]ὲ μάλ’ ὀξουτἐρη/ πολλοὺς δὲ (scented hair and breasts so that even an old man would have from engaging in prostitution: she is “περὶ σφυρὸν παχεῖα, μισητὴ some reason for confidence in mocking the goddess, assurance ποιεῖτα[ι φίλους (since you are neither trustworthy nor untrust- been enamored with them).”27 She is depicted not only as beauti- γυνή (a revolting old woman fat about the ankles).”34 This is dis- that her mockery would return the desired result, i.e. to delight worthy, whereas [Neoboule] is quite precipitous and makes many ful, but also a credit to her household and, thus, honorable. For tinct from the first episode in two ways. In the first episode, So- rather than provoke. This, he suggests, is the unexpectedness and her lovers).”20 Archilochos refers to her as “Ἀμφιμεδοῦς θύγατερ Archilochos, Lycambes is “τρισμακάριος (thrice blessed)” for ror is implicated as a figure of the narrative; here, however, the Research extremity of Iambe’s mockery. According to Rosen, these elements (daugher of Amphido),” and thus characterizes her as a worthy having “τοιαῦτα τέκνα (such daughters as these).”28 However, Ar- object of the tirade is categorically singular. Also, there is a dif- combine to push her behavior over the bounds of the plausibly heir to the moral estate of “ἐσθλῆς τε καὶ γυναικός, ἥν νῦν γῆ κατ’ chilochos uses the full brunt of his powers against her. His iambi ference between being lascivious and being a prostitute. Accord- sincere and into that of performance. That Demeter senses this is εὐρώσσ’ ἔ[χει (a worthy and prudent woman whom now the earth contain a multitude of fragments issuing a constant attack against ing to Herennius Philo, μισητὴ lacks an oxytone accent, which obvious, since her reaction to Iambe’s display is positive; indeed, it holds).”21 These verses depict not only a virgin, but also a timid Neoboule. would have caused it to mean “one deserving of hatred”; instead distracts her from such a severe loss as the death of her daughter, one, who, though beautiful, is afraid of sexual intercourse. This it has a grave accent on its ultima, causing it to mean “lewd.”35 While this sudden reversal signifies a larger character inconsis- Persephone. The knowledge that what she is seeing is a perfor- characterization is markedly different, if not completely opposite, This consideration strengthens Eustathius’s supposition that “Ar- tency, it gives birth to a host of discrepancies within the character mance allows Demeter to appreciate the audacity of it, and thus to Soror’s character in the rest of the corpus where she joins her chilochos [spoke abusively of a prostitute] as ‘fat (παχειαν),’ and of Neoboule after her transformation from chaste to morally cor- humor is manifest.17 Just as Demeter and Iambe’s conduct illus- sister in rampant explicit sexual behavior. She is implicated by the a ‘public woman (δημον)’ … and a ‘worker for hire (εργατιν)’ in rupt. Fragments chastising Neoboule appear grouped, with each trate this awareness to modern scholars, so too does its depiction phrase “ὄιην Λυκάμβεω παῖδα τὴν ὑπερτέραν (only the superior addition to the ‘froth of defilement (μυσαχνην)’ on the analogy group featuring one of her character traits that either is a priori illustrate the existence of this awareness in Greek society. Though daughter of Lycambes).”22 This fragment is grouped in the context of the froth of the sea, and such like.”36 This supposition connects objectionable or accounts for the deterioration of her form and it is instrumental to the plot, Iambe’s performance does not seem of several other fragments that all contain references, both explicit fragment 206W with a series of others that describe “δημοs (a her loss of beauty. These grouping patterns, resulting ultimately to stand out as extraordinary or miraculous. This indicates that and subdued, to sexual behavior.23 Surrounding phrases create an public woman),”37 “εργατιs (a worker for hire),”38 and “μυσαχνη in the total illustration of four distinct versions of Neoboule, sug- such a phenomenon, the recognition of the ridiculousness of the orgiastic scene, and so it is not unreasonable, according to West,24 (froth of defilement).”39 Though it is unclear from the fragments, gest that her character was included in different narrative episodes performance as humorous, is as commonplace for the archaic to suppose that “ὑπερτέραν” signifies a dichotomy wherein one Hesychius insists “ἐργάτις• τὴν Νεοβούλην (-λιαν cod.) λέγει καὶ and that her character was manipulated to fit the circumstances Greek man as it seems in the hymn. Thus, because iambus is lyric Lycambid is on top of the speaker, and her counterpart is else- παχεῖαν (a worker for hire: the reference is to Neoboule; she is also of these episodes to maximize Archilochos’s invective range. Be- poetry and so a performed art, one can only conclude that an ar- where. This surely situates Soror in the orgy with her sister and called fat).”40 If Archilochos were trying to imply prostitution in cause of iambus’s concern with sex, a favorite method for chastis- chaic audience would react in the matter of Demeter, with laugh- drastically reverses the chaste character traits by which we came to fragment 36W, one would expect some of the terminology under- ing Neoboule is to describe in detail her illicit sexual behavior. ter, and that the extremes in satirical and artistic use of vulgarity know her in the “Cologne Epode.” This character discrepancy not stood by Eustathius to be characteristic of prostitutes to be pres- This method of castigation, directly highlighting Neoboule’s las- are composed to that end. If, then, the Lycambids were members only indicates a clear lack of historicity, which would not allow for ent. However, it is absent, and nothing else about the first episode civiousness, is not always explicitly stated. West places fragments of this audience, as the tradition posits, it is unlikely they would someone to be characterized in opposite ways by the same author, suggests that Soror and Neoboule are acting as prostitutes. The 34–37 in the context of the Lycambids’s orgiastic behavior.29 Ac- have been so moved to suicide. but it also demonstrates the iambic utility of character fluidity. In mention of “work” would suggest such a thing were it not for the cepting West’s context and bearing in mind his other sexual ani- the “Cologne Epode,” Soror’s virtues are described almost exclu- combined nature of the metaphor. In it, Neoboule is compared to The method and goal of iambus are clear: to elicit humor via harsh mal metaphors, such as “πολλὰς δὲ τυφλὰς ἐγχέλυας ἐδέξω (you sively in contrast to an extended poetic description of Neoboule’s an ox, and her lover is compared to an ass, connecting them via blame in vulgar yet artfully-wrought language. Thus the goal of an received many blind eels),”30 it becomes clear that Archilochos is vices. The epode, then, is something of a show of Archilochos’s use of αἶνος (animal fable), wherein both are animal characters. iambic poet like Archilochos is to widen the range of his invective referring to Neoboule when he says “βοῦς ἐστιν ἥμιν ἐργάτης ἐν abusive abilities, with Soror acting as a contrasting agent. This also works to categorize the sexual act as “work” by exagger- ability against his subjects to produce as much abuse as possible. οἰκίῃ,/ κορωνός, ἔργων ἴδρις (we have in the stable a work-ox, ating the size of the lover’s genitalia. The combination of this understanding with inconsistencies both Archilochos’s verse is scathing enough on its own, but it is not until proud, a skilled worker).”31 Using metaphor to induce the images, between the common tradition of the Lycambids and their depic- he offers up an example of the virtues missing from Neoboule that smells, and sounds of a cow, and then referring to “work” as a met- Like the stark inconsistency that characterizes the description of tion in the fragments of Archilochos and between the extant frag- the lack seems real and the invective all the more vivid. However, aphor for the labor of sexual performance, Archilochos attacks Soror, the moral polarity of Neoboule that results from the plural- ments themselves illustrates the Lycambids’s character as dynamic Neoboule is not the only object at which the criticism in the epode Neoboule’s chastity while associating her with beastly sensations. ity of her character evidences her manipulation for the sake of and flexible, designed to maximize the range of Archilochos’s at- is directed. Lycambes himself is the object of insult if, indeed, Ar- The narrative cohesion and satirical integrity of the fragments composition and casts sizable doubt onto the likelihood of her tack. Though the Archilochean corpus is fragmentary, scholars chilochos’s figure is able to take even the stinted advantage he does directly attacking Neoboule’s chastity signify the first invective historicity. The poetic utility in a good (morally or otherwise) have arranged Archilochos’s fragments into groups that seem to of Soror. First, by using a metronymic instead of the more com- episode. However a different motif is on display in fragment 188, Neoboule figure limits Archilochos to emphasizing the lack of depict certain episodes. Relative to the daughters of Lycambes, mon patronymic in introducing Soror, whom he connects with where Archilochos exclaims: virtue in Lycambes by contrasting his virtue with hers and em- who figure into most of these episodes, not only does moral qual- virtue, Archilochos implies that her father is without virtue. Sec- Οὐκέ] θ’ ὁμῶς θάλλεις ἁπαλὸν χρόα• κάρφετα[ι bellishing the cruelty of Lycambes’s traditional affront. Instead, ity waver, but often the reason for immorality or general knavery ond, by having his way with Soror, an object that is not only Lyc- γὰρ ἤδη Archilochos ignores the character traits he bestows on her in his varies from youthful lasciviousness to the aesthetic grotesqueness ambes’s possession but also his responsibility, Archilochos mocks ὄγμο]ς• κακοῦ δὲ γήραος καθαιρεῖ other poems to benefit the artistry of his body of iambus and the of old age. This betrays the inconsistencies that signify a lack of Lycambes’s impotence as a father, guardian, and respectable man …..] ἀφ’ ἱμερτοῦ δὲ θορὼν γλυκὺς ἴμερος vituperative diversity of the poems therein. The episodic nature of historical personhood and demonstrates Archilochos’s tactic for of archaic Greece. Honor (τιμή), after all, was represented materi- π[ροσώπου his derision against her presents four different narratives, and thus …..]κεν• ἦ γὰρ πολλὰ δή σ’ ἐπῆιξεν maximizing the breadth of his invective. ally, and daughters were no exception. While the inconsistency πνεύμ]ατα χειμερίων ἀνέμων four different Neoboules: the beautiful and virtuous, the whore indicates the absence of a concrete historical character, it illus- (who delights in her exploits), the old, and the fat prostitute. Each The number of Lycambes’s daughters is somewhat uncertain. trates deliberate framing of the narrative’s circumstances and ma- (No longer does your skin have the soft bloom that it of these in turn represents, instead of the passionate raving of a From Archilochos’s fragments, we are aware of at least two:18 one nipulation of Soror’s characteristics, thus reflecting Archilochos’s Once had; now you furrow is withered the…of scorned bridegroom, a deliberate41 attempt by an iambic poet to who remains nameless and will be referred to as “Soror,” and the ownership of his characters’ identities. Ugly old age is taking its toll, and sweet loveliness widen the range of his art, and thus the potency of his skills. Each primary female subject of his poetry and thus object of his in- (has gone?) with a rush from your lovely face. For of these characters is distinct from one another. Instead of being vective, Neoboule. Because Soror is mentioned so infrequently, In no other Lycambid, however, is there as much variation and In truth many a blast of wintry winds has assaulted 32 limited to embellishing his Lycambes invective, Archilochos can and most times in passing, discussion of her character and its inconsistency as in the character of Neoboule. In the corpus as a You.) directly display his talent for blame against three new objects since consistency are brief. Though she is not mentioned often, Soror whole, she is the object of Archilochos’s most intense emotions. Here Archilochos diverges from his favorite diatribe to explore the end of iambus is humorous ridicule: a greater number of en- figures in what is perhaps the most narrative-rich fragment of Indeed, one fragment finds Archilochos “δύστηνος ἔγκει[μενος] the possibilities of a different one. It is possible that this frag- emies constitutes a greater and more diverse range of satirical pos- the Archilochean corpus, “The Cologne Epode.”19 A figure, who πόθῳ ἄψυχος, χαλεπῃσι … ὀδύνῃσι … πεπαρμένος (lying in ment is linked with another reading, “οὐκ ἄν μύροισι γρηῦς ἐοῦσ’ sibility. For example, West points out that many elements of Ar- may or may not be Archilochos, propositions Soror for sexual the throes of desire … pierced through the bones with grievous ἠλείφεο (an old woman, you would not be anointing yourself with 25 chilochos’s first invective motif, especially the image of Neoboule intercourse and, by extension, marriage. However, Soror, refuses pangs).” In many fragments, Neoboule is not the objective of 33 perfume),” since it too makes light of Neoboule’s age without re- performing fellatio, can be traced to Mesopotamian culture, espe- on the grounds—this is only a presumption, but a near-univer- abuse, but of affection: “εἰ γὰρ ὥς ἐμοὶ γένοιτο χεῖρα Νεοβούλης gard for her lasciviousness, and thus we can understand this motif 42 26 cially images on pots and vessels. Archilochos would have had sal one—that she is not ready. Here, set up against the typically θιγεῖν (would that I might touch Neoboule on her hand).” Ar- as signifying a second abusive episode. 29 30 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research access to this iconographic tradition during his military career, of both Soror, otherwise portrayed as an orgiast, and Neoboule, Jeff Lockhart, FCRH ’13 and finds occasion to use it only after having cast Neoboule as a whose character wavers between positive and negative. Soror’s lascivious orgiast, as he does in fragments 30W-48W. Preserving manipulation in this instance, as demonstrated above, enhances the character of Neoboule as virtuous and beautiful would have the abusive force of the epode against Neoboule and Lycambes Gendered Classrooms and Gendered Attire precluded such an inclusion and thus limited his art. and satisfies yet another sympotic goal, the vilification and bitter rebuke of one’s enemies. Archilochos’s invocation of Amphido Research While these discrepancies are illustrative enough on their own to Doing Gender on a College Campus both meets the second function of sympotic poetry, praise of the indicate the Lycambids were more likely literary characters than dead or those not present, and embellishes the virtue of Soror. historical figures, consideration of both the perfection in their familial construction to fulfill various functions of poetry and the This, also, is impossible without manipulating Soror’s character. Gender and social identity rank as high priorities for undergraduate students, putting significant weight on their choice of apparel ridicule during symposia indicates another reasons for Archilo- For a possible attack on someone present, one need only look at and accessories. In a university, students must also navigate the pressures of academic disciplines, which have their own norms of chos to have characterized them the way he does. He thus erodes Archilochos’s inclusion of premature ejaculation. Since it is un- appearance and gender. Credibility in a discipline often hinges on one’s ability to conform to those disciplinary standards, but people their historicity all the more. In the sympotic context, we see an likely that he would imply that he himself had prematurely ejacu- whose social gender role does not match the gender of their discipline, such as womyn in the sciences or men in gender studies, will Archilochos who, attempting to maximize his anger against Lyc- lated and because such a phenomenon is a unique poetic topos find these two forces at odds. This study leverages statistical observations of clothing and accessories to examine how the gender ambes, establishes a familial construction that magnifies and mul- yet explicitly stated, that he refers to someone present to chide performances of undergraduate students are affected by the gender of their discipline of study. The results go beyond prior work and tiplies the force of his invective, while simultaneously fulfilling them for an event to which they admitted or are otherwise framed reveal a depth and complexity to the system of gender influence that challenges simplistic narratives about pressure to conform to Women’s Studies Women’s the objectives requisite of quality sympotic poetry. The combined is quite likely. The last two goals remaining, profession of erotic disciplinary gender norms. variation and contextual perfection signify manipulation of the attraction and description of sexual activity, are particularly reve- characters to meet the demands of the context. The symposium latory because they, were it not for the manipulation of the char- is not a setting in which it is hard to imagine Archilochos; in fact acters of Soror and Neoboule, would have been mutually exclu- a number of his fragments strongly suggest his participation.43 sive for Archilochos. For Archilochos to chide Lycambes with full Bowie claims that some of the major functions of poetry during force, he must debase Lycambes’s children, which he accomplishes Gender is a substantial field of study within the social sciences ness) connote “boy.” This notion that one can act out a specific symposia are: reflections of good and bad conduct, praise directed through the description of Neoboule. However, this affects his op- 1 at those not present, declaration of one’s own likes and dislikes tions both sympotically and abusively: he cannot, if Neoboule is (frequently, gender and womyn’s studies even have their own de- gender relies upon an understanding of gender as socially con- pronunciations of erotic attraction, descriptions of erotic experi- base, profess sexual attraction or activity since it would drag him partments), and the field owes much of its prowess to the theories structed rather than innate or biologically determined. In Butler’s ence, criticism of those present, and vilification of enemies.44 Each down and destroy the potency of his diatribe. Furthermore, it of social construction and performativity. Central to theories of words, “gender is performative[,] a certain kind of enactment,” but of these rhetorical goals is met singly by the “Cologne Epode”—the eliminates the invective possibility of the implication of abscond- social construction is that norms of what is masculine or femi- “the ‘appearance’ of gender is often mistaken as a sign of its inter- starkest example of character variation for the sake of increased ing with the pure. Archilochos resolves this problem in Soror, nine are determined socially rather than biologically. Further, nal or inherent truth” (2009, p. i). Sociologist Michael Messner verbal assault in the Archilochean corpus. Soror’s comparison who creates the possibility of sexual attraction, completing his following Judith Butler (2009), performativity involves the idea (2000) explains how structural segregation of sexes, social pres- with Neoboule is a prime example of the first function, moral obligation to sympotic function, and enhances his derisive abili- that gender is a performance (a set of actions and choices people sure to conform from peers and superiors, cultural messages in reflection, and the third, expression of one’s likes and dislikes. ties against both Neoboule by means of comparison, and against make) that either conforms with or breaks those social norms. A the media, and one’s sense of self-identity interact to provide the However, this is impossible without manipulating the characters Lycambes by means of straightforward insult. central feature of gender performances involves a person’s choice conditions in which people make gendered choices throughout of apparel; for example, dressing according to the masculine norm their lives. is a way to perform masculinity. The social norms of gender gov- As numerous authors note,2 clothing is a major locus for gender Notes ern not only what appears as which gender, but also who should performance. Infant garments are gender segregated into pink and 1 M.L. West, Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus (New York: Walter de 16 Ibid., 53. 36 Eustathius on Homer, Iliad. 25.775 (iv.836.1 V.d. Valk). appear each way, and people whose gender performances do not Gruyter & Co., 1974), 22. blue from birth. Even fantasy and role-playing costumes such as 17 37 conform are said to transgress gender boundaries. Ibid 53ff. Archilochus, frag. 207 West, Iambi et Elegi. those worn on Halloween are gendered not only by character, but 2 Ibid. 18 Neoboule’s sister refers to only one other in her house prepared to 38 Ibid., frag. 208. Many studies of gender issues have focused on students and by wearer (Nelson, 2000). Moreover, clothing can be an important 3 Aristotle. Aristotle in 23 Volumes. vol. 23, trans. by W.H. Fyfe (Cam- be married (“Cologne Epode,” 196aW). 39 bridge, MA: Harvard University Press) 1448b. Ibid., frag. 209. schools, and it has been widely recognized that some disciplines and conscious part of identity construction, as Mary Bucholtz’ 19 Ibid. 40 are gendered feminine (e.g. language and humanities) and oth- (1999) work on high school nerd girl culture demonstrates. Raine 4 Theodore Waitz, Aristotelis Organon Graece, vol. 2. (1846, repr., Hesychius, Lexicon. 20 Lipsiae) 407. Ibid., 36-38. ers masculine (e.g. mathematics and sciences). There has been Dozier (2005) provides a broader overview of the trends that these 41 Archilochus, frag. 23 and 126 West, Iambi et Elegi: both fragments 23 21 5 Ralph M. Rosen, “Hipponax, Boupalos, and the Conventions of the Ibid., 10-11. and 126 make it very clear that Archilochos wielded his bitter words considerable work on the way a discipline’s gender affects student case studies examine. For her, bodies are treated and interpreted Psogos,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 118 proudly. 22 Archilochus, frag. 38 West, Iambi et Elegi. participation and scores (Steele, 1999), however, there has been as ongoing projects of gender performance; people are constantly (1988): 29-41. 42 M.L. West, “Some Oriental Motifs in Archilochus,” Zeitschrift für surprisingly little work on the way the gender of a discipline af- “doing gender” by making choices about how to appear and what 23 West, Studies in Greek, 123. 6 Ibid., 30. Papyrologie und Epigraphik 102 (1994): 1–5. fects students’ gender performance. This study leverages quanti- to wear, whether and how much to conform with or transgress 24 Ibid. 43 7 West, Studies in Greek, 22. Archilochus, frag. 196 , 168, et. cetera West, Iambi et Elegi. tative observations of clothing and accessories to examine how against gender norms, and what such conformity or transgression 25 Archilochus, frag. 193 West, Iambi et Elegi. 44 8 Ibid., 23. Ewen L. Bowie “Greek Table-Talk before Plato,” Rhetorica 11 (no. university students perform gender in the classrooms of gendered could gain or cost them—in some cases gender transgression can 4): 355–371; Rhétoriques de la conversation, de l’Antiquité à l’époque 26 Ibid., frag. 118. 9 Chris Camery, “Iambos,” in The Cambridge Companion to Greek Lyric, moderne, Actes de la table ronde de Paris, 4 juin 1993 (Autumn, 1993): disciplines. The results reveal a depth and complexity to the sys- be extremely costly to family, social, and professional goals (Mir, ed. Felix Budelmann, (Cambridge University Press: 2009) 150. 27 Ibid., frag. 48. 355-373. tem of gender influence and performance which challenges sim- 2009). This concept of “doing gender” was first introduced in West

10 Archilochus, frag. 207 West, Iambi et Elegi Graeci ante Alexandrum 28 Ibid., frag. 60. plistic narratives about pressure to conform to disciplinary gender and Zimmerman’s paper by that title in 1987, where they argued Cantati (Oxford University Press, 1971). norms. that we cannot not do gender, because all things we do risk being 29 West, Studies in Greek, 123. 11 Marius Victorinus, Grammar. perceived in a gendered way. 30 Archilochus, frag. 189 West, Iambi et Elegi. Doing Gender, Constructing Social Norms 12 Mnesiepes Inscription, B(E2) col. I 31 Ibid., frag. 35. Performing Gender on a College Campus 13 Archilochus, frag. 215 West, Iambi et Elegi: “I have no interest in As elementary teacher Gair Boldt (1996) points out, the theory of iambi or amusements.” This statement seems to equivocate Iambus with 32 Ibid., frag. 188. performativity sheds a great deal of light on the means by which The university is a major social institution for U.S. students dur- amusement. 33 Ibid., frag. 205. gender is produced and reproduced. Even her eight-year-old pu- ing their formative young adult years. Even during class, students 14 Homeric Hymn to Demeter, ll: 190-205 34 Ibid., frag. 206. pils recognize that some behaviors (e.g. playing with girls, writing rank social goals such as friendships and romantic relationships 15 Ralph Rosen, Making Mockery: The Poetics of Ancient Satire, (Oxford poetry) connote “girl” while others (e.g. sports, rough play, dirti- highest among their top concerns, and to that end they may put 35 University Press: 2007) 52. Herennius Philo, On the Different Meanings of Words (p. 194 Palmieri, 83 Nickau Ammonius). Thanks to Dr. Orit Avishai, my faculty mentor, for guiding the work, and reviewing the results and drafts. This work was approved by Fordham’s Institutional Review Board. 31 32 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research a great deal of thought into their appearances and gender perfor- Methodology In total, we observed 405 articles of clothing from 180 outfits in 9 mance (Holland, 1988; Mir, 2009). While academics have taken classes. Because some students attended multiple classes or days, To explore the influence of disciplinary gender norms in uni- a backseat to social interests and “extracurricular” development, the 180 outfits are drawn from fewer than 180 students. versity classrooms, I observed the apparel choices of students in students, faculty, and parents still agree that without the class- three types of classes. Masculine, feminine, and neutral classes are Results3 room, there is no university (Moffatt, 1991). Students, then, must

expected to represent the range of possible scenarios in which a Research balance social pressures with goals of academic achievement. This Gender neutral space. discipline’s gender norm might impact the gender performance of tension can become acutely evident in the classroom when there students. Because the masculine and feminine spaces are chosen The data from the gender neutral space can be seen in Table 1. is competition between the gender norm of one’s discipline and from upper level courses, self-selection is assumed to be at play. Womyn’s tops are substantially tighter than men’s tops, and tight- the broader norms for one’s gender. Borrowing West’s terminol- That is, students taking upper level womyn’s studies courses are er in general than either the masculine or feminine spaces. Men’s ogy, Dorte Marie Søndergaard (2005) coined the term “doing assumed to take part in to that feminine discipline either by major clothing tends to medium tightness. Womyn’s bottoms (skirts, academic” to describe how academic disciplines produce norms or elective choice. The effects of the discipline’s gender are expect- dresses, pants, shorts, etc.) were tight 80% of the time, with less for their members’ professional and gender performances. Profes- ed to be strong here because the students and those around them than 7% of instances classified as baggy. Both men’s and womyn’s sional credibility often hinges on one’s ability to conform to disci- are actively engaged in it. For this reason, classes which focused Table 1 (above) (below) bottoms were both overwhelmingly dark/drab, but 10% of plinary standards of speech and appearance. People whose social Womyn Men on multiple issues (e.g. gender and race) or which were required womyn’s bottoms were bright/feminine. Womyn’s tops were split gender role does not correspond to the gender of their discipline, The percent of garments worn by (a) womyn and (b) men in the gender-neutral space which fall into each for another program (e.g. a diversity requirement) were excluded. category. between dark and bright. Two thirds of men’s tops were classified such as womyn in the sciences, will find these forces at odds. Additionally, only coed classes were considered so that the impact as dark, however, and most of the remaining third fell into the To explore these competing pressures, this work compares pat- of and on gender minorities could be evaluated. silly/organization category. Regarding female accessories, 71% of terns of gendered dress across different disciplines in Fordham them were either bright or had bright accents, while 75% of male The following spaces were chosen for evaluation: University classrooms. Classroom spaces are intimately linked to accessories were dark. Generally, we see students of both genders academic disciplines not only by the subjects discussed in class, • Masculine spaces: upper-level classes in the Computer and Infor- in every category of color and fit for every garment, and the most but also by those who occupy the spaces (i.e. people participating mation Science department. Nationally, computer science is over- popular styles are the “gender appropriate” styles (e.g. tight for whelmingly populated by male students (England and Li, 2006), and in the discipline). Students’ choice of apparel during attendance is only 12.7% of students observed here were female. One-third of the womyn, dark for men). a visible aspect of their gender performance at a time when they department’s full time professors are female, but all classes in this Masculine space. are directly engaged with both the topics and community of the group had male instructors. Additionally, the discipline’s culture is discipline. As such, student apparel in classrooms is a prime posi- very masculine, even compared with other sciences. (Mukhopad- The masculine spaces exhibited interesting apparel patterns as tion from which to study the effects of gender norms on students hyay, 2004). well. For the male students, who make up the majority and de- within gendered disciplines. • Feminine spaces: upper-level classes in the department of Women’s fine the norm, the trend toward clothing of medium tightness Studies. These classes contain an overwhelmingly majority of female Table 2 (above) (below) held. However, it should be noted that when clothing was tight, Many studies have examined the case of womyn in the tradition- students, though the ratio of female to male students is less extreme Womyn Men it was often not fitted (as the category “tight/fitted” did encom- ally masculine disciplines of mathematics and sciences. National than in the masculine spaces. All observed professors were female. The percent of garments worn by (a) womyn and (b) men in the masculine space which fall into each pass), but rather it was simply small for the wearer. Like in the statistics by the National Science Foundation (England and Li, These classes focus on the traditionally feminine disciplines of gen- category. neutral space, dark/drab colors and patterns dominated, but male 2006) indicate that the sciences and engineering are overwhelm- der and womyn, and are within the generally feminine disciplines of humanities and social sciences (English & Li, 2006). students found more room to wear bright/feminine clothing and ingly dominated by men. Being taken seriously as a student, ex- clothing with bright accents here than anywhere else in the study. pert, or researcher in departments with only a handful of same- • Gender neutral spaces: low-level core courses which are required There were even a few instances of male students wearing bottoms gender peers is a difficult task because there are few same-gender of all Rose Hill undergraduate students. These classes have a nearly even sex distribution (54% female). No major student self-selection classified as bright/feminine, breaking the hegemonic social trend peers to make one’s gender expression seem normal. Further re- is assumed to be at play, because these courses are required of all of only dark bottoms. search on womyn in mathematics and physics shows that womyn students. Further, because they are considered general knowledge believe that, though gender is a critical component of their iden- for all students by the university, there is no assumed institutional Womyn in masculine spaces tend to conform to masculine ap- tity, they have a difficult time balancing the demands of feminin- or structural bias. pearance in several ways. They show no unnecessary skin and ity with disciplinary expectations of masculinity (Mukhopadhyay, wear even more baggy tops than the men. Their bottoms are al- Data was collected by observing the apparel of students who at- 2004; Ong, 2005). Members of these male-dominated communi- ways dark. And while men exhibit slightly lower rates of “dressy” tended classes in each of these groups. Each student’s clothing was ties expect other members to conform to their primarily mascu- clothing here than in neutral space, womyn are invariably casual evaluated using several categories and then tallied into that class’s line norms of thinking, speaking, and dressing but can be put off in the masculine spaces. With a cursory glance, they seem to be totals. Tops, bottoms, and accessories were all classified separate- by womyn who break broader cultural gender norms in order to meeting the space’s norm of masculinity better than some of the ly. Each article was classified first by its fit (tight/fitted, medium, Table 3 (above) (below) conform. In short, if womyn are too feminine, they do not meet male students. A closer examination tells a different story, howev- loose/baggy, torn, dressy), then by its color/pattern (bright/femi- Womyn Men the standards of scientist, but if they are too masculine, they do The percent of garments worn by (a) womyn and (b) men in the feminine space which fall into each er. Womyn’s bottoms are invariably tight/fitted, and they all have nine, accented bright/feminine, bright/silly/organizational, dark/ category. not meet the standards of womyn. In either case, they risk being decidedly feminine accents and top colors. For instance, although drab/masculine, skin showing). Articles were tallied for each cri- outcast. a female student may walk into one of these classes with a loose terion that they met. Students were not aware of this study while it black sweatshirt, she will invariably wear tight jeans and will likely This investigation explores whether similar processes might be was being conducted. In the end, we are left with the total number be wearing an accessory like a fuchsia scarf. at work in traditionally feminine disciplines (here, womyn’s & of garments matching each description (e.g. 8 baggy bottoms on gender studies), and how these tensions play out in more neutral males, 11 bright tops on females) for each class. Feminine space. environments. Although considerable work has been done with The coding scheme was based on the following assumptions: The feminine space demonstrates several interesting differences gender and college students, gender in graduate departments, and • Dark and drab colors and patterns are coded masculine, while bright from the other spaces. First, not only were womyn’s tops looser gender in K-12 classrooms, the gender performances of under- • Tight and fitted clothing is coded feminine, while loose and baggy and light colors and patterns are coded feminine (Nelson, 2000; than in any other space, they were also dramatically looser on graduates in classrooms and in feminine college disciplines are clothing is coded masculine (Dozier, 2005; Nelson, 2000; Mir, 2009). Messner, 2000). average than the attending men’s tops. Additionally, the portion under-studied. Furthermore, no prior work has been done com- • Showing skin (low cut or sleeveless tops, or tops which expose the • Primary colors and patterns or colors which represent an organiza- of drab/masculine accessories on female students is substantially paring the performances of undergraduates across masculine, midriff, as well as low rise bottoms or shorts and skirts which end tion (such as a university shirt) are gender neutral, because they are higher here than elsewhere (double the neutral space). In this way, feminine and neutral classroom spaces. well above the knee) is coded feminine (Dozier, 2005; Mir, 2009). marketed that way (Nelson, 2000). womyn seem to be rejecting their traditional gendered clothing 33 34 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Research norms. This trend does not extend to the male students, however, serts its claim to these masculine traits in feminine spaces more compelled to defend their standing; female students instead try to Notes

who seem to represent an elevated masculinity. Indeed, they don than in neutral spaces. Still, womyn participate in other feminine pass male norms to boost their status. However, the consequences 1 Womyn was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in September 2006 in response to its sustained use by the highest portion of baggy bottoms (double the other spaces) student norms by showing the average amount of skin and keep- of this defensiveness should not be overlooked simply because feminist authors as an alternative spelling for woman and women. and have no bright/feminine colors or patterns on any article of ing normal distributions of bottom colors and fits. Men, how- they come from privilege. If male students are uncomfortable and 2 For more case studies on gendered clothing and apparel, see: Bucholtz, 1999; Dozier, 2005; Holland, 1988; clothing. They also represent the only consistent showing of silly/ ever, appear to take a reactionary stance, exhibiting a defensive defensive about their gender status, it can impede their work just Mir, 2009; Moffatt 1991; Mukhopadhyay, 2004; Nelson, 2000; Ong, 2005; Reay 2001 organizational bottoms for men (specifically, university sweat hyper-masculinity. While the patterns and fits of men’s tops tend as female students’ work can be impeded by concerns about their 3 N.B. All observations and statistics are done on aggregate, and exceptions within the data to these trends Research do exist. pants and camouflage print pants). That said, womyn’s bodies are to remain normal relative to the gender-neutral spaces, no bright/ gender’s status. 4 not exclusively centers of rejection. In fact, they have the average feminine tops were observed and men tend to wear extremely “Transgender: An umbrella term (adj.) for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs Limitations and Future Work from the sex they were assigned at birth.… Transgender people may or may not decide to alter their bodies” quantity of exposed skin and the normal distribution of mainly loose and masculine bottoms. Rather than being torn between, (GLAAD, 2010). dark/drab bottoms. While neither womyn nor men display any or trying to conform to, the feminine norm, men uphold more There are some significant limitations to this work. The study only dressy clothing in the feminine space, womyn’s trend toward loos- masculine dress styles. contains nine classes representing a few days at a single univer- er clothing that shows more skin is indicative of a fashion that sity. Without further study, we cannot make generalizations to the Interestingly, womyn’s adoption of some masculine and some is absent from womyn observed in masculine spaces; womyn in university or to the higher education system about the findings. feminine traits could indicate that womyn are still in tension be- the latter tend toward medium-fit, fully covered, boyish clothes, The results of broader analysis, particularly one that included a tween conflicting feminine and masculine influences. It is pos- which differ from the fashion of the more traditional femininity more representative sample of science and non-science courses, sible that this conflict is a product of the discipline, which forces of tight fitting articles and feminine patterns. would be very interesting in order to assess whether there might students to consciously engage with these very norms. Womyn, be variation within those disciplines. Discussion then, may be conflicted by social pressures toward femininity and disciplinary pressures critical of those social pressures. If this ef- Additionally, students were grouped into two sexes for the pur- Gender Neutral Spaces. fect of self-consciousness is happening for womyn, it does not pose of observation. Not only is the two-sex system inadequate The gender neutral spaces are not free from tacit gender pressures. seem to be happening for men, who may instead feel challenged to describe the diversity of student bodies, but also how to clas- It can be said that the broader variation of personal style in these by a discipline which rejects patriarchy. In fact, it is precisely this sify which students belonged to which sex is also an uncertain spaces, especially the freedom for male students to wear compara- critical examination which makes womyn’s studies different from practice. Students were assigned to a sex based upon their appar- tively more fitted/feminine articles of clothing (which results in a computer science. In the former, gendered norms are openly dis- ent sex traits and gender performance, but it is entirely possible very narrow gap between the two identified genders), is a product cussed and evaluated; pressures are direct and overt. In the latter, that transgender students have passed for the other sex. Anec- of the reduced gender pressure in these spaces. Similarly, though pressure to conform is unacknowledged by the technical subject, dotal evidence and personal experience indicates that the Ford- References womyn exhibit more traditional displays of femininity, they also as if the discipline were somehow genderless. This line of thought, ham community has active transgender members, but for privacy Boldt, GM. (1996). Sexist and heterosexist responses to gender bending in an elementary classroom. Cur- have a broader range of styles open to them. When no one style that masculine disciplines are without gender, has also been found reasons data on their prevalence have not been gathered for this riculum Inquiry, 26(2), pp. 113–131. prevails, the strength of gender norms is weaker, and transgres- in other studies and interviews (Ong, 2005). study. While the experience of trans individuals is important to Bucholtz, M (1999). “Why be normal”’: Language and identity practices in a community of nerd girls.” Language in Society, 28(2): pp. 203–223. sions are easier. understand and study, it is different from the experience of cis- Implications Butler, J (2009). Performativity, precarity and sexual politics. Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana, 4(3): gendered students, and may not be adequately described by my Masculine Spaces. i-xiii. With this study, we have provided corroboration of previous analysis here. Dozier, R (2005). Beards, breasts, and bodies: Doing sex in a gendered world.” Gender and Society, 19(3): pp. Evaluation of the masculine spaces seems to confirm the findings work’s conclusions that masculine disciplines place conflicting 297–316. This study only examines the impact of gender and gender identi- of other studies. In these spaces, womyn’s apparel seems almost pressures on their female members. Womyn here are left trying ties, and does not examine other important factors like race and England, P & S Li (2006). Desegregation stalled: The changing gender composition of college majors, 1971- schizophrenic. Maria Ong’s (2005) work with physics students to fit in with the discipline’s norm of masculinity in order to be 2002. Gender and Society, 20(5): pp. 657–677. social class. Social scientists are becoming increasingly aware of explains that womyn working to be accepted there as legitimate accepted as credible members, but they must at the same time try Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (2010). GLAAD media reference guide. GLAAD, 8th ed.: pp. the different ways in which gender, race, and class intersect, and academics must contend with the conflicting pulls of broad so- to conform to broader social expectations of femininity. Womyn’s 8. further students on identities and attire should take such relation- cial femininity and local community masculinity. This tension is apparel choices in masculine classrooms demonstrate a dominant Holland, DC & Eisenhart, MA (1988). Moments of discontent: University women and the gender status quo. ships into account. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 19(2): pp. 115–138. evident in our study as well: womyn work to blend in by gener- trend toward generally fitting the masculine norm and a simulta- ally meeting masculine norms such as baggy, casual, and drab neous compulsion to assert their femininity in ways that leave no Further study should also take into account students’ individual Khakpour, P (2009, March 9). Islamic revolution barbie. Editorial, The New York Times (New York), New York edition. clothing, while also attempting also to assert their femininity with doubt, but are not so overt as to break from a generally masculine concerns and thoughts. Due to both time and privacy concerns, Messner, MA (2000). Barbie girls versus sea monsters: Children constructing gender. Gender and Society, subtle but firm signifiers like fuchsia scarves and tight jeans. -Fe appearance. individual students were not interviewed about their clothing 14(6): pp. 765–784. male students in masculine classroom spaces seem to partake in choices or followed between different classes and days. Follow- The other important findings involve the feminine spaces. Mir, S (2009). Not too “college-like,: not too normal: American Muslim undergraduate women’s gendered both gender extremes. Male students here do not have tension up study could examine how different course loads and daily ac- discourses.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 40(3): pp. 237–256. Womyn’s fashion here trends strongly toward claiming some mas- between social and disciplinary gender influences and can com- tivities impact the apparel students choose to wear (i.e, whether a culine traits but just as strongly partakes in other feminine traits. Moffatt, M (1991). College life: Undergraduate culture and higher education.”The Journal of Higher Educa- fortably partake in masculine apparel norms. This comfort also student might change their attire depending on the courses they tion, 62(1): pp. 44–61. This could be a result of a sense of security in the femininity of the affords them the space to break those norms and wear overtly attend during a particular day). Mukhopadhyay, CC (2004). A feminist cognitive anthropology: the case of women and mathematics.” Ethos, discipline and is likely related to the discipline’s open challenging bright/feminine articles which the womyn are not generally ob- 32(4), Theme issue: Contributions to a feminist psychological anthropology: pp. 458–492. of gender norms. The fact that strong masculine and feminine in- Finally, the analysis in this work is largely quantitative. Because served wearing. That is, while womyn’s femininity seeks an asser- Nelson, A (2000). The pink dragon is female. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(2): pp. 137–144. fluences both persist in womyn’s apparel in these feminine spaces of the inherent disjoint between qualitative and quantitative evi- tive but subtle balance, men’s masculinity is unchallenged and free Ong, M (2005). Body projects of young women of color in physics: Intersections of gender, race, and science. suggests that the gender pressures at work are more complex than dence, the statistics generated about relative distributions of cat- to openly transgress boundaries. Social Problems, 52(4): pp. 593-617. those for men in masculine spaces. Even where womyn have the egories and attitudes should be understood only as a guide to Reay, D (2001). Spice girls, “nice girls,” girlies’ and tomboys: Gender discourses, girls’ cultures and feminini- Feminine Spaces. most disciplinary support, they are not fully liberated to take on further qualitative and theoretical work. Precise measurements ties in the primary classroom.” Gender and Education, 13(2): pp. 153–166. a broad spectrum of apparel and thus carry over some of the cul- of clothing dimensions and hue are not used, nor could the data The feminine space, however, does not demonstrate the reverse. Søndergaard, DM (2005). Making sense of gender, age, power and disciplinary position: Intersecting dis- tural influence of femininity. Men in feminine spaces, however, begin to fully encompass the personal and social meanings of stu- courses in the academy. Feminism Psychology, 15(2): pp. 189-208. Female students appear to break some norms of femininity in fa- react in the opposite way as womyn in masculine spaces do. Male dents’ clothing. Instead, it is hoped that this coarse observation Steele, CM (1994). Thin ice: “Stereotype threat” and black college students.The Atlantic Monthly, 284: pp. vor of masculine garments such as loose tops and drab accesso- students are observed with hyper-masculine attire, as if the disci- methodology provides a statistical basis for insight that might 44–54. ries. Unlike in the masculine spaces where men seem comfortable pline’s feminine subjects or reputation were a challenge or threat otherwise have been overlooked. West, C & Zimmerman, DH (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1(2) (Jun., 1987): pp. 125–151. with, but not inclined toward, breaking norms, womyn’s gender- to their masculinity. This is indicative of male privilege in general: bending in feminine spaces is widespread. Womyn’s fashion as- when students’ genders are challenged, only male students seem 35 36 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

FURJ is pleased to announce the winners of the inaugural Undergraduate Research Mentor Award! This award aims to recognize those faculty members who show consistent passion and dedication in working with undergraduate students and promoting research at Fordham.

We received feedback from many students about their research experiences, who nominated the following:

Dr. R. Bentley Anderson, S.J. Dr. Jon Friedrich Dr. Sophie Mitra African & African American Studies Chemistry Economics Dr. Peggy Andover Dr. Evon Hekkala Dr. W. David Myers Communications Psychology Biological Sciences History Dr. Amy Balija Dr. Beth Knobel Dr. Mary Procidano Chemistry Communication and Media Studies Psychology Dr. Ipsita Banerjee Dr. Robert Lewis Prof. Sumithra Raghavan Communications are short reports Chemistry Mathematics Psychology Dr. Christopher Bender Dr. James MacDonall Dr. Rolf Ryham of original research that focus on Chemistry Psychology Mathematics Dr. James Ciaccio Dr. Robert Madden Dr. Rosemary Wakeman highlighting an important finding that Chemistry Natural Sciences History / Urban Studies will likely be of considerable interest Prof. Maria Ebner Dr. Matthew McGowan Dr. Larry Welborn Modern Languages Classics Theology to others in the discipline. Dr. Silvia Finneman Dr. John McMahon Dr. Xiaolan Zhang Biological Sciences Chemistry Computer and Information Sciences Dr. Steve Franks Dr. Patricio Meneses Biological Sciences Biological Sciences

The winners are:

Sciences Social Sciences Humanities Dr. Ipsita Banerjee Dr. Beth Knobel Dr. Larry Welborn

Thank you to our outstanding faculty and to the students who cast their votes. Do you know a faculty research mentor who you think should be on this list? Nominate him or her for next year’s Undergraduate Research Mentor Award! To nominate a faculty mentor, send an email to [email protected].

37 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications Sheehan Ahmed, FCRH ’11 Dr. Vassilios Fessatidis, Physics Ryan Brennan, FCRH ’11 Dr. Antonios Balassis, Physics

Interaction of Particle Beams Communications

Physics with One-Dimensional Potential Barriers

Introduction Conclusion The objective of this project was to model particle beams in a with A, B, C, D corresponding to the coefficients of the approach- Standard tunneling effects were replicated through the codes number of 1-D potential systems and to create generalized Math- ing and reflected wave on each side of the discontinuity. which clearly showed Ramsauer peaks1 when a small number ematica programs that can later be added on to continue further of barriers were considered. As the number of barriers were in- The coefficients on either side can be related to each other through research into more complicated systems involving electric fields creased, bands of unit transmission formed (a precursor to the Figure 1 the following discontinuity matrix (Walker 1992), Transmission through an arbitrary barrier with V1 = 0, V2 = 1, V3 = 0.5, barrier strength = π/0.9 and barrier across nanowires. The project was mainly used to investigate how electron energy band structure found in solids) (Griffiths and length = 3. the transmission coefficients (i.e., percentage transmission) of Steinke 2001), with the number of peaks alternating between N these beams dynamically varied with changing parameters and and N - 1 between odd and even bands respectively. to visualize in real time how exactly resonance peaks and band Implications and Further Work structures arose and changed as certain parameters (such as num-

ber and height of barriers) changed values. where and k1 and k2 are the re- These Mathematica codes provide the basis for modeling a large spective wavenumbers on each part of the potential and number of complicated systems. Since the codes used were built Methods & Techniques Used . All potential and energy terms are scaled by a from scratch and are completely different from those used by

The standard procedure was to follow the method introduced by reference potential V0 . Therefore e = E/V0 and vi = Vi/V0 where E Walker to generate the graphs in his paper, they are versatile in dif-

Walker and Gathright in their 1993/1994 paper “Exploring one- and Vi are the energy of the particle beam and the potential of the ferent ways. Also, unlike Walker’s programs, the ones created for dimensional quantum mechanics with transfer matrices”, which system respectively. this project are real-time interactive, allowing the user to graphi- uses different matrices to displace the particle beam over various If the discontinuity does not occur at x = 0, the coordinate system cally change all the parameters without resorting to modifying the potential discontinuities and structures (Walker and Gatheright can be translated by the use of a propagation matrix [2] ρ (Walker code. we will continue to keep building on these codes, eventually 1994). The discontinuity, propagation, and delta matrices can be 1992). This allows the discontinuity and propagation operators to adding the effects of external electric fields simulating those in used to derive any number of complicated shapes. remain independent of each other and allows for a “cleaner” han- real one-dimensional systems such as nanowires. This would let us investigate phenomena such as Fano Resonances.2 We wrote programs using Mathematica code that modeled differ- dling of the system. ent barrier systems, beyond those considered in the Walker paper, If the unprimed coordinate system is translated into the primed ranging from a simple double barrier to an N-barrier system. The coordinate system with x = x’ + a with no change in potential, main equation used was Schrödinger’s time-independent equa- then tion, Figure 2

Transmission through a double barrier with V1 = 0, V2 = 1, barrier strength = π/0.9, barrier length = 1 and barrier separation = 1.

The solution to the above equation (for E > V0 ) is the generalized 1-D wave equation, Therefore, , where

The generalized potential discontinuity used corresponds to the following figure: Using these, transfer matrices of a large number of complicat- Notes ed systems were modeled very efficiently and the transmission 1 Ramsauer peaks are peaks of unit transmission in symmetrical barriers when an integral number of half- wavelengths fit in the barrier. The effect of this is to make the barrier seem transparent. For non-symmetrical graphs of up to 1 000 barriers could be generated within the order barriers, the peaks still occur, but do not reach unit transmission but follow the envelope formed by the of a minute. The transfer-matrix approach also has the advantage transmission through the discontinuity without the barrier.

2 of being an exact representation of the system, with numerical cal- All potentials are scaled using an arbitrary factor of V0 and all lengths are scaled by a factor of a0. Barrier culations done only when calculating the final transmission coef- strength is a dimensionless quantity. All of these values depend on the particular system being studied and the specific particle used in the beam. ficient graphs. References

Griffiths DJ & Steinke CA. 2001. Waves in locally periodic media. American Journal of Physics 69(2): 137–154. Figure 3

Transmission through 20 barriers with V1 = 0, V2 = 2, barrier strength = π/0.9, barrier length = 1 and barrier Walker JS. 1992. A transfer-matrix to one-dimensional quantum mechanics using Mathematica, Computers in separation = 1. Distinct band structure can be seen. Physics 6(4): 393–399.

Walker JS & Gathright J. 1994. Exploring one dimensional quantum mechanics with transfer matrices. Ameri- can Journal of Physics 62(5): 408–422.

39 40 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications Michele Paccagnini, FCRH ’12 Dr. Amy M. Balija, Chemistry The mono- and di-O-alkylated structures were further charac- and 13C NMR spectra are recorded at 75 MHz on a Bruker Avance Matthew Tracey, FCRH ’11 terized using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. We expect that 3 DPX300 spectrometer. Chemical shifts are reported in parts per J. Ryan Combs, FCRH ’10 would have a simplified NMR spectrum compared to4 due to its million (ppm) and coupling constants are reported in Hertz (Hz). 1 inherent symmetry. As seen in Figure 2, 3 exhibited a triplet at H NMR spectra obtained in CDCl3 are referenced to 7.26 ppm. 13 6.63 ppm and a doublet at 7.15 ppm which corresponded to the C NMR spectra obtained in CDCl3 are referenced to 77.16 ppm. Synthesis and Characterization of Mono- and Di-O-Alkylated nonequivalent protons HBA and HAB, respectively. Furthermore, Synthesis of bis-O-dialkylated compound 3. Communications the doublet at 3.77 ppm integrated to four, corresponding to the Chemistry Derivatives of Methyl 3,5-Dihydroxy Benzoate correct number of methylene protons labeled HC. However, the A mixture of methyl 3,5-dihydroxy benzoate (5.00 g, 29.7 mmol)

aromatic region is more complex for mono-alkylated 4 (Figure and K2CO3 (8.50 g, 61.5 mmol) in DMF (37.5 mL) is stirred at 3), with a triplet at 6.60 ppm two overlapping doublet of doublets room temperature. After 2 h, (bromomethyl)cyclohexane (8.80 at 7.13 ppm, corresponding to H and (H + H ) respectively. mL, 63.1 mmol) is added to the reaction mixture in 1 mL portions Introduction BA BA D The doublet at 3.76 ppm, corresponding to the methylene protons over 10 min. The mixture is then heated at 80 °C for 3 h. After In the course of searching for monomers for larger macromo- O O (HC) integrated to two and a broad singlet was observed at 5.41 the reaction cooled to room temperature, ethyl acetate (100 mL) lecular structures, we attempted the bis-O-alkylation of methyl ppm for the free phenol proton. is added and the organic layer is washed with water (5X, 70 mL 3,5-dihydroxy benzoate (1) with (bromomethyl)cyclohexane (2). HA each) and brine (1X, 70 mL). The organic layer is then dried over The13 C NMR spectra for 3 and 4 also displayed distinguishing dif- To our knowledge, no literature procedures have been published anhydrous sodium sulfate before the solvent is removed by rotary ferences. Because of the inherent symmetry, four aromatic carbon on the preparation of ethers by alkylation of a phenol substrate O O HC evaporation. Purification of the product by column chromatog- peaks were observed for 3 (160.3, 131.8, 107.6, and 106.5 ppm) with (bromomethyl)cyclohexane. We were surprised to find that HB raphy (silica gel, petroleum ether:diethyl ether, 1:1) results in the while six aromatic carbon peaks were observed for 4 (160.6, 156.6, the mono-O-alkylated product was predominantly obtained in isolation of 3 and 4 as yellow solids. A mixture of 4 (2.08 g, 12.4 132.0, 108.9, 107.9, 107.0 ppm). In both cases, the 1H and 13C NMR this reaction. This finding is in contrast with those reported for mmol) and K CO (3.54g, 25.6 mmol) in DMF (15.6 mL) is stirred spectra of 3 and 4 were different from the corresponding spectra 2 3 alkylations, utilizing benzyl bromide where bis-O-alkylation is at room temperature. After 2 h, (bromomethyl)cyclohexane (3.67 for commercially available methyl 3,5-dihydroxy benzoate. the predominant reaction (Yan et al. 2011). Herein we report a mL, 26.5 mmol) is added to the reaction mixture dropwise and convenient synthesis of the bis-alkylated product 3 in good yield. One potential use for di-alkylated 3 is as a monomer for larger the mixture is then heated at 80 °C for 3 h. After the reaction 2 Results and Discussion molecular structures such as polymers and dendrimers (Fréchet cooled to room temperature, ethyl acetate (20 mL) is added and and Tomalia 2002). Because of its unique molecular structure the organic layer is washed with water (6X, 15 mL each) and brine Initial attempts to prepare di-O-alkylated ether 3 involved react- containing polar and nonpolar moieties, compound 3 is an in- (1X, 15 mL). The organic layer is then dried over anhydrous so-

ing 1 with 2 in the presence of K2CO3 with 18-[C]-6 in acetone teresting monomer for incorporation into macromolecules that dium sulfate before the solvent is removed by rotary evaporation. at 60 °C. This di-alkylation did not proceed presumably due to might be able to remove hydrophobic, nonpolar organic pollut- Purification of the product by column chromatography (silica gel, the decreased reactivity of (bromomethyl)cyclohexane relative to ants from aqueous environments. Previous work in our group petroleum ether:diethyl ether, 1:1) resulted in the isolation of 3 as other alkyl halides such as benzyl bromide. To identify conditions (above) Figure 2 (below) Figure 3 has demonstrated that the incorporation of different functional a yellow solid. Trituration with ice-cold petroleum ether afforded that favor the formation of 3, we modified the reaction solvent and 1H NMR spectrum of 3. 1H NMR spectrum of 4. groups influences the pollutant entrapment (Triano et al. 2011). 3 in 4.36 g (87%) as a white powder. Rf: petroleum ether:ethyl ac- temperature. Upon exposure of the (bromomethyl)cyclohexane We anticipate that cyclohexane groupings will influence the en- etate 1:1, 3: 0.72, 4: 0.88.

and 2 with K2CO3 in DMF at 60 °C (Scheme 1), two new products capsulation properties of dendrimers. Compounds 3 and 4 are were observed by thin layer chromatography (TLC). After workup also novel synthons for organic synthesis: the ester group serves and separation by silica gel column chromatography, we identified as a handle for further functionalization through the formation 3: 1H NMR(300 MHz): δ = 7.15 (d, 2H, J=2.3), 6.63 (t, 1H, J=2.3), the products as the mono-O-alkylated 4 and di-O-alkylated 3 de- O O of new carbon-carbon bonds or hydrolysis to the carboxylic acid. 3.91 (s, 3H), 3.77 (d, 4H, J=6.2), 1.03-1.88 (m, 22H). 13C NMR(75 rivatives of methyl 3,5-dihydroxybenzoate. Subjecting 4 to further MHz): δ = 167.0, 160.3, 131.8, 107.6, 106.5, 73.8, 52.2, 37.7, 29.9, HA HD Conclusion alkylation with 2 increased the overall yield of 3 from 10% to 49%. 26.5, 25.8.

O O O O In summary, we have disclosed a previously unknown alkylation 1 O O HO O HC 4: H NMR(300 MHz): δ = 7.13 (m, 2H), 6.60 (t, 1H, J=2.3), 5.41 Br K2CO3, DMF H reaction between methyl 3,5-dihydroxymethyl benzoate 1 and 13 + + B (s, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 3.76 (d, 2H, J=6.2), 1.01-1.87 (m, 11H). C O O HO O HO OH Scheme 1 (bromomethyl)cyclohexane 2. The reaction proceeds by initial NMR(75 MHz): δ = 167.00, 160.6, 156.6, 132.0, 108.9, 107.9, mono-O-alkylation to furnish an intermediate that was isolated 107.0, 73.8, 52.3, 37.6, 29.8, 26.5, 25.8. 1 2 3 4 and subjected to the same alkylation conditions to obtain the Optimized conditions were obtained when 1 was reacted with 2.1 desired product in good yield. Purification by silica gel column equivalents of 2 and 2.0 equivalents of K CO in anhydrous DMF chromatography followed by trituration resulted in an analytically 2 3 References under an inert atmosphere at 80 °C for 3 hours. The resulting pure product. Because of its unique physical properties, di-O- alkylated product 3 has been incorporated into dendrimers for mixture of mono- and di-alkylated prod- Fréchet JMJ, Tomalia, DA. 2002. Dendrimers and other dendritic Figure 1 encapsulating organic pollutants from aqueous environments. Color changed observed before uct was washed with copious amounts of polymers. Hoboken (NJ): John Wiley & Sons. (left vial) and after (right vial) water to remove excess DMF. After purifi- Future studies of the effectiveness of this monomer in the encap- upon trituration of 3. Hawker CJ, Fréchet JMJ. 1990. Control of surface functionality in cation by silica gel column chromatogra- sulation of pollutants will be disclosed in due time. Furthermore, the synthesis of dendritic macromolecules using the convergent- phy, 3 and 4 were isolated as yellow solids. our di-O-alkylation protocol may find broader use in other syn- growth approach. Macromolecules 23(21):4726–4729. The mono-alkylated phenol 4 was then thetic targets. and the di-alkylated product isolated from the second was tritu- resubjected to the optimized alkylation Experimental Procedure Triano RM, Paccagnini ML, Balija AM. 2011. Encapsulation rated with ice-cold petroleum ether to provide a white powder conditions described above to obtain ex- properties of “reverse benzyl ether” dendrimers. Paper presented (Figure 1). The additional purification step improved the overall All reactions are performed under an argon gas atmosphere us- clusively 3. Upon purification by silica gel at 242nd Annual American Chemical Society National Meeting; yields of the subsequent steps utilizing 3 as the starting material. ing oven-dried glassware. Solvents and reagents are used without col-umn chromatography, the di-alkylat- Denver CO. ed product obtained in the first alkylation Overall, the yield of the di-O-alkylated product rose to 87%. further purification. Reactions are monitored by TLC using silica gel 60 F254 glass plates. TLC bands are visualized by UV. Eluent sol- Yan D, Gao C, Frey H. 2011. Hyperbranched polymers: synthesis, vent ratios are reported in v/v. 1H spectra are recorded at 300 MHz properties, and applications. Hoboken (NJ): John Wiley & Sons. Michele Paccagnini would like to thank the FCRH Dean’s Office for financial support and the Department of Chemistry. 41 42 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications Lauren Sepanski, FCRH ’12 easy categorization as resisting or reproducing gender relations” plants, but also taking care of the self, and others” (p. 69-70). (p. 460-461). Furthermore, in their analysis of a woman’s written Although this usually presents itself as “home-making” (p. 69), autobiography as a gardener, they argue: as Bhatti is referring to home gardens, what happens when the Tending the Flowers, Cultivating Community [the gardener’s] story of creative positioning is also one of her empow- “care and concern” (p. 70) generated by gardening takes place in a erment. The garden becomes a site and source of her empowered agen- public setting? Their “care and concern,” then, does not flow into Gardening on New York City Public Housing Sites cy as demonstrated through self-expression; rewards of commitment the adjacent home, but is directed toward the surrounding com- and discipline; pleasure; control of space and time and, importantly, munity. The resident gardeners often take it upon themselves to Communications Sociology a social recognition as she takes up her position to the socially intelli- better the community by cleaning up public spaces beyond their gible identities of gardener, wife, mother and neighbor (Rainsborough gardens, holding special events on development grounds for their Introduction & Bhatti, 2007, p. 473). residents, and joining community improvement organizations. Founded in 1934, The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) Puerto Rican and Italian descent, Maria (30) is Dominican, and In this way, the NYCHA women gardeners embrace the domes- Josephine told me that she started gardening to “stay out of the is the nation’s oldest and largest public housing agency. Nearly half Gloria (79) is Puerto Rican. All three were born and raised in tic act of gardening while they are also empowered by it. Julia, a way”—she was raising “too much trouble” being on community a million people live in NYCHA’s 334 housing developments lo- the New York City area and had no prior knowledge of garden- mother of ten, admits to being “the domestic type.” At the same boards and tenant organizations. However, she tends to her gar- cated throughout the five boroughs. If a NYCHA resident wants ing before they began gardening on NYCHA grounds. Josephine time, however, she values her time in the garden as a way to escape to garden, he or she may submit a garden application to his or her (60) and Sarah (90), on the other hand, are African-American and development’s management office and begin to garden in a place lived as children on farms in the rural South where they had par- approved by the development’s manager. Some developments ticipated in farming and gardening before moving to New York have preordained places for their residents to garden, complete City as teenagers.* with fences. In other developments, residents simply choose a The Garden as Personal Space for Creative Self-Expression place on the development’s grounds, such as a part of a lawn close to their apartment, and begin to garden. NYCHA will reimburse In Taste for Gardening: Classed and Gendered Practices (2008), the gardener for up to $40 of his or her gardening expenses and Lisa Taylor argues that there are intrinsic differences in the pro- will also provide seeds, bulbs, starter plants, compost, and some cesses and goals of gardening for the middle and working classes; technical assistance. NYCHA is supportive of resident gardening these, Taylor argues, are the direct result of class differences. One because it is an economically efficient means of grounds beautifi- particularly striking point that Taylor makes equates working- cation, as well as being environmentally beneficial and connected class gardening with providing a feeling and expression of self- to a decrease in crime and vandalism on development grounds worth. Taylor writes that by keeping a “tidy” garden, members (Bennaton, 2009; Lewis, 1988). Currently, there are over 600 pub- of the working class are able to “refuse pejorative associations lic housing residents gardening on NYCHA grounds (Bennaton, about being working-class and to ensure that others recognize 2009). The table below offers basic information on different types their respectability” (p. 117). Taylor’s finding is in keeping with (clockwise, from above left) Julia’s vegetable garden (she also has a large flower garden, similarly enclosed); Gloria’s flower garden; Josephine’s flower garden; Sarah’s vegetable garden. of gardens in New York City. what my gardeners experienced. When I asked why Julia thinks Photos used with permission of photographer Lloyd Carter, NYCHA. Table 1. Types of Gardens in New York City more people do not garden, she said, “It’s a lot easier to sit on the Community NYCHA Resident couch all day and watch novelas.” She viewed herself as different Home Gardens Gardens Gardens from residents who did not garden, and wanted to distance herself Maintained by from the negative stereotype of lower-class people as lazy and un- Who Maintained by an Maintained by an a collaborative productive. However, she also resented that other residents might gardens? individual individual community group think of her as different or that she was trying to show she was On community On community Where? On private property better by gardening. Julia told me that one time she was protecting grounds grounds her daughter’s friend from her boyfriend’s abusive mother, and Shared goal for Individual and Why? ? the mother shouted at Julia, “You just think you’re special because benefit of community household needs you have a garden.” Julia was angered, hurt, and baffled by that ac- While working part-time in NYCHA’s downtown office for the cusation. For her—and for other gardeners as well—the purpose past two years, I received many calls from resident gardeners of gardening is not to show other housing residents that they are seeking help for the problems they were experiencing with their superior; rather, gardening serves as both a way of defying stereo- gardens: gardens were vandalized, plants were stolen, and request- types and a form of self-expression. ed flowers were not received. Hearing how much of a struggle it Just as social class is important to the community garden experi- was to plant and maintain gardens on development grounds made her family and have some peaceful time alone. Maria told me that, ence, so too is gender. The garden in Western culture is tradi- den all day, from daybreak until the afternoon, and to everyone me wonder why these individuals continued to garden. since she started gardening, she loves to spend time in her garden, tionally considered a “private, domestic, feminine space” because that passes by she shouts out, “Hi darlin’!” and has a brief conver- but her family started complaining that she spends too much time Methods of its proximity to the home, as opposed to the “male sphere of sation before continuing with her hoeing, weeding, and watering. there and not enough time tending to them and their needs. Thus, waged work and politics” (Rose, 1993, p. 18). Gardening is indeed In this way she stays on top of the local news and gossip while To answer this question, I spent the summer of 2011 conduct- Julia and Maria’s gardens, while being feminine, domestic spaces, a gendered leisure activity. Raisborough and Bhatti (2007) argue also serving as a watchdog and messenger for her community. The ing ethnographic research at three different NYCHA sites in New serve as an alternative option to disempowering situations. that although much feminist analysis of leisure reads resistance as very first day I met her, the first words out of her mouth were, York City, focusing on the activities of five gardeners. All of the “a counter to power relations that aim to maintain, reproduce, or The Garden as Location within Public Sphere “There was a predator in my building.” She then spent the rest of gardeners I spent time with were women (as are most NYCHA repackage oppressive gender relations,” empowerment does not the day in her garden warning all the women and girls who passed gardeners), ranging from 30 to 90 years old, none of whom had The resident gardeners have come to embrace their public posi- necessarily come from resistance; it can also “stem from an ac- by to be extra careful. higher than a high school education. Julia (50 years old) is of tive repositioning to contextualized gender-norms that escapes an tion. It seems that for them, being comfortable enough to garden on public grounds also gave them confidence to be community Julia, who claims that her garden is “not a community garden,” Thanks to the gardeners who allowed me to work with them and to share their gardening lives in the summer of 2011. My thanks also go to Professors E. Doyle McCarthy, Oneka LaBennett, and Julie Kim for their guidance leaders, and vice versa. Bhatti and colleagues (2009) claim that still uses her garden as a space through which she can benefit and encouragement on this project and paper. I would also like to acknowledge the FCRH Undergraduate Research Grant Program for the funding which made my research possible. “in ‘doing gardening’ gardeners are not just taking care of their the community. For example, when she is watering her garden, *All gardener names have been changed to maintain anonymity. 43 44 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications sometimes she will move beyond its fence and spray down the Stephen Fox, FCRH ’11 Dr. Robert Lewis, Mathematics playground area, clearing away the cigarette butts and bottle caps so that “the kids will have a clean place to play.” She reprimands people for smoking marijuana by the development’s playground and has confronted children for harassing passing drivers. With- Algebraic Detection of Flexibility of Polyhedral Structures out the access to her garden, she would not have been able to do that. Indeed, the gardens play a central role in the gardeners’ abil- with Applications to Robotics and Chemistry Communications ity to help and care for their community. Conclusion It could be said that the gardeners consider their work a source Introduction of beauty, relaxation, exercise, food production, and self-worth. Many problems arise in biochemistry, robotics, and other fields First, by establishing a canonical form for the solution tables, a On a deeper level, the gardens are places of the gardeners’ own in which flexibility of a polygonal or polyhedral structure plays test for equivalence can be used to identify and eliminate dupli- personal expression as they position themselves within a society an important role. In biochemistry, the flexibility and folding of cate solutions. Furthermore, we found ways to eliminate dupli- Mathematics full of expectations and stereotypes regarding class and gender. molecules is an important factor in drug design and is a subject cates as they arise by following a similar procedure on the fly (that In gardening, they have a place for relaxation and solitude, and as of ongoing research (Erickson et al. 2004). In robotics, stable con- is, as the algorithm runs). such it is an “escape” from their daily lives as mothers and nurtur- figurations of manipulators (e.g., a mechanical arm grasping) as The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. In the second ers—lives that allow very little time spent for themselves. While well as mechanical joints for locomotion (e.g., walking) must be section, we walk step-by-step through the algorithm for deter- they are sources of beauty, exercise, and accomplishment, resident calculated for safe, smooth movement. gardens also allow their keepers to be active and productive, and mining molecule flexibility using a simple “toy” quadrilateral ex- to create a beautiful place, thus allowing them to defy negative ste- The spatial configuration of a molecule or a robot’s manipulator ample. The third section describes the improvement for compar- reotypes of class and gender. How they choose to garden is linked can be modeled by a polyhedral structure, a three dimensional ing different algebraic descriptions of the same geometric figure. to how they see themselves as people, and this statement of identi- figure with straight edges, such as a geodesic dome. The faces of Finally, the fourth section summarizes the results of our improve- ty is made even more powerful as they make it on public grounds. a polyhedral structure are polygons, typically triangles. Where ment and its applicability to new problems. these edges join is known as a vertex. It is important to distinguish Regardless of whether they garden for themselves or for the com- Detecting Flexibility munity, it is clear that there is a responsibility the gardeners feel between generic and nongeneric flexibility. For example, a planar to take care of their community, generated by and/or expressed in rectangle made of rigid rods but hinged at each vertex is clearly Consider the quadrilateral with a bar across it in Figure 1. It is at- their gardening on community grounds. In that way, their gardens flexible: one can easily change its shape. That is generic flexibility; tached to the x-axis at the origin (0, 0) and (s3, 0). The reader can on community grounds are invaluable places to them, not only as there are simply not enough constraints to make it rigid. In this imagine that each of the six connection joints is a hinge allowing places for themselves but also as self-designed outlets for com- paper we are concerned with nongeneric flexibility, which means the sides s1, s5, s2 and the rod s4 to pivot within the 2D plane of the munity involvement and improvement. By gardening on NYHCA that a configuration of hinged rods (edges) that is rigid if the page. The points A, B, C, and D can move anywhere in the plane as grounds, they are cultivating community. lengths of the sides are arbitrarily assigned may become flexible long as the distances between them remain constant. Note that A under certain precise conditions on the edge lengths (see Figure and D are not vertices; they are attachment points of the segment 1). Similarly, if the bond lengths of the molecule satisfy these con- AD. The structure as pictured is rigid because the rod across the ditions, the polyhedral structure of the molecule becomes flexible middle appears to brace it up. as well. Lewis has developed an algorithm to detect conditions under which a generically rigid polygonal or polyhedral structure becomes flexible (Lewis and Coutsias 2006). He relates the sides and angles of the figure by using basic trigonometry and the distance formula. This yields a system of multivariate polynomial equations, a classically difficult problem to solve. To solve the system Figure 1 A simple quadrilateral efficiently, he uses the Dixon-EDF method to compute a “resul- with a bar across it. tant,” a single equation that encapsulates many of the important References properties of the original system (Lewis 2010, 1996). The last part On the other hand, if this quadrilateral is arranged as a parallelo- of the algorithm, called Solve, searches to find the ratios of side gram with the bar across the middle parallel to the bases as in Bennaton, R. (2009). The re-greening of public housing. In L. Campbell, & A. Wiesen (Eds.),Restorative commons: Creating health and well-being through urban landscapes, (pp. 233-247). Newton Square, PA: USDA Forest Service. lengths necessary for the structure to become flexible by finding Figure 2, the figure becomes flexible. This means that if the plane

Bhatti, M. (2006). “When I’m in the garden I can create my own paradise”: Home and gardens in later life. The Sociological Review, 54, 318-341. when the resultant vanishes identically. were vertical, under the force of gravity, the figure would “fall” to the x-axis, flexing at all four of its corners while the segment AD Bhatti, M., Church, A., Claremont, A., & Stenner, P. (2009). “I love being in the garden”: Enchanting encounters in everyday life. Social & Cultural Geography, 10, 61-76. The contribution of this paper is to report on a significant im- moves along smoothly. Lewis, C. (1988). The greening of public housing. Garden Competition 25th Anniversary pamphlet, New York City Housing Authority. provement to the Solve algorithm. The algorithm, which searches

Newman, O. (1995). Defensible space: A new physical planning tool for urban revitalization. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61, 145-153. for appropriate substitutions for flexibility, battles the combinato- rial explosion inherent in many tree search algorithms. Initially, Parry, D. C., Glover, T. D., & Shinew, K. J. (2005). “Mary, Mary quite contrary, how does your garden grow?”: Examining gender roles and relations in community gardens. Leisure Studies, 24, 178-192. on a real example coming from the cyclohexane molecule, Solve Pollan, M. (1991). Second nature. New York: Dell Publishing. Figure 2 ran for approximately seventy hours before producing a set of A flexible configuration Raisborough, J., & Bhatti, M. (2007). Women’s leisure and auto/biography: Empowerment and resistance in the garden. Journal of Leisure Research, 39, 459-476. 3 139 solution tables that describe the geometry of the molecule of Figure 1. Rose, G. (1993). Feminism & geography: The limits of geographical knowledge. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. when it is flexible. We have refined the algorithm to prune the Taylor, L. (2008). Taste for gardening: Classed and gendered practices. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. search tree of possible substitutions, reducing the total run-time The variables, which determine the shape and configuration of the

Westmacott, R. (1992). African-American gardens and yards in the rural south. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press. of the algorithm, and eliminating subtly disguised duplicates. quadrilateral are the locations of points A, B, C, and D. By plac- 45 46 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications ing this figure in the Cartesian plane, with the bottom-left vertex and the outer quadrilateral is a parallelogram. Solve also discovers redundant tables to be found, undetected until the end of the al- describe the same configuration Table 3 coincident with the origin and the base coincident with the x-axis, a degenerate case in which the bar coincides with one of the bases gorithm or not at all. Removing these redundancies is therefore of the structure, yet by inspection the coordinates of the unknown points can be specified using ba- (this table is not shown). (Degenerate means that some of the ver- likely to significantly accelerate the algorithm. they appear algebraically differ- sic trigonometry: tices coincide; i.e., they lie on top of each other.) The former can ent. The key example in this research is a configuration of three quad- be represented algebraically with the following system of substitu- A = (s cos α, s sin α) rilaterals that was first discussed by the French mathematician Variables in the solution tables 7 7 tions that causes the 162 term resultant to be equal to zero:

R. Bricard in 1987. It is mathematically, though not superficially, are partitioned by the equal sign: Communications B = (s1 cos α, s1 sin α) C = (s + s cos β, s sin β) s6 = s7 equivalent to the cyclohexane molecule (Coutsias et al. 2005). no variables that appear on the 3 2 2 left hand side (LHS) of the equal- D = (s + s cos β, s sin β) s = s 3 6 6 1 2 ities appear on the right hand Figure 3 Since there are four unknowns, four equations are necessary to Solve finds this table s3 = s5 side (RHS) and vice versa. How- completely describe the system. The first two equations below are of substitutions which ever, b is on the RHS in Table 1, algebraically describes Figure 2. 2 s4 = s5 expressions for the lengths of s5 and s4 using the distance formula, but on the LHS in Table 2. The ra-

i.e., s5 = dist(B, C) and s4 = dist(A, D). The final two equations are When all four of these substitutions are plugged into the resultant, tional functions can be resolved elementary trigonometric identities. In this system of equations the resultant is equal to zero, and the condition of flexibility is in terms of a desired variable to move that variable from the RHS (set each to 0), we write cos α as ca and sin α as sa for simplicity of satisfied. Figure 4 to the LHS. This is a more difficult type of redundancy to detect notation and to emphasize that these equations are polynomials: This configuration of visually or algorithmically. Solve is a recursive algorithm that searches for substitutions in the three quadrilaterals is mathematically equiva- 2 2 2 (s1 · ca – s3 – s2 · cb) + (s1 · sa – s2 · sb) – s5 variables corresponding to geometric ratios of sidelengths that lent to the model of the Swapping rows (i.e., rearranging the order of equations) produc- 2 2 2 cause the resultant to vanish identically. The algorithm generates a cyclohexane molecule. es equivalent geometric descriptions in different algebraic ways. (s7 · ca – s3 – s6 · cb) + (s7 · ca – s6 · sb) – s4 ca2 + sa2 – 1 set of tables of substitutions for variables that correspond to sides Furthermore, swapping variables from the LHS to RHS gives rise of the structure. These substitutions can be quite complicated, or Without the rod HI to brace it, it is clearly flexible. With HI, it to more redundant representations. As the algorithm proceeds, cb2 + sb2 – 1 very simple. Each solution table describes a geometric configu- is generically rigid. Bricard showed that there are three nonde- duplicates that arise early on in the algorithm lead to exponen-

The same method of writing a system of multivariate polynomial ration of the structure. For example, s1 = s2 means the segment generate ways this becomes flexible: all three quadrilaterals are tially more duplicates later. For this reason, we have developed an

equations is used for more complex geometric figures, such as labeled s1 (in Figure 1), and the segment labeled s2 must be of the parallelograms; two are similar and the third is a parallelogram; algorithm to detect and eliminate duplicates both on the fly (i.e., molecules (Lewis and Coutsias 2006). same length. The Solve algorithm takes as input a multivariate and an arrangement involving a certain series of ratios that is too running as a step in Solve) and in post-processing as a separate polynomial f in a primary variable x with N parameters s . The technical to include here. algorithm that runs once Solve has finished. The next step in the analysis, the Dixon-EDF method, transforms i output is a list of solution tables, as defined above. The steps of this system of equations into a single equation (the resultant) in We study the redundancies that arise in this example. Lewis’s first Lewis’s original implementation of Solve sorts tables by the vari- Solve are outlined below. one variable with seven parameters that encapsulates the most successful run of Solve on the resultant arising from the Bricard able that appears in the LHS of each row to identify duplicate important information about the system (Lewis 2010, 1996). The 1) Factor the leading coefficient in f(x). quadrilaterals, a polynomial in 5 685 terms with 15 parameters, tables from row permutations. The sorting process is more subtle process is analogous to the determinant of a matrix. When the ran for approximately 70 h, ultimately returning 3 139 solution than simply permuting rows: when two rows are swapped, the 2) Use the factors to produce a list of parameters sj. determinant of a homogeneous linear system vanishes, the system 3) Within each factor, find all linear parameters in the tables. The 15 parameters, labeleda 1, b1, c1, ... , d3, e3, are certain right hand side (RHS) of the variable moved up in the table must of equations is said to be singular; this means there are an infinite list of s . combinations of the sides in Figure 4. A close examination re- be substituted down the right hand side of the lower rows. Using number of solutions to the system. If the resultant of a nonlinear j vealed that many of these solution sets are slightly different alge- this process of sorting tables and doing a simple difference of the 4) For all elements in the list of linear parameters: system describing the geometry of a polygon vanishes identically, braically, but describe the same geometric configuration. respective left and right sides of the tables for comparison (i.e., that system, too, has an infinite number of solutions (Coutsias et 5) Solve for each linear parameter as a function of the if the difference is 0, they are equivalent tables) still leaves many A simple case of redundancy can be fabricated by permuting rows al. 2005). Therefore, the polygon is flexible. remaining parameters; i.e., solve for sj = g(si1, si2, ...). redundant solutions undetected. Table 1 and Table 2 are examples of the table (e.g., Table 1 to Table 2 in Figure 5). Table 3 in Figure 6) Use the relation g to replace sj in f. of undetected duplicate tables from the original implementation. The resultant, which is the determinant of the Dixon matrix, is 5 reveals a more subtle equivalent variation. 7) This yields f (x), of lower degree. often difficult to compute, and may not even be defined (Dixon j In order to identify and detect these lingering redundant solu- 1 2 3 1909). However, Lewis uses the Dixon-KSY idea first proposed by 8) Recursively call Solve on new fj with original x as pri- tions, we establish a canonical form for the tables. A canonical mary variable and append valid sj = g to the solution Kapur to overcome some of these problems (Lewis 2008; Kapur a1 = a2 a3 = a2 a3 = a1 form is a standard expression for the arrangement of the solution et al. 1994). Lewis’s implementation in his computer algebra sys- tables. Figure 5 sets. Our process of standardizing the form of the table follows Equivalent tables. a = a a = a a = a tem, Ferman, uses his Early Detection of Factors (EDF) algorithm 9) For each parameter that was not detected as a linear 3 2 1 2 2 1 these steps: to accelerate the calculation of the resultant (Lewis [date un- factor, recursively call Solve on the leading coefficient The following is a more sophisticated example of equivalent tables 1) Establish an order of variables from highest to lowest, known]). In the second phase of the process, his algorithm, Solve, with that parameter as the primary variable. discovered by Solve. The first three rows of the table are the same. a step already required by the Solve algorithm. determines the conditions under which the resultant is identically a) Substitute valid solutions of Solve into the coefficient. However, the fourth row is different. Geometrically, the tables 2) Search each table for the row with the lowest linear zero; i.e., all coefficients (relative to the one remaining variable) b) Recursively call Solve on the reduced original polyno- Table 1 Table 2 variable (i.e., linear in the sense that it is raised only to of the resultant polynomial must be zero. Even simple figures can mial with the original primary variable and append all the power of one). This variable will be either on the LHS give rise to very complicated resultants. valid solutions to the solution tables. of the table or the RHS, but never both. 10) Look for duplicates in the solution tables. We return to the example pictured in Figure 1. The resultant that 3) Re-solve that row in terms of the lowest variable. arises is a degree three polynomial in the variable ca that contains Canonical Form for Solution Tables 4) Before committing to the rearrangement, check that 162 terms in seven parameter variables (s to s ) and the reference 1 7 this new expression does not cause any denominator to variable, ca. The first few terms are: Solve is a recursive algorithm which calls itself from the body of its own code. If the first part of the algorithm fails on the input become zero. 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 8 · s1 · s4 · s6 · s7 · ca – 8 · s1 · s2 · s4 · s6 · s7 · ca – polynomial, it calls Solve on the multivariate coefficient, which is 5) Permute the row to the top of the table, arranging the 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 8 · s1 · s2 · s4 · s6 · s7 · ca + 8 · s1 · s2 · s4 · s6 · ca + also a polynomial. As a consequence of the recursive search tree in LHS from lowest variable to highest variable (top to bot- 2 3 2 tom), substituting appropriate variables where necessary. 4 · s1 · s2 · s4 · s6 · s7 · ca + · · · Solve, the algorithm finds a very large set of solution tables, many of them redundant. As partial substitution tables are discovered, 6) Sort the table and repeat until the table does not Figure 1 becomes flexible when the bar is parallel to the bases, the recursive anture of the algorithm causes even more potentially change. 47 48 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications Once the tables have been arranged into canonical form, they can Nazmul Sarker, FCRH ’13 Dr. Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry be compared using a simple and efficient algorithm for compari- Stacey Barnaby, FCRH ’11 son: 1) If the tables do not have the same number of entries, they are not equal. Fabrication of CdS Nanoparticle Coated Jasmonate Conjugates

2) Otherwise, subtract the RHS of each row from the Communications LHS within the same table. and their Interactions with Mammalian Cells 3) Compare corresponding rows from the two tables up to sign. 4) If all rows return positive correspondence, the tables Introduction ous pH values were purchased from Fisher Scientific. Dulbecco’s are equal and one can be discarded. Modified Eagle’s Medium was purchased from Gibco. Self-assembled nanomaterials have been gaining importance be- Chemistry The resultant arising from the cyclohexane molecule has 5 685 cause of their wide range of applications for the development of Methods terms with 1 variable and 16 parameter variable of the coefficients. nanodevices (Zhang et al. 2002; Reinhoudt and Crego-Calama JA assemblies are allowed to grow under aqueous conditions at If the order of the parameter variables is assigned to be: t1, e3, d3, 2002; Zhang 2003). Molecular self-assembly primarily occurs by varying pH for a period of four to six weeks at a pH range of two to a3, e2, d2, a2, b1, e1, d1, a1, c3, b3, c2, b2, c1, then both tables have the non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic nine. After formation, the assemblies are washed with deionized same canonical form given above. interactions, van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions water and centrifuged twice at 20 000 rpm. For functionalization that are the result of chemical complementarities and structural Conclusion of the assemblies with CdS QDs, the precursor, cadmium chloride compatibility (Ratner and Bryant 2004). Depending on growth (0.1 M), is incubated with the formed JA assemblies for 48 h. The Although these algorithms were developed for post-processing, conditions, distinct structures such as micelles, vesicles, rods or solutions are then heated to 60 °C followed by the drop-wise addi- we are also able to compare tables on the fly to eliminate dupli- tubules are formed (Hartgerink et al. 2001). There has been much tion of sodium sulfide solution (0.1 M) under nitrogen. The solu- cates as they arise. After each level of recursion, all partial tables focus on biological building blocks such as DNA, proteins and tions are then cooled to room temperature and centrifuged and of substitutions that have been discovered are sorted and com- lipids using bottom-up approaches for the development of nano- washed thoroughly to remove unreacted materials before further pared using these algorithms. By discarding the duplicates, we materials due to relatively economic, mild, and environmentally analyses. Absorbance spectroscopy is carried out using a Thermo have greatly decreased the overall run time of the Solve algorithm. friendly methods utilized therein (Lowe 2000; Boozer et al. 2003). Scientific NanoDrop 2000. Readings are taken at a wavelength For the cyclohexane molecule, the run time for Solve was reduced By combining biological building blocks with synthetic nanopar- range of 190 nm to 600 nm. All samples are repeated in triplicate. from approximately 70 h, to just 3 min and 14 s. The set of 3 139 ticles such as quantum dots or magnetic nanoparticles, one can solution tables was condensed to 62 tables. All three of the nonde- prepare composites capable of a wide range of applications. For Fluorescence Spectroscopy is carried out using a Jobin Yvon Fluo- generate solutions of the cyclohexane configuration appear in the example, quantum dots (QDs) are being utilized as biomarkers romax 3 fluorimeter. The samples are excited at 495 nm. Each sam- list of 62. The results of this work could lead to the ability to ana- for tumor targeting in vitro and in vivo (Michalet et al. 2005). QDs ple is analyzed in triplicate. For transmission electron microscopy lyze more complex and larger molecules and geometric structures are slowly replacing molecular fluorophores and dyes due to their (TEM), the washed samples are air-dried onto carbon-coated cop- and have been used by Lewis to further explore the solution space spectral stability, and high molar extinction coefficients (Leather- per grids for characterization by TEM (JEOL 1200 EX) operating of flexible polyhedra. dale 2002). In particular, cadmium sulfide (CdS) QDs has a band at 100 kV. The morphologies of the samples are also analyzed us- gap energy of 2.52 eV (Bruchez et al. 1999). Several methods have ing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi S-2600N) oper- been utilized for the growth of CdS nanoparticles such as laser ating between 15–25 kV. For confocal microscopy, the samples are ablation, electrochemical fabrication, surfactants, and, in recent mounted on glass slides and sealed with cover slips. The coverslips times, biological templates (Artemyev et al. 1997). are sealed with fingernail polish and the samples are imaged with a Leica TCS-SP5 laser scanning confocal microscope. In this work, we have grown CdS nanoparticles on jasmonate nanoassemblies biomimetically and examined their interac- Results and Discussion References tions with mammalian cells. In general, plants naturally secrete Molecular self-assembly has attracted considerable attention for Bricard R. 1897. Memoire sur la theorie de l’octaedre articule. Journal de Mathématiques pures et appliquées, the phytohormone jasmonic acid during development and in re- 5(3):113–148. its use in the design and fabrication of nanostructures (Huck sponse to biotic and abiotic stress as a defense mechanism (Traw 1995). Structurally JA consists of a cyclopentane ring connect- Coutsias EA, Seok C, Wester MJ, Dill KA. Resultants and loop closure. International Journal of Quantum and Bergelson 2003; Sembdner and Parthier 1993). We have de- Chemistry. 106(1):176–189. ed to a pentenyl group, along with one hydroxyl and a carboxyl veloped a new class of nanomaterials by utilizing nanoassemblies Dixon AL. 1909. The eliminant of three quantics in two independent variables.Proceedings of The London group. The self-assembly of JA at various pH values was examined of the plant phytohormone jasmonic acid (JA) as templates for Mathematical Society. 2–7(1): 49–96. over a period of four to six weeks. In general, under acidic condi- the growth of quantum dots, which may have potential applica- Erickson JA, Jalaie M, Robertson DH, Lewis RA, Vieth M. 2004. Lessons in molecular recognition: the tions, (pH 2-5), we observed the formation of nanospheres (figure effects of ligand and protein flexibility on molecular docking accuracy.Journal of Medical Chemistry. tions as sensors and may potentially be utilized for bioimaging 1a). In contrast, under neutral to basic conditions, the assembly of 47(1):45–55. applications. Kapur D, Saxena T, Yang L. 1994. Algebraic and geometric reasoning using Dixon resultants. Proceedings short fibrous structures was observed (figure 1b). It appears that from The International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation; 1994 July 20–22 Oxford (UK). Experimental Procedure under acidic conditions, hydrogen bonding interactions between the hydroxyl groups as well as the fact that the carboxyl group of Lewis RH. 2010. Comparing acceleration techniques for the Dixon and Macaulay resultants. Mathematics Materials and Computers in Simulation. 80(6):1146–1152. JA is protonated leads to an increase in hydrogen bonding causing ———. 2008. Heuristics to accelerate the Dixon resultant. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation. Jasmonic acid, cadmium chloride, sodium sulfide, 100μg/ml peni- the formation of aggregates of spherical structures. On the other 77(4):400–407. cillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin and 10% fetal bovine serum were hand, under neutral to basic conditions the carboxyl group is de- ———. 1996. The Dixon resultant following Kapur-Saxena-Yang. Retrieved from http://fordham.academia. purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Normal rat kidney (NRK) cells protonated but hydrogen bonding still exists due to O-H group edu/RobertLewis/Papers. were purchased from ATCC (CRL-6509), buffer solutions of vari- interactions. Although there is a decrease in hydrogen bonding, ———. Fermat computer algebra system. Retrieved from http://home.bway.net/lewis. The authors thank Dr. A. Tsiola and Dr. K. Fath at the Queens College (CUNY) Core Facilities for Imaging, Cell and Molecular Biology for the use of the transmission electron microscope, the confocal microscope and the Lewis RH, Coutsias EA. 2006. Algorithmic search for flexibility using resultants of polynomial systems. In NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer; Dr. B. Balestra and Dr. P. Brock in the Geology Department, Queens College for the use of the scanning electron microscope. Nazmul Sarker thanks the Fordham College at Rose Hill Automated deduction in geometry, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 4869: 68–79. Undergraduate Research Grant for financial support. Dr. Ipsita Banerjee thanks the Fordham College Undergraduate Faculty Research Grant for financial support of this work. 49 50 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 Communications coulombic repulsions, due to the deprotonated carboxyl groups Conclusions exist, causing a decrease in aggregation. Further, hydrophobic in- In conclusion, we have reported the assembly of the plant phyto- teractions between the five membered ring systems and the pen- hormone Jasmonic Acid. We found that under acidic conditions, tenyl groups also allow for self-assembly leading to the formation JA assembles into spherical nanostructures. Under neutral to ba- of fibrous nanostructures. Since JA is a polar acid, solvent-particle sic conditions, the formation of fibrous assemblies is observed. interactions also exist in addition to inter-particle attractions. Further, nanocomposites of JA-CdS were formed, and they were These solvent-particle interactions are due to van der Waals in- observed to be highly luminescent as indicated by confocal mi- teractions based on dispersion forces and dipole-induced dipole croscopy. The nanocomposites were found to efficiently attach to attractions (Jonas and Krüger 2002). At higher pH levels, compe- mammalian cells and may potentially be useful as biomarkers. tition between the inter-particle and solvent-particle interactions causes the assembled structures to be larger and spread out com- (right) Figure 1 (a) SEM image of jasmo- pared to the clusters formed under acidic conditions. nate nanospheres formed under acidic conditions The nanoassemblies formed at pH 7 were then conjugated with (pH 2); (b) SEM image of jasmonate nanorods CdS nanocrystals. The fluorescence spectra of CdS nanocrystals formed under neutral before and after conjugation with JA assemblies are shown in fig- conditions (pH 7). Images shown indicate growth ure 2. Upon incorporation of JA with CdS QDs, a blue shift of 7 after three weeks. nm is observed compared to the peak at 540 nm for CdS nanocrystals alone indicating the incorporation of the QDs on the assemblies. Review Articles Further analysis by TEM confirmed that the JA assemblies were conjugated to CdS nanoparticles (figures 3). The CdS nanoparticles ranged between 20–30 nm in diameter and completely coated the surfaces of the JA assemblies. It is likely that the CdS nanoparticles efficiently bound to the JA assemblies due to the complex The reviews section seeks to showcase formation between the Cd+2 ions and the hydroxyl groups of the JA assemblies, followed by the formation of CdS nanoparticles. In pieces which engage the scholarly work addition, the electron diffraction pattern Fig. 3c reveals that the CdS nanoparticles bound to JA assemblies are highly crystalline. of others in any field of study. Critical (above left) Figure 2 Fluorescence spectra of CdS nanoparticles before and after binding to jasmonate as- In order to explore the potential of these nanomaterials as bio- semblies. (above right) Figure 3 TEM image of CdS nanoparticles grown on the jasmonate assemblies formed at pH 7. engagement with the scholarship markers, the interactions of the nanocomposites with mamma- Inset shows the diffraction pattern of the CdS nanocrystals showing the [111], [002] and [110] phases. lian cells was explored. Confocal microscopy of the JA-CdS nanocomposites after incubation with normal rat kidney (NRK) cells of others is an essential part of the is shown in figure 4. The DIC image is shown in figure 4a, while figure 4b shows the superimposition of fluorescence and DIC -mi development of new ideas within a croscopy image indicating that the JA-CdS nanocomposites suc- (right) Figure 4 cessfully adhered to the cell membranes. These results indicate (a) DIC image of JA-CdS nanocom- particular field. Book reviews typically that JA-CdS nanopcomposites can successfully attach to mamma- posites bound to NRK cells; (b) Overlap of DIC and Fluorescence lian cells and may potentially be used as biomarkers. microscopy image of JA-CdS focus primarily on a single source, nanocomposites in the presence of NRK cells. References while review essays may engage Artemyev MV, Sperling V, Woggon U. 1997. Electroluminescence in thin solid films of closely packed CdS nanocrystals.Journal of Applied Physics. 81(10):6975–6978. Boozer C, Yu Q, Chen S, Lee C-Y, Yee SS, Jiang S. 2003. Surface functionalization for self-referencing surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors by multi-step self-assembly. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical B90(1–3):22–30. multiple sources yet focus on a topical Bruchez M, Moronne M, Gin P, Weiss S, Alivisatos AP. 1998. Semiconductor nanocrystals as fluorescent biological labels.Science. 281(5385):2013–2016. Hartgerink JD, Beniash E, Stupp SI. 2001. Self-assembly and mineralization of peptide-amphiphile nanofibers. Science. 294(5547):1684–1688. aspect of a field rather than present a Huck WTS, van Veggel FCJM, Kropman BL, Blank DHA, Keim EG, Smithers MMA, Reinhoudt DN. 1995. Large self-assembled organopalladium spheres. Journal of American Chemical Society. 117 (31):8293–8294. Jonas U, Krüger C. 2002. The effect of polar, nonpolar, and electrostatic interactions and wetting behavior on the particle assembly at patterned surfaces.Journal of Supramolecular Chemistry. 2(1–3):255–270. comprehensive survey of a field. Leatherdale CA, Woo WK, Mikulec FV, Bawendi MG. 2002. On the absorption cross section of CdSe nanocrystal quantum dots. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 106 (31)7619–7622.

Lowe CR. 2000. Nanobiotechnology: The fabrication and applications of chemical and biological nanostructures.Structural Biology 10(4):428–434.

Michalet X, Pinaud FF, Bentolila LA, Tsay JM, Doose S, Li JJ, Sundaresan G, Wu AM, Gambhir SS, Weiss S. 2005. Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics. Science. 307(5709):538−544.

Ratner BD, Bryant SJ. 2004. Biomaterials: Where we have been and where we are going. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering. 6:41–75.

Reinhoudt D, Crego-Calama M. 2002. Synthesis beyond the molecule. Science. 295 (5564):2403–2407.

Sembdner G, Parthier B. 1993. The biochemistry and the physiological and molecular actions of jasmonates.Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 44:569–589.

Traw MB, Bergelson J. 2003. Interactive effects of jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and gibberellin on induction of trichomes in arabidopsis.Plant Physiology. 133 (3)1–9.

Zhang S. 2003. Fabrication of novel biomaterials through molecular self-assembly, Nature Biotechnology. 21(10):1171–1178.

Zhang S, Marini D, Hwang W, Santoso S. 2002. Design of nanostructured biological materials through self-assembly of peptides and proteins. Chemical Biology. 6(6):865–871. 51 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Reviews LATHAM, MICHAEL E. The Right Kind of Revolution: ernization nicely—effectively illuminating the errors in foreign that plans emphasizing their universal promotion have always policy that the United States seems to make again and again. met some degree of sympathy. Modernization still exists because Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from Though Latham reveals the many missteps, and would certainly it presents such a powerful and appealing narrative. the Cold War to the Present. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University advocate a change in future policy, it is not vicious or unfairly Latham effectively proves that modernization still drives foreign done. Latham’s explanation of policy makers’ generally good in- Press, 2011. x+246 pp. $69.95 (cloth), $22.95 (paper). policy. Its continued significance justifies the writing of his book. Reviews tentions keep the case studies from becoming overly condemna- He proves that not only does modernization still exist, but also tory.

History that its application is still ineffective. While modernization will Ultimately, it was the book’s conclusions about more recent for- remain a part of the American psyche, Latham provides ample eign policy that were the most interesting. Modernization’s reign evidence that it needs to stop guiding policy. An analysis of the The effect of modernization on foreign policy has been a focus of study for almost two as the predominant strategy for international relations tradition- Bush administration’s interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq decades. Remarkably, given the multitude of authors tackling the subject, moderniza- ally was thought to have ended in the 1960s-70s. Latham discuss- demonstrates, again, what results from shortsighted promotion has rarely been approached in a comprehensive manner. Few have attempted to es the many critiques of modernization during these decades, a tion of nation-building that ignores the historical, cultural, and give a complete and cohesive history of the formation of modernization as an ideology number of which were based on the failures he included in earlier political factors of the foreign country. Latham’s discussion here and its application in public policy. Dr. Michael Latham undertakes this task in his re- chapters. Despite the government’s clear attempts to distance itself largely avoids partisan concerns, examining primarily logistical cently released book, tracing the thread of modernization in the United States back to its from modernization during this era, the phenomenon persisted problems and errors in planning. This examination not only links ideological origins in the Enlightenment, American imperialism, and both World Wars throughout the Cold War. Latham makes a compelling argument Bush’s nation-building to the long history of U.S. interventionism through the Bush administration’s nation-building forays in the Middle East. This “criti- that, in spite of its short remission, modernization has reappeared described throughout the book, but it also helps readers to under- cal synthesis”1 of works on modernization will likely become commonplace in American in recent years in a major way. stand the problems of the ideology as a whole and contemplates Cover, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, policy alternatives for the future. university classrooms. Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold The wordmodernization certainly is not employed frequently, War to the Present. Some recent scholarship regarding modernization has been trending away from an em- Image courtesy of Cornell University Press. and policymakers have attempted to distance themselves with The Right Kind of Revolution is a valuable contribution to stud- phasis on the United States toward other western countries and their relationships with the concept. In fact, “As the president framed it, his administra- ies on modernization. It provides insight for a wide audience, not Michael Latham is a professor of underdeveloped nations. Latham defies this trend, focusing on the United States, mention’s initiative was a novel response to a radically new era, the just those within the field. While its scope is broad, its analysis history at Fordham University and tioning other modernizing nations only occasionally. His choice benefits the book. A post 9/11 world” (1). Despite this, Latham makes a compelling is not rendered superficial. Latham’s account of U.S. attempts to the Dean of Fordham College at study on the history of modernization throughout the entire world would have been argument that recent initiatives do not mark a new era but rather modernize the third world comprehensively covers events from Rose Hill. His work explores the a Herculean task, and certainly one that would not have been able to give attention to the “ghosts of modernization” (185). The U.S. has focused more throughout the past century, providing a new and insightful per- history of U.S. foreign relations, important actors and moments within the movement, as Latham does while exclusively on economic components in recent years, in particular the devel- spective from which one may view the relationship between the the global history of the Cold concentrating on the United States. opment of free markets, but the modernization framework still U.S. and less developed nations. The book’s proof of moderniza- War, and American responses applies. The promotion of third world development is still tied in- tion’s disastrous effects necessitates a change in the U.S. mindset Though even with the exclusion of other developed countries, the scope of the book is so to the problems of international timately with U.S. security. Further, there is still a general consen- regarding foreign development, and it reveals, if nothing else, re- broad that it presents challenges. Latham includes academic discussion of moderniza- development and modernization. sus that the U.S. can accelerate the course of history in benevolent peated mistakes that policy makers must avoid in future relations tion theory, backgrounds of each attempt at U.S. intervention, and coverage of the coun- He received Fordham’s award for ways. Americans believe in these fundamental values so strongly with underdeveloped nations. tries in question throughout the interventions. There is undoubtedly something gained undergraduate teaching in the from the breadth of coverage, though there is little room for exceptionally thorough social sciences in 2007. Margaret Dunbar, FCRH ’14 analysis of each specific conflict. It offers a different perspective, illuminating long term trends that indicate the best policy options for future foreign relations. Notes

The book’s organization is somewhat unusual, but accomplishes well written and quite interesting. Each attempt at U.S. interven- 1 Thomas Maddox, “H-Diplo/ISSF Roundtable Review of Michael Latham’s The Right Kind of Revolution,” its goal effectively. It is neither purely chronological nor purely tion is described with reference to individual national events in H-Diplo Vol. 3 No. 4 (2011) thematic, but rather switches between the two styles of organi- a manner that clarifies the motives for actions on both sides. In zation. Initially, I thought this style would be confusing or re- describing India, Turkey, Guatemala, and other underdeveloped quire unnecessary repetition of background information, but the nations that were targeted by the U.S. for modernization, Latham chapters work together despite the differences in their approach. uses non-generalized and country-specific details. He also in- Latham provides a chronological narrative first, tracing the ori- cludes in this section information that should have been critical gins of modernization as an ideology. He believes these origins to U.S. policy makers at the time but was rather ignored. Without are much older than the traditionally conceived beginning of using this information, they gave vastly different nations extreme- modernization in the 1940s and 50s. He puts forth an interest- ly formulaic strategies for improvement. These details explain ing supposition that the components of modernization may have why the U.S. plans for other nations did not work, but they do been fundamental in the founding of the United States. Almost not discuss at length the tremendous negative consequences the as soon as the U.S. forged an identity, Americans believed in the plans had on the local people. To be fair, Latham does include ad- universality of their values and their ability to transform the rest ditional on-the-ground details in later thematic sections, but the of the world. Latham then traces this sentiment through manifest case studies of different, failed interventions would have benefited destiny, U.S. imperialism, and World War I, and foreshadows later from slightly more social history on the repercussions of the U.S. issues by including early indications that American hubris and plans. The policy makers and local politicians undoubtedly can- disregard for native cultures were and would remain problematic. not be ignored, but in a “comprehensive history,” the effects of U.S. foreign policy on the local communities cannot be disregarded Latham then switches to thematic organization, discussing U.S. either. intervention case studies in different countries, as well as including sections about modernization’s progress in academia and its Despite mild complaints about the lack of social investigation, I relation to technocratic revolutions. Overall, these sections are believe the thematic sections fill in the basic chronology of mod- 53 54 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Reviews DUNNING, BENJAMIN H. Specters of Paul: Sexual Difference Chapters two and three are a more focused approach to theologi- innocence, remain unpenetrated, or are spiritually fertile. Thus, cal monism. Chapter two reveals Clement of Alexander’s solution through careful exegesis, Dunning exposes both the rhetorical in Early Christian Thought. Divinations: Rereading Late to the problem of the sexual binary: a simple erasure of Eve from acrobatics that Irenaeus must execute and the overall failure of Ancient Religion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania the creation story altogether. In her place, Clement substitutes an the Irenaean strategy of recapitulation as applied to the Eve-Mary anthropomorphized desire. However, Dunning finds this reading typology. Tertullian, on the other hand, sets Eve and Mary in con- Press, 2011. x+252 pp. $55.00 (cloth). Reviews problematic in that the desire that replaces Eve is one that ulti- trast to Christ and Adam. Moreover, he redefines “what virginity mately belongs to Adam. Thus, as Clement goes to great lengths is and how it works (i.e., how it is kept and how it is lost)” (149). Theology to stress the differences between men and women in their physi- Tertullian, figuring the female body as incredibly porous and thus cal bodies, Adam’s own embodiment of desire makes Clement’s easy to penetrate, casts Mary as actually having been penetrated Benjamin Dunning’s Specters of Paul: Sexual Difference in Early Christian Thought skillfully theological anthropology untenable, one which Dunning calls the during childbirth, thus allowing Christ to be the sole ideal virgin. explores the problem that is gendered bodies within the Pauline theological anthropology. “indeterminacy of desire” (70). Chapter three looks at the Nag Dunning’s task in pointing out the failures of Tertullian’s theology For Paul, Adam and Christ exist in a diametrically opposed yet harmonized relationship, Hammadi text known as On the Origin of the World. This chap- may have been easier compared to previous texts, but his interpre- which Dunning describes as “two paradigmatic human beings: the creation, as represented ter, while easiest to comprehend, seems at odds with Dunning’s tation of it imbues the text with new meaning. Recontextualizing by Adam, and the eschatological resurrection to come, as represented by Christ …” (9). overarching thesis. Dunning argues that the pneumatic Adam Tertullian’s theological anthropology as haunted by the specter of What is problematic about this dichotomy for Dunning becomes the crux of Specters of of Light, the second Adam (Eve), and the choic (i.e., earthly or Paul, Dunning reveals that Tertullian’s seemingly absurd claim is Paul: the question of where sexed bodies fit in a hegemonic masculinity in which only male material) Adam found in the text comprise a tripartite humanity motivated by a necessity to synthesize Paul’s theological anthro- figures (Adam and Christ) represent the ends of human ontology. At stake, then, is the that rejects Paul’s two-person typology. However, mapping this pology and sexual difference. other and difference—and in this case, sexual difference—in Paul’s theological anthropol- story of human beginnings onto Paul’s eschatological vision of Dunning’s work in Specters of Paul is closely argued and effective ogy. Specters of Paul explores the space that female bodies occupy in a theology that does humanity reads like a strained endeavor. Put in the context of Cover, Specters of Paul: Sexual Difference in Early scholarship. By posing sexual difference as a signifier that -un not appear to make room for them. Moreover, Dunning insightfully shows how “sexual Christian Thought. Paul, the text indeed pushes back against his theological logic, but settles foundational early Christian logic, specifically anthropo- difference becomes a problem of signification—the stubborn trace of otherness that needs Image courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Press. this reading of sexual difference as inassimilable with Paul stands logical logic, Dunning opens a space for feminist and queer the- to be deferred or domesticated, insofar as it calls into question the dream of a single, di- Benjamin Dunning is an associate out against the integration of sexual difference and the Pauline ologies to enter into conversation with the Pauline eschatological vinely ordained fullness to human meaning” (27). professor of theology at Fordham eschatological body found in other authors. There seems to be a body. Thus, his work is a resource that evidences the “necessary University. In part, his research distinction to be made between resisting Paul’s anthropology and Underpinning Dunning’s work is the understanding that the instability” of early Christian anthropologies, and in this insta- focuses on early Christian the outright rejection of it, and this is one that Dunning underem- Pauline eschatological body perplexed early Christian writers, bility Dunning proves (sexual) difference could “neither be fully responses to modes of human phasizes. Nonetheless, Dunning offers an insightful analysis of the particularly in regards to sex and gender. Specifically, Dunning assimilated, nor fully ejected” (154-55, emphasis added). How- difference in the first through way some Christians perceived sexual difference as “woven into points to Paul’s proposed collapse of gendered bodies into one, ever, given how On the Origin of the World resolves the problem fourth centuries. the fabric of human creation itself” (91). as Galatians 3:28 (“There is … no longer male and female; for all of sexual difference unlike any of the other texts or authors, Dun- of you are one in Christ Jesus,” NRSV) suggests, and its incom- Chapters four and five comprise the second part of Specters of ning, perhaps unconsciously, raises questions of how strictly the patibility with “an anthropological framework bookended by two in this terminological move is the capacity for an analysis that Paul, “Flesh and Virginity.” Here, Dunning investigates how the “Gnostic” (loaded term as that may be) authors chose to interpret enigmatic figures—Adam, the first human, on the one hand, and lies somewhere between either the rigidities of the sex/gender early Christian authors Irenaeus of Lyons and Tertullian of Car- the Pauline anthropology. But this question is not one in which Christ, the ‘second Adam,’ on the other” (4). To better understand distinction or the collapse of that distinction into a space where thage, respectively, understood the role of Mary as the “second Dunning wishes or needs to engage. Intended more for gradu- how ancient authors dealt with such an incompatibility, Dunning everything is gender” (15). In doing so, Dunning avoids imposing Eve,” just as Paul understands Christ as the “second Adam.” His ate-level audiences, Specters of Paul is a nuanced analysis of how interprets early Christian texts in the vein of Jacques Derrida’s twentieth and twenty-first century cultural distinctions between analysis finds that both Irenaeus and Tertullian “mobilize the anthropological formations resist any kind of simple reduction. “hauntology,” presenting Paul’s theology as an ever-present specter sex and gender on texts from the second and third centuries. For trope of virginity in relation to female and male flesh as the con- While the questions surrounding gender and sexuality loom large for the earliest Christian writers. Dunning’s study is divided into such a broad yet thorough analysis that offers a comprehensible ceptual lynchpin to their respective theological anthropologies” in contemporary scholarship, Dunning knows which ones to raise two sections corresponding to the ways in which Christians tried reading of current scholarship, Dunning deserves to be com- (98). However, as Dunning points out, each author holds the in Specters of Paul in order to illuminate the ways early Christians to resolve the problem of sexual difference: Part One, “The Platon- mended. genders to different standards of virginity. With thorough atten- dealt with these same problems. His work, then, is an exceptional ic Woman,” addresses a strategy that either reabsorbs the female Section One, “The Platonic Woman,” shows the attempts to re- tion to Irenaeus’s rhetoric, Dunning parses the way virgin bodies contribution to and resource for these conversations. into the male eschatological body or completely erases the female incorporate, sometimes in the most literal sense of the word, the are differentiated from one another: they either exist in childlike body altogether. Part Two, “Flesh and Virginity,” deals with “the Andrew Steffan, FCRH ’13 female body into the male. In chapter one, “The Many Become feminine not as an anomaly in need of eradication, but rather as One,” Dunning shows how, in many of the earliest post-Pauline a legitimate—if always secondary—supplement to the masculine” theologies, sexual dimorphism is erased by the formation of an (153). From a well-researched argument, Dunning concludes that androgynous body. However, despite its sexual monism, the an- these texts, in putting sexual difference and the Pauline theologi- drogyne is formulated as a whole or renewed Adam, thus main- cal anthropology in conversation with one another, ultimately fail taining an inherent masculinity. Working against Dunning here to achieve their intended synthesis. Dunning shows that although is the multiplicity of sources that he utilizes in this chapter. Un- the early Christian solutions to the problem of Paul’s anthropol- like subsequent chapters, in which he focuses on a certain author ogy “promise a conceptual stability to sexual difference, each ac- or text, Dunning pulls from the early Christian Dominical Say- tually contains the seeds of its own undoing, unraveling on terms ing and a handful of Nag Hammadi texts. Admittedly, Dunning internal to the argument itself” (5). concedes, “these texts [from Nag Hammadi] by no means pres- In the introduction, Dunning carefully situates his audience in to- ent a uniform theological outlook” (39). Nonetheless, the num- day’s conversations on gender theory, feminist thought, contem- ber of sources, under the umbrella of Nag Hammadi or not, at porary French philosophy, and ancient anthropology. Particu- times overwhelm the reader with ancient theologies. To his credit larly, he notes the differences between the terms male and female though, Dunning harmonizes the texts in the chapter’s conclusion and masculine and feminine, showcasing the difference between by directly comparing their eschatological anthropologies and ex- sex and gender. More importantly though, Dunning lays out the posing in all of them their failures either to resolve the problem of importance of the term sexual difference to his argument: “at stake sexual difference or to arrive at true human androgyny. 55 56 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Reviews LYONS DM, CHAUDHRY S, BENJAMIN P. Synchronizing real lation synchronized to the observed environment and the robot the soccer field (Shen et. al. 1998). Although there are approaches The Fordham Robotics and Computer motion. For prediction purposes, the simulation can be allowed to that include visual tracking of a ball that can yield a robust solu- and predicted synthetic video imagery for localization Vision Laboratory, directed by Dr. “fast forward” in time, so that the expected position of a target, for tion, they can neither track nor predict where the ball will go if of a robot to a 3D environment. Proceedings of the SPIE Damian Lyons, conducts research in example, can be calculated and then compared to observations. In it unexpectedly bounces off a fence or wall. The object-tracking robotic team navigation, agile robot order to do that, they introduce the Match-Mediated Difference model addresses this problem. Conference on Intelligent Robots and Computer Vision Reviews platforms, and cognitive robotics. image comparison operation (MMD). XXVII: Algorithms and Techniques; 2010 Jan; San Jose, CA. One of the current projects under I think that it is a long way from being resolved, however, because

Computer Science development explores how a robot Lyons, Chaundry, and Benjamin implement a match-mediated this approach still has to implement the given object’s function- difference by applying a match-mediated difference mask to a ality and devise a strategy that accounts for the scene location. LYONS DM and BENJAMIN P. Locating and tracking objects can learn about its environment and model objects within it by generated absolute difference image, which merges the real and Such problems also arise whenever a robot is operating in a com- by efficient comparison of real and predicted synthetic synchronizing real and synthetic synthetic images. Then, two matched points are taken, one from plex, dynamic environment, like an urban search and rescue ro- video imagery. Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on video. This essay focuses on both the real and synthetic images. The better they correspond, bot moving on an unstable pile of rubble. Factors like this must the more the images are considered to be similar. In Fig. 1, the be taken into account especially when applying the technique to Intelligent Robots and Computer Vision; 2009 Jan; San professor Lyons’ own research in this area and tries to explain and evaluate image and warped image are compared, and an absolute differ- rescue robots or security robots used for target tracking. In such Jose, CA. his technique and outcomes. ence image on which the different pairs of match points overlay is cases, the robots need to predict when, where, and what objects or generated (A). The MMD is then applied, and the match-mediat- people they will come across as well as their potential movements ed mask is generated (B). Calculating the MMD image using the (Lyons 2011). Applying the proposed technique in such a way is MMD mask results in Fig. 1(C). The threshold difference, which very useful, and I think that it can contribute greatly to the field is shown in the final image, displays only the edges of the common of target tracking. In recent years, the development of robotic technology has ex- tures by allowing robots to take into account unexpected objects region, meaning that the two images are of the same scene (D). If panded from the creation of robots for industrial use to the design and predict object movement. The approach of effectively comparing real world and predicted they had not been the same, then the objects would have appeared of ones capable of reacting autonomously to their environments. synthetic images has great potential in that it integrates problem The main idea presented by Lyons, Chaundry, and Benjamin is in white in the final image. The latter kind needs to be able to navigate in such dynamic en- solving into a robot’s perceptual process, leading to slowly advanc- a method for comparing real and synthetic scenes and synchro- vironments. It also has to predict these changes in order to suc- This is how Lyons, Chaundry, and Benjamin illustrate their ap- ing cognitive robotics, robot simulation, and computer vision. It nizing them so the real environment can be projected onto the cessfully complete its given task. Robots used for target track- proach of using the match-mediated difference to synchronize may seem like a very small step towards achieving that goal of im- robot’s. The real scenes are captured by the robot’s camera and are ing, for example, need to be capable of dealing with unexpected real and synthetic images and demonstrate its use. They further plementing a fully functioning robotic system capable of reason- immediately transformed into synthetic graphical representations situations. The lack of a tightly controlled environment makes it experiment with how this approach works when a new object is ing about the world, itself, and other agents , but it enables specific that can be recognized by the robot. However, if the robot changes necessary for robots to know ways of calculating, analyzing, and introduced in the real environment or when an object is removed robot tasks to be accomplished with greater precision and accu- its position and takes another photo of the same object but from predicting potential future behavior of objects in the given envi- from it. Through calculating the match-mediated difference, they racy. In fact, I think that little tasks, when done properly, build the a different angle, it needs to know that this is the same object. The ronment. A specific way this can be done is by designing a robot show that an unexpected object (one that is in the real image but way for accomplishing the biggest and most daring projects that authors approach this problem by synchronizing these two view- that can run simulations of what the environment is predicted to not in the synthetic one) appears in white when the threshold dif- push the boundaries of technology. points in order to see whether they are of the same object/scene look like and use them for judgment about navigation, updating ference image is displayed. Similarly, a missing object (one that is or not.. They use a 3D simulation engine called OGRE (Object- the simulations if they turn out to be inaccurate. in the synthetic image but not in the real one) is outlined in white Oriented Graphics Rendering Engine) that models objects around Lilia Peteva Nikolova, FCLC ’14

Figure 1: Figure 1: (left) (left) [A] Absolute difference of real [C] Match-mediated absolute difference. and synthetic images with overlaid match points. (right) [D] Match-mediated threshold difference. (right) [B] Match-mediated difference mask calculated from [A].

in the threshold difference. They further improve this technique Several robot architectures have been created in the field of cogni- a robot and creates physics-based simulations through which the of effectively locating and tracking objects by allowing a robot to tive robotics and autonomous agents that operate in a dynamic movement of the given objects can be predicted. They put forth continuously synchronize its simulated camera pose with the ac- environment but are limited in functions. The authors of the two experiments that integrate simulation and observation by com- tual camera pose by using MMD processing (Lyons et. al. 2010). References selected articles have proposed an approach that can help behav- paring real visual input with the graphical, synthetic video gener- Lyons D. Cluster computing for robotics and computer vision. New York (NY): World Scientific Publishing ior-based robots keep track of unexpected objects appearing on ated by a simulation to determine how well observations match The improved approach that the authors propose makes an im- Co. Pte. Ltd.; 2011.

their field of view. They focus on a mechanism that effectively simulated expectations (Lyons and Benjamin 2009). They initially portant contribution to the cognitive robotics field and to artifi- Lyons D, Benjamin P. Locating and tracking objects by efficient comparison of real and predicted synthetic compares and continuously synchronizes images from predicted compare two images (real and synthetic ones), and if they are of cial intelligence in general. It makes up a small part of the research video imagery. Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Intelligent Robots and Computer Vision. 2009 Jan; and real world imagery. In this way a robot’s sensory system can the same scene but from different viewpoints, the simulation’s in these areas of study, but, in my opinion, it provides sufficient San Jose, CA. communicate with the simulation through the use of visual im- camera is readjusted and a new synthetic image is generated. The and accurate proof of a problem that can be solved by integrating Lyons, D, Chaudhry, S, Benjamin, P 2010. Synchronizing real and predicted synthetic video imagery for localization of a robot to a 3D environment. Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Intelligent Robots and ages enabling the robot to run thought experiments by having the same thing happens if a new object appears in the real world—it the technique into a behavior-based robot architecture. For exam- Computer Vision XXVII: Algorithms and Techniques; 2010 Jan; San Jose, CA.

simulated world run faster than the real world. I think that their is translated into a new synthetic image This loop of difference ple, a mobile soccer robot that has to track a soccer ball in order Shen W, Adibi J, Adobatti R, Cho B, Erdem, A, Moradi H, Salemi B, Tejada S. 1998. Autonomous soccer proposition can greatly improve existing behavior-based architec- detection and simulation modification is used to keep the simu- to intercept it could potentially recognize unexpected objects on robots. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 1998; (1395/1998): 295–304.

57 58 FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012 www.furj.org FURJ | Volume 2 | Spring 2012

Selected Research Accomplishments of Fordham Students

Presentations Gray Crenshaw (FCRH ’12), Stephen Gray (FCRH ’12), and Jung-Wook Park (FCRH ’13) were listed as co-authors on “3D Vesicle Membrane Simulation,” which was presented at the 56th Annual Biophysical Society meeting in February 2012 (mentor: Rolf Ryham, Mathematics). Faith Forgione (FCRH ’14) and Jillian Minihan (FCRH ’13) are co-authors on “Defining perceived support: Relationships to social desirability, optimism, attachment, and adjustment,” which will be presented at the annual meeting of the Stress and Anxiety Research Society in July 2012 (mentor: Mary Procidano, Psychology). Stephen Frayne (FCRH ’12), Nazmul Sarker (FCRH ’13), Stacey Barnaby (FCRH ’11), and Nako Nakatsuka (FCRH ’12) are co-authors on “Self-Assembly of Polyphenol Based Microfibrils and their Applications from Drug Release to Bioimaging,” which will be presented at the 66th annual Eastern Colleges Science Conference in April 2012 (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry). David Hagmann (FCLC ’11) was listed as a co-author on “Endogenous Movement and Equilibrium Selection in Spatial Coordination Game,” which was presented at the Eastern Economic Association annual meeting in March 2012 (mentor: Troy Tassier, Economics). Catherine Landry (FCRH ’14) will present “Spectacle vs. Story: Don DeLillo’s Cosmopolis” at the “Riddled with Epiphanies” conference at the College of Mount Saint Vincent in April 2012 (mentor: Cornelius Collins, English). Jeffrey Lockhart (FCRH ’13), Shaun Gallagher (FCRH ’13), Andrew Grosner (FCRH ’12), and Tony Pulickal (FCRH ’13), were listed as co-authors on “Design Considerations for the WISDM Smart Phone-Based Sensor Mining Architecture,” at the Fifth International Workshop on Knowledge Discovery from Sensor Data in August 2011 (mentor: Gary Weiss, Computer and Information Science). Nako Nakatsuka (FCRH ’12) is a co-author on “Interactions of Osteosarcoma Cells with Engineered Nanocomposite Scaffolds,” which was presented at the 243rd annual meeting of the American Chemical Society in March 2012 (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry).

Photo Credit: Bill Denison, Michele Paccagnini (FCRH ’12) was listed as a co-author on “Cyclohexane Based Dendrimers: Synthesis and Encapsulation Studies,” Fordham University Office of nd Marketing and Communications. which was presented at the 242 annual meeting of the American Chemical Society in August 2011 (mentor: Amy Balija, Chemistry). Nazmul Sarker (FCRH ’13) was listed as a co-author on “Design of Self-Assembled Peptide Assemblies and their Interactions with Lipid Membranes,” which was presented at the 56th annual Biophysical Society meeting in February 2012 (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry). Publications Rebecca Triano (FCRH ’12) and Michele Paccagnini (FCRH ’12) were listed as co-authors on “Encapsulation Properties of ‘Reverse Margaux Bruzzese (FCRH ’12) is a co-author on the article, “Attempted suicide and non-suicidal self-injury among adolescents: Dif- Benzyl Ether’ Dendrimers,” which was presented at the 242nd annual meeting of the American Chemical Society in August 2011 (men- ferentiating between self-injurious behaviors,” which will be published in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health (mentor: tor: Amy Balija, Chemistry). Margaret Andover, Psychology). Cristina Vignone (FCLC ’12) presented “The Afflicted and Accused of the Salem Witch Trials: A Virtual Network Computer Visualiza- Megan Cattel (FCRH ’15) published “How does the use of the Holocaust as a metaphor in ‘Daddy’ and ‘Lady Lazarus’ by Sylvia Plath tion in the ‘Gender in the Early Modern World’” at the Lower New York Regional Conference, Phi Alpha Theta in May 2011 (mentor: compare in her development of the definition of self-identity?” inPlath Profiles in 2012 (mentor: Martin Chase, S.J., English). Roger Panetta, Classical Languages and Civilization) Jeffrey Lockhart (FCRH ’13), Shaun Gallagher (FCRH ’13), Andrew Grosner (FCRH ’12), and Tony Pulickal (FCRH ’13) are co-authors on the article, “Design Considerations for the WISDM Smart Phone-Based Sensor Mining Architecture,” which was published in Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Knowledge Discovery from Sensor Data in 2011 (mentor: Gary Weiss, Computer and Information Science). Laura Muse (FCRH ’13) published “Ron y Rebellion: ‘Phociona’ or the history of the Cape sisters and their fight for nineteenth century Acceptances Awards and Recognitions Cuban independence” in International Journal of Cuban Studies in 2012. Emily Dinan (FCRH ’14) was accepted to the NSF-REU program Jeffrey Lockhart (FCRH ’13) will present “Smart Phone-Based Nako Nakatsuka (FCRH ’12) and Stacey Barnaby (FCRH ’11) are co-authors on the article, “Fabrication of Collagen-Elastin Bound at Lafayette College for summer 2012. Sensor Mining for Biometric Identification and Activity Recog- nition,” at the annual Council on Undergraduate Research Post- Peptide Nanotubes as Scaffolds for Mammalian Cell Attachment,” which was published in theJournal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Christopher Hernandez (FCRH ’13) was accepted to the Sum- ers on the Hill in April 2012 (mentor: Gary Weiss, Computer and Edition in 2011 (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry). mer Undergraduate Research Program (SURP) at Albert Einstein Information Science). Nazmul Sarker (FCRH ’13), Stacey Barnaby (FCRH ’11), Aaron Dowdell (FCRH ’12), and Nako Nakatsuka (FCRH ’12) are co-authors School of Medicine for summer 2012. on the article “Smart Fabrication of Pd Nanoparticles on Gallic Acid Assemblies and their Catalytic Applications,” which will be pub- Nazmul Sarker (FCRH ’13) was awarded the 2012 Biophysical th lished in Soft Materials in 2012 (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry). Society Educational Student Travel Award at the 56 annual Bio- physical Society meeting (mentor: Ipsita Banerjee, Chemistry). Kathryn Silva (FCRH ’12) is a co-author on the article, “Retinal pigment epithelial cells use a MerTK-dependent mechanism to limit the phagocytic particle binding activity of αvβ5 integrin,” which was published in Biology of the Cell in 2012 (mentor: Silvia Finnemann, Biological Sciences). Rebecca Triano (FCRH ’12) is a co-author on the article, “Sulfated Ligands for the Copper(I)–Catalyzed Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition,” which was published in Chemistry – An Asian Journal in 2011 (mentor: Amy Balija, Chemistry). 59 60 Contributing Authors

Sheehan Ahmed graduated from Fordham University in 2011 with a BS in physics. As an Lilia Peteva Nikolova, FCLC ’14, comes to Fordham from Vidin, Bulgaria. A computer science undergraduate at Fordham College at Rose Hill, he was primarily involved in Condensed Matter major and visual arts minor, she has teamed up with Dr. Damian Lyons, an associate professor in the research with Dr. Vassilios Fessatidis, Associate Professor of Physics, and Dr. Antonios Balassis, Visiting department of computer and information sciences, to work on a project that involves three-dimensional Assistant Professor of Physics. Currently he is enrolled at Rutgers University pursuing a PhD in Physics robot modeling and graphical rendering of objects within that robot’s environment. Her post- and leaning towards astrophysics research. graduation hopes include graduate studies in computer science or software engineering.

Michele Paccagnini, FCRH ’12, hails from Randolph, NJ. A chemistry major and environmental policy minor, as well as a past recipient of the chemistry department’s Alycia and Hane Fuchs Memorial William Bruckel, FCRH ’11, graduated last May with a degree in classical civilization and ancient Award, she currently works in Dr. Amy Balija’s organic chemistry lab, where she has evaluated the first Greek. Originally from Geneseo, NY, William received the Richard E. Doyle, S.J., Memorial Award generation cyclohexane based dendrimer and is now completing the synthesis of the second generation in recognition of his demonstrated excellence in the study of classical civilization. He is currently dendrimer series. Her excellence and experience as a student researcher—which also includes her two developing a paper on the force of Peitho in Aeschylus’s Agamemnon and designing another on consecutive summers spent working on a rheumatoid arthritis druge as a Discovery Chemistry Intern authorial identity in Aristophanes’s Acharnians, all while applying for doctoral programs in the fall. at the international pharmaceutical research firm Hoffman-La Roche—have earned her membership in Fordham’s chapter of Sigma Xi, the science research honor society. She plans to attend graduate school to obtain a PhD in organic chemistry.

Jennifer Prevete, FCRH ’12, is a native of Roslyn, NY, majoring in American studies with a minor in Margaret Dunbar, FCRH ’14, is a psychology major and Spanish minor from Moorestown, NJ. business administration. Her senior research project, a version of which appears in this issue of FURJ, Currently an undergraduate lab assistant of Dr. James MacDonnall, professor of psychology, she hopes analyzes both first-hand perspectives and secondary data to examine the challenges and opportunities to begin working on research of her own either this summer or the following academic year, and facing the first students of Barnard College in Manhattan – members of only the second generation of ultimately to pursue a graduate degree after graduating from Fordham. women to attend college in the United States. After receiving her diploma in May, she will be preparing to begin law school in the fall.

Stephen Fox hails from Allen, TX and earned his BS in mathematics from Fordham in 2011. During Nazmul Sarker, FCRH ’13, is a chemistry major from the Bronx, NY. His work as a research student his four years as an FCRH undergraduate, he conducted research on algorithmic detection of in the laboratory of Dr. Ipsita Banerjee, associate professor of chemistry, focuses on utilizing molecule flexibility and fast fourier transforms for multiplication of univariate polynomials over plant hormones and various peptide sequences for the fabrication of nanomaterials with catalytic, finite fields alongside Dr. Robert H. Lewis, professor of mathematics, while also working with Dr. antibacterial, and luminescent properties; currently, they are exploring the biomineralization properties Damian Lyons, associate professor of computer science, on registration of stereo point cloud scans via of epibrassinolide and studying the interactions that take place between peptides and lipids. After image homographies and iterative closest point, applied to mobile robots. A two-time participant in completing his Bachelors degree, he intends to enroll in a PhD program in chemistry or materials intelligent ground vehicles competition, he will soon be heading to Dallas, TX to start his career. science.

Helena Guzik, FCRH ’12, is a double major in art history and history. Born in New York City and Lauren Sepanski, FCRH ’12, is a native of Muenster, TX and an American studies major. Her anchored in the environs of Washington D.C., she has been lucky enough to spend her life traveling experience working in the Manhattan office of the New York City Housing Authority inspired her and to have grown up in four very different countries. Helena was awarded the George McMahon, S.J., research on the gardens of NYCHA properties and their resident caretakers, conducted over the Travel Fellowship this past summer to do research in Italian libraries, museums, and archives on her summer of 2011. After graduation this May, she plans to take a year off before pursuing a PhD in thesis about the influences of anatomical study on sixteenth-century Italian art. She plans to pursue a American studies. PhD in Renaissance art and continue to explore the museums of the world.

Jeffrey Lockhart, FCRH ’13, GSAS ’14 is a computer science and women’s studies double major from Phoenix, AZ. Since his freshman year has been working in the computer science department’s Wireless Andrew Steffan, a member of FCRH ’13 from Buffalo, NY, is majoring in theology with minors in Sensor Data Mining (WISDM) Lab, where his research consists of using data mining techniques to medieval studies and Orthodox Christian studies. In the summer of 2011 he worked with Dr. Robert induce computer models of human motion from the accelerometer data generated by android-based Hume, associate professor of political science, on a study comparing the effects of gubernatorial cell phones. The paper he is publishing in this edition of FURJ is the end of a 15-month comparative influence on state legislatures, particularly with regard to the proposal of same-sex marriage bills. That project to study the effects of gender pressures on student apparel norms in disciplines that are same summer he acted as research assistant to Dr. J. Patrick Hornbeck, assistant professor of theology, traditionally coded either masculine or feminine. His ongoing research into the direction and future contributing to his online digitization project, “The Latin Works of John Wyclif.” After graduation next of queer theory may form the basis of his thesis project. His future plans include doctoral studies spring, he hopes to continue studying the New Testament and early Christianity in graduate school. following his completion of the five-year accelerated computer science BS/MS program at Fordham. What Can The Fulbright Do for You?

The Fulbright program offers exciting international opportunities for high-achieving students.

To find out more about the Fulbright, contact Rebecca Stark-Gendrano Fulbright Fellowship Coordinator, Fordham [email protected]

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