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Index

abaku´a,Afro-Cuban 11 32 Acapulco, Mexico, Africans in 2, 43, 97 slavery in 43, 74 Acosta-Rubio, Ra´ul161–162 Spanish 76, 78, 87, 89, 189, 218, Acosta Saignes, Miguel 127, 129 220, 222, 223, 225, 240, 251, 252, 298 Acu˜nade Figueroa, Francisco 102 Andean region 9, 251, 252, 279 Adamwa-Ubangui 199 Andrews, George Reid 103 affirmation, double, see double affirmation Angola 11, 25, 27–29, 34–38, 41, 44, 47, 48, , slavery 20–21 55, 60, 66, 101, 103, 115, 120–122, 126, African-American English, United States 5, 198, 200, 219, 242, 247, 258 85, 114, 148, 213, 301, 303 20, 29, 56, 63, 70, 230, Africanisms in Spanish 4 232, 241, 257, 258, 261, 268, 294 Afro-Asiatic language family 198 Angola Maconde, Juan 138 Afro- 276 Angolar 226 Afro-Cuban language 8, 234–236, 243, Annob´oncreole language and people 6, 54, 251–253, 259, 263, 268, 276, 281, 285, 55, 66, 69, 108, 219, 220, 226, 228, 231, 299, 301 235, 270, 275, 299 Afro-Lusitanian elements in Spanish texts language and people 18, 24, 198, 266 72–73 Arag´on,slavery in 19 Afro-Peruvian language 242, 243, 264, Arar´alanguage and people 11, 105, 122, 126, 268 198 Afro-Portuguese pidgin 6, 74 Araujo, Juan de 130 Afro-Puerto Rican language 235–236, 276, Ardra 36, 66, 105 299 Aretz de Ram´on,Isabel 193 Aguado, Sim´on41, 42, 82–83, 218 Argentina Aguirre Beltr´an,Gonzalo 47, 138, 142 Africans in 2, 46, 100–103, 129, 142–145, Aimes, Hubert 103 216, 220, 229, 243, 258 Ajuda 38 Italians in 4 Akan languages and peoples 18, 19, 39, 60, Spanish dialects 260, 295, 300 97, 106, 200, 202, 203, 214, 217, 218, Arguin Island 24, 36 247, 256, 269, 271 Arizona, Africans in 2 Alba, Julio 162–163 Arona, Juan de 134 Alix, Juan Antonio 149, 174–175 articles Alleyne, Mervyn 206–208, 219 definite 57, 141, 149, 179, 180, 196, Alonso, Manuel 184 267–268, 275, 295, 297, 300 Althoff, F.Daniel 138 indefinite 275, 297, 300 Alvarez de Peralta, Jos´e112 asiento, slaving monopoly 33, 35, 37, 44, 107, Alvarez Nazario, Manuel 115, 147, 178, 183, 121, 125 223, 233, 236, 283, 290, 294 75 Alzola, Concepci´onTeresa 153 Atkins, Guy 208 (a)m´ı, subject pronoun 30, 53, 54, 57, 58, 67, Atlantic-Congo language family 199 73, 82, 93, 158, 162, 249, 275, 276, 303 Atlantic language family, see West Atlantic Amaro, Ana Maria 70 language family

352

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Index 353

Austen, Ralph 18 Bolivia Auto de Vicente Anes Joeira, anonymous play Africans in 1, 5, 46–48, 95, 100, 127, 129, 58 137–138, 187 Avellaneda, Francisco de 88 Spanish dialects 131, 137 Avila, , slavery in 43 Bologna, slavery in 15 Ayacucho, Peru 133 Bombay 30, 181 Aymara language and people 137–138 Bonny, Nigeria 44 Azevedo, Rafael Avila de 69 Bon´o,Pedro 112–113 Bosch, Gerardus 107 Bachiller y Morales, Antonio 146, 154–156, Bosch, Juan 175 284 Boyd-Bowman, Peter 185 Badajoz, Spain 73 bozal, definition 5 Bahia, Brazil, Africans in 46 bozal Portuguese 29 Bai, invariant form of ir 58, 61 bozal Spanish, hypotheses regarding formation Bakongo, see Congo 6 Balearic Islands, slavery in 15 bozals, used in Catalan 15 Ballagas, Emilio 168 Braccesi, Alessandro 16–17 and people 106, 199, 246, Bram, see Bran language and people 264, 266, 267, 269, 271 Bran language and people 47, 247 9, 19, 70, 200–201, 204, 242, Braschi, Juan 184 247, 266 Br´asio,Ant´onio66 Bari, slavery in 15 Brau, Salvador 236 Barlovento region, Venezuela 285 Brazil Barnet, Miguel 169, 290 Africans in 10, 25, 28, 29, 34–39, 44–46, Basque country, Spain, slavery in 43 48, 49, 105, 126, 128, 258 Basque of Spanish 88, 92, 93 Afro-Portuguese dialects 29, 56, 62 and people 3 Portuguese dialects, vernacular 57, 93, 216, Bassein, India 31 223, 224, 255–258, 268, 294 Batalha, Graciete Nogueira 69 British, slave trade, see English, slave trade Batavia, Indonesia 30 Bubi language and people 211, 257, 261, 264, Benavides, Celso 177 269 Benguela 28, 34, 37, 103, 257 Buenos Aires, Argentina Benin Africans in 6, 37, 38, 43, 48, 81, 100–103, modern nation 11, 26, 32, 34–40, 44, 66, 126, 127, 242, 243 103, 105, 199 Spanish dialect 221, 225 ancient kingdom 18, 39, 40 Bujeba language and people 211, 257 Ben´ıtezdel Cristo, Ignacio 293 Burgos, Spain, slavery in 43 Berber language and people 24, 198 Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) 199 Berbesi language and people 47 Berbice, Guyana 34, 246 Caama˜node Fern´andez,Vicenta 177 Berbice Dutch creole 106, 199, 246–247 Cabada, Juan de la 141 Bergman, Hannah 88 Caballero, Ram´on178–179 Biafada, see Biafara language and people Cabinda language and people 200 Biafara language and people 47, 115, 126, Arteaga, Jos´e 71–73 247 Cabrera, Lydia 6, 8, 106, 163–168, 259, 273, Bib´ılanguage and people 105 292, 293 Bijago language and people 248 Cabrera, Manuel 151, 292 Bilad Ghana 23 Cadilla de Mart´ınez,Mar´ıa180–182 Bioko (Fernando Poo) 211 ´adiz, Spain, slavery in 43 Bissau 25 Calabar region, Nigeria 36, 37, 44, 105, Black English, US, see African-American 115 English Calcagno, Francisco 153, 160–161 black Portuguese 62 Calder´onde la Barca, Pedro 87–88 Bogot´a,Colombia 91, 240 Calicut 30 Bola de Nieve, see Villa, Ignacio calo´ 4, 96

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354 Index

Cambunda 96, 103 Choc´oregion, Colombia 48, 56, 76, 121, 258, Cameroon 201, 247 260, 281, 283, 285, 293, 294 Campeche, Mexico 97, 99 Chota Valley, Ecuador 119, 185, 187, Canary Islands 15, 25, 45 281–283, 285, 294, 295 Spanish dialects 89, 189, 220, 222, 262, 298 Ciplijauskait´e,Birut´e83 Cancioneiro geral, Garcia de Resende 40, Ciudad Real, Spain, slavery in 43 52–55, 57, 71, 72, 75 Claramonte, Andr´esde 86, 90, 218, 251 cancionero, song collections 8 Clements, J.Clancy 51 Cang´a96 clitics, subject 250, 262, 265 C˜ao, Diego 26 Cochin 29–31 capataces 11 81, 225 Cape Verde cofrad´ıa, Afro-Hispanic brotherhoods 19, 60, creole language and people 6, 58, 70, 108, 72, 96 162, 219, 262, 270–272, 274, 285, 287 Colombia Islands 25, 32, 34, 39, 45, 47, 55, 122, 203 Africans in 1, 5, 6, 10, 12, 35, 46, 48, 95, Peninsula, Senegal 39 118–123, 127, 129, 187–189 Carabal´ılanguage and people 11, 44, 96, Spanish dialects 91, 93, 221, 222, 224, 263, 105–106, 115, 122, 126, 198, 246 295 Carden, Guy 114 Col´on,Panama 263 Caribbean, Spanish dialects 225, 251, 252, Combe language and people 211, 257, 261 261 Comes, Juan Bautista 91, 93 Caro de Mall´en,Ana 88 concordance, loss of 84, 137, 148, 149, 151, Carpentier, Alejo 108, 165, 170 162, 171, 179, 189, 275, 276, 300, 303 Carrera Vergara, Eudocio 135, 216 Congo, ethnic designation, kingdom 11, Carreras, Carlos 170 19–21, 25–28, 44, 47, 48, 51, 55, 63, 96, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia 10, 12, 35, 43, 99, 101, 103, 105–107, 115, 119, 121, 121, 258 122, 126, 144, 147, 192, 242, 247, 263 Carthaginian language and people 3 Congo-Benue languages 9, 148, 200, 245, 247, Casamance 38, 248 250, 254, 256 Castellanos, Jorge and Isabel 104, 106, 146, conjugated , loss of 64, 67 284 , syllable-final in African languages Castile 214 slavery in 43 Consuegra Guzm´an,Ismael 292 Spanish dialects 230, 240 contramayoral 11 15 copula 30, 53, 54, 57–61, 65–70, 78, 80, 82, Catalonia, slavery in 15 84, 87, 89, 93, 135, 148, 151, 160, 162, Caviedes, Juan del Valle 131 170, 178, 181, 182, 190, 193, 261, 269, Ceuta 23 275, 276, 296, 297 Ceylon, see Sri Lanka C´ordoba, Spain 18, 83 Chabacano (Philippine Creole Spanish) 154, slavery in 43 163, 181, 220, 248, 282, 297 Coromandel Coast 31 Chasca, Edmund de 77, 233 Coromantine 36, 38 Chaudenson, 279–281, 286 Correa, Gaspar 49 Chaul 29, 31 Cort´esCort´es,Fernando 74 ´avez Franco, Modesto 185 Coss´ıo,Jos´e M.de 71, 72 Chevai 29 Cotarelo y Mor´ı,Emilio 77, 81, 86 Chiado, AntˆonioRibeiro 57–58, 219 creole languages in the Spanish Caribbean Chile 4, 46, 47 116–117 Pacific island labor 8 Crespo y Borb´on,Jos´e(Creto Gang´a)147, China Coast Pidgin English 303 152–154, 162, 293 Chincha, Peru 216 Creto Gang´a,see Crespo y Borb´on,Jos´e Chinese pidgin Spanish 301 Cruz, Celia 169 Chinese, language and people in Cruz, Mary 152, 153 America 4, 49, 108–109, 148, 303 Cruz, Sor Juana In´es5, 85, 91–93, 139, 140, Chinyanga language and people 264 219, 224

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Index 355

Cuajicuinalapa, Mexico 98, 142 Eannes, Gil 23 Cuango language and people 126 Easter Island forced labor 8 Ecuador Africans in 2, 5–8, 10–12, 45, 46, 49, 96, Africans in 6, 46, 48, 118, 184–187 99, 103–111, 5, 126, 127, 129, 135, Spanish dialects 91, 93, 224, 226, 295, 300 145–172, 178, 181, 189, 190, 199, Edo language group 200, 202, 214, 247 206–207, 242–243, 246, 259, 261, Efik language and people 11, 44, 106, 115, 278–280, 283, 284, 301 148, 179, 200, 202, 214, 215, 218, 247, Chinese in 4 264, 266, 267, 269, 271 Spanish dialects 221, 243, 260, 263, 295 elle/nelle as third person pronoun 149, 151, Cuijla, see Cuajicuinalapa 154, 160, 176, 182, 236, 276, 294–295 Cuman´a,Venezuela 35 Elmina, fort 18, 25, 26, 34, 39, 47, 106 Cura¸cao8, 34–35, 46, 107–108, 113, 192, Eltis, David 46, 103, 105, 113, 115 275 Encina, Juan del 74 Curtin, Philip 45–48, 104 English creoles 114–115, 177, 190, 191, 263, Cuzco, Peru 91, 95, 132, 240 265, 282, 301 CV syllable structure 228 English, slave trade 35–37 entremes´ , Afro-Hispanic 8 /d/ epenthetic 216, 217 elision 140 Equatorial 56, 92–93, 211–214, 222, realized as stop [d]/flap [r] 55–56, 58, 59, 224, 230, 232, 241, 257, 300 67, 75, 79, 82, 89, 93, 130, 131, 135, 140, Escalante, Aquiles 121 143, 148, 186, 187, 190, 192, 194, 196, Escalona, Rafael 179 222, 303 Esmeraldas, Ecuador 119–120, 185–187 Dahomey 44, 105, 115 Essequibo 34 Dam˜ao29, 31, 68 Estupi˜n´an Bass, Nelson 6 De la Guardia, Roberto 125 Ethiopia 18 De la Torriente, Lolo 159 eu as subject pronoun 58 Degetau, Federico 180 Ewe/Fon language and people 11, 44, 67, 97, Delicado, Francisco 80–81 105, 193, 200, 203, 210, 217, 247, Demerara 34 263–266, 270, 271 demonstratives, postposed 298 existential verbs 297 Denmark 38 Extremadura, slavery in 43, 74 Derkes, Eleuterio 179 Extreme˜nodialect 75, 218 Deschamps Chapeaux, Pedro 159 Diola language and people 106, 199, 247, 248, fala de preto, Afro-Portuguese imitations 52, 256, 261, 264, 266, 271 59, 60, 62, 219 in forms 80 and people 211, 214, 257, direct objects 137, 253–255 261 Diu 29, 31, 68 Fante language and people 213, 261, 264, Dogon language family 199 266, 271 Dom´ınguez,Luis Arturo 192, 193 Fanti, see Fante language and people Dominican Republic Fernandes, Gaspar 91, 139 Africans in 10, 12, 35, 36, 46, 56, 76, 99, Fern´andez,Francisco 293 111–115, 148, 172–177, 279, 280 Fern´andez,Lucas 74 Spanish dialects 91, 93, 171, 181, 182, 213, Fernando Poo 110, 247, 257 221, 222, 224, 234, 258–260, 263, 281, Ferrara, Mario 16 282, 285, 293, 295, 301–303 Ferraz, Luis Ivens 226 Dondo 27 Ferreras, Ram´onAlberto 175 double affirmation 259 Fiote language 261, 264 Dunzo, Annette Ivory 223 first person plural verb forms as invariant 85, Duque de Estrada, Nicol´as145–146, 284, 87, 89, 253, 275 293 Florence, slavery in 15, 16 durative aspect 292, 299 Florence, Italian dialect 16–17 Dutch slave trade 18, 33–35 Fongbe, see Ewe/Fon language and people

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356 Index

Fontanella de Weinberg, Beatriz 221 Guatemala foreigner talk 73, 77 Africans in 5, 48, 139 Franceschi, V´ıctor189, 190 Pacific island labor 8 French Guatemala City 91 creoles 110, 126, 128, 170–171, 177, 191, Guerrero, Manuel Vicente 90 263, 282, 301, 303 Guete, Jaime de 82 language and people 3 Guill´en,Nicol´as6 slave trade 33, 35 Guinea, designations 40–41 Fr´ıasG´alvez, Antonio 175 Guinea-Bissau 25, 35, 38, 47, 122, 199, 202, Fuentes, Manuel Atanasio 134–135 248–249 Fula language and people 44, 115, 126, 199, Kriyˆollanguage 70, 219, 263, 270, 271, 275 205, 247, 248, 264, 266, 267, 269 Portuguese dialect 230 future marking 60, 271, 272, 293 Guirao, Ram´on168 G¨uiria Peninsula, Venezuela 259, 260, 263, G˜a language and people 200, 247, 256, 261, 303 264, 266, 267, 269 Gullah language and people 99, 213, 237, 240, Gabon 201, 214 266 Galicia, slavery in 43 Gur language family 199 75, 92, 93, 262 Guti´errezde Padilla, Juan 139 G´alvez Ronceros, Antonio 131, 216 Guyana 246 Gama, Vasco da 30, 52, 54 Guyanese Creole 8 Gambia 36–38 Guzm´anNavarro, Arturo 125 Gang´alanguage and people 105–107, 115 Gypsy, see Roma language and people gauchos 1, 100, 101 Gbe language group 200 habitual aspect 271, 292 gemination of consonants 147 habla de negros, Afro-Hispanic imitations 52, gender agreement, loss of 61, 275, 297, 300 74, 76, 77, 79, 82–84, 86, 87, 89–90, genitive constructions in African languages 92–94, 129, 137, 139, 187, 218, 220, 223, 269–270 229 Genoa slavery in 15 hablar congo, see negros congos, Panama and people 4 Haiti 1, 11, 44, 108, 169, 279, 303 Ghana Creole language 8, 58, 108, 110–111, ancient kingdom 18 113–114, 116–117, 172–173, 183, 191, modern nation 25, 26, 39, 60, 106, 199, 213, 236, 251, 259, 263, 265, 282, 295, 210 301–303 Gir´on,Socorro 184 French dialect 302 Goa 29–31, 69, 181 revolution 10, 99 Gold Coast 20, 22, 25, 26, 34–37, 39, 47, 60, Hassaurek, Frederick 185 106, 115, 121, 125–127, 129 Hatherly, Ana 59 G´omez de Toledo, Gaspar 81–82 Hausa language and people 214, 264, 266, Gon¸calvez, Antam 24 267, 269 G´ongora, Luis de 41, 42, 83–85, 91, 93, 218, Havana, Cuba 10, 35, 43, 126, 127 223, 235, 260 Heine, Bernd 245 Gonz´alez,Carlisle 177 Henr´ıquezUre˜na,Pedro 114, 234 Gonz´alezRub´ı,Pedro Antonio 89 Henry, Prince of 23 Goodman, Morris 51 Herskovits, Melville 213 Gor´eeIsland 34, 36–38, 125 Hesseling, D.C.107 Grain Coast 39, 44, 217, 246, 247 Holm, John 67, 287, 291 Granda, Germ´ande 71, 107, 163, 178, 193, Honduras, Africans in 1, 2, 35, 48 288–290 Hong Kong 51 and people 3 Huelva, slavery in 43 Green, Katherine 182 Humboldt, Baron A.von 103, 126, 128 Guadalajara, Spain, slavery in 43 Guadeloupe 36, 280 Iberian language and people 3 Guanche language and people 15 Ibibio language and people 106, 179

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Index 357

Ibo language 271 226, 237–238, 247, 254, 256, 258, 260, Ica, Peru 131, 135 261, 264, 265, 267–269, 294 Idoma language group 200 language 28, 29, 44, 60, 66, 97, Igbo language and people 11, 44, 97, 106, 115, 101, 103, 200, 202, 208, 218, 220, 226, 148, 200, 202, 247, 256, 261, 264, 266, 238, 247, 256–258, 260, 261, 263, 265, 267, 269 267–269, 294 Ijo language and people 44, 105, 106, 148, Kituba language 231 179, 199, 246, 248, 254, 256, 261, 266, Kongo, see Congo 267, 269, 271 Korlai 30, 181 Ijoid language family 199 and people 199, 214, 247 imperfective aspect 292, 299 Krio language () 206, 207 in situ questions, see questions, in situ Kru languages and peoples 9, 44, 199, 204, India, Portuguese colonies in 29, 30, 68 217, 247 indigenous lexical items in Spanish 9 Kwa languages and peoples 9, 26, 38, 44, 56, Indonesia 30, 51 67, 70, 115, 148, 200–202, 204, 246, 247, infinitives 250, 254, 256, 259, 270, 273 uninflected 53, 54, 58, 73, 80, 89, 141, 147, 151, 162, 171, 178, 180, 184, 187, 188, /λ/, delateralization 56, 58, 60, 67, 78, 80, 82, 195, 253, 272 131 with preverbal subject 141, 298 /l/ and /d/, interchange 53, 66, 75, 87, 138 ingenio, sugar plantation 11 La Paz, Bolivia 91 interrogation, see questions Ladefoged, Peter 217 interrogative constructions in African ladino, see Judeo Spanish languages 260–263 Laguerre, Enrique 182–183 invariant verb forms 61, 70 Lapesa, Rafael 163, 289 ir 58 Larraz´abalBlanco, Carlos 173 and people 3, 4, 93 Latin language 267 , slavery in 14–16, 18, 19 Laurence, Kemlin 7, 278 Ivory Coast 15, 26, 35, 38, 39, 199, 201 Lenca language, influence on Spanish 252 Lenz, Rodolfo 234 Jamaica 49, 108, 118 Le´on,Spain, slavery in 43 Creole language 8, 108, 163, 263, Leonese language 75, 218 303 Liberia 39, 44, 199, 201 English dialect 302 licencia, slaving monopoly 43–44 Jamieson, Mart´ın190 Liguria Jammes, Robert 83 slavery in 15 Japan 30, 31 language and people 3 language and people 4 Lima, Peru 91, 126 Jim´enezRivera, Chery 176 language 231, 257, 264 Jim´enezTorres, Julieta 92–94 l´ıngua de guine´ Afro-Portuguese imitations 60 Jo˜ao, king of Portugal 23 , Mediterranean 80–81, 198, Johnson, Lemuel 52 274 Judeo Spanish 3–4 Lipski, John 16–17, 130, 154, 288 judezmo, see Judeo Spanish liquid consonants Jurado Noboa, Fernando 119, 120 in African languages 217 juruminga/jurumingue 149 neutralization in Afro-Iberian language 59, 66, 147, 189, 196, 217–220, 241, 300 Kanem, kingdom 18 , Africans in 16, 42, 55, 60 Kanura language 264 literatura de cordel 61, 71 Kasanje kingdom 28 Llanos Allende, Victorio 180, 183 Kele language and people 269 Loango 101, 121, 126, 128, 192, 193 Kenya 32 Lombardia slavery in 15 Kikongo language 11, 19, 21, 25–27, 29, 44, L´opez Alb´ujar, Enrique 135–136, 216, 268 60, 65, 66, 96, 97, 101, 103, 106, 115, L´opez Prudencio, J.75 144, 148, 181, 199, 200, 202, 218, 220, Louisiana Creole French 174

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358 Index

Lower Guinea 201–202 Mesquita, Alfredo 212 Luanda 25, 27, 28, 34, 37, 66 metathesis 63, 66, 149, 229–230 Lubolo 103 Mexican-American Spanish dialects 78 Lucum´ı(Yoruba) language and people 11, 44, Mexico 96, 105, 107, 126, 148, 161, 206, 207 Africans in 1, 2, 5, 46–49, 91, 95, 97–100, Luis, William 159 111, 127, 129, 138–143, 187, 220, 285 lunarios 61 Pacific island labor 8 Spanish dialects 221, 222, 295, 300 Macao 30–32, 51, 69, 108–109 Mexico City, in 9, 91, 240 Portuguese creole 301, 303 m´ı, subject pronoun, see (a)m´ı Machado Filho, Aires da Mata 229 Milan, slavery in 15 Madden, Richard 11 mim, subject pronoun, see (a)m´ı Madeira Islands 25, 45 Mina, language and people 60, 103, 105–106, Magari˜nos Cervantes, Alejandro 101 115, 122, 126, 198, 203 Majorca, Africans in 15, 19 Mintz, Sidney 278 Malacca 30–32, 69 Mira de Amescua, Antonio 86 M´alaga, slavery in 43 Mombasa 32 Malaysia 30, 51 Monc´ın,Luis 89 Mali Montejo, Esteban 106, 169–170 ancient kingdom 18, 23 Montevideo, modern nation 41, 199 Africans in 6, 39, 43, 81, 100–103, 242, 243 Malinke language and people 47 Spanish dialect 225 Malpica la Barca, Domingo 163, 284, 293 (in the ) language and and people 9, 198–199, 201, people 3, 18, 77, 92, 93, 274 202, 246, 248–250, 253, 255, 270, 271 Moreau de Saint-M´ery, M.L.114 Mandinga, see and people Moreno Fraginals, Manuel 105–106 Mandinka language and people 24, 39, 40, 44, Moreto, Agust´ın88 96, 97, 99, 103, 106–107, 115, 119, 122, Morocco 23 126, 199, 202, 214, 217, 246, 248, 249, moros, see Moors (in the lberian Peninsula) 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270 language and people Mangalore 29, 68 Mor´ua Delgado, Mart´ın 159–160 manicongo 19, 22, 25–27, 63 Moscoso Puello, Francisco 175 Manila 43 Mosonyi, Esteban Emilio 192 Manjaku language and people 248 Mota, Henrique da 53–54, 248 Manrique Cabrera, Francisco 183 32, 45, 47, 103, 126, 200, 247, Manzano, Juan Francisco 284 257 Mar´ıa Lionza, Afro-Venezuelan cult 127, 129 Portuguese dialects 20, 56, 63, 230, 232, Marrero Aristy, Ram´on149, 175 257 Martinique 36, 280 and people 3 mas´ nunca, mas´ nada, mas´ nadie 298 Mpumbu language and people 27 mayoral 11 Muhammad, Jameelah 98 mayordomo 11 Murcia Mazatl´an,Mexico, Africans in 2 slavery in 43 Mbundu people 27, 28 Spanish dialect 89, 220 McWhorter, John 7, 281–286 musseques, popular neighborhoods of Luanda, Megenney, William 138, 213, 223, 258, 291, Angola 261, 268, 294 294 Melaka, see Malacca /˜n/, denasalization 58, 75 and people 44, 199, 204, 217, Nagˆolanguage and people 198 246, 249, 253, 255, 261, 264, 266, 267, Nahuatl language, influence on Spanish 269, 270 252 M´endez Qui˜nones,Ram´on182 Na˜niguismo161˜ Men´endez y Pelayo, Marcelino 80 Naples, slavery in 15 Merl´ın,Condesa de, see Santa Cruz y Naro, Anthony 51 Montalvo, Mar´ıade las Mercedes nasal vowels 58

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Index 359

nasalization, intrusive 78, 82, 85, 87, 90, 93, Ovimbundu () people 28, 103, 200, 135, 147, 178, 233–239 218, 247, 257, 258, 260 Naxara, Joseph de 66, 69 Oyo, kingdom 18 Ndjuka language 237 Ndongo 27, 28 Palacios, Arnaldo 188 Ndow´elanguage and people 211, 257, 261 palangana, Afro-Peruvian slang 136 Negapat˜ao 29, 31 palatalization of /s/, see /s/, palatalization negation Palenque de San Basilio, Colombia 6, 12, 56, double 62, 110, 194, 256–260, 293–294, 121, 122, 187, 189, 258, 263, 275, 278 302 language 6, 58, 59, 70, 76, 108, in African languages 255–258 140, 162, 181, 189, 192, 195, 213, 218, postverbal 62, 257, 258 220, 228, 231, 235–240, 251, 256–258, Negerhollands language 8, 107, 108, 116–117, 263, 265, 266, 270–272, 277, 282, 163, 303 285–287, 291, 294–297, 299 Negra lectora, anonymous play 42 palenques, maroon villages 98 negrillo songs 8 Palmer, Colin 97 negro catedratico´ , comic figure 8, 136, Panama 151–152, 179 Africans in 10, 12, 16–17, 46, 123–126, negros congos, Panama 17, 124, 148, 149, 220, 148, 149, 191 282, 295 Spanish dialects 263, 282, 295 negros curros, Cuba 286 West Indians in 124 Netherlands Antilles 6 Papia Kristang language 69 neutralization of /l/ and /r/, see liquid language 6, 8, 34, 56, 58, 107, consonants, neutralization in Afro-lberian 108, 113, 149, 154, 160, 162, 163, 176, language 179, 181, 183–184, 190–193, 210, 213, New Mexico 231, 234–236, 239, 260, 263, 265, 271, Africans in 2 272, 274, 282, 286, 287, 291, 293–297, Spanish dialects 294 299, 301, 303 Ngala language and people 269 paragogic vowels 56–60, 67, 68, 82, 84, 144, Ngola 27, 28 187, 214, 217, 225–227, 241, 294 Ngombe language 269 Paraguay 4, 9, 46, 100, 279, 300 Niger-Congo language family 198–199 Pardo y Aliaga, Felipe 133–135 Nigeria 11, 18, 32, 36, 39, 40, 44, 105, 115, Parkvall, Mikael 258 121, 148, 179, 199, 247 particles, preverbal 68, 141, 298 Niger-Kordofanian language family 198 past tense marking 271, 272, 293 Nilo-Saharan language family 198 Pastor, Juan 80 Nombre de Dios, Panama 123 payadores 1, 100 phrases 59, 65 Pepper Coast 39 null subjects, see subjects, null Pereda Vald´es,Ildefonso 223 number agreement, loss of 275, 297, 300 P´erez Cabral, Pedro Andr´es150, 176 Nupe language and people 256, 269 P´erez de la Riva, Juan 104 Nzinga, rebel queen 28 perfective aspect 272, 293 Nzinga a Nkuwa 26 Perl, Matthias 164, 289–291 Nzinga Mbemba 26 Pernambuco, Africans in 46 Peru obstruent + liquid clusters 215 Africans in 1, 5, 6, 46–49, 95–97, 111, 123, onset clusters 126–137, 143, 148, 187, 216, 220, 242, in African languages 214–215 258 reduction 135, 141, 181, 188, 194, 216–217 Chinese in 4 Ortiz, Adalberto 6 Pacific island labor 8 Ortiz, Fernando 8, 109, 148, 156–157, 292 Spanish dialects 221, 222, 295, 300 Ortiz L´opez,Luis 150, 171, 191, 282, 294, 303 Philippine Creole Spanish, see Chabacano Os preto astrologo 61 Phoenician language and people 3 Oscan language and people 3 Pichardo, Esteban 99, 109, 146, 150–151, 155, Otheguy, Ricardo 164, 290 234, 286, 289

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360 Index

Pidgin English 109–110, 148, 161, 178, 211, Quechua language in contact with Spanish 231, 232, 248, 301, 303 133, 252, 260 Pidgin Portuguese 51 questions Piemonte, slavery in 15 in situ 109, 260–262 Pipil language, influence on Spanish non-inverted 262–263, 295 252 yes-no 263–265 Pires, Sebasti˜ao58 Quevedo, Francisco de 66, 88, 90, 221 Pisa, slavery in 15 Qui˜nonesde Benavente, Luis 88–89 plural marking noun phrases 59–61, 65, 194, 196, 265–267, /r/ 296 loss of final 53, 56, 59, 67, 76, 82, 139–141, verb phrases 65, 85 143, 186, 187, 191, 196, 221–222, 242, Polynesian forced labor 8 300 Popay´an,Colombia 281 realized as [l] 59, 61, 66, 67, 82, 84, 85, Pop´olanguage and people 126 87–90, 93, 109, 131, 135, 137, 138, 140, pororo´ Afro-Dominican dialect 303 143, 186, 187, 192, 220 Portobelo, Panama 35, 43, 120, 123, 125 /r/-/rr/, neutralization 241, 300 Portugal Raimundo, Jacques 230 Africans in 1, 19–20, 62 Ram´ony Rivera, Luis Felipe 193 history of 13, 17, 18 Ramos, Arthur 229 Portuguese-derived creoles, Asia 30 Ramos, Jos´eAntonio 161 Rawley, James 46 elements in Afro-Hispanic language 139 Reinecke, John 286, 291 words in African languages 19, Reinosa, Rodrigo de 29, 40, 71–73, 248, 252, 207–208 267, 268 postpositions 274 Resende, Garcia de 40, 52, 252 Potos´ı25, 132, 240 R´ıo de la Plata pregones, street vendors 8, 144, 212, 216 Africans in 2, 8, 28, 45, 46, 242, 288 prenasalized consonants 84, 89, 149 language of 102–103, 243 prepositions 171, 274, 297–298, 300 Spanish dialects 222 present tense marking 271, 299 R´ıo de Oro 24 Pr´ıncipe R´ıo Muni 257 creole language 26, 54, 66, 226, 231, 267, Robertson, Irvine 247 275 Rodney, Walter 25 Island 33 Rodr´ıguezDemorizi, Emilio 172, 174 Proclama que en un cablido de negros congos Rodr´ıguez de Nolla, Olga 193 de la ciudad de La Habana pronunciosu´ Rodr´ıguezHerrera, Esteban 158 presidente, Rey Monfundi Siliman, Roma language and people 4, 87, 89, 92, 93 anonymous document 147–150, 283 Rome prognosticos´ 61 ancient empire 14 progressive aspect 271, 272, 292 slavery in 15 pronouns Romero, Fernando 129, 233 clitic 57, 65, 151, 249, 251–252, 275 and people 264 invariant 149, 300 Rosario, Rub´endel 233 object, disjunctive 57, 65, 275, 276, 295, Rossi y Rub´ı,Joseph 96 300 Rowlands, E.C.249 subject 30, 53, 54, 57, 58, 67, 73, 82, 93, Rueda, Lope de 29, 42, 70, 74, 76–79, 85, 88, 158, 162, 249, 252–253, 265, 275, 296, 155–156, 159, 218, 223, 252, 262, 267 297, 303; invariant 296 Ru´ızGarc´ıa,Armanda 162 Puebla, Mexico 91 Russell, P.E.71, 72 Africans in 6, 10, 45, 46, 49, 115–117, /s/, aspiration 141, 148, 187 129, 148, 172, 177–184, 190, 278, 279, /s/ 301 loss of final 56–57, 59, 61, 65, 73, 77–78, Spanish dialects 221, 233, 263, 294, 295 82–85, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 109, 132, 137,

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139, 140, 143–144, 186, 187, 189, 196, ser/estar, confusion 73, 80, 82 223–225, 241–242, 300 Serial verbs, see verbs, serial palatalization 53, 73, 81, 82 seseo 89 sa as Afro-Iberian copula 53, 57–61, 65–70, Setse, Theophilus Kwadzo 210 73, 78, 80, 82, 84, 85, 87, 89, 93, 193, , Africans in 16, 19, 43, 72, 76, 83, 84, 275, 297 97 sainete, Afro-Hispanic 8 Sicily, slavery in 14–16, 18, 19 Sa˜ qui turo, anonymous song 59 Sierra Leone 25, 26, 36–40, 44, 52, 103, 115, Saint-Domingue 1, 10, 36, 46, 49, 111, 115, 199, 203, 206, 207, 247 279, 280 Silva, Feliciano de 81, 262 Salamanca 74 Silveira, Fernam da 40, 52–54, 72 Salvador, Gregorio 223 Singapore 51 sam as first person singular of ser 65 slave, origin of term 14 Saman´a,Dominican Republic 112, 114, 148, Slave Coast 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 66, 70, 103, 172, 174, 177, 259, 303 121, 126, 127 San Basilio de Palenque, see Palenque de San Smith, Norval 247 Basilio, Colombia Soffia, Bernardo 134 S´anchez de Badajoz, Diego 73–76, 218, 223, Sojo, Juan Pablo 193 224 and people 269 Sandoval, Alonso de 106, 122–123, 288–289 Sol´ıs,Antonio 88 and people 199, 256, 261, son as invariant copula 135, 147–151, 160, 264 162, 178, 181, 182, 190, 276 Santa Cruz, Mar´ıade 163, 292 Songhai, kingdom 18 Santa Cruz, Nicomedes 6, 96, 268 Songhay language 264, 266, 267, 269 Santa Cruz y Montalvo, Mar´ıade las Mercedes SOV 245–249, 254, 274 157–158 Spain santar/sentar as Afro-Iberian copula 58 Africans in 17–20 santer´ıa, Afro-Cuban 11, 207 dialects of Spanish 56 Santillana, Gabriel de 140 history of 13 Santo Domingo, see Dominican Republic slavery in 14 S˜ao Tom´e Spedding, Alison 138 creole language 6, 26, 29, 54, 66, 70, 84, Sri Lanka 30–31 108, 154, 181, 219, 220, 226, 228, 231, Srnan Tongo 8, 85, 206, 207, 219 235, 258, 263, 270, 275, 285, 287, 294, St.Eustatius 34, 107 299 St.Kitts 36 Island 25, 33, 41, 45, 48, 55, 122, 138, 219, Stewart, William 114 288 stress, in African languages 205–206 Portuguese dialect 230 Su´arezy Romero, Anselmo 159, 292 Saramaccan language 34, 85, 206, 207, 213, subject pronouns, see pronouns, subject 219, 228, 299 subjects Sardinia, slavery in 15 grammatical 249–252 Sarr´oL´opez, Pilar 77 null 249 Savoia, Rafael 120 Suevi 3 sayagues´ literary dialect 73, 75, 87, 88, 93, Surinam 34 218 Sur´o,Ram´on150, 154–176 Schuchardt, Hugo 68, 155, 234, 284 Susu language and people 199, 266 Schwegler, Armin 258, 260, 282, 294 SVO word order 245, 247, 254–255, second person pronouns 295 274 Sena language and people 264 and people 205, 231, 257, Senegal 38, 103, 199 269 Senegambia 25, 33, 34, 40, 44, 47, 48, 127, syllable structure, African languages 129, 246 213–216 Sephardic Jews 34, 113 Sephardic Spanish (see Judeo Spanish) ta, preverbal particle 68, 151, 162, 163, 178, Serer language and people 47, 199, 205 189–190, 276, 292, 303

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362 Index

taibo 54 Valkhoff, Marius 181, 291 Takrur, kingdom 18 Valladolid, Spain, slavery in 43 tango 100 Van Name, Addison 286 teatro bufo, Cuba 8, 152 Vandals 3 Tecelaria 29 Vega, Lope de 41–42, 83–88, 218, 224 Tejeira, Gil Blas 190 V´elez de Guevara, Luis 86, 223 Teke language and people 27 Venezuela and people 44, 199, 217, 247, Africans in 6, 10, 12, 35, 43, 46, 49, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271 126–128, 149, 191–196, 220, 242, 279, Terranovo 96 285 Teyssier, Paul 54, 57 Spanish dialects 221, 222, 259, 263, 294, third person pronoun as plural marker 296 295, 300, 303 third person verb forms 65 Venice, slavery in 15, 16 singular as invariant verb 57, 58, 135, 151, Veracruz, Mexico, Africans in 2, 43, 97–99 171, 176, 177, 179, 189, 195, 253, 275, verbs 276, 300 African languages 270–274 Thornton, John 54, 201 serial 273 Timor 30, 31 Veres, Ernesto 77–78, 223 Tiv language and people 217, 247 Vicente, Gil 40, 54–59, 70, 71, 74, 75, 79, 219, Tobago 36 223, 260, 272 Togo 11, 32, 35, 39, 103, 199 Villa, Ignacio (Bola de Nieve) 169, 292 Toledo, slavery in 43 Villa Mella, Dominican Republic 56, 114, 173, , lexical in African languages 205–206 213, 303 tones villancicos 90–93 European loan-words in African languages Villaverde, Cirilo 149, 158–159 206–208 3 in Afro-Hispanic language 208–210, 241 vizca´ıno literary dialect, see Basque dialect of Torices, Alonso 91, 130 Spanish Trinidad 11, 105, 126, 128, 259, 263, 303 Von Hagen, Victor 118–120 Trist˜ao,Nuno 24 vos, pronoun 295 Turin, slavery in 15 harmony 56 Turner, Lorenzo Dow 213 Twi language 264, 266, 267, 269, 271 Wagner, Max 234, 288, 290 type A languages 245–246 Walsh, Thomas 81 type languages 246 Weber de Kurlat, Frida 71, 72, 75, 77 Weil, Thomas 185 Umbria, slavery in 15 West, Robert 118 Umbrian language and people 3 West Atlantic language family 9, 44, 197, Umbundu, see Ovimbundu (Umbundu) people 199, 201, 202, 204, 246–248, 256, Upper Guinea 201–202 271 Uruguay Whinnom, Keith 282 Africans in 46, 100–103, 129, 142–145, Whitten, Norman 118 148, 216, 220, 229, 243, 258 Whydah 36, 66, 115 Italians in 4 Wilde, Jos´eAntonio 101 Spanish dialects 295 Williamson, Kay 247 Windward Coast 35–37, 103, 115, 121, vai, see bai 125–127, 217, 247 and people 44, 126, 199, 217, and people 15, 24, 39, 40, 246, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271 47, 115, 126, 199, 202, 205, 214, 217, Vald´es,Miguelito 169 247, 248, 256, 264, 266, 267, 269, Vald´esBernal, Sergio 289–290 271 Vald´es-Cruz,Rosa 168 word order 64, 137, 245–248 Valencia, Spain slavery in 15, 19, 43 and people 257, 264 Spanish dialects 230 Xilenge language and people 264

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Index 363

Yanga 98 Yucatan, Africans in 97–100 ye´ısmo 56, 89, 131 Yungas, region of Bolivia 137 yes-no questions, see questions, yes-no yijo (hijo) 160 /ˇz/, realizations of 59 Yoruba language and people 11, 44, 97, 102, Zaire 11, 103 105, 106, 115, 148, 194, 200, 202, 206, Zapata Olivella, Manuel 6 207, 217, 247, 254, 256, 258, 259, 261, Ziegler, Douglas-Val 272, 291 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 272–274 Zielina, Mar´ıaCarmen 92, 93

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