An Analysis of Online Discursive Battle of Shahbag Protest 2013 in Bangladesh

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S EXISM IN EXISM B ATTLE OF ATTLE In partial fulfillmentIn partial the for degreeMasterinGe ofArts of ‘O NLINE NLINE S HAHBAG HAHBAG W Supervisor: Professor Elissa HelmsSupervisor: Professor Elissa AR Department Gender Studies of Central EuropeanCentral University ’:

Budapest, Hungary Nasrin Khandoker A P N Submitted to ROTEST ROTEST A 2014 I NALYSIS OF NALYSIS By

2013

B NLINE NLINE ANGLADESH nder Studies. D

ISCURSIVE ISCURSIVE

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problematized the idea of Bengali and/or Muslim women which is related to the identity contest. examine role significant criminal convicted one of the created discourses ‘pro with emerged community online war of punishment the criminals and war rapists became one of when the central issues of p War Liberation 1971 the a from as extending 2005 battle from continuing emerged frontier discursive online the Bangladesh, In weapons. as used supporters of accused and convicted war criminals This research is about the discursive battle between radical Bengali nationalists and the formation and power relations to analyze to formation relations rhetoric. andpower thatnational discursive of zone significant a as sphere online the and debates critical feminist the within analys feminist meticulous a believe I approach. feminist developmentalist that problematize to also will but rhetoric, nationalist masculine to nationalists Bengali and Islamists the both of a misogynist the of critical be to attempt scholarly feminist a make to tried therefore, I nationalism. of notions gendered the about critical be cannot thus and nationalism in fundamentalists Islamist of propaganda misogynist Ba the protest to that, examined I gaeh fmnss and feminists ngladesh, - Liberation War’ and the and War’ Liberation d

th is

n ht protest that in line

discourse background

and at the time of the protest, the online community played a a played community online the protest, the of time the at and women’s ‘Islamist’ I .

n tee edrd n msuie xrsin T d ta I that do To expression. masculine and gendered there and debate about identity contest identity about debate ti research this n

of of Shahbag Shahbag

raiain are organizations supporters of the accused war criminals. These online These criminals. war accused the of supporters Abstract II

protest 2013 protest

contribute not only a critical examination of examination critical a only not contribute

s ps priiat f hha poet I protest, Shahbag of participant past a as in Bangladesh where t s f agaeh ntoaim s important is nationalism Bangladeshi of is

lgig hmevs ih Bengali with themselves aligning

demanding the capital punishment punishment capital the demanding olitical and public discourse.

between the Bengali nationalist Bengali the between he he nd gendered notion notion gendered nd gendered issues are Islamist This

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Special gratitude tomymentor forwith her thesis this co making mewrite III

For love her and suppo For my daughter Professor Elissa Helms nstant support,advice rt Irt dare to dream Diotima Doria Diotima and care A nd ,

CEU eTD Collection ‘Women’of Shahbag The Idea of Bengali and/o Fourth Chapter: Identity Historical Context of Bengali /Secular /Pro Third Chapter Theoretical frame and concepts Second Chapter Introduction First Chapter Table Contentsof Conclusion Emergence Hefajotof War crime Tribunal and Shahbag Protest 2013 Emergence of O Emergence of the Demand theof punishment of war criminals Emergence Islamistof Conscience From British Colony to Bangladeshi Liberation war: Introduction Con Gendered onlinediscourses Nationalism, Secularism, Islam and Feminism Sexuality, MasculineHonor and Nation Women as Symbols: Body, appearance,Sexuality: Genderand Nationalism Introduction Chapter Outline Ethical Issues and Self Methods Objectives of the research: Introduction clusion:

......

nlineBengali Nationalism ......

...... - - I reflexivity

- r Muslim women and Islam to opposethe Shahbag pro

......

...... - Liberation War Vs. Bangladeshi/Islamist/Anti

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...... IV

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...... test: ......

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...... - ...... Liberation W ......

31 31 31 31 30 29 24 24 22 21 19 18 18 18 16 14 11 10 ar

8 7 6 6 6 6 5 4 4 1 1

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclus Seventh Chapter Feminist movements Bangladesh,in Bengali nationalism and Shahbag Protest Sixth Chapter Analysis of contested discourse between two poles of power Fifth Chapter Rethinking Islam Womenvs. inBangladesh Women’s/feminist organizations and the critical voices inShahbag protest Deconstruting ‘Islam vs. war crimetrial/women’ Renewal ofidea the Islamof Womenvs. Feminist organizations inBangladesh andrelation its with Islam Introduction Conclusion: From online Bengali nationalistvs. Islamis emergenceThe sexistof online Bengali nationalism discourse Introduction Conclusion Women in Shahbag movement and the contest over women’s image femininityIdeaof through identitiesthese Bengali Muslim women Muslim Women emeThe The onlineThe battlebetween ion

rgence Bengaliof women ......

......

...... : ......

......

...... Jamati ......

...... and Shahbag supporters

...... t battlet Shahbag to Protest

......

...... V ......

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79 74 74 71 67 66 63 62 62 62 62 61 53 52 45 44 44 44 42 38 37 34 33 32

CEU eTD Collection incoalitio stronger they However, genocide the supporting for warcriminals as convicted and accused ofthemare ofthe leaders 1 since thatdebate prominent discourse wasmost the inthe socio Bengali nationalist ‘pro the between debate ideological the with sphere cyber in emerged distinction sharp the them From community privilegedgroups, of mostlyeducated, urban, of male users, internet has been created. o discursive a 2005, in blogging Bengali participatory and interactive of inception the Since the key ofthat that point rooted debate is inthe political trajectoryBangladesh. of nationalbetwe identity Defining Pakistan. from independence for War Liberation 1971 the following and rule colonial British of end afterBangladeshthe history of complex the of out emerged whichidentity national war of punishment the of issue The discourse. public the when War Liberation 1971 the from extending battle continuing a as 2005 from emerged frontier sexuality and codes dress proper women’s adultery, rape, war like issues gendered the how understand nationalists researc this In

Jamat (Jamat Jamat

punishment of war criminals and war rapists became one of the central issues of political and political of issues central the of one became rapists war and criminals war of punishment through n with the main opposition party which is Bangladeshi Nationalist Party (BNP). (BNP). Party Nationalist whichBangladeshi is party mainopposition with the n

ae en osrce ad bsd s epn. n agaeh te online the Bangladesh, In weapons. as abused and constructed been have

and the and - gained acceptance acceptance gained I

- the political uses of Islam and the electoral coalitions with the main political parties. Now they are Noware they parties. mainpolitical with the coalitions electoral the and ofIslam uses political the

h Islami I il nlz te nent ae dsusv btl bten aia Bengali radical between battle discursive based internet the analyze will I , Islamist supporters of accused and convicted war criminals war convicted and accused of supporters Islamist ) is )

en Bengali ethnoen - o Liberation War’ and the support neofth from

e major Islamist political parties Islamist political major e

the fundamental Muslims because o because Muslims fundamental the Introduction - linguistic identity and Muslim religious identity been has religious identity Muslim and linguistic First Chapter 1

criminals was rooted in the debate about debate the in rooted was criminals ers of the accused war criminals of

which

f the religious belief .They belief fthe religious - was against the Liberation war Liberation was the against political arena

and war and rape. (M. Z. (M. Chowdhury

in Bangladesh to Bangladesh in

also became became also

discursive

and most and Jamat nline 1

CEU eTD Collection organizations, artists protest different causes of social inequality an inequality social of different causes protest artists organizations, activists. artistsand Institute 2 other the and Islamist one power, of poles opposite two the between sharply more discourses div reaction its and protest the dynamics, political and plurality of layers many thus and criminals war the of ideological and poli of place a became protest this making, decision in role leading the took they and activists, online by initiated was protest almost the next day, t central place in the capital of Dhaka, Shahbag day same the on imprisonment and sentenced to life imp butcher Molla) context, this In and aggressivethat made discourselanguage. use ofsexist masculine with up came also community online nationalists’ Bengali the discourse, Islamist the according to Islam in addition to denouncing them fo behaviors sexual unacceptable and adultery of nationalists Bengali secular accusing in sexuality define these two sides. The 2014)

Shahbag Square is one of the central square central ofthe one is Square Shahbag . These online discourses came up with sexist slur words to degrade their opp their degrade to words slur sexist with up came discourses online These . , book fairs and central book market which made i made whichmarket book central fairs and book , three

months

his demonstration soon Abdul Quader Mollawho is , assistant secretary gen on 2009 the war crime tribunal was tribunal crime war the 2009 on It is also used to be a place of resistance for decades where intellectuals, activist, civil society civil activist, where intellectuals, decades for place ofresistancea be to used isalso It

at evening, at tical positions. However, they all were united in demanding

and became a leading news sto news leading a became and risonment Jamati all

aligned e rgesv pol ad ii scey raiain wt varied with organizations society civil and people progressive Bengali nationalist nationalist Bengali

bloggers focused on issues like women’s body, appearance and instead of capital punishment.

s became eral of Jam

of of themselves with Bengali nationalist online activists. With With activists. online nationalist Bengali with themselves the of one of the criminals onewar mainconvicted fromof capital with the concentration of main main of concentration with the capital

S a huge continuous gathering of protesting quare, 2 t as a regular meeting point of students, teachers, writers, teachers, students, of meetingpoint regular a t as

at, was convicted in the noon of February 5, 2013

r being atheist. On the other hand, to be against

established. ry in the international media. Although the the Although media. international the in ry online to demand instead the death sentence. d injustice. injustice. d

activists called a demonstra a called activists

Abdul Quader Molla Quader Abdul

T o protest

Public Universities, Art Universities, Public the v proper ided the political the ided erdict of lifetime

punishment punishment

onents and onents (known as (known people for tion in a in tion 2

1971, From

CEU eTD Collection fundamentalist that argue to want I analysis this Through voiced and feminist alliance to contribute a scholarly feminist critique of Bengali nationalism which protest Shahbag with allied are those positions feminists’ the analyze also will I that, do To those. between relation the understand to women Muslim Bengali of idea contex will I Moreover, cyberspace as a weapon to fight between and sexual to reference with manipulations by t one of demonstrations of Shahbag protest, staying in the street all night with their male comrades became the in weapon battle the of part online the in nor Square, Shahbag in neither making; decision the in part any play not did women However, women. for event historical progressive a as it define to discourses public led protest this in women of participation spontaneous and huge The itself. square the on slogans for vocalists lead the were women young protest, this of mapping whole the In Jamati “Cyb it named and computers several with Square Shahbag in tent a established protestors the on, going was protest the While nationalist. secular

s a as .

Women’s strongly and Islamistand propaganda. he vital issues of debate. The pictures of the resistant women became the subject of online subject of the became women resistant ofthe debate.The pictures issues of he vital

past

s in Bangladesh, feminists are making the alliance the making are feminists Bangladesh, in s online participant in Bangladesh. in

participation only was limited Jamati discursive battle. discursive tualize this gendered online discourse in the historical construction of the of construction historical the in discourse online gendered this tualize ity was used by the online the by used was ity

online propaganda. In contrast, in defense of this propaganda, vulgar slang n the in

hha protest Shahbag Young women’s prominent resistant appearance in public in appearance resistant prominent women’s Young I slamist slamist and nationalist ,

o rts te ioyit rpgna f Islamist of propaganda misogynist the protest to

to an auxilaryto roleand inthe protest 3

er War.” Inside and online they were attacking were they online and Inside War.” er , nationalist a nationalist I at o xmn te online the examine to want ctivists. T ctivists. positions with Bengali nationalism and nationalism Bengali with

to examine th examine to

herefore in this research this in herefore in context of the protest

the media and media the was icuss in discourses e nationalist e

used as a is not . CEU eTD Collection focused on the online discourse about Shahbag protest. Therefore the main research method was method research main the Therefore protest. Shahbag about discourse online the on focused ana my in these use not did I However, research. further my for there participated who people of interviews some collected I time, the At protest. Shahbag the in participation active of experience my on based was idea research The Methods researc the Objectives of discursive formationpower and relations debates critical feminist the within important th problematize to also will but rhetoric, nationalist masculine liberal of examination critical a only and gendered notion of the Islamistsboth and Bengali nationalists of Bangladesh to critic be to attemptscholarly feminist amake Ito want therefore,nationalism. Bengali in embedded are that nationalism of notions gendered the about critical be cannot thus at 2. sexuality poles and how they were constructed as opposed eachto other, and how the women’s 1. ShahbagBeng and protest 3. oftheassumptions online battle and totheand isrelated ‘real’ howthis politics. protest eiit prah I eiv a believe I approach. feminist

o eae h iae o ‘ideal of images the relate To ideological two the between battle discursive the in elements gendered the understand To To analyze the relationship of feminists and women’s organizations of Bangladesh with Bangladesh of organizations women’s and feminists of relationship the analyze To

played theroleplayed

in this contestin this ali nationalis h:

eiuos eiit nlss f agaeh ntoaim is nationalism Bangladeshi of analysis feminist meticulous

’ Bengali and Muslim women to understand the sexist sexist the understand to women Muslim and Bengali ’ lysis directly in this research. This research was mainly mainly was research This research. this in directly lysis

to analyze thatnational rhetoric m. .

4 and and

the online

sphere as a significant zone of of zone significant a as sphere .

al of the misogynistthe of al

contribute not body and body and

CEU eTD Collection feminist, an as position subjective my with protest, this participated I While research. this for crucial is subjectivity my protest Shahbag of participant active an As on gendered language rigorous research and putting light upon every sectors of it. the requires which protest, Shahbag of reconstruction historical an not is research this Moreover, the issue of Therefore, I didn’t include several other vital aspects and debates related to the Shabag protest, like Moreover, my focus in this research was limited only on the gender aspect of the discursive battle. that Bengali those have contribution perception, rather, I used selective representational comments and individual the on not was focus my because important, not also was This them. to harm personal tha actors the of name actual any use didn’t I research this In E by providing information. me helped they and data the clarify to online them contacting by bloggers influential and protest M thesis. this activeI inthe issue ofShahbag oftheonlinewritingsareBengali, Most protest. translated in in it F discourse analysis aceboo thical I ,

tho

se texts arese texts representing the nationalism and k pages I was aware that that aware was I believer vs. ssues and and ssues oreover I sometimes gathered information from some m some from information gathered sometimes I oreover in

of some 2013 2013 and 2014 since numbers of F

in online sphere and the feminist alliance spherein online feminist protest. ofShahbag and the

s to a larger debate about the issues of war crime tribunal, Shahbag protest, atheism, atheism, and t Jamat

Self prominent I wanted to use my experience and observation observation and experience my use to wanted I

- I - - reflexivity Islam

dominant wayiss aboutof thinking these

he Bengali blogs of Bangladesh .

Behind the selection of the text the political

violence

acebook pages were created and became very

related to Shabag protest I only t I examined critically to avoid any any avoid to critically examined I t cdmc nhoooit n a a as and anthropologist academic

statements statements to analyze those since focused focused on the elements those those are active from 2005, ajor actors of the Shahbag Shahbag the of actors ajor

main of ues ornot.

that protest in my in protest that consideration was

in my analysis

that relied and . CEU eTD Collection Introduction critically. it to examine Then protest. Shahbah and crime war of some selected online texts and images to show the sexist discourses in online sphere about the issue relate to women Muslim the of emergence the examine to context historical that connected I Then historical brief The one. chapter thesis, this In Outline Chapter nationalist rhetoriccritically more enthusiasticfrom involvement of previous thatprotest. my involvement, back looked I when protest, that of year a after Moreover, protest. that of participant or observer as whether myself, position to how of dilemma constant a was there Therefore one. vital the became protest that of participation active my while secondary became often most researcher a of subjectivity my protest, Shahbag in was I while However, interviews. some did therefore I protest. Shahbag of experience and participation my on analysis CEU in thesis MA the as further analysis and research. At that time, it was not confirmed that I will going to do that research cn nlz m eprec differently experience my analyze can I first I introduced the theoretical frames those I used for analyzing my research in research my analyzing for used I those frames theoretical the introduced I first

Theoretical Frame and C

it with the w the with it in Gender Studies. However, I had planned to do my own research and research own my do to planned had I However, Studies. Gender in context of the contested identities is identities contested the of context omen of Shahhbag protest Shahhbag of omen finally I analyze the feminist the analyzeI finally Second

6 Chapter

teeoe a aaye h Bengali the analyze can therefore I on my experience and my subjective subjective my and experience my on oncepts . In t In he fourth chapter I analyzed analyzed I chapter fourth he

al introduced in chapter two. chapter in introduced liance

dao Ben of idea

of Shahbag protest Shahbag of gali and gali

CEU eTD Collection body and sexualitythen women’s of role symbolic the discuss therefore I section this In appearance. and sexuality body, her controlling by identity national of signifier the as women upholds practice and imagination i with embedded remain ideology gender the nation, the imagining superi ethnocentrism” bo cultural and identity national establishing of project b national the make to exclusion 2012) Ranger and (Hobsbawm explained Ranger and Hobsbawm present and past common have to supposed who community the imagining of process the explains Anderson Benedict nationalism of concept The Nationalism and Gender exaggeratetime it. a sphere virtual of analysis discour women vs. sexist and masculine the uphold appearan body, women’s of idea the with embedded are discourses online that In this chapter I will introduce the theoretical and conceptual frame that I used in this research. For , I, discussthe concepts will ofgender asa and framework nationalism tounderstand the rt ta i vr mc gendered much very is that ority discursive battle between Islamist and nationalists in Bangladesh. I will analyze how the how analyze will I Bangladesh. in nationalists and Islamist between battle discursive (Nagel 1998 p. 248) p. 1998 (Nagel political global the in se nd how it is rooted on the power languages of gender and at the same the at and gender of languages power the on rooted is it how nd

embedded in the construction of community identity and identity community of construction the in embedded show .This invention or imagination requires a process of inclusion and and inclusion of process a requires imagination or invention .This /(hetero)patriarchal oundary which can be can which oundary ho

hs rcs a a ivnin f rdto o ps ad present and past of tradition of invention an as process this . This ethnocentric attitudes often result result often attitudes ethnocentric This . w it is connected withw itis the masculine ofnationalism. idea Jae ae 1998) Nagel (Joane the discourse co 7

nstruction

nationalist idea. Then I will situate this Islam this situate will I Then idea. nationalist . Finally I will discuss about the discursive the about discuss will I Finally .

ethnocentric nais ed t fse nationalist foster to tends undaries though a goals of goals a though . Therefore in the process of the the of process the in Therefore . . As Nagel argues that “the “the that argues Nagel As . ce and her sexuality which which sexuality her and ce . h gnee nationalist gendered The t. t o

nation a sense of national of sense a Adro 2006) (Anderson - building it’s

others.

sexist

b y . CEU eTD Collection (2004) also (2004) the symbolic binary of Eastern/Islamic and Western/liberal identity that argues Helms liberals, and fundamentalists religious and western/liberated women dressed in a red bra and Santa hat, to call for a reconciliation between women Muslim/veiled of image an of example the With appearance. their and women of images Bosnia as or citizen member of the Helms nation. Elissa (2008) argues onthe basis ofher ethnography on secondary. considered thus actors Therefore,women’s body those of suppliers the are women and nation/state the of actors and producers primary the are men where reproduction, and production between hierarchy Campling 1989) culture its of collectivity ideological the of transmitters the as and differences their and groups ethnic/national of boundary the reproduce to basically is women of members of the nation but also the national image itself. As Yuval the only not reproducing of role gender the on rooted is women of role expected This symbols. i in producedifference that behavior” distinctive or identi ethnic their of symbols identifying the displaying of burden the bear “women usually shows, Smith A. Carol As presence. symbolic this by obscured therefore is agency actual Their identities. of symbol the as sex and appearance body, women’s is protest Shahbag focus main the of One Sexuality: appearance, Body, Symbols: as Women - Herzegovina argued that argued . Therefore, the status of women as

ty to the outside world, whether these be items of dress, aspects of language, of aspects dress, of items be these whether world, outside the to ty that es (Smith 1996 (Smith

the representation of women of representation the , of the discursive battle between Islamists and nationalists in relation of relation in nationalists and Islamists between battle discursive the of

and their appearance became the salient element than her actual agencythan heractual salient appearance element the their became and the gendered idea of national identity represented by the ster the by represented identity national of idea gendered the dentities, women are expected to play the role of the reproducers of its its of reproducers the of role playthe to expected arewomen dentities,

p. 51 p. ) . Smith argues that, to uphold the national hierarchies hierarchies national the uphold to that, argues Smith . 8

the reproducers actually conforming the gender uality. as , these images of women are producing producing are women of images these , “ symbo Through this Through - lised yet another one of men’s of one another yet lised Davis Davis argued, the (Helms (Helms 2008) (Yuval

women are considered are women - Davis, Anthias, and Anthias, Davis, . Deniz Kand

ex pected eotyped iyoti

role role

CEU eTD Collection body is bearing the burden of the national/ethnic identity by their appearance. t of signifiers as rhetoric nationalist in represented are women Therefore, ‘common’ womenwere bepromiscuous and who to sexually vulgar said (Chatterjee 1989). were women’ Bengali by and public 2006) (Mookherjee women Bengali of image the of part indispensable an is which nation the of honor the uphold to important is This sexuality. women’s of negation a in rooted is which image, mother Bengali family in women of oppression of practice hidden the strengthen which Bengali of image mother sacrificing the glorifying and motherhood in century twentieth and nineteenth in agenda nationalist Bengali the that motherhood of image the with related strongly is women Bengali of distinction sharp combin andpatriarchy new a constructedby women’ ‘new of identity this that, argues Chatterjee identity. national British from different was which nationalism, Indian of marker boundary the be to idea liberal/modern western and identity upho to nationalism Bengali for signifier important an was women Bengali’ ‘new of construction the century, nineteenth in that shows (1989) Chatterjee Partha Moreover collectivities, their emergence as full continue by conducted discourse achievements

o ev a budr mres ewe dfeet ainl ehi, n religious and ethnic, national, different between markers boundary as serve to … limiting their role to wifely duties duties wifely to role their limiting . .

reduced reduced to mere . The control of sexuality of Bengali women executed by separating her from her separating by executed women Bengali of sexuality of control The . ghar/bahir

xetd to expected e ad o men. for and men

(public/private) objects, women - be ﬂedged separate from both the western women and lower class class lower and women western the both from separate ” ing the idea of decency and Victorian modernityVictorianwith anddecency of idea the ing

(Bagchi 1990) (Bagchi

citizens citizens will be jeopardized” ( Kandiyoti 9

(Chatterjee 1989) (Chatterjee

were, in these images, at the strictly

. 2004 .

Chatterjee also showed that the that showed also Chatterjee Mookherjee (2006) also explains the explains also (2006) Mookherjee

(Bagchi 1990) (Bagchi 48 . Moreover, Moreover, .

. h argue She ). (Kandiyoti 1991 he nation. The women’s The nation. he vested on the idea of idea the on vested Women Women and her body, service of a po d oh h Indian the both ld . Bagchi explainsBagchi . the image the ta “women that s

p. 435

of the the of

litical ‘new ‘new ).

CEU eTD Collection deny men of control the reproducersand as sexuality only signifieswomen’s because it nationalism for important is nation where she critiques feminist the Therefore The idea of a national family consists of feminine shame and masculine honor in both in masculine is politics nationalist that argues co the examines power relation lies. To explore the relation between masculinity and nationalism, Joan Nagel (1989) sexual the where idea nationalist masculine the of part indispensable the is body her and Women Masculine Sexuality, sexual her negating by and image mother the upholding agency by men citizen of honor the Inthe nation. symbol the as body women’s requires nation and nation of idea the 1998) Nagel metaphor possession man’s only is ‘she’ women, of agency denied women. 2008) Helms 1998; Nagel serves appearance

women’s women’s action and perception as agency (Mookherjee 20 (Mookherjee Nagel (1998) showed that, showed (1998) Nagel

of nation of . This whole process require the contro the require process whole This . Bengali nationalist rhetoric, too, women are considered as the symbol of nation and nation of symbol the as considered are women rhetoric,too, nationalist Bengali ncepts of ‘nationalism’ and ‘masculinity’ and explains the relations between. She between. relations the explains and ‘masculinity’ and ‘nationalism’ of ncepts upholds upholds the responsibility of shame by controlling her

as the site of national symbol and honor and symbol national of site the as - (Joane Nagel 1998) Nagel (Joane as - women suggest women’s body as battleground for national identity national for battleground as body women’s suggest women 06) . .

This sense of honor actually lies in the negation of sexual agency of agency sexual of negation the in lies actually honor of sense This al masculine citizenship of men. of citizenship masculine al Ho of nationalism of nor and Nation and nor “ in nationalist rhetoric, the territory/woman logic is in effect in is logic territory/woman the rhetoric, nationalist in

of nation of . Therefore, controlling women’s sexuality is not only only not is sexuality women’s controlling Therefore, . bu explains that, women are seen as the ‘mothers’ of ‘mothers’ the as seen are women that, explains 10

and men are constructed as the real actors of the of actors real the as constructed are men and

also l of her body and sexuality that’s related with related that’s sexuality and body her of l s it t

ituti become the signifier of ”

onally and culturally culturally and onally (Kandiyoti 1991; Smith 1995; Joane 1995; Smith 1991; (Kandiyoti (

Nagel 1998 Nagel T he gendered notion of nationalism of notion gendered he sexuality. p.249). The nationa The p.249).

(McClintock 1993)

the honor of men, F emale sexuality

( Nagel 1998) Nagel

(Joane (Joane

under under list to . . CEU eTD Collection Nationalism, Secularism, Islam and Islam Secularism, Nationalism, Shahbag protest. nationalis Bengali genderedof analysis rigorous a for research this inspired which of war Liberation of narrative nationalist gendered from departure critical a propose and victims rape war Bangladeshi of rhetoric nationalist the examines D’Costa of rhetoric mot and sisters of honor the of nationalistexchange in victory our achieve “we as Bangladesh the by successful became weapon this Bangladesh, of case In nation. effecti very superior strength, the triumph of his manhood” “u and being women’s over’ conquest victorious “the the is rape that explained the terrorize and horror create to anything examined Brownmiller Susan While him. dishonor to weapon effective an thus women/nation her lost their ‘cl have rape, against woman/nation their defend cannot who men that agreement tacit a is metaphor violation nation war of ‘women of idea nationalist The familythe honor ofmen and the since her body is considered under the possession of men

as Ptro 1999). (Peterson - –

ae n h Bnldsi ieain War Liberation Bangladeshi the in rape woman, where the Motherland is a woman a is Motherland the where woman,

ve in war between nations nations between war in ve aim’ to that body, that land” y frin males/sperm ‘foreign’ by

eeto (99 soe that, showed (1999) Petertson ’s (Das 1996) - body ” since being raped equals to dishonoring to equals raped being since -

as Ptro 1999 (Peterson (Peterson 1999 (Peterson p. - men’s . Bengali

(Brownmiller 1993 11

- possession’ creates rape as an effective weapon weapon effective an as rape creates possession’

Fe about the strength of Pakistani soldiers. She soldiers. Pakistani of strength the about se rud rape argued she , minism ’

s body and as such is ever in ever is such as and body s

p.41 and women’s sexuality is made to reflect 41) “ nature ) . This is the failure of men to protect Ptro sos ti “patriarchal this shows, Peterson .

p. as 14) - female transmutes easily to to easily transmutes female Bangladesh

This weapon thus became than effective more was women’s ltimate test of his his of test ltimate

(D’Costa 2011) (D’Costa m in context of context in m hers”

danger of danger . body and body

As Bina As

( 1975)

CEU eTD Collection oe’ n h ps 91 cnet wee h opstoa ie o lbrl vs. liberal of idea oppositional the where need context, the justified 9/11 Islam post conservative/fundamentalist/terrorist the in women’ Abu Moreover, superi this deconstruct to narrative dominant colonial the examines She 1995). (Lazreg other each to opposite binary the as represented was East Middle of identity th thought in feminist Western/American only not represented was oppressed and as ‘Muslim’ women Algerian of idea the shows, (1995) Lazreg Marnia As secularism. modern of idea the of emergence the in and colonialism of history the in rooted deeply is women white secular Th Mahmood 2006) hi Western certain a in emerged secular vs. Islam where 2008) therefore it is a modern concept linked with Christian way of thought and experience (2008) at play is which dynamics local and regional, global, of complexitygreater much a masks actuallywhich of east/west, Islam/ Europe, tradition/modernity. It reaffirmed by such dichotomous representations this gendered presentation of Muslim/Eastern vs. Western that, embrace women’s Western and Eastern of image gendered a by presented was call secular of example the with shows (2008) Helms in Islamists and nationalists political global the in analyze to needs Bengalibinary Islamist vs. secular the Bangladesh, secular between battle discursive the understand To o e . Talal Asad and Saba Mahmood also explain the liberal politics behind the idea of secularism inait esetv o opesd Msi wmn i opsto t opposition in women’ ‘Muslim oppressed of perspective rientalist argument argument is vital. He explains that the w (Helms 2008) - uhd 20) lo rbeaie te retls iae f opesd Muslim ‘oppressed of image orientalist the problematizes also (2002) Lughod .

. To understand the secular Lze 1994) (Lazreg Muslim dominated area of Bosnia of areadominated Muslim estern estern idea of secularism emerged with Christianity - 12 Islamist binary, French theorist Jean

Se rus fmns ad sa o ethnic or Islam and feminism argues, She . storical and poli and storical

identity are actually the reconfigurations clna txs u as i the in also but texts colonial e o ae ulm oe by women Muslim save to rt o Wsen feminism. Western of ority tical interest tical - Herzegovina Wsen liberated Western o context. Elissa context. -

(Nancy et al. Luc Nancy’s (Asad 2003; (Asad

that the the that

CEU eTD Collection In it thatcontext, isverycrucial for a scholarship criticalfeminist to deal onthe with one hand the o of saving oppressed Muslim women with the civil rights based agenda feminist organizationsNGO aretheurgenationalist therefore upholding ideology.influenced The questi didn’t and progress women’s identity, Bengali vs. Islam of policy is the one which benefits women (Kabeer 1991). argue answer. the is nationalism secular Bengali propaganda, misogynist Mo discourse ofnationalism. misogynist symbol ofnation. Therefore analysis withScott’s can it be said that, while identifyingIslamist the with than her personhood else something of symbol the is body her and women where politics sexual the from derived and insisting that women wear modest dress before m ‘veil’. of idea Muslim young Islamist the as relationsactuallygender as patriarchal conventionalFrench the regulating them by of equality sexual the facilitate to idea the that, explored France (Abu Afghanistan of invasion American justifythe to ‘veil’ her fromwomen Muslim saving of thought feminists liberal/western rientalist discourse that critirientalist discourse that

st of the feminist organizations of Bangladesh taken for granted that, to question the Islamist the question to that, granted for taken Bangladesh of organizations feminist the of st

- Bengal d, Islam and Bengali identities are basically controversial in Bangladesh and thus secularist thus and Bangladesh in controversial basically are identities Bengali and Islam d, Lughod 2002) Lughod preaching i nationalists are not addressing the inherent sexual politics that depict women as the as women depict that politics sexual inherent the addressing not are nationalists i “ The French idea insisting that women be fully visible to men and the Islamists are Islamists the and men to visible fully be women that insisting idea French The ” . Moreover, Joan Scott’s analysis (2009) on the headscarf banning debate in debate banning headscarf the on (2009) analysis Scott’s Joan Moreover, .

(Scott (Scott 2009

about the ‘veil’ the about

by supporting ‘war on terror’. She therefore, deconstructs the liberal liberal the deconstructs therefore, She terror’. on ‘war supporting by cized by Mahmud

p. 41 , )

. However, in a similar way, the feminist the feminist are not critic not are feminist the .

en en who are not their kin. Both idea

Kabeer a lso upholds the dominant narrative izing the sexist and patriarchal patriarchal and sexist the izing n h gneig f Bengali of gendering the on For example, For that coincide with the liberal who are in alliance

s Nayla Kabeer Kabeer Nayla

are gendered

oe by women

CEU eTD Collection background. This way This background. the of knowledge specific have to assumed is audience the that things, these with associations thus protest’ ‘Shahbag or ‘Jamat’ Bangladesh’, of war ‘Liberation , rape’ institutional setting regulate language through knowledge of a cer worlds social their to relation is analysis constitute at the same and presuppose not does that knowledge any nor knowledge, of field a of constitution correlative power of form a always is knowledge that and produced is knowledge practices discursive through since language, of of Bangladesh, a certain formation of discourses occurs. For Foucault, discourse is not of Foucauldian notions i discourse analyze To online discourses Gendered Islamist the oppose to nationalists Bengalis fundamentalist misogyny. with ally an making while discourse global it is needed religious Islamist extremist and tropes Orientalist Islamophobic of oppression dual the with critically argues Jain Jasmine rig imperialist and orientalist the hand other the on and fundamentalist emergent Islamist the by women against propaganda misogynist

who limits her human rights and liberty and rights human her limits who for a critical feminist analysis to focus on sexual politics of nationalism and Orientalist very sfl o understand to useful

time, time, power relations’ (Foucault, 1977 (2013)

a certain dis certain a ‘power’ n virtual sphere as a part of the political debate in Bangladesh, the the Bangladesh, in debate political the of part a as sphere virtual n

Hl 1997) (Hall t da wt te situation the with deal to ,

and ‘ and Tnis 2004) (Tonkiss cursive formation and linguistic style linguistic and formation cursive discourse’ ht based civil liberty discourse of Bengali nationalists. As nationalists. Bengali of discourse liberty civil based ht Fr ocut ‘hr i n pwr eain ihu the without relation power no is ‘There Foucault, For . h sca reality social the

14 are very important to see how in a certaincontexta in how see to importantvery are

(Hunt and Rygiel 2013) Rygiel and (Hunt hrfr, icrie rcie i a specific a in practices discursive Therefore, the ,

because language language because

27). 27). As Tonkiss explains, discursive Muslim feminists feminists Muslim tain topic. The knowledge of ‘war

. I therefore argue that, argue therefore I . created constructs sue particular assumes ae o engage to have

in cyberspace. in only a matter

peoples’

CEU eTD Collection the opportunity to exaggerate the gendered power relations through language. To understand the understand To language. through relations power gendered the exaggerate to opportunity the On the one hand, the online languages online thesphere. relations power their and identities can expression, where one can get the opportunity to classed and raced gendered, actu are sphere virtual the in fluid seem that selves multiple that shows Nakamura 2002) meaning social in rooted relations power and discourse political the adapt actually participation fragmented and access in inequality where context, political capitalist global and this that explains Papacharissi However, democracy true promote to possibilities enormous of place a as considered Online sphere can create multiple identities with multiple social me as theidentity in expression the understand To sphere. public or media other to comparing provides it that opportunity and rules con to needs one cyberspace, in discourse the analyze to Moreover, Isl fundamental and nationalism Bengali between contest the of emergence of context institutional that in language/knowledge/power situate to needed is it analysis discursive this for Therefore, amism both disrupt both Teeoe tee s o uh iay r ifrne ewe ra ad ita experience. virtual and real between difference or binary such no is there Therefore, . from where of the users canof thebe users

and reinforce real reinforce and

online sphere and the relation of linguistic expression to identity is very crucial, very identityis to expression linguistic of relation the sphereand online Shahbag Shahbag (Nakamura 2002) (Nakamura protest is more

rooted in social reality social in rooted world dominant values values dominant world rooted on emerged is a mere utopian optimism in the contemporary unequal theunequal contemporary in optimism mereutopian a is fluid by . . However, there are differences in the extent of extent the in differences are there However, . 15

offline offline experience,

ngage online multiple Idsmultiple and nick,

are crucial to analyzing discourses in discourses analyzing to crucial are (Todd 2014) (Todd

by hiding or his her anings, therefore it is sometimes and on the other hand, it opens sider the different expression, different the sider than theofflinethan presence. . Therefore the multiple multiple the Therefore . (Papacharissi 2002) (Papacharissi

identity which (Papacharissi ly firmly ally . CEU eTD Collection it it is rooted on the power languages of gender and at the same time exaggerate it identity and Muslim religious identity.I also analyzed the discourse of virtual sphere to show how op the constructing of factor determinant a is which discourse context political global the in discourse women’ sexuality ofthe usedmasculinenationalist as and thesymbol sexist idea. rhetoric. national in sexuality and body women’s masculinity, explaining the case of online battle between Shahbag protest and feminist alliance, are, nationalism, th discourses, online the analyze m the and nationalism and gender betweeninterrelation the explore to analysis theoretical the discussed I chapter this In Conclusion: classmiddle urban great theonlinediscoursereflects people, toa theirdiscourse and male for open mostly are it use to opportunity and access its Since Bangladesh. of context of access technology is one and of th users online the Therefore, language. power the exaggerated identity the hide conducts of code and 1998 She masculinity. Western white, of technology discourses in the online sphere, Melanie Stewart the materially are them of embedded relationships between online and offline experience McGerty (2000) explained that both control

p. 92 p. )

. Although her analysis focused on western society, it raised the question the raised it society, western on focused analysis her Although . mostly of the new new the of

and

limited limited to producing the producing e central deciding factors the in formation of the masculine discourse in the asculine discourses and situate and discourses asculine technology. same

those people e key e (McGerty 2000) (McGerty

de S

discourse of the online sphere. Moreover the opportunity to to opportunity the Moreover sphere. online the of discourse ince, fi theoretical frames theoretical ne

who who d

the controller of this technology determines the social social the determines technology this of controller the

this representation as the "hypermacho man." man." "hypermacho the as representation this represents 16 Millar argue

. Moreover, to Moreover, .

this in the global political discourse. discourse. political global the in this once with connected

the the those I used to connect each other for for other each connect to used I those s s that, the stereotypical meanings and practices positional idea of Bengali linguistic Bengali of idea positional

W understand gendered norms and and norms gendered understand omen’s body, appearance an appearance body, omen’s access access of

h ‘sa v. progress’ vs. ‘Islam the Moreover, . In the next chapter er extent. extent. er online and the ‘Islam vs. the ‘Islam to

the (Millar

digital access To To d

CEU eTD Collection areand Sha of crime embedded withthe demand war trial a provide will I

historical and political mapping of the emergence of the contested identities that identities contested the of emergence the of mapping political and historical

h bag protest.

CEU eTD Collection which theShahbag isgrounded. 2013 protest nationalism in paralle of emergence the on elaborate will I Moreover, Bengal. of trajectory political the context. national identity iden (Karim2004).The ofcomplex construction this the about Bangladesh in debate discursive major the now still is which (Bengali) ethnicity/culture Musl Bengali The 2011). (Bhadraj mixture complex a in embedded are (Bengali), cultural is another anti emergence B and ofMuslim Bengali of basis historical the constructed consequences its and War Liberation 1971 the to century nineteenth the of period colonial British the From Introduction Bangladeshi/Islamist Context Historical Third

- aitn conscience. Pakistani im identity was always a contested field over the priority between religion (Islam) and and (Islam) religion between priority the over field contested a always was identity im Chapter In this chapter, I will present this historical context of context historical this present will I chapter, this In

l of the demand of war crime trial in the post Liberation era in Bangladesh in Therefore the two dominant identities, one religious (Muslim) and and (Muslim) religious one identities, dominant two the Therefore engali were nationalisms embedded withanti of / Anti egl /Secular Bengali - Liberation War

- ulm dniy f Bangladesh of identity Muslim

/Pro Identity these contested identities contested these - ieain War Liberation tity historical isrootedtoits

- colonial movement andcolonial

online

Bengali through The . Vs . -

CEU eTD Collection Day. Language Mother International as the by UNESCO declared 4 was Bengali. motherlanguage 3 emergence of secular Bengali nationalism. neede was Islamism Pakistani from dissociation the 1971, of War Liberation West na Ethno police the by killed were them of On 21 February, 1952 several universi as Urdu dominance of West East in resistance of movement a in resulted Pakistan of territories cultu geographical, The Pakistan. and India Pakistan (now Bangladesh). West Bengal where Bengali Hindus are the majority, remained part of the country geographically had two which parts, (now separated Pakistan West Pakistan) and East created following religious identity: India nation two ended, rule British when 1947 In divided. effectively was that culture and language similar shared people where area vast a was Bengal Bengal. in partition caused which a parts two in subcontinent Indian the dividing up ended rule colonial British war: Liberation to Bangladeshi Colony British From majoritytheir and the are Pakistan,Bengali’s all in where Pakistan, ofWest ofpeople was the language Urdu Laterin tionalist ideology was emphasized on language and culture which is somewhat similar to the the to similar somewhat is which culture and language on emphasized was ideology tionalist - Bengal - igitc oiia cncec eegd n at aitn Teeoe h rssat Bengali resistant the Therefore Pakistan. East in emerged conscience political linguistic 3 17 November 1 November 17 , the East Pakistani (Now Bangladesh) Bengalis became furious and resisted the decision.

the remaining Bengal where the majority of Bengalis are Muslims became part of East East of part became Muslims are Bengalis of majority the where Bengal remaining the vr eiin ih h ifune f eua ie. o wa bcm kon s the as known became what For idea. secular of influence the with religion over - Pakistan. Pakistan. Especially in 1948, when the state language of Pakistan was declared

999, in memory of the Language marty Language in memory ofthe 999,

ral, linguistic and economic gap and inequality and gap economic and linguistic ral, 4 . From this uprising of language movement the anti the movement language of uprising this From . ty ty students organized a rally to protest the decision and some

for Hindus, and Pakistan for Muslims. But Pakistan was

This new Bengali nationalism 19

rs, rs,

to promote multilingualism, promote to - Pakis constructed a historically tan to be freed from the from freed be to tan

d ccording to religion to ccording which this day w day this

between the two two the between

- resulted the resulted states were were states - as Pakistani CEU eTD Collection statistics of individual researches where the numbers vary to 30,000 to 40,000. 40,000. to 30,000 to vary numbers the where researches individual of statistics 5 o independence the against were they Therefore language. and culture over Jamait about 20,000 Pakistani military. 26 From the Bengali independ demandingwere who intellectualsand operation This 1971. March 25th in Searchlight” “operation named Pakistan West by invasion military the by started war the and failed meeting between Discussion rifles. dummy with road the in paraded and training took women, including University, Dhaka of students The war. for prepare to Pakistan East of the people of E transfer of power to election. On this context, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave a speech on March 7, 1971. He demanded who Bhutto, Party, People’s Pakistan the of Chairman former the However, Pakistan. East for autonomy and government a form to elections of leader the as Rahman Mujibur Sheikh 1970, December In nati keep to important politically both are differences two Those Bengal. West from different religiously religion identity Muslim Bengali specific culturally and The official number of rape in 1971 is 20,000 according government of Bangladesh. However, there are other other thereare However, of Bangladesh. government according 20,000 1971is in rape of number The official on the - - state of Bangladeshstate of 1971. in I . It .

- national identity separate from both India and Pakistan Islami

emerged to distinguish itself lin itself distinguish to emerged Muktibahini - 40,000 40,000 women were raped by Pakistani army ast Pakistan to turn all their homes into a fort of fight for liberation. It laid the people

wanted wanted East Pakistan to remain with Pakistan. They prioritized the Muslim identity Awami LeagueAwami

(Liberation army) was created and they engaged guerrillain warfare with th

March to16

before the assembly meeting on March 25, otherwise he urged

guistically and culturally different from Pakistan and Pakistan from different culturally and guistically December, about 3,000,000Bengali were in power, refused to recognize the result of the of result the recognize to refused power, in were 20 ence of Bangladesh. To resist the Pakistani army, Pakistani the resist To Bangladesh. of ence

hc i a is which killed thousands killed 5 . D uring the war Islamist political party ope m complex to Awami justify the demand of a separate

of Bengali civilians, students civilians, Bengali of League xue f agae and language of ixture

edr i assembly in leaders

Bnlds and Bangladesh f s werw won the national national the won

killed and and killed CEU eTD Collection Jamat religion strengthened the Islamic intervention in the strength of loc cultural Muslim However,identity. non the include to and Bengal West of Bengali’s Hindu and India from identity of difference the on league Awami of theGulam mainleader Azom, leader central the of one by formed in 1975 after the murder of Sheikh Mujibur R After independence of Bangladesh C Islamist of Emergence protecting stigma womenand from of dishonor. those rape fat nationalist Bengali by state. separate 16 part of the Pakistani precisely surrender, ente by war the of hand other the On army. Pakistani the supported th al Bengal (Karim 2004). 2004). (Karim Bengal al -

red in that war on 3th December. On 14 On December. 3th on war that in red Bengali communities in Bangladesh by claiming the ‘Bangladeshi’ identity as the na the as identity ‘Bangladeshi’ the claiming by Bangladesh in communities Bengali Dec - I - Islami ember, the Pakistani army surrendered army Pakistani the ember, Jamat , the I the , After independence, After

providing leaders were slowly made their acceptance in political scenario by the dynamic dynamic the by scenario political in acceptance their made slowly were leaders

elites - I - this effort was effort this

Islami slamist nationalist slamist select cons

backed by Saudi Arabia which is different from different is which Arabia Saudi by backed

piracy shelter , and ed e fgr Sek Mjbr Rahman, Mujibur Sheikh figure her

President General Ziaur Rah Ziaur General President all the prominent prominent the all

the next military dictator to make the Bangladesh as an intellectually incapable state for Jamat

directed towards an anti an towards directed , most of the leaders of onscience onscience the war rape victims were officially declared as war as declared officially were victims rape war the

s re

of of fugees and and fugees conscience emergedconscience - I - Muktibahini Islami ahman, the Bangladeshi Nationalist Party (BNP) was th

intellectuals of East Pakistan East of intellectuals Dec 21 , came back to Bangladesh came toBangladesh back , thus

India supported Bangladesh from the beginning the from Bangladesh supported India

trains ember political realm

, General Ziaur Rahman. With his support, his With Rahman. Ziaur General , Bangladesh won the Liberation to establish to Liberation the won Bangladesh

Ershad’s declaration of IslamErshad’s of declaration as thestate the guerrillas. T guerrillas. the Jamat , man’s patronage to regain the political the regain to patronage man’s -

Bengali nationalist id nationalist Bengali the Pakistani military Pakistani the with

I h dd t w it did who BNP and and BNP - Islami .

The The proclaimed war criminals

we folk he Indian army directly directly army Indian he Jamat from nt - and killed and

Muslim tradition of tradition Muslim t te neto of intention the ith to

entity

. BNP prioritized prioritized BNP . exile. exile. exile. To oppose Tooppose exile. just before their before just

by the new new the by

Moreover, them as a a as them - heroines and on tional

CEU eTD Collection They were also accused to be involved directly in mass killing and rape in the Liberation War. Liberation the in rape and killing mass in directly involved be to accused also were They rape. for an kill to guerilla’s the find to them helping crime. war for collaborating the Pakistani army thus the bill was actually remain ineffective to accuse them legally Muj Shiekh president the After the of Emergence becameand ministers. MP’s few time This government. the of one of the m administration of BNP with the four parties Ziaur Rahman an parliament bymilitary thecenter followingelection andended rulesthe m and sphere Ersh Muhammad Hussain General rule military of years 15 the In new of support financialInternational the time, same the At Muslims. majority the of hegemony religious by and coalitions election and parties political other with combination

Bangladeshi

religious inparallel elite They were called as called were They ajor parties d formed a government a formed d ilitant Islamist ilitant with support of Those leaders Those

Government needne i 17, although 1973, in independence, i bur Rahman declared a general pardon to those those to pardon general a declared Rahman bur among them. Therefore the Demand of the punishment of war criminals ofwar punishment the of Demand

ideologies emerged ideologies were accused to help the genocide and rape by Pakistani soldiers by soldiers Pakistani by rape and genocide the help to accused were

passed with Razakar

Jamaat

from 1975 to 1990 (first by General Ziaur Rahman and then and Rahman Ziaur General by (first 1990 to 1975 from

Bengali (Karim andelite groups intellectual cultural 2004). Jamat a

) the d) - the under the leadership of Khaleda Zia, the widow of General of widow the Zia, Khaleda of leadership the under

I (collaborator of enemy) by Bengali pro Bengali by enemy) of (collaborator - Islami

- International I

- coalition after 2001 election where Islami d abduction of Bengali women to the military camps military the to women Bengali of abduction d Jama . The The 22

(Karim 2004). In 1990, after a civil unrest the unrest civil a after 1990, In 2004). (Karim t

- leaders who were also accused to war crimes crimes war to accused also were who leaders I Jamat Jamat - Islam

Crimes - - I i I

- - - Islami lwy eae strong became slowly Islami right BNP won aBNP plurality ofseats in won right

(Tribunals)

leaders became became Jamat

became influential part Jam stronger Act (Kay QC 2010), 2010), QC (Kay Act - I - J - at liberat amat Islami - I - r n political in er Islami

by the - I ion peoples ion

- l Islami eaders for for eaders

created created second second

was was

by . CEU eTD Collection ‘ processes Muslim and Bengali of identity the between division sharp the Therefore, Liberation war’discourse became strongerdiscourse. inpublic of opposition in position secular strong a took trials crime war of president an dismissed was Imam case in1996this JahanaraBangladesh. ofgovernment Afterthedeath of the country by of members prominent other and left the by raised discourse political in issue important an became thus demand The criminals. war accused criminals. war accused for 1992 in tribunal) name trial mock a conducted They collaborators). and killers of abolition named country the of intellectuals liberal ( 19 re the protest To started the protest. demand by public war criminals was raised slow killing the helping and Those anti Mother 75

- , the , Liberation Jamat of a martyr a of

and the chief executive demand of war crime trial crime war of demand - became the representative the became wing and Bengali nationalist civ nationalist Bengali and wing - I - Islami ’ , Be - establishment of these proclaimed war criminals war proclaimed these of establishment d prominent Bengali nationalist intellectual Shahriar Kabir became the became Kabir Shahriar intellectual nationalist Bengali prominent d ) and political activist political and ) ngali ngali

leaders were leaders . The vs. refore, the refore,

Bangladeshi ly after independence. I

of of that committee Ghatok Dalal Nirmul Committee Nirmul Dalal Ghatok also

emerged emerged dniy ots o eiin vs. religion of contest identity

demand for the trial and the punishment of punishment the and trial the for demand accused to to accused

and IslamLiberation vs. and War formed a group of activist with some prominent left prominent some with activist of group a formed il society in Bangladesh in society il htk aa Nru Committee Nirmul Dalal Ghatok

hs ok ra gv te et snecd o the for sentenced death the gave trial mock This more strongly. more 23

. From that time, the demand for the punish directly n 1972, the spouses involve

Jahanara Imam, a Imam, Jahanara

of Jamat

were charged with treason of of treason with charged were .

in selecting the intellectuals the selecting in For the trial Jahanara Imam Jahanara trial the For Jamat culture, culture, .

- of of martyred intellectuals d I - Islami Gonoadalot - I constructed - Islami ‘ pro

Cmite for (Committee Janani Shaheed , and ‘Islam vs. vs. ‘Islam and , - liberation these leaders

(people’s

by accused acting

these these ment ’ after after vs. -

CEU eTD Collection to hold war crime tribunals for the accused Islamist leaders in the leadership of Sheikh Hasina, the In this context, and Tribunal crime War bloggers who supported the ‘A this time, that at Basically propaganda. bloggers’ as themselves Islam, of logic sexist slang words. create to opportunity in to enough powerful blogging blog from then the blogging culture in Be 2011). (Chowdhury vs. the sharp distinction emerged with the ideological debate of the Beng community of privileged groups, mostly of educated, urban, male internet users. Within this group, partici discourse online in heavily influenced criminals war of Muslim and Bengali identity, the contested discourse about national 2005, inpara On the otherfrom hand, Nationalism Bengali Online of Emergence the Jamat ,

t emerged it public discourse patory Bangla blogging Bangla patory

/Islamists/anti M Z Coduy 2014) Chowdhury Z. (M.

Awami ‘ A group of the the of group A Pro ih uh oe omnt interaction community more much with

When When s - ge From 2005 the technology for writing Bengali in online was invented, and invented, was online in Bengali writing for technology the 2005 From Liberation multiple fake ID’s fake multiple

nerate nationalist vs. Islamist emotions and antagonism to each other even other each to antagonism and emotions Islamist vs. nationalist nerate L (M. Z. Chowdhury 2014) - eague Liberation since it was the most prominent discourse of this blogosphere this of discourse prominent most the was it since Liberation ome Islamist bloggers were trying to establish the Jamati

won a landslide victory election in in 2008 for its electoral promise (blogs whose medium is Bengali) is medium whose (blogs

W bloggers predecessor ar

politics under the guise underof protectingpolitics religion. the ngali language became popular. From the Shahbag Prot Shahbag ’ . Therefore this interacting community blogosphere was was blogosphere community interacting this Therefore . llel

lges n or and bloggers , generates aggressive attitudes in online in online in attitudes aggressive generates , with

the two dominant cultural groups, representative twodominant cultural of the 24 .

However, inonline Bangla blogging culture,

- team’ was organized to harass the Islamist the harass to organized was team’ ae hmevs ‘A themselves named est 2013 est aie t hrs the harass to ganized

Te neto o itrcie and interactive of inception The . hc is which

has created a discursive virtual discursive a created has

and demand of the punishment ali Nationalist/pro

different Jamati

- beginning team’ and declared declared and team’ ‘ Anti rm individual from

teraction politics politics in the - Liberation - Liberation

of Bangla

with the ’

CEU eTD Collection many of the participants were not firm in the demand of capital punishment punishment capital of demand the in firm not were participants the of many protest heterogeneous consisted groupswithmany of layers pluralitypolitical dynamics, and of banning t for punishment capital the was protest Shahbag the of demand 2014 LSE” at India | Protests Shahbag Bangladesh’s of Paradoxes culture political corrupt country’s the for distaste its expressing movement spontaneous 2013. protest Shahbag as event Bengali nationalist activists called a demonstra general of a earlier, mentioned I As leaders released be immediat their and permanently scrapped be tribunal the demanded have They violence. fostered which leaders the release and tribunal the stop to demanding in nationwide strike general a called and Jamaat Bachchu of By 2012, the cases Tribunals) prior suspects 1600 accusing by report their submitted Tribunals) Foll majority. the form to Rahman Mujibur Sheikh of daughter Jama - e t

- - Razakar I Islami Jam

- (Bergman 2014) Islami n 09 ih h assac o UD. h Wr rms at idn Committee Finding Fact Crimes War The UNDP. of assistance the with 2009 in Jamat wn te an lcin promise election main the owing at

, was convicted in 5 supporters and their student wing, student their and supporters

) - were convicted of several charges of war crimes. war of charges several of convicted were

I of nine leaders of was sen was - Islami fter

tenced to death in January 2013 in absentia of him him of absentia in 2013 January in death to tenced actcrime 1973war the updated parliament . Andthe and they take oath to boycott all the all boycott to oath take they and ely

Abdul Quader Molla Quader Abdul

(“Jamaat

hs protest This th Jamat

February 2013 and sentenced to life imprisonment - Shibir Men Amok”Shibir Run 2014 - I - Islami tion tion in Shahbag 25 ,

“ representative the became h gvrmn st p the up set government the

government with more than two thirds of the of thirds two than more with government (known as butcher Molla butcher as (known

and two leaders of BNP started Islami o h frain f T (a Crimes (War ITC of formation the to

Chhatra Shibir Chhatra Which Which resulted the major historical Jamat he war criminals, they included they criminals, war he Abul Kal Abul

dire NP ) Atog te central the Although . , protested this verdict verdict this protested , ) cted institutions. The institutions. cted .

) (“Rahnuma Ahmed: (“Rahnuma am Azad am , assistant secretary assistant , of T (a Crimes (War ITC

(Bergman 2014) (Bergman (Bergman 2014) nw id of kind new a . Three leaders , (named as (named

the online ”

(“The even . .

CEU eTD Collection Mass Awareness), created was tocontrol th body deciding central 2014) Movement” Shahbag and celebrities to the Bengali nationalist civil society and ‘villain’ to the Islamists. became ‘bloggers’ sometimes Therefore media. mainstream and by nation bodythe of ‘hero’ organizing the as represented the became were they activist, nationalist Bengali online are who war criminals accused of opposition in emotion nationalist Bengali the with connected quickly protest the dynamics, political and plurality of layers many with groups heterogeneous consisted protest rokto Biranganar ke, Garo, Chakma, Bangali “ example: for activists, and feminist of persuasion the by heroines Birangana’s/war and identities indigenous other the including by inclusive slightly become slogans these Later “ collaborator), the “ Bengali) Bengali “ protesters the by said was it which for slogans (“ move occupy with compared often character, anarchic and plurality with protest mass of kind new a with raised was square for the as 2014) DULAL” O ALAL |Bangali Fashi, ReclaimingEkattur: Joy Bangla Joy শাহবাগের

surance surance of স্বাধীনতা ” (Victory for Bengal for (Victory ” : শাহবাগের ” (The blood of the war heroines in our body) our in heroines war the of blood (The ”

Ka te Quader Mollah, tui razakar tui razakar tui razakar tui Mollah, Quader te Ka the leaders of leaders the Amamder sorire shohider rokto shohider sorire Amamder a fair fair trial to punish the war criminals of Shahbag of

অরাজনীতত ” (who are you, who am I, Garo, ments and Arab spring Arab and ments . With their leadership, an organizing body was established as the as established was bodyorganizing an leadership, their With .

| Jamat মতামত ), “ ),

protest and protest Tumi ke ami ke, Bangali Bangali Bangali ke, ami ke Tumi - - তবগেষণ I - Islami is protest. ” 2014) ”

it is named as “ as named is it 26 that, “Shahbag never sleeps”. The slogans were were slogans The sleeps”. never “Shahbag that, . Since the call for Shahbag was initiated was Shahbag for call the Since .

” (The blood of the Martyrs are in our body). body). our in are Martyrs the of blood (The ”

. that creates enthusiasm within the activists the within enthusiasm creates that The protest were spirited by the continuous bywere spirited protestthe The

to heal the old national wound

Chakma, Bangali) , Gonojagoron Moncho Gonojagoron but they wer they but ” (Ka for Quader Molla, you are you Molla, Quader for (Ka ” (Muktasree 2014) (Muktasree ” (who are you, who am I, am who you, are (who ” e for sure advocating sure for e (“Bloggers, Atheism

and “ . Although the Although . Amader Amader sorire Tu ” (Stage of of (Stage ” mi ke ami ke mi . Shahbag

by the the by

the the CEU eTD Collection 6 factor’ women of participation huge The voice ofShahbag protest. rights activists, the extreme Bengali nationalist voice online in aggressivelyattacked Jamat/Shibir as goat (Civil chagu’ ‘Sushil as nationalists of critical nationalists online ALAL ODULAL” 2014) |Go. to Want We Do Where Stand, We Do WhereLiberationFyasad: War Islam vs. (“Shahbagh: ‘Atheist of trope political constructed the analyze to attitudes nationalist secular’ ‘ultra the problematized Liberation betwe polarization criticalofthis be tried to protestsparticipants theShahbag who of the within raised voices few a were there rhetoric, nationalist secular of prominence political the secularBengali nationalism and Imam Jahanara by leaded movement the with were who members society civil liberal prominent the activists online the of some With was the convener of the online call for Shahbag protest and figures key some by controlled becomes soon protest Shahbag of participation heterogeneous the However,

http://www.sachalayatan.com/himu/47847 eae n o te eta tee fr icsin eas o ter asv ad active and massive their of because discussion for themes central the of one became - believer’ polarization which becomes also also becomes which polarization believer’

this polarization this War. As Faruk Wasif as an active participant and supporter of Shabag protest, protest, Shabag of supporter and participant active an as Wasif Faruk As War. connected with the secular Bengali nationalists Bengali secular the with connected 6 . .

Therefore whoever Therefore . Howeve

discourse or the gendered notion of nationalists became tagged by tagged became nationalists of notion gendered the or discourse were key also becamethe figuresindecision making. However, with

. Therefore, ahead of the multiple voices, like feminist, indigenous feminist, likevoices, multiple the of ahead Therefore, r, this critical position was attacked aggressivelyr, thiscritical position very by those makes

Last accessed 11th June 11, 2014 11, June 11th accessed Last

among the supporters of Shahbag protest wanted to be to wanted protest Shahbag of supporters the among

Ghatok Dala Nirmul Committee Nirmul Dala Ghatok that protest that 27

became the only prominent and representative a twofold danger for women of the country country the of women for danger twofold a became the main spokesman of this protest. of Shahbagh referred . Blogger Imran. H. Sarkar, who who Sarkar, H. Imran. Blogger .

square s ot y ainlss and nationalists) by goat as

and leading figures of figures leading and unique. Th unique. en Islamand en is ‘female the the

CEU eTD Collection central heated issues of criticism by the Islamist discourses. The pictures of the resistant women resistant the of pictures The discourses. Islamist the by criticism of issues heated central became public in smoking and comrades their with street the in night in staying demonstration, we as used and role in decision making. of th Islamist onl Square co withseveral Gonojagoron Moncho in making decision in part any play they did nor society, Bangladeshi in women of majority of appearance the with consistent neither was protest this in participation female the protest, this of However, although the resistant female appearance was one of the most progre issue ofconcern. an become also that something night,at also square Shahbaag stayedin protesters the continuous, deb of issues central the of one tops) and of cloth to cover the chest like scarf) and many of them wear jeans with the wear usually theydidn’t activist, and Bangladesh places public in harassment sexual that given progressive significantly called were women coverage. These media the through popularity huge the gained they and slogans of voices women took the lead on the square for chanting slogans. Some female students became the leading participation e battle, orna ( ine Propaganda against Shahbag p

“ “h Fml Fco: agaeh rtss ra Budre” 2014) Boundaries” Break Protests Bangladesh Factor: Female (“The gi konna Agni women women were present only in ‘apearence’, not in controlling the protest by playing any Shahbagh: Shahbagh: For Fiery Sisters

without without covering head. The and dress resistant appearance of these women became a pon

. While the protest w mputers and named it as ‘cyber w as it named and mputers n the in Women’s (Firebrand

icrie battle. discursive ate surrounding the protest. Moreover, since the protest was was protest the since Moreover, protest. the surrounding ate

participation was limited only as auxilary of the daughter ” burkha

as going on, the protestors established a tent in Shahbag 2014) ). The visible visible The ). rotest. rotest. Both in 28

. Moreover, most of the women were progressive

or cover their heads covertheir or on wmns res women’s Young

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CEU eTD Collection 2013 to protest these fundamentalist and misogynist demands.2013 toprotestthese andmisogynist fundamentalist NGO mostly organizations, town and Comparing women as tetul Bangladesh” 2014) Sha of bloggers atheist public in participation On 5 They also demonstrated in a violent rally to protest the equal rig founded by the teachers of Islamist education system Madrasa in 2010 to protest secular education. ba were area over all from schools) education Islamic named organization one protesters, Shahbag by criminals war of punishment capital for demand the of protest In Hefajot of Emergence shongho sex the spread and story the manipulating by words sexist and aggressive with them attacked nationalists Bengali the this, of were became virtual the to subject

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central topic of satire by progressive groups of the country. Consequently the fem on 5th May 2013. Although they claimed that they are not theyare that claimed theyAlthough 2013. May 5th on Jamat , they forth a13point put charter, where they demanded thebanning ofwomen’s . They They explained their demand in a statement where they compared women with Hefajot

tetul - place I hbag protest hbag - Islami

as a s along with along s

- - and that legal action be taken against the anti the against taken be action legal that and scandals of the female student groups of groups student female the of scandals I - Islam -

object and playing a big role in political scenario. This organization was organization This scenario. political in role big a playing and I - Islam to oppose the Shahbag protest: the Shahbag to oppose Islam manipulations manipulations by - liberation war consciences.liberation war

n makes saliva in the mouth), which will seduce men for sin. for men seduce will which mouth), the in saliva makes n dem , (“Secularism | Analysis of Law, Politics and Governance in Governance and Politics Law, of Analysis | (“Secularism

of hugelyprovocation, criticized and became the talk of the Gonojagoron moncho Gonojagoron Bangladesh in the squa the in Bangladesh onstrated in a huge gathering of of gathering huge a in onstrated 29

Jamati

discourse. Onthediscourse. contrary, indefense ht of women in inheritance in 2011.

held a women’s rally on 20 on rally women’s a held

re in Dhaka’s central commercial central Dhaka’s in re Jamat

- political party, political religious and so and religious mullah

named s (Teachers of (Teachers s Islami chatri Islami

but - th called

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CEU eTD Collection ‘women’ inShahbag. relate will I where women with her appearance and image b of oppositions the the to demonstration political live a from went battle discursive The Bangladesh. of criminals became party Islamist of leaders Bangladeshthe and ethno became associated with with coalition in Nationalism Bangladeshi the where Bangladesh, of religion and ethno The national identity is a matter of contested discourse in Bangladesh. The priority c Conclusion

- linguistic identity in opposition to the Muslim identity being promoted by promoted being identity Muslim the to opposition in identity linguistic this identity contest identity this

- the the most sensitive and burgeoning political issue in linguistic linguistic identity became the indispensable part of the two party political battle Hefajot i right i

Awami League Awami

Awami League - Jamat wing nationalist party BNP. Since the proclaimed war criminals are the arethe proclaimedwarcriminals the Since BNP.party wingnationalist vs. Shahbag

- with the idea of Bengali Muslim women to analyze the analyze to women Muslim Bengali of idea the with

I - Islami

is upholding the Bengali nationalism and BNP is upholding upholding is BNP and nationalism Bengali the upholding is

and liberal , Islamist vs. Bengali became the central issue of debate of issue central the became Bengali vs. Islamist , , backed by BNP, the demand of of demand the BNP, by backed , ecame 30

Jamat -

left wing secular nationalism that emphasize

the most sensational part. In the next chapter - I - Islami . Therefore Bengali nationalism nationalism Bengali Therefore . the current polit the punishment punishment the Jamat ontest between ical scenario cyber space cyber image of of image - I - Islami war

on ,

CEU eTD Collection as men, rather considered only the bearer of the symbol or reproducers of the member (Yuval member the of reproducers or symbol the of bearer the only considered rather men, as w practicineducated, is She veil. like face the cover completely educated, decent and modern women, whose head and chest are well covered with her sari, but not of idea opposite apparently thes of combination two a is It womanhood. these combining of process a in emerged Bangladesh, of these two apparently different ideas of womanhood. However, the idea of Bengali Muslim women similarity underlined the analyze will I Then, oppressed. and other hand the image of Muslim women was constructed as backward, fundamentalistuncivilized, the On emotion. motherly and decency aesthetic, purity, superiority, spiritual secularism, of idea the with articulated women Bengali of idea the that discuss will I construction, historical this In vs. Bengali to femininityreferred of idea backward progressivevs. tra historical political the analyze the relate to Bangladesh and Bengal I will For that, representationschallenges. and Shahbag andits womenparticipation protest on of in women backward vs. progressive of signifier the will I discourses. Islamist and nationalist wo Bengali and Muslim of construction the on this contextualize Bengali between war gendered its and protest In this chapter I will analyze the Bengali Introd ome

n’s role considered as the mark the as considered role n’s uction The

Idea of Bengali and/or Muslim W ‘Women’ etr o ti cntuto i cneto o stereotypical of connection in construction this of jectory er of community,of er - Muslim Muslim woman’s image for connecting this with Shahbag Fourth e apparently two opposite types, a mixture of liberated, of mixture a types, opposite two apparently e

31 of Shahbag Chapter:

they don’t get the full status of its memberitsof status full getthe they don’t

g Muslim, but liberal as well as liberal but Muslim, g of the idea of femininity in both of of both in femininity of idea the of

men as opposite to each other as other each to opposite as men

Muslim women consequently. consequently. women Muslim omen and

. When When - CEU eTD Collection B pre between demarcation women 7 Therefore, India. spiritual of representative the are women Bengali and world, in the spiritual and material separation where Bengali men (Vadrolok) are the upholder of material modernity with sharp distinction of of ‘new women’ constructed by a new patriarchy and combining the idea of decency and Victorian low and women Indian traditional women, by Bengali nationalist project as a form of reformed tradition, where she is “supe created was tradition, customaryIndian to condemnation colonial British to responses in women’ critici colonial Indian and femininity, todeal the BritishEuropean of idea with colonial bycombiningthe project vodromohila of class new a creates which nineteenth century. This Bengali nationalism was emerged as a by in nationalism Bengali of product historical the are woman’ ‘Bengali ideal of discourses The The emergence areidea theoffemininitymen’s constructedfrom asand subjectivity. of secondary auxiliary Shahbag protest, are rooted in the stereotyped idea of femininity. Therefore, both of these two ideas whi subject womanhood of ideas opposite as the apparently role actual their than rather appearance their prioritized Shahbag protest as i Women 2004). Kandioty 1995, Smith 1989, Campling and Anthias, Davis,

Within this class it was also called a ‘Bengal renaissance’ ‘Bengala renaissance’ wascalled also class it Withinthis engal.

(Ladies) emerged as a complex identity part of the Bengali nationalist responses of responses nationalist Bengali the of part identity complex a as emerged (Ladies) sm of customary oppression of women. As Chatterjee argues, this image of ‘new ‘new of image this argues, Chatterjee As women. of oppression customary of sm the the symbol of failure or achievement of -

colonial traditions. This new class was much more embedded withof religion Hindu moreembedded much was new class This traditions. colonial of Bengali women Bengali of

Vodrolok ghar/bahir

(Gentlema - class women” (Chatterjee 1989 p 1989 (Chatterjee women” class

(Pu

(Sangari and Vaid 1990) Vaid and (Sangari ch became one of the issue of heated debate in debate heated of issue the of one became ch

blic/Private) 1989). It(Chatterjee alsois rooted n) 7 . The women of these class also refers to refers also class these of women The . Bengali nationalist or Islamist - product of product colonial literary aim

which created a significanta whichcreated /actor . 622). This identity This 622). . . y ruet is, argument My rior from Western s represented in in represented men that

CEU eTD Collection understanding, seclusion seclusion understanding, onlyIslamist the impositionof veil butalsoabout the colonialism. that,i Sarkar shows within voice writing of Begum Rokeya Shakhaya Hossen, who considered to b She alsoemancipatory analyzesforcertainas the action feminism’s emphasis women. of on kind liberal with discourse this connected She mute. and/or invisible victimize, as women Muslim produ historically have that contexts material and discursive the that explained Sarkar were associated with the Indian nationalism with liberal western idea which resulted this exclusion. thi deconstruct to history in not proper Indian (Sarkar 2008). Sarkar on her book analyzed the discourses about Muslim women and ‘other’ always them considered were project nationalist Bengali backward. as marginalized wome Muslim Bengali and Indian the hand, other the One of Idea which strengthen practice the of hidden ofoppression women infamily. century invested on the idea of motherhood and glorifying the sacrificing mother image of Bengali 1990) (Bagchi Moreover, family and(Sar marriage about especially nationalism, Hindu of idea the with connected more were nationalist new God. gi didn’t curriculum men for devoted was education secular liberal the Although India/nationhood. ( Vadromohila However, Muslim Women Muslim h iae f h Be the of image The Bengali ae not are ) . Bagchi explains that the Bengali nationalist agenda in nineteenth an nineteenth in agenda nationalist Bengali the that explains Bagchi .

the spiritual virtue of India ve up religious bound to uphold wifely virtue where husband is positioned as as positioned is husband where virtue wifely uphold to bound religious up ve Muslim society on early twentieth century and who were critical about not about critical were who and century twentieth early on society Muslim

kar 2008). f oe b Ilms patc o vi “a a ypo o women’s of symptom a “was veil of practice Islamist by women of separate from religious purity and superior spiritual image of of image spiritual superior and purity religious from separate s ‘otherness’. s

gl wmn s togy eae wt iae o motherhood of images with related strongly is women ngali

Sarkar explained that the Hindu customs and ideology and customs Hindu the that explained Sarkar was limited only to Hinduism, therefore Bengali secular 33

n in the late nineteenth century were were century nineteenth late the in n e e one of the most radical feminist

, the women’s women’s the , d twentieth d n Rokeya’s ced the the ced

home, CEU eTD Collection the need resistautonomy theof overand culturaleconomic domination Pakistan West East of and justify to Bengali’s for independence andidentity political for elements required wasBengaliness symbol religious to renaissance’ ‘Bengal of heritage Bengali nationalist identity for independence from Pakistan in 1971 was closely linked with Hindu Although Bengali women ascategory abackward. oppressed homogenous and of There excluded meticulously was thought her of elements her interpreters, and she education. However, Rokeya’s feminist understanding was shadowed by resp in nationalist Bengali by created women Bengali new of idea the to comparing in different were world – p. self or independence, psychological and economic gain women helping of terms in little precious achieve would it but companions, “modern” adequately and image wo simply abolishing “therefore,the practice without making access to adequate education and the argumets:opportunity to Rokeya’s about continues She cause”. a necessarily not subordination,

17) docile, inactive and ultimately s ultimately and inactive docile,

rk for a living available to women might help men in their quest for a “liberal/modern” self “liberal/modern” a for quest their in men help might women to available living a for rk ne f rts ntoaim ht pod cnetoa ie o fmnnt wt westernized with femininity of idea conventional upholds that nationalism British of onse . for Therefore –

that was underwritten by middle/upper class privilege” (Sarkar privilege” class middle/upper byunderwritten was that e, the Bengali nationalist Bengali the e, in Bangladesh, majority of people is Muslim, but the complex history to f historyto complex the but Muslim, is people of majority Bangladesh, in

and/or ,

Rokeya’s Rokeya’s criticism was directed towards a “certain normative vision of femininity .

Muslim women Muslim fe te rts clna rl, n aitn r Pakistani in rule, colonial British the After

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to uphold the cultural symbols of Bengaliness prior Bengaliness of symbols cultural the uphold to 34 n

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from that narrative about her ( her about narrative that from

r’ r’ for women. The rebellious egime, the emergence of of emergence the egime, 2010 the the - resp dominant narrative of p. 15). Her writings Her 15). p. ect” Ahmed 2014) Ahmed orm a secular secular a orm Sra 2010 (Sarkar - . CEU eTD Collection symbol. symbol. in mark ofany prohibition tag, and religious Hindu ofthe because women.However, ofBengali beautification of element usedas an widely women,but 9 Bengaliculture. representative referential legendary inIt’sa 1913. became Prize Nobel from hereceived that money 8 didn’t and liberation/progress identity/women’s Bengali vs. Islam of narrative dominant the upholds argues, she controversial basically are identities Bengali Musli Bengali those for uphold to significant were markers cultural these that showing work her in identity Bengali India and Hinduism of symbol the as treated was which identityBengali uphold to and identity Pakistani to resistance Sangit Rabindra sacrifici European authority Shantiniketoni by influenced Bengali identity was to remain the bearer of the idea of nineteenth century’s Bengali ‘new women’, the mixture of folk Muslim tradition of Bengal (Karim 2004), this new contemporary Bangladeshi o because root its from different Although purpose. that serve to marker the became conduct of the nineteenth century’s elite Bengali identity has to be reproduced. Women’s appearance and code Pakistan.

Shantiniketan is a small town where Rabindranath Tagore built a University named Visva named University built a Tagore Rabindranath where town small a is Shantiniketan C olorful mark in the forehead in between the eyebrows of women which is a religious symbol of Hindu married married Hindu of symbol religious iswhich a women of eyebrows inthe between forehead markthe in olorful question

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CEU eTD Collection ideaBengali of woman Muslim nationalis Bengali of proclaimer the is party the leader of Awami league who is playing the role of the prime minister for third times, and whose Hasina, Sheik of image the Especiallyimage. women Muslim Bengali this of representational are the two main political parties of Bangladesh who are rotating as the prime minister fo of hands a which became symbol the wearsari, to used and the was women Bengali for the although Therefore, identities. contested these of marker the became again code dress women’s in Changes debate. of issue an became veil) the or ‘ to create social gathering regularly for spreading and strengthen Islamist knowledge, us ideology of Islam was spreaded by Hinduism and India from separation that keep to Bangladesh in sphere political in Islam of importance of emergence the through changed later 70’s in identity religious of status secondary the Therefore, 2004). d the keep to enough careful are they and war m that, shows Karim the cultural nationalist elite were disassociated from the mass people of the country (Karim 2004). of Bangladesh raised by the plea to free Bangladesh from Pakistan was a class spec necessity and appeal in political sphere slowly after the liberation. The linguist/cultural nationalism th hand, other the on However, jamat

burkha ’ (Kabir 2004). From then on, the proper appearance of Muslim women and ‘ and appearance women proper ofMuslim From then on,the ’ (Kabir 2004).

in the logic of proper Islamist wear. Even when most of the elder/married women were epcal atr h mre o Sih uiu Rha. rm h 1980’s, the From Rahman. Mujibur Shikh of murder the after especially , y felt the pressure to wear it in a more Islamic way by covering the head andheadIslamic coveringthe bymoreway a in wear it pressure to the yfelt any Muslim Bangladeshi had a ‘ a had Bangladeshi Muslim any

sari e linguistic/cultural emphasis to create Bengali nationalism lost itslost nationalism Bengali create to emphasis linguistic/cultural e .

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political influence and they create many women’s group t ideology, her appearance is representational of the the of representational is appearance her ideology, t ifference from Indian Hindutha movement (Karim movement Hindutha Indian from ifference 36

een in contest and replaced by replaced and contest in een most formal, common and traditional dress dress traditional and common formal, most suspicion ’ of India’s role on the liberation the on role India’s of ’

appearance of the leaders of leaders of appearance ofthe ific phenomenon, porda r last 20 years salwar kamij salwar ually called ’ ( ’ hijab ,

CEU eTD Collection conspicuous for synonym Arabic the Muslim in veiling of idea the explains, Scott Joan As lifestyle. Islamic of name the in sexuality women’s control to about all was disseminate Islam who preaches those ideas in women’s group and religious g Jamat of tradition Islamist by influenced group, women’s and Imams The sexuality. women’s which ‘veil’, of idea the with linked women Muslim proper of idea The motherhood. of idea the with and identitynational/religious of signifier a as womanhood gendered of idea shared a in rooted actually are images different women’s image and cultural Muslim based religious between ideas in difference and contradiction apparent the see can We I Source: Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina (left) and Leaderthe of the BNP Khaleda Zia (right) dea of femininity through these identities these through offemininity dea h ttp://binurahman.wordpress.com/political

symbol” (Scott 2009 p.153) (Scott

“ Tabbaruj, /linguistic based secular Bengali image of women. However, these two ” is hc i refers is which fundamentally representational of of representational fundamentally .

Saba Mahmood addsone more term whichalso referred juridical - leaders 37

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in white sari, covered her hair and her her and hair her covered sari, white in Therefore dy to prevent such provocation such prevent to dy ency and resistant personality blurred under the image of " hi pcue ad rsnig hm ih etr sot rse hlig ote of bottles holding dresses short western with them presenting and pictures their boys

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to des to

both rooted in ahmoo n of women as sexual object for men. On the other hand, troy the credibility of the demands raised in Shahbag in raised demands the of credibility the troy (Mahmood 2006) (Mahmood 38 , which is “ epan ta cnet ute ta, oe are women that, further concept that explains d

the gendered image as leader has leader as image Bengali fitna etd oil behavior social pected . Thus the logic of veil and to cover to and veil logicof the Thus . ” meaning

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identity transformation from violated/sexual to honored/ asexual/innocent women. In women. asexual/innocent honored/ to violated/sexual from transformation identity Gonojagoron Gonojagoron Moncho However the striking part of their ‘appearance’ in Shahbag Shahbag in ‘appearance’ their of part striking the However , and they demanded the identity of ‘F - leaders 39 Birangana

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- CEU eTD Collection is representationalimage, ofher covered withwhite sari her that head. defined by her crime war of demand the of icon the became Jahan of portrait huge a Moreover, process b withit ofnegotiation them in white sari. However without questioning the relation of the sexist stigma, this demand is a those women appeared to resist the idea of ‘loss of innocence’ by negation of sexuality by covering nation” the discredit to threatens sexuality female unruly nation, the of mothers the in valued is fecundity female “While as femalesexuality threatenin the about explained also Nagel Moreover, (p.439). Bengal in image mother forhonoruphold to important negatingsexualitythat is showed (2006) innocence.Mookherjee of member the of Some of agency sexual opposition theand of‘mother relatedtotheasexual women image of and sister’. in innocence of signifier the became It conscience. Bengali with spectators the for striking was it colorful knit cotton clothes. Therefore, appearing in a comple wear women and men Bengaliboth culture,that,in noted also be It should Bengaliconscience. in cul Muslim in hand, other the On red. is sari bridal a of color the where marriage, within life sexual their of symbol a is which red, of opposition the is sari White life. sexual their of abandonment Hindu symbols, cultural Bengali in dominant is which tradition, InHindu peace. and innocence of color a is white Bengali culture,

ture, white is the color of death. So white become the symbol of innocence, asexuality and death son who died for the nation’s freedom. The decent mother image of Bengali women s of the organizers told me the reason of wearing white to uphold the symbolthe uphold to white wearingthe reasonof me told organizersof the s y logicaccepting thesexist of thestigma.

a ios r bud o er ht sr a a ybl f the of symbol a as sari white wear to bound are widows ra Imam was placed in the middle of the Shahbag square. She square. Shahbag the of middle the placedin Imam was ra

(Nagel 1998; 256) 1998; (Nagel trials trials 40

and her identity of identityher and tely white sari, and fully covered with . In Shah Shahid Janani Shahid

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was actually was g image of image g , CEU eTD Collection the actor of it. w appearance, and codes dress th identity national contested of kind same the upholds analysis Her Identity. These identity contests are ‘Muslim Bosnia of example the main actors, only as the symbols of difference. Moreover, E than rather auxiliary as considered are they where and men with relation in served role their and (Ka full as emergence their on effect deleterious a had (Kandioty 2004). She argues that women playing the role of the“markers of their communities has symboliz actually is agenda participating sphere. inpublic She argues, ‘veiled’ backward women, nationalist agenda is portraying liberated nationalist women as unveiled, post in agenda nationalist this problematized (2004) nat of signifier and groups ethnic/national of boundary the of reproducers the also but society, the of member (Yuval to assigned by nationalist projects focused on their reproductive identity rather than the production purp Therefore, the canrepresentationwomen we andgendered that, see oftheir appearanceserved the ndioty 2000 p.57). Therefore, 2000p.57). ndioty ose for both the Islamists and Nationalist. and Islamists the both for ose - Davis 1997) Davis - es ad cmiain f oa/ui n Mdl Eastern/Salafist Middle and local/Sufi of combination a and ness’

ional difference ional - . They are not only considered the reproducers of biological reproducers of reproducers biological of reproducers the considered only not are They . Herzegovina d t s h mns civmns rdcd oe t mr objects mere to women reduced achievements, men’s the as it ed here the women actually using actually women the here (Yuval

for both the Islamist and Bengali nationalists, images Islamist women andBengali nationalists, of boththe for that, played out over the

- Davis 1997) Davis the contest contest the portraying

As Yuval As 41

. Using their arguments, DeDeniz Kandiyoti DeDeniz arguments, their Using .

of women’s emancipatorywomen’s by nationalist image - - behavior modern of citizens ﬂedged ooil s colonial

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as a metaphor of nation rather nation of metaphor a as lissa

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at is symbolized by wome by symbolized is at Helms

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created created by the gendered notion of Hindu women. On the other hand, Muslim women were very successful to make a negative impression of the protesting girls of of girls protesting the of impression negative a make to successful very were

- nationalist and religious identities. The emergence of ‘new Bengali women’ is women’ Bengali ‘new of emergence The identities. religious and nationalist alcohol identities

and smoking to prove their immorality and anti and immorality their prove to smoking and d progressive lds -

Muslim women as one identity therefore became a contested zone zone contested a became thereforeidentity one as women Muslim makes a pressure to accommodate religious identity within liberalidentity within accommodatereligious to pressure amakes

to at the same time became crucial. The female political leaders political female The crucial. became time same the at n anti and control this modest Bengali Muslim woman Muslim Bengali modest this lbrl mdr ad pro and modern liberal, , - women women on and it’s ‘success’ indicates the indicates ‘success’ it’s and on 42

’s sexuality ’s images d and their resisting voices also erased also voices resisting their and d . However, after Independence, the the Independence, after However, . . On the other hand, to regain the regain to hand, other the On . rs s well. as ords - women

- Islamic practice, they they practice, Islamic , which became the the became which , - ieain images liberation patriarchal hs imagery These women as a as women contested contested as highly highly as ide a - , CEU eTD Collection of femininity. Bengali remai butthey still as progressive, women of image the represent ideas nationalist Bengali womanhood, Islamist of idea sexist the protest to martyr’ overshadowed her active agency under the celebration of motherhood. Therefore, although as Imam Jahanara of image mother the Moreover, penetration. enemy by violated be nationalism where women and her body is considered the symbol of nation whose w wearing by innocence of contrast in sexuality of denial symbolic the war, in women raped of honor lost hite sari by the raped victims in Shahbag shows the inherent gendered logic of of logic gendered inherent the shows Shahbag in victims raped the by sari hite

n very strongly within the genderedn very theframework stronglywithin ijjot

(honor) can ‘mother of ‘mother CEU eTD Collection I onlywill focusgender onthe aspects. battle, embedded online battle between po sites their make to sides both with relations good keep to efforts made blogs community these of owners the while blogosphere Bangla the of attraction personal accounts and manipulate the writings. These kinds of online behaviors became the central oth each hack to known were they and insults and slang vulgar of full were comments Their culture in which war pro nationalist anti explicitly ideologically is blogosphere and online Saudi wing right by influenced and male mostly members, elite Islamist growing newly wereThey online. in log From theinception of Bangla blogging, establish the in2005,to Introduction Analysis of contested discourse between two poles of power Fifth

ic of protecting Islam, some bloggers became very active to disseminate the Islamistdiscourse the disseminate to active very became bloggers some Islam, protecting of ic ’

Chapter blogger’s blogger’s propaganda. Interne and then

o - n rba Ilms taiin rmtn by promoting tradition Islamist Arabian

these two discursive poles. First, I will analyze the emergence of the sexist virtual sexist the of emergence the analyze will I First, poles. discursive two these - ‘A warbloggersliberation I will focus on th commenter

Jamati s

and and bloggers regularly used false identities to attack each other online. and Bengali discourses nationalist e discourses related to Shahbag. t trolling by these two groups emerged as a distinctive blogging

- team’ was created to harass the Islamist harassthe createdto was team’ 44

Jamat - eua. o rts te, h Bengali the them, protest To secular. pular. - I - Islami where sexual idea power relations Jamati In this context, context, this In From the vast area of this debate, .

h Ilms dsore in discourse Islamist The political acceptance inthe I will analyze the analyze will I ‘ anti - liberation

er’s CEU eTD Collection stream_ref=10 https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10151476969533363&set=a.41417608362.48223.515328362&type=1& 13 researcher “Pro figureas leadinghima made warcriminals of ofpunishment thedemand http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/jatematal/28885098 posting sex be to 12 eleme 11 http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/shomsheralamblog/28710059 10 sites.” Pakistani “1. are: criminals 2007. form criminals in campaign signature for mobilization online for activities stories in that site, he criminals. war of punishment capital advocating for active be to started ‘A the of figures central In 2008, in one of the most visited sexuality. and nationalist blogosphere in issue burning Bangladesh. in users internet male young, the within culture sexist a enhanced That sites. pornography with saturated was sphere online explic wasculture blogging the blog,Banglabeginning of the From The emergence wasas he ofpeople poles opposite his by name hiswith text) porno as ‘choti’ (Bengali to wasreferred He http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/tushonblog/28529 Later it was banned but then reemerged with new name as name withnew reemerged but then wasLater banned it Written in Bengali, translated by the author. See: by author. the translated in Written Bengali, nts. See more more nts.See .

Last accessed June6 accessed Last - stories and filmed women having sex and then post these in that site. See site. that in these post then sexand womenhaving filmed and stories Jamati 13 http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/omipialblog/28883734 to

Therefore, according the plan, the demand for the execution of war crime trial crime war of execution the for demand the plan, the according Therefore,

collect supports for the trial of war of trial the for supports collect

was was very active not only on that site, but

of of He expressed his plan to mobilize the demand for the punishm the for demand the mobilize to plan his expressed He

- lges tre t attack to started bloggers team’ (see chapter three) who claim to be a ‘Liberation a be to claim who three) chapter (see team’ sexist sexist

(M. Z. Chowdhury 2014) Chowdhury Z. (M. adult online online

site

s The ‘Liberation War vs War ‘Liberation The Bengali Bengali

of Bangladesh 45

Joubon Jatra Joubon However at the same time, his his time, the at same However

last accessed 7thJune lastaccessed each other with vulgar words related with with related words vulgar with other each , 2. , nationalism discourse nationalism . In that that In .

to s to

Joubon Jala last accessed 7thJune accessed last

also also of punishment the for demand (Adult way) with modification of ‘adult’ of modification withway)(Adult hare the records of genocide in the in genocide of records the hare debate - in Facebook and his other online Liberation War’ blogger and and blogger War’ Liberation . itly aggressive. Moreover, the itlyMoreover, aggressive.

Jamat

both the ‘pro the both (Adult (Adult urge), 12 ’ obsession with spreading withspreading obsession

was one of one was eie psig sex posting Besides

- war researcher’ war 11 -

Liberation’ ent of war of ent

o th ne of the ac e main main e cused cused war CEU eTD Collection http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/jatematal/28885098 16 June6 Last accessed 15 June6 accessed 14 an support this of viewers youngmale site recorded from hidden cameras. Thegirls nude of videos or scenes rape of up made was site this of content the of most that noted adult/porno an in genocide and rape of crime war against mobilization suitabili and relevance the about blogosphere the in debate much created post This that he gave that mobilization hisonline in tojustify criminals. But he denied the accusation of using hidden c war of punishment the demanding for mobilization political for place a as it use to doing, were He page. plan.” our in participate please criminals, war for trial of demand the for came we Liberation, of celebration front the in post sticky a as hanged were

Source: Written in Bengali by one blog writerwithnick blog one by in Bengali Written Source: Written in Bengali, translated by the author. See by author. the translated in Written Bengali, See: by author. translated in Written Bengali, 16 . That prominent member ancestors” the by done error the correct country, the fix now that: saying by contents, adult with busy were whore a is she if “ There legal a has right for a prostitute too seekto anything if justice wrong happened said 14 d mobilize young men for the trial of war criminals war of trial the for youngmen mobilize d

He later confessed about the association of him with that adult site on his Facebook his on site adult that with him of association the about confessed later He

that, to gain the acceptance, he did the same thing as all the participant of that blog that of participant the all as thing same the did he acceptance, the gain to that, 15

. And here we are we hereAnd .

sit

of the A for war crime trial, and that was expressed as ‘our plan’‘our as expressed was that and trial,warcrime for filmed

- t http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/omipialblog/28883734 team cooperated activelywiththeir plan most tomobilize alking about the civil rights; civil the alkingabout page of it, stating that, “We didn’t come for the careless careless the for come didn’t “We that, stating it, of page http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/omipialblog/28884076 rape sce 46 jatematal

Last accessed June 6 June6 Last accessed

nes was one of the most visited adult amera to filming the sex scene. The logic , translated See: by author. site isthat . However, most of the participants the of most However, .

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My translation from Mytranslation commodifying the female body. However, this doesn’t mean that whoever does these crimes crimes these does whoever that mean doesn’t this However, body. female the commodifying of acts criminal and humiliating are Both consent. without record hidden the and money for 2. who satisfy pleasure withpornography. their pleasure can be satisfied by seeing sexy female bodies, it doesn’t mean that they are bad people father’s his visualize to easy feel can man no that argue to want I possible. be can good no men, bad these nude body taken by hidden camera, but still they visit to see these. So, their argument is that, by 1. we salute must him. 4. Even ass ifa is ofa dogbitecriminalit can the benefit. war toour viewers of porno have sites theright t 3. love their thewar country criminals. orhate doesn’t have the righ

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posted on 18

atrain cn, u i’ nra fr isl. o n hs dy wee sexual where days these in So himself. for normal it’s but scene, masturbation Bengali. See Bengali. . Later he changed his position and gave the counter argument of his previous one and others and oneprevious his of argument thecounter gave and hisposition Laterhe changed .

bydismissing thecounter arguments are: this.His for logic th ”

t to live a social life with human rights. And it doesn’t mean that they can’t 17 December 2008 while the online mobilization for

writerwrote

http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/nastikerdharmak

this blog this o hate the war criminals andtodemand their punishment. en the consensual recording of these videos in exchange

in support of support in

sit those sites won’t want to seesister’s their won’t to want sites those sit - site. However, his arguments are not considered are hisarguments However, site. the posting the the posting the

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CEU eTD Collection 20 19 18 http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/nastikerdharmakathablog collective a of discourse reflects the rather position, as anindividual here tagged as ‘sushil chagu’ (civil goat) by them. And Moreover, goat’sass fuck) nonstop by sorboda ke co. and Chaguram byasto: rakhibo goat) the (fuck pondano’ “chagu as referred ‘Chagu’ as tagged were bloggers ( ‘choti’ Bengali the from popularized and emerged words sexist and vulgar these of Most argumentation. (P Paki (goat), ‘choda’ ass), in (Fucking ‘pondano’ like message, wor slang vulgar attacking porno in even active were for the punishment of the war criminals young ofthemost generation, explicitly themindemand tomobilize males, whomobilizednationalists infavor of war crime trials aspart of ‘the The plan.’ planwas totarget th arguments The

See: htt http://columnistsbd.blogspot.in/2014/05/blog

p://www.ebangladictionary.com/29903/comment http://saguponda.blogspot.hu/2007/08/blog popular Jamati those who take positions positions take who those ksai o Taa ycai ‘oln a oe a a eaie signi negative a as rope’ a (‘rolling Pyachani Tyana or akistani)

pornographic ds were invented were ds nie icus with discourse online at the writer expressed here was representative of a group of group a of representative was here expressed writer the at

graphic 20

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(goat) and appropriated and sites to reach to the target people. They were very active in active very were They people. target the to reach to sites ). ). beyond . And for that, besi The Islamist, Jamati supporter and ‘anti and supporter Jamati Islamist, The

v - by the ‘A the by post_6712.html lu ad eit slangs sexist and ulgur - post_06.html

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to attack or dismiss the Islamist and Islamist the dismiss or attack to (fuck), ‘Hogamara’(anal fucking), ‘Chagu’ ‘Chagu’ fucking), ‘Hogamara’(anal (fuck), /28886020 Last accessed 7th June 11, 2014 11, June 7th accessed Last poles

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Last accessed 7th June 11, 2014 11, June 7th accessed Last des other community blogs, the ‘ r upoe rakha hoy” (Will make busy the the busy make (Will hoy” rakha upoe r

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CEU eTD Collection http://forum.projanmo.com/topic41683.html 21 nationalist Bengali ones previous the delegitimizing by voicesalternative reconstruct to is other the and languages these deconstructto is One twofold. is and masculine which discourse, this analyze to task the feminist the proposes she However, work. at logic gendered understand her made which language that speak to learned herself Cohn but intellectuals defense military by used language the of part indispensable an words aggressive languages, that learning of process the through went intellectual defense masculine the within observer participant a as She sexist. explicitly as uses their and weaponry describe to used language technologicalmilitary aggress with masculinity of representative and misogynist explicitly are used and invented insults and terms slang The patriotism. of part indispensable attitude masculine aggressive and sexist This online extremely bloggers aggressive and sexist tone, rather thus became in difference the protest paychachi’. ‘tyana as argumentation critical See: See:

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create 21 d

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49 a masculinea bullying d inonline culture

oe f them of some

n online in . Her analysis is very useful to useful very is analysis Her

on eae the became soon tude with tude

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CEU eTD Collection as the penetration of the enemy into the nation/territory/women’s body which ma which body nation/territory/women’s the into enemy the of penetration the as the took took who those that insisted they and scene,’ rape viewing of ‘pleasure the problematize didn’t criminals war of nationalists who used the adult/porno site to target young men to spread the demand of punishment struggle” group of ground battle the become “women that suggests ‘she’ showed that in nationalist rhetoric, the te ‘women’s sisters”. and mothers of honor or patriarchal logic. nationalist t who those are is, contradiction Therefore popular. very were girls of scene rape the site that of viewers the among The masculinity. of adult/porno notion gendered from derived fundamentally was bloggers nationalist The emergence of online Bengali nationalist mobilization as part of the plan of the pioneer Bengali discourses are exaggera ( discourse online the of most for typical is which users those of expression of freedom extreme with reality exaggerated an is discourse explicitly aggressive through the use of false identities, it masculine languages in the name of patriotism. Whether the blogging discourse became much more

is only man’s possession (1998 p. p. (1998 possession man’s only is ijjot - body response of war rape conceives graphic

(respect) of the women of their nation. Therefore for them, war rape was understood understood warrapewasnation. Therefore them, theirfor of women(respect) the of

- pleasure from those rape scenes can demand the punishment of war rapists who rapists war of punishment the demand can scenes rape those from pleasure ake pleasure from rape scenes. However, they are not contradictory since since contradictory not are they However, scenes. rape from pleasure ake as among those mobilizing for punishment of war criminals raped Bengali women Bengali raped criminals war of punishment for mobilizing those among The The nationalist narrative of war ra -

men’s ie hr te ead o demand the where site ted in online sphere. inonline ted - possession’ Rape has been used as a weapon of war following the logic of of logic the following war of weapon a as used been has Rape

who rritory/woman rritory/woman logic in effect denies the agency of women:

it it as protects 4) Te ainls mtpo o nation of metaphor nationalist The 249). aahrsi 2002 Papacharissi te uihet f a ciias a advocated, was criminals war of punishment the f

the 50

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her sexual purity to uphold men’s honor

of ‘honor’ of women which is is not so different from reality. The online ) . Therefore, the gendered social social gendered the Therefore, . (J Nagel 1998) Nagel (J

is “loss of innocence , the apparent the , kes kes derived from . - The online The as her body body her - women . Nagel the CEU eTD Collection women’ of assumption his acts, sexual consensual and violence sexual between differentiate doesn’t he his argumentation derived from the presumption where ‘we’ are the sexual subjects as male. When women as a subject is denied. I of agency the consent” without record hidden the and money for exchange in videos these of Moreover, when he is saying that, “ oft most are acts sexual the also but bodies, female showing only with pleasure their satisfy who people bad the naturalizing is he Therefore, pornography.” are they that mean doesn’t it bodies, female but pleasure propaganda Moreover, the logic to support the stand as and demanding the punishment of war criminals both has a porno the viewing in Because, them. to contradictory considered not are scenes rape of their political goal rapists war for punishment of demand the Therefore, nation). the (and body war criminals as a form of ‘patriotism’ where t considered as an object of men’s/the nation’s ownership. Therefore, they can justify the demand of logicimpure. The of sexist expressed nationalism thus the idea body thatwomen’s only should be thei

its

r normal for himself. So in these days where sexual pleasure can be satisfied by seeing se seeing by satisfied be can pleasure sexual where days these in So himself. for normal

women’s bodies women’s s participation in sexual acts sexual only is objects participation doesn’tas whereconsent matter in the her at all.

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representative representative blog writ was was derived from men’s desire for vengeance in a male battle over the ownership . Therefore . where n his thou

women are women

online There is not much difference between the consensual recording

at the same time having pleasure by viewing porno sites and sites porno viewing by pleasure having time same the at er er naturalizes the sexual violence as a sexual act to achieve ght, he was talking from a mobilization mobilization

considered he subject is male and they are the owner of women’s 51 pleasure

in a

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by sexual violence (as these sites these (as violence sexual by n n overlapping a

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Shahbag protest Shahbag

share an overlapping stance where they considered as the subject where women are the are women where subject the as considered they where stance overlapping an share site, the A . Only aclass privileged ofcan people mlig a implying possession ’ suddenly became the main issue of discussion Bengali Bengali nationalist vs. Islamist - team’s invention

2013 . Since Shahbag protest was initiated by online activists and bloggers, and activists online by initiated was protest Shahbag Since . .

male community /appropriation

hc ecue wmn A itre accessibility internet As women. excludes which 52

of slang terms, both the Nationalist and Islamist afford Jamati

all those battle battle to Shahbag Protest s

and debate s kind are very few in number in few very are kind s eas te dnt vn expect even don’t they because propaganda

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CEU eTD Collection https://www.facebook.com/shahbagecyberjuddho/posts/538980349478120 23 the where weretheyattacking War” “cyber namedit as 22 motherhood. T This protest, “ on 8 Whereas The online bat only as discourse in the nationalist Bengali macho certain creating in influential become and bullying online in trauma o days high the on celebrities national mains offline to online

Originally written in Bengali, translated by author. author. by translated Bengali, writtenin Originally While t While

ainls rhetoric nationalist March, International Women’s Day, 2013, the rep of her motherhood thus we call ou call we thusmotherhood her of “ নারী th mother. that of scandal the erase to duty our it’s Therefore blood, our in bear we that land the in power weapon of battle betweengroups. weapon oftwomasculine battle he protest was going on, the protestors established a tent in Shahbag square with several computers and and computers withseveral square Shahbag tenta in established thegoing wason, protestors heprotest One women is great as a human being and her best power is motherhood, women is strong because

Shahbage Cyberjoddho e banning of the political rights of of rights political the of banning e the capital punishments

মানুষ

he emphasis on ‘m The demand for the capital punishment is about to free her from the scandal. To demand To scandal. the from her free to about is punishment capital the for demand The online

হিসেসে tlebetween

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, সেই women describing

নারীর ” (CyberShahbag), warof

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acebook pages were active to dismiss the demand of the punishment of warof punishment the theof demand dismiss to wereactive pages acebook masculinity becomes nationalized becomes masculinity

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and their and 54

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See “Shahbagi” was a negative label given to the protesters by t by thegiven protesters to negativelabel was a “Shahbagi”

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lling on the religious values of the majority. They distorted the name of theof name the majority.the distorted Theyof values religious the on lling 24

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CEU eTD Collection of veiled women of the female student group of Moreover, t publishes Facebook. on and online pages several created coun to hand, other the On

faceof intension. myconscious without me by pronounced is slang ‘motherfucker’ The myself. control can’t I then prostitute, or addicted drag as Shahbag of kind this war’ named Projonmo chottor (generation square) pi The here were several

cture of cture a picture ofthe ofone central these pigs these picture the son of one of son the ”. ”. . But when I see that the that see I when But . Source online sites : http://shahabag.blogspot.hu/ ter the ter Jamati Jamati

leader leader I realized that, to resist their propaganda, we propaganda, their resist to that, realized I pages pages from where the pictures Jamati was published published was

propaganda, the virtual soldiers of the ‘cyber war’ war’ ‘cyber the of soldiers virtual the propaganda, derailed generation of Jamat/Shibir accusing the protester of protester the accusing Jamat/Shibir of generation derailed Jamat 57

with a narrative saying that, “I am not in favor of publishing

leader’s his‘immorality’. prove sonto The - I 2013/02/ - Islami

representative in one of the representative web page of ‘cyber ‘cyber of page web representative the of one in , “ blog Islami chatri Shongstha - post_

6706. and news have been shared page of Shahbag protest protest Shahbag of page html

need to publish the real thepublish to need

” (Islamist

CEU eTD Collection 29 28 27 And 26 objects sex the are they since covered be to have women that assumption the in rooted is country most by spread veil the of ideology The men. of objects sexual the beyond Islamist/ the hand, one the One superiority leaders.and the decent Jamati/Islamist lifestyle of ‘sex as placed or relations prove his adultery and immorality. of leader famous pr to The wrote: known as a prominent activist of Bengali nationalists whose blog name is practice sexual with organization), student female

http://www.somewhereinblog.net/blog/paglaaziz/29739248 http://m.somewhereinblog.net/blog/sobak/28990506 See Religious leaders who preach in the who preach Religiousleaders http://aparadhkantha.wordpress.com/20 ‘adulterous’ and ‘immoral sexual behavior’‘adulterous’ and sexual ‘immoral ove them uncivilized and backward. and uncivilized them ove http://aparadhkantha.wordpress.com/2013/10/01/543/

can spendcan night the heaven confirmed” is Jamat “The - females of Islami Chatri Songho think Songho Chatri Islami of females I - Islami) leaders, the heaven is confirmed. This idea becoming

s sxa jihad’ ‘sexual as Jamat

- I - - Islami slaves’ of Jamati leaders were published to dismiss the moral/religious the dismiss to published wereleaders Jamati of slaves’

Jamati m , Delwar Hossain Saydee, was published and circulated online to online circulated and published was Saydee, Hossain Delwar ,

osques. osques. with news Stories about female

13/08/26/csongstha/ representation never con never representation Jamat/Sh

describing their involvement in involvement theirdescribing An audio record of extra of record audio An 27 .

Last accessed 6 June 6, 2014 June 6, 6 accessed Last of the Islamist the leaderswereof also used as thelogic i

bir that, if they can marry the Shibir ( Shibir the marry can they if that,

leaders

Last accessed 6 June 6, 2014 June 6, 6 accessed Last Last accessed 6 June 6, 2014 June 6, 6 accessed Last members

Last accessed 6 June 6, 2014 6, June 6 accessed Last 26 28 .

The statement of one blog writer blog one of statement The sidered women as being anything being as women sidered

of - marital phone sex of the most the of sex phone marital Jama advances

prostitution prostitution Sobak pakhi t

in extra in of the of

like that, if the girls

student Imams - marital sexual and immoral and

(vocal bird)

29 win

of the of gs of gs CEU eTD Collection s sca patc wih ciey res n sae pol’ rlto t the to relation people’s shapes and orders actively which practice social a as As Tonkiss explains, the importance of discourse analysis lies in the fact that, “language is and appearanceIdentity markerofmutual attack. became the in the to prove them ‘immoral’ and ‘unsocial’, the same logic of ‘veiled’ women has been used to accuse propaganda attacked crimes war of the deny accusation and protesters the of credibility the defy they ‘prostitutes’, as protesters female the groups Islamist the by shared stories sexual’ ‘immoral The groups. the of men/actor positioned groups the Thereforeboth equality. of name the in practiced immorality the all for reason main the and provocation the of women’s body is ‘natural’. This kind of ideology expressed on these online sites for desire whose subjects sexual considered are men logic their to According sexuality. and body this ideology. Islamist discourses in controlled being of need in is sexuality female and provocative considered are bodies Female Where published onthe13point charter putforth by object sensual that showing and Hefajot Angry Young 2014) Men” aggression must be stopped.” cultural foreign and lighting candle like culture alien of practice adultery, woman, and man between “In name the freedom and of speech of free society, all ind the

Islamists of being ‘uncivilized’ or ‘backward’ by number - I - Islam four demand four

also uphold also the female protesters of Shahbag for their Shahbag female of protesters the

s ‘c a as was: (“Status Quo versus Those Crazy 13 Points, a Nonagenarian Cleric and the s

the idea that the women who don’t cover according to Islam are Islam to according cover don’t who women the that idea the here here will ‘misguide’ men towards adultery. That idea was explicitly was idea That adultery. towards men ‘misguide’ will

nprc aant Islam’ against onspiracy and used and are therefore expressed this Hefajot women 59

Bengali - I

- an Islam d

sexuality ecent and immoral activities, freemixing

nationalists. nationalists. So the women’s clothes Bsds ht wie h Islamist the while that, Besides . in responses to the in responses to

non

ideology - Islamic dress appearance and to indicate the immorality of of immoralitythe indicate to

of of controlling women’s

and in the demand r oil worlds” social ir

Shahbag protest. by depicting depicting by

viewed viewed

CEU eTD Collection organizations are ally making with nationalist Bangladesh (see more in chapter six). criticized by not only the feminists, but also by of most the educated middle class liberal citizen of The gendered and miso patriarchal as logicwomen menbecame a object sexual of theshared of stance. the patriotism, of name the in discourse nationalists extreme the and Islamists of poles the of an of overpowering ideolog name the in legitimized be can injustice and crimes of worst the ii) that and misogyny Bangladeshis, ofpatriarchyifnot my strengthens average manisa the hypothesispromoter that i) admirers “secular” his the and between mullah reciprocity misogynous “the that, is women about those between similarities the Therefore capital hand to hand one preache ( Hashmi Taj the salient they elementsare bywhich relatedea to (Tonkiss 1998 p.

interpret

the liberal patriotic narrative of empowerment often became an id an becameoften empowerment narrativeof patriotic liberalthe o xli po wmns ao i te ae f cnmc emancipation economic of name the in labor women’s poor exploit to rs

m of Islamist leaders and its counterpart secular patriotic narrative. ullahs

r nt questioned not are the Quran the 2000

249). Therefore the online discourses of these two groups are in fact representing

of Bangladesh with their with Bangladeshof ) argues, that there is a difference of the two types of misogyny between the the between misogyny of types two the of difference a is there that argues, ) y, as religion such andpatriotism.” t gynist propaganda of the Islamist and Jamati sites are explicit and no doubt h us became the promoter of misogyny in its worst form worst its in misogyny of promoter the became

n ciiie by criticized and nationalists. nationalists. However, not only the misogynist 60

icuig etos f h hgl educated highly the of sections including , ch other h feminists the

concepts are the one who one the conceptsare (Hashmi 2000

to social meanings andto social processes

aggressive and s , ahr ot f h feminist the of most rather eology of globalcorporate of eology

p. 44 Has exist discourse of the ) . Therefore for both . Thereforefor both hmi hmi argues,

;

has and Hsm 2000 (Hashmi

the authori the on the on

one the other .

ty ) .

CEU eTD Collection . analyzefeminist sexuality. nationalists attack forpower. thetwopoles The of protest, in the online discursive part of it, w or sexist discursive battle that was exaggerated by the Shahbag protest was rooted in that This men. by controlled be to needs sexuality whose objects the considered are bodies their and in the Therefore, in the discourses about the issue of war rape the of demand the where from platform on rested and aggressive very was attacks to each gendered.other are The emergence of online mobilization in demand of crime trial discursive these how understand to followers Jamati and nationalists Bengali radical between th of representatives the as writings online some analyzed I chapter, this In Conclusion:

battle betwee

attitude. Therefore, despite the huge and prominent participation of women in the Shahbag

I will discuss this shared gendered position of both Islamists and nationalists to critically / ‘pro -

alliance Liberation’ n two the

with Bengali nationalist

heteropatriarchal hrd the shared

patriarchal refore boththe group of

overlapping aia pnsmn n hha protest Shahbag in punishment capital omen’s omen’s body and sexuality

poles. poles. Here men are the actors/subjects and women

61 oin o ntoaim hc atal md the made actually which nationalism of notions

s and Shahbagnex protest the in

and its punishment edrd da bu wmns oy and body women’s about idea gendered ‘Islamist/ ‘anti became became only the weapon of was - Liberation war’ became the weapon dsusv battle discursive e ( hetero) t chapter.

2013 emerged. 2013 patriarchal

and

CEU eTD Collection Islamic state, an ideology which coincides with the women's movement inﬂuenced by by and afterwards inﬂuenced movement women's the with ‘modernizing’ forces agendas ofinternational development and discourses coincides which ideology an state, Islamic was movement nationalist Bengali the that explains Chowdhury 2009). (Chowdhury liberation for movement women's Bangladesh, In F ally between nationalist discussion will be an analysis violence/threa in Bangla of Shahbag protest. For that, I will contextualize the contest between Islamist and feminist positions analyze its relation with Bengali national ideology to explore and problematize the feminist alliance contex and history the discuss will I chapter, this In Introduction eminist eminist

Feminist Feminist M in Shahbag protest

global political context political global desh, desh, where s - feminist ally. I will situate this ‘Islam vs. women’ discourse discourse women’ vs. ‘Islam this situate will I ally. feminist O s t ts . The development discourse emphasized inclusion of women in the public sector, a rganizations focused on the secular idea of creating a difference in identity from the Pakistani the from identity in difference a creating of idea secular the on focused owards women that have been encountered in Bangladesh. Therefore, my my Therefore, Bangladesh. in encountered been have that women owards :

ovementsin Bangladesh ecular nationalist and more critically. raiain hsoial have historically organizations of of the andShahbag Protest

and local and in Bangladesh and and in Bangladesh

idea ‘ idea of

Sixth

Islamist misogyny to analyze the nationalist the analyze to misogyny Islamist feminist feminist Islam vs. women

Chapter 62

alliance t of feminist movements of Bangladesh and Bangladesh of movements feminist of t

, Bengali Bengali N ,

its R its opposing en lge wt te nationalist the with aligned been ’

which which is domin

elation with with elation

t he

Islamist fundamentalis from theindependfrom within within ationalism ationalism ant discourse the to the Islam - dilemma feminist ence

CEU eTD Collection government, but rather funded by oute by funded rather but government, S related to fundamentally est 30 integrating a created adap the and globalization of discourse contested Madrasa’s However, vs. Women ofIslam ofthe idea Renewal vs. Bengali contest. idea of Islam (Karim 2004). Therefore, the rural masses were not that much influenced by the Islam w ideology Sufi Persian with mixture in tradition Islamist much Karim as However, Islamization against stance strong a taken collectively have Bangladesh in the liberation of Bangladesh. Basically, with this demand, the urban based progressive movements of Bengali Islamist war criminals main enemy for women's oppression of Bangladesh. It’s also coincides with the demand organizations by informed rights

The Qawmi refers to a specific kind of Islamic education different from Alia Madrasa that was dominant and and was dominant that Madrasa Alia differentfrom education Islamic of kind specific a to refers The Qawmi ablished institutionally in British colonial period. Theologically it followed Deobandi model which is which model Deobandi followed it Theologically period. Britishcolonial in institutionally ablished - aloof based call to provide education to females, legal rights and other civil rights, which were which rights, civil other and rights legal females, to education provide to call based n the intervention of development

industrial boom in garments sector garments in boom industrial the took and Bangladesh rural in scenario the changed had 1980’s the since education

them from the rural people’s life. At the same time, rural life was much influenced by folk by influenced much was life rural time, same the At life. people’s rural the from

osdrdte sait icus a a one eeomn oc,bcwr and backward force, development counter a as discourse Islamist the considered lbrl eiit icus. h sclr an secular The discourse. feminist liberal a

with productive forces

(2004

unni Muslim ideology. These type of Islamic Madrasa education are not controlled by by controlled not are education Madrasa Islamic of These type Muslim ideology. unni ‘ Islam vs. women vs. Islam ) tation of structural adjustment policy of World Bank and IMF and Bank World of policy adjustment structural of tation explained, this elite, Bengali, nationalist, secular, urban ideology was was ideology urban secular, nationalist, Bengali, elite, this explained,

r sources.r who were the collaborators of Pakistani soldiers and were against threatens threatens the conventional gender roles of ’

organizations to a different level. different a to , 63 that that

target and Middle East funded Islamic

s hich is different from the from different is hich

rural Moreover, the factors of factors the Moreover, ntoait tne f women's of stance nationalist d poor women as cheap labor cheap as women poor

(Chowdhury 2009) (Chowdhury

rural pa Jamati Islami Jamati

economic for a Qawmi

triarchy in 90’s in

trial and 30 .

CEU eTD Collection government, but rather funded by outer sources. sources. by outer funded but rather government, to related fundamentally is which model followedDeobandi it Theologically period. Britishcolonial in institutionally established 31 educations, Madrasa of emergence and organizations women’s focused WID Lamia Karim Islamist stronger ideology became inrural Bangladesh. milit the and areas rural in fundamentalism religious of rise the advocated education Madrasa investing huge Suadi Arabian funds to established and multiple previous its from newly the 1990, until Ershad 2004). (Karim driven actually was which empowerment of name the in credit instrumentally appropriated normative gender relations and rural women’s shame and honor 2014) rhetoric of gender equality became a kind of compliance issue “nine as it named Shifa Nazneen As organizations. development funded level rural of feminist aid. foreign activities development modif women with work whose (WID) Development in women of framework the in working 2004) (Karim

The Qawmi refers to a specific kind of Islamic education different from Alia Madrasa that was dominant and and dominant was that AliafromMadrasa different education kind ofIslamic specific a Qawmito refers The . y

Moreover, with the narrative of women empowerment, Karim (2004) argued that, micro that, argued (2004) Karim empowerment, women of narrative the with Moreover, traditional .

activism Therefore the feminist’s voice feminist’s the Therefore

Karim (2004) argues, increasing demand of women labor in garments sector, foreign funded .

Simultaneously t h sm tm, t time, same the At

patriarchal

(2004)

with development organizations S

unni Muslim ideology. These type of Islamic Madrasa education are not controlled by not controlled are education ofIslamic Madrasa type These Muslimideology. unni emphasized

also

gend emergent ,

explains that this approach this that explains in eeoeeu ielge o Ilm otd n ok rdtos by traditions folk in rooted Islam of ideologies heterogeneous er roles in rural society (Karim 2004) (Karim society rural in roles er mi

he n oe’ moemn truh ir cei wt huge with credit micro through empowerment women’s on litary regime of Ziaur Rahman and later of General H. M H. General of later and Rahman Ziaur of regime litary

oeg fne NGOs funded foreign Jamat

and activism activism and - I 64 -

Islami

those Madrasas rather than ensuring gender mainstreaming in

political ideology tried to ‘correct’ Islam ‘correct’ to tried ideology political of Bangladesh of

focuses rm h cptls itrs o NGOs of interest capitalist the from (“New Age | The

n lcl oe’ organizations women’s local and 31

much more much in all over the countries. This

merged within the foreign the within merged - .

to The growing number of of number growing The - f ive feminism’ where where feminism’ ive those Outspoken Daily” on

mainstreaming mainstreaming

three factors three

more more slowly slowly ant -

CEU eTD Collection December 6, 1992, a large crowdlarge of a 1992, 6, December pe 2000 least at and violence hugecommunal caused It ofRam. birthplace as the knows land the reclaim anattempt to in God) (Hindu Ram nameof in the Mandir Hindu a establish to volunteer somebyHindu 34 wereangry ManyMuslims 33 practice because ofFatwa thefor banning fighting also are organizations feminist The groups. powerful iss 32 Bangladesh in revival militant violent fueled factors religiou attacking Bangladeshgiving by 1992 in India in Masque Babri the of demolition of protest cont Rushdie Salman the context, this In producing violent reactions NGO response of sector garments the and women’s empowerment wom against violence eliminating on emphasized organizations children the is which clientele, same for compete and sphere autonomous an define to struggled groups both where developmentalism and on emphasized organizations onward and i heavily

On December 6 in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, the 1 India, Pradesh, Uttar Ayodhya, in 6 OnDecember to refers It Fatwa is the religious legal opinion provided by provided opinion legal religious isthe Fatwa ue in Bangladesh, since in rural level, ‘fatwa’ sometimes practiced as a parallel to parallel as a practiced sometimes ‘fatwa’ level, rural in since uein Bangladesh, wmns organizations /women’s s

against wom against nfluenced the Bangladeshi social, political and economic situation in rural level rural in situation economic and political social, Bangladeshi the nfluenced the violent reaction after publication of Salman Rushdie’s novel Rushdie’s ofSalman afterpublication reaction theviolent Islamist . The increasing increasing The s en.

temples of Hindu of temples , militant leaders i

changed the rural domestic and family ideology family and domestic rural the changed

fatwa

and violent and such as s toban the the

girls education resulted in tension and competition between competition and tension in resulted education girls

ideologies emerged as conflicting to each other to the point of of point the to other each to conflicting as emerged ideologies

inclusion as nlec o Qai arss n NO funded NGO and Madrasas Quami of influence

they accused the author ofblasphemy. author the accused they rise of

n rural areas minorities. The minorities. Rushdie’s

roversies, of the rural poor (Karim 2004) (Karim poor rural the of

Islamist Islamist of women fatwa 65 6 32

th religious leaders. It became a very debated and contested contested and verydebated becameIt a leaders. religious (Hashm

book against women level. inrural Century mosque named named mosque Century known .

in market economy through micro credit andcredit economy micro through in market

Moreover, i Moreover, consequence

and demanding penalty death for him i 2000) as the Rushdie Affair Rushdie the as en in coalition with coalition in en 34 The Satanic Verses Satanic The . n 1994, Islamist militant leaders militant Islamist 1994, n In this context, the Madrasa and

e t cmua voec in violence communal to led

of all these global communal global these all of

‘ ‘ law’ and it abusive practice by practice law’ it abusive and Babri mosque Babri which creates very angry very creates which .

Moreover, the women’s women’s the Moreover, ople were ople killed. of 33

in the the in

its its

in 1988 and 1988 in ’

NGO use in in use was destroyed was destroyed UK in 1988. inUK 1988. women’s women’s s role s abusive abusive

in 80’s in clergy

and

of in CEU eTD Collection Deconstructing power 2010). (Siddique groups feminist the even explicit focus on sexual politics of female body and sexuality which made her a taboo and NGOs have about silent been her, not complex context of it (Siddique 2010). Siddique also Nasreen Taslima of fundamentalism religious of western feminist circles where she was presented as a Siddique banned was about a Hindu family that was forced to migrate in India because of communal book her rather leader, Islamist by threatened was she what for cause However, for theplightBa of blamed she “which Islam, criticizes explicitly and agency sexual and sexuality female celebrates violencsexualand gender on discrimination opinion also is enthusiastically followed by the She columnist. and writer debated time same the at and prolific a is Nasreen Taslima gave

fatwa fully argued

Dina Siddique Dina

in creating a ‘women vs. Islam’in creating a vs. in the ‘women country. discoursetothe broader public n dah threats death and tha ngladeshi women”ngladeshi 2010 (Siddique t the death threat for which she was forced into exile, made her celebrity in celebrity her made exile, into forced was she which for threat death the t

doesn’t question the western feminist superiority and and superiority feminist western the question doesn’t

‘ Islam vs. vs. Islam

(2010) . Siddique Siddique . to

urban urban explained that, explained

eiit writer feminist W young generation of early 90’s by her courageous and blunt explains ar crime T crime ar raising their voice ortaking for her steps because ofher Therefore,

66 that, it wa it

alm Nsen wih rv he drove which Nasreen, Taslima e in society (Siddique 2010). She also openlyalso She 2010). society(Siddique in e argued n individual resistant writer who is the this special constructio special this s not her writing on Islam that was the main the was that Islam on writing her not s

p.219). rial/W hs issues these

that most of the feminist organizations

omen’ all ee obnd together combined were Lajja

didn’t of the of

(shame), that was was that (shame), ‘victimhood’ - osdr the consider it exile into r topic within

violence.

victim victim .

CEU eTD Collection limelight From the Liberationvs. war. and another is the difficulties to raise a critical voi This marginalized. was voice their events, political major the of most like However, protest. Shahbag in participated and supported actively were organizations women’s and feminist Several protest Women’s/ Islamist women’ vs. ‘Islam leaders.The left liberal, NGO’s, discourse. orga women and leaders. activists N with associated organizations women’s and tried (Mookherjee p.436). crime international stimulates organizationsandtocollect NGO’s and evidence the stories ofrape organization of of leaders the are who coalition with BNP. A 1992 By marginalization

Therefore, theideasIslam’ of‘women and vs.‘Islam trial’ vs.war crime , on the one hand, there was the rise of militant Islamic ideology with ideology Islamic militant of rise the was there hand, one the on , becameallies

only alliance

At this very important moment, Bengali nationalist interests, feminist organ feminist interests, nationalist Bengali moment, important very this At eiit organizations feminist on three on Ghtaok dala nirmul cometee

iain ad ainlss osrce a ‘sa v. a cie trial/women’ crime war vs. ‘Islam an constructed nationalists and nizations of Shahbag protest Shahbag the of

civil societies are all came together in demand of the punishm the of demand in together came all are societies civil can have two reasons. One is the dominant liberal way of thinking of feminists

In nd on the other hand, the demand of in a nationalist a in occasion

Jamat this context, from 90’s onward, those demanding that war criminals to be be to criminals war demanding from those that context, 90’sonward, this - I - s Islami

relate standpoint

d Shahbag protest. One is One protest. Shahbag d mre wt te edrhp f aaaa Imam Jahanara of leadership the with emerged discourse is discourse women’s . In the same vein, the recognition of war rape

67 and the critical voices in Shahbag Shahbag in voices critical the and

in demanin ce ce separate from the polarized ideology of Islam

organizations

also astrong of it. part G s lbrl left, liberal, Os, the punishment of ding the punishment of accusedof punishment the ding

could get

8 th

March

secular the

accused war criminals 2013

chance onthe tobe

Jamat , on , intellectuals and and intellectuals merged together

the o the ent of those of ent - I -

izations, Islam as a war and her her and ccasion J amati the

CEU eTD Collection in the international media by comparing it with the Tahrir Squre and now nam now and Squre Tahrir the with it comparing mediaby international the in news leading the of one became and almost3 months for ofpeople gathering huge a became 2013which February nati Bengali criminals, war figurecentral of the of verdict one the of To protest rape. and genocide to military Pakistani the helped who Bengali collaborators 36 35 relatedidentity was and toit discussed inthe 4 thesexualpolitics this by reflec were and women village poor the mostly were They Birangana. prote Shahbag the 14 with The second Shahbag protest. participation b blast cocktail a was told th one ofthe Sultanapioneer who is organization Kamal, foraid) legal (Transparency TIB of chairperson razakar was dayfor dedicatedthat fundamentalism. slogan was The demanded guest, chief as contacted all the women organizations to take the control Internationalof

From 2009, the inte the From 2009, http://www.banglamail24.com/index.php?ref=ZGV0YWlscy0yMDEzXzAzXzA4LTk5LTI3MjI3 at, “All women need to be with the pro

feminist NGO feminist ” Birangana (The oath oath (The

the capital punishment of the accused war criminals and to end all kind of of kind all end to and criminals war accused the of punishment capital the

occasion was on on that day day that on discussant and discussant Women’s Women’s

st rnational war crime tribunal has established for the trial of war criminals, especially for the the for especially war criminals, of trial the for established has tribunal war crime rnational s who appeared in white sari, organized by a by organized sari, white in appearedwho s 36 of

, . The The . esides the main stage, the focus was transformed to that and the women’s women’s the and that to transformed was focus the stage, main the esides demanding h wom the i nt ersne a a infcn event significant a as represented not did day;

appearance 26th of March to celebrate the declaration of Liberation of Bangladesh

viewer the main stage ns a i t rss the resist to is day en’s

the identity of ‘freedom Fighter’ by giving up the identity of identity the up giving by Fighter’ ‘freedom of identity the onalist online activists called a demonstration in Shahbag square in 5 in square Shahbag in demonstration a called activists online onalist International s .

of them in in them of In that gatheri that In - Liberation force to go ahead”. was 68

d Bangladesh white sari as a symbol of symbol a as sari white edicated tothewomen. ng, the leaders of women organizers were organizers women of leaders the ng,

of the main stage and collaborators “ Nari Diboser Ongikar, Rukhbo ebar ebar Ongikar, Rukhbo Diboser Nari and ) feminist feminist th ed as “Shahbag Protest 2013”.Protest ed as“Shahbag

chapter. feminist i o hls Kendro Shalish o Ain

ting that same voice raised raised voice same that ting in the whole trajectory of of trajectory whole the in . n ht etn, the meeting, that On ). NGO and the leaders of leaders the and NGO 35 Gonojagoron moncho

However, si voiceBangladesh of de

play the role as - sexuali zi nce there religious ng

their

(an (an the

CEU eTD Collection online, therefore social media is the one where gender can’t be an issue. I was also criticized Ialsowas issue. an bewhere genderone can’t the is media thereforesocial online, Bengali online of predecessors classed show that In nationalists. Bengali online of figures live television talk rhetoric nationalist There missing inthe feministanalysisBangladesh. of remarkably is rape war of issue the and criminal war of punishment the of demand the about Sha her in (Chastity/honor) ijjat of loss also discourse women’ the NGOization of feminist movements of Bangladesh which remain within the trope of Deradicalize the Women’s |Movement? ALAL O DULAL” 2014) fashionably” nationalism ‘Bengali’ secular the celebrated “ r grand another held and together the all public country Th ah speech each e third occasion was was occasion third e h problematized a rts. oee argru nlss n rtqeo h gnee ainls rhetoric nationalist gendered the of critique and analysis rigorous a However protest. bag

places prominent were

to resist the to elements

eea idvda fmns tikr hv hd a had have thinkers feminist individual several which was discussed earlier in chapter five. a cnenn th condemning was

women’s n nie pee m lgc a d was logic my sphere, online in - and

show about the online and shared within small groups small within shared and this masculine forms of online chauvinism and the nationalist the and chauvinism online of forms masculine this He becam fajot organized

organizations, human organizations, - I - e stronger as a as stronger e Islams nationalis ally on 20 on ally

“udmnait forces: “fundamentalist” e b that online that y feminist and w and feminist y

fundamentalist demandfundamentalist of bann activism in ts

in the logic of that, anyone can hide their identity in identity their hide can anyone that, of logic the in th consequence of Shahbag protest. Shahbag of consequence

article beyond the enthusiasm of ‘female fa ‘female of enthusiasm the beyond article June 2013. June

rights , . when I when

For example For ismiss the 3 o men rights organizations rights men

T organizations and other NGOs organiz NGOs other and organizations rd o protest Hefajoti Seuty Sabur wrote that, i that, wrote Sabur Seuty d y h oe h i cniee the considered is who one the by ed

day of Shahbag tried to put light on the gendered and gendered the on light put to tried “et Sbr Dd ‘NGOization’ Did Sabur: (“Seuty Hefaj icmot o h alac with alliance the to discomfort , I was called to participate in a in participate to called was I , . Sabur correctly at ing ing - e - Islam women’s ’s misogynist demands,

protest with some key

Seuty Sabur (2013) (2013) SeutySabur

n hs ae Each case. this in

from all over the over all from

participation in

problematized rhetoric about rhetoric n that protest that n

‘Islam vs. ctor’ of ctor’

after ed

CEU eTD Collection 37 Bengali Bangladesh. nationalism in gendered of position feminist critical a make to importance the show again which nationalism Yo the of Rise Jagoron Obisworonio Tarunner Chottor: Projonmo 2014) Parvez Liberation S Riberu. Bidhan of Peoples Rise) by Shahriar Kabir, “ Shahbag) by Parvez Alam, “ protest. the about analysis After 2002) in communication of notion sphere online in inequality discuss for time struggle, about’. discuss to time the show the

hahbag protest, s protest, hahbag See http://www.marxists.org/archive/zetkin/1920/lenin/zetkin1.htm . o

ne year of Sha of year ne

when when women raised the question o

for biological gender identity which did not consider the gendered attitudes in linguistic linguistic in attitudes gendered the consider not did which identity gender biological oaiain and polarization

. ‘ bringing these ‘ these bringing uth) by Kokeya Kabir, and Kabir, Kokeya by uth) There

lhuh ot f h pbiain wr atal the actually were publications the of most Although this;

ome online sphere online

was only a book published by a feminist feminist a by published book a only was h it’s

bag protest, there were several publications came up with de with up came publications several were there protest, bag of them had a different analysis from it and critical and it from analysis different a had them of

not the not

It should be noted that that noted be should It expressed

Gonoadalot theke Gonojagoron Moncho

the o eape “ example: For

negative

homogenizing and the inseparability of social hierarchy with hierarchy social of inseparability the and immediate

Rajniti Rajniti Dhormo Chetona by that leading leading that by ’ issues in the high days of Shahbag protest, when it’s n it’s when protest, Shahbag of days high the in issues ’

that that f

gender and deman hhae Rastroprokolpo Shahbager was derived was

70 h puaiy f hha protest Shahbag of plurality the

it’s ” (Shahbag Projonmo Chottor: Unforgettable Chottor: Projonmo (Shahbag ” d 37

figure almost a typical thing of any of thing typical a almost .

se Moreo xuality, it has been from an un an from

Last a of online Bengali nationalists by the by nationalists Bengali online of ”(P ver, the outright the ver, olitics, olitics, Religion, organization which is is which organization ccessed ”(From ”(From Peoples trial to Stage critical uncritical (h State ”(The 6 th

June 11,2014 June about said that pos denial of gender of denial

. Conscience) by ition of Bengali of ition it

ecitos of descriptions (

revolutionary ieu 2014, Riberu (Papacharissi the Islam vs. Islam the scription and scription - it’s project of of project “ Shahbag

not the

CEU eTD Collection embrace. She shows that, this gendered presentation of Muslim/Eastern vs. Western identity are identity Western vs. Muslim/Eastern of presentation gendered this that, shows She embrace. nationalist Islamists the suppress to not for nationalist Islamist to urge secular the Helms Elissa Moreover, Afghanistan of invasion American the justify to ‘veil’ her from women Muslim saving of thought liberal the and interest byliberal/feminist women Muslim saving of need the justifies that Islam conservative/fundamentalist/terrorist vs. liberal 2003; (Asad Moreover interest political and historical Western certain a in emerged where secularism of idea the behind politics liberal the explain with a the western idea of secularism emerged with Christianity and is therefore a modern concept linked superiority of Western On feminism. the other hand, French theorist Jean examine Lazreg 1995). (Lazreg other each to opposite binary the as represented East Middle of identity ethnic or Islam and feminism with tradition, feminist Western/American the in also but texts colonial in only not represented M As women is deeply rooted in the history of colonialism and in the emergence of the idea of secularism. Th Bangladesh in Women vs. Islam Rethinking e o rientalist rientalist perspective of oppressed ‘Muslim women’ in opposition to Western liberated white a Christian Christian way of thought and experience (Nancy 2008). Talal Asad and Saba M rnia Lazreg rnia were trying to stop this by this stop to trying were , Lila Abu Lila ,

was presented through the through presented was

(Abu - Lughod 2002) (1995) (1995) - Lughod ( 2008) shows, the idea of Algerian women as women Algerian of idea the shows,

argued that after 9/11, this took a new dimension of opposition of opposition of dimension new a took this 9/11, after that argued

shows, based on her ethnographic work in Bosnia in work ethnographic her on based shows,

t gendered image cod image gendered he logic that it is it that logic he support te ooil oiat artv t dcntut this deconstruct to narrative dominant colonial the s ‘war 71

on terror’ as well. She therefore deconstructstherefore She well. as terror’ on un ed as ‘ as ed - Islamic

New Year New

E astern’

. T . “Muslim’ and oppressed was oppressed and “Muslim’ ‘ sa v. secular vs. Islam he -

Luc Nancy and and secular urge to Islamist to urge secular celebration ‘ Western

amd 2006). Mahmud - Herzegovina explains explains that ahmoo

because the because ’ ’

discourse discourse women’s d also ,

CEU eTD Collection backwardness in relation to their stance on women, they women, on stance their to relation in backwardness logic. same the in of ‘mother image’ of thenation and theidea of‘lost innocence’ of raped were women, also rooted women’s sexuality body and preaching misogynist the while However, nationalists. secular Bengali with alliances making are groups remain Islamist confront politics To 2000). (Azim sexual silent completely and sexuality of issue the ‘empowerment’, of name the in autonomy law in equality achieving on focused mostly are organizations women’s and problems caused by religious fundamentalism lives women’s rural and critiques academic feminist western transnational with deal to question the feminist association of Shahbag protest. As Chowdhu to raise This Islamist andfundamentalists Islamophobic global discourse that influence the secular nationalists context, that In feminists. for Therefore, in the post 9/11 global conte actually mask Moreover, Europe, Islam/ east/west, the name of rel of reconfigurations contested of tradition/modernity number a of part actually

global

feminist positions and arguments

of of she she showed, - local local relation and dilemma of ‘women this vs. Islam’ becamediscourse a crucial issue s Islamic igion and cultural nationality a much greateraglobal, much complexity regional, of and dynamics local

However, (Helms 2008) (Helms udmnait edr roe i te eit oi o mns wesi of ownership men’s of logic sexist the in rooted leaders fundamentalist this this identity contest

by hnms ftefmns raiain wr ciiiig Isl criticizing were organizations feminist the of most when t s rca for crucial is it treat . Her analysis is also vital to understand the identity contest in contest identity the understand to vital also is analysis Her ing xt, xt, the ‘Islam vs. modernity’ discourse has become an issue

women as women as in in Bangladesh. It also

reaffirmed by such dichotomous representations which which which is

72 eiit stance feminist

(E. H. Chowdhury 20 only played out ove

misogynist militancy, most of the feminist the of most militancy, misogynist sexual objects, the nationalist assumption objects,sexual the ry explained, it has become a challenging are

not becomes

f agaeh o el ih both with deal to Bangladesh of addressing r the behavior and dress of women

11) a vital issue to understand . . In that context, where

the sexual politics of politics sexual the

and .

on economic amist . . CEU eTD Collection the gendered for a of notion nationalism more criticalandeffective feministposition. bedistanced and feminists should examined andcritically alliance scrutinized this be should nationalism. of roots sexist the analyzing from them restricted idea Islamist’ protest Shahbag the in active very n with allied are them of alliances.Most political and agenda priorityof the set organizationsto feminist for issue crucial a Islamophobic idea global in discourse to tried I chapter this In Conclusion: backwardMuslim women o uncritical remains also it nationalism, of logic nationalist thought. The nationalist

and - local context. In Bangladesh, in in Bangladesh, In context. local the misogynist ationalists to confront the Islamic fundamentalist attitude and they were they and attitude fundamentalist Islamic the confront to ationalists

cntut the econstruct

liberal notonly rhetoric address theunderlying doesn’t sexiest as well as uprising of Islamist fundamentalism . ‘

iea/ainls/rgesv v. Islamist/backward vs. liberal/nationalist/progressive However, the typical ‘secular/liberal/progressive vs. vs. ‘secular/liberal/progressive typical the However, 73

f neo f

context - liberal and modernist stereotyped idea of idea stereotyped modernist and liberal

of this this glob al political orientalist political al

in rural level I wan I t to argue that, that, argue to t

, it became from and and ’

CEU eTD Collection and I considered nationalism criticized trial. of history. Shahbag Conclusion Seventh Chapter men’s honor and that honor is defined by her sexual submission and ‘purity’. However, while while However, ‘purity’. and submission sexual her by defined is honor that and honor men’s of symbol the became women stance, shared this In sexuality. and body women’s about idea attack to weapons used the we became sexuality and body women’s it, of part discursive online the in protest, Shahbag the in patriarchal or sexist attitude. Therefore, despite the huge and prominent participation of women The gendered make

contextualize

the

connected discursive battle about Shahbag about battle discursive

While edrd sus ie a rp, dley wmns rpr rs cds n women’s and codes dress proper women’s adultery, rape, war like issues gendered

a apon of attack for both the poles of this battle. Both the Islamists and Bengali nationalists online

In scholarly

protest

Bengali

by my

the is

discursive

research,

the

not this

misogynist

2013

acceptable

with

nationalism contribution

feminist each other’s each questioned alliance

is gl

the

a obal battle

massive

high

ideology between political and

orientalist

between . Therefore, both of the poles shared the overl the shared poles the of both Therefore, . by in

days context

women’s

feminist political them.

nationalist

ally instigated protest of

that Islamists

rhetoric

of Rather, to

knowledge

event Bangladesh. organizations, most protest 74 that

by and

was exaggerated in online was rooted in that that in rooted was online in exaggerated was whose of the and

Islamist

was ‘Islam feminists the

liberal

Bengali by

feminist a continuity .

case

making

vs. the fundamentalists - s

ecular

preogress’ to nationalist

gendered

political

organizations. look

a is

much

stance still

the history

vital about

rhetoric By needed

of gendered of

apping gendered apping this,

for the the In

of the

this

Bangladeshi

country criticism Bangladesh I nationalists of

war wanted

elements research Bengali

crime

and

of to

CEU eTD Collection xliig h cs o oln btl bten hha poet n fmns alac, are, alliance, feminist and sexuality and body women’s masculinity, nationalism, protest Shahbag between battle online of case the for other explaining each connect to used I those concepts key the discourses, online the analyze To that and some with prominent discussions actors of experience and involvement personal my analyzed I Moreover, sphere. online of discourses uncritical alliance between feminists and Bengali nationalists. To do that, I mainly analyzed the t therefore and Nationalist and Islamists between battle discursive through The masculine ideologies. advocate and ideology of poles two these beyond critique feminist a make to want I thus research this In ideology. nationalist achieve gender equality in law and civil rights, they are not addressing sexual politics lies in the Isla against fighting are organizations women and feminists became a complicated p complicated a became the which by identity protest, I situate Before going to analyze the specific online discourse of a specific political event that is Shahbag same time exaggerate it. the analyzed also discourse of virtual sphere I to show how it is rooted on the power languages of gender and Moreover, at t identity. religious Muslim and identity linguistic Bengali discours progress’ vs. Icriticallyidea. also nationalist women’s

central focus of this research this of focus central

body, appearance and her sexuality used as the symbol of the masculine and sexist sexist and masculine the of symbol the as used sexuality her and appearance body, d

this this historical event in the political history of the contested debated of national e which is a determinant factor of constructing the oppositional idea of idea oppositional the constructing of factor determinant a is which e

demand of war crime trial and punishment of the accused criminals criminals accused the of punishment and trial crime war of demand olitical issue. I showed that, t that, showed I issue. olitical

enga t rie tid oiin ht a b ciia t bt o the of both to critical be can that position third a raise to s is g

to explore the gendered rhetoric of Bengali nationalism nationalism Bengali of rhetoric gendered the explore to ed

with 75

the

of Shahbag protest.of

orientalist globalpolitics orientalist in he emergence of Muslim and Bengali and Muslim of emergence he

national rhetoric. Ianalyzed rhetoric. national it ceg ad ioyy to misogyny and clergy mists

o problematize the problematize o to relate the ‘Islam ‘Islam relatethe to

that the he he CEU eTD Collection mg o Msi wmn a cntutd s akad uncivilized backward, as constructed was women Muslim of image the and emotion motherly and decency aesthetic, purity, superiority, spiritual secularism, of women ca The oppositio this to each other as the sign Bengali nationalist and Islamist discourses. Muslim and Bengali women constructed as opposite Muslim woman’s image for connecting this with Shahbag protest and its gendered war between On the next chapter, in relation to the po grounded.2013 is demand of war crime trial in the post Liberation era in Bangladesh in which the Shahbag protest histo anti with embedded were nationalisms identity. The ‘Liberation War vs. War ‘Liberation The identity. express bl Bengali The their The process of symbolized these i well. as liberal but Muslim, practicing educated, is She veil. like face the cover completelynot but sari, withher covered are wellchest and head whose women, andeducated, modern decent womanh of idea opposite apparently two these combining Therefore, oppressed. Howeve stereotypical progressive vs. backward idea of femininity referred to Bengali to referred femininity of idea backward vs. progressive stereotypical rical appearance ed by their political debates, especially about the issues of war crime trial and national and trial crime war of issues the about especially debates, political their by ed

used this historical construction. The idea of Bengali women articulated with the idea trajectory the idea of Bengali Muslim women of Bangladesh, emerged in a process of of process a in emerged Bangladesh, of women Muslim Bengali of idea the nal idea also influenced also idea nal o g , and became th , and became sphere and online community online and sphere

r, both of them have the shared

related related ifier ifier of progressive vs. backward women in Bengal and Bangladesh and to the emergence of online Bengali nationalism in parallel of the the of parallel in nationalism Bengali online of emergence the e bearer of Identitye of bearer rather than deas of Bengali and Muslim Jamat

its representations representations its - colonial movement colonial li ’ was one of the main burning issue in blogosphere in issue burning main the of one was ’ tical histo 76

eme underlined similarity of the idea of femininity. ry of identity contest, I analyze the Bengali rge d

of with a masculine sexist culture which culture sexist masculine a with and anti and Shahbag p Shahbag o wt a itr o liberated, of mixture a with ood womanho

the actual agent actual identity. the ofthis - Pakistani conscience. Pakistani rotest and its challenges. its and rotest o d fnaetls and fundamentalist , , represented through

vs. Mus vs. This lim -

CEU eTD Collection The gendered idea of nationalism was not critically examined here However, in Bangladesh, it is crucial to identify the gendered assumption of Bengali nationalism movements. nationalist of mobilization political the for and nation the imagining in inequality the nation, of making the In While, the masculine characteristics of nationalism is in general criticized by feminist critiques. with women’s bod members considered they where stance overlapping an share both criminals war convicted and The pro Shahbag protest. The online sphere became a of dayshigh the in explicit very become which relations power sexual the in rooted discourses between battle online The sexuality. with related words vulgar where both the ‘pro women’ discourse is also a also is discourse women’ women’ towards Islamist violence/threatsnationalist andfeminist came to together fundamentalist inopposition nationalist rhetoric.contest Thebetween inIslamist andfeminist positions Bangladesh, secular an nationalism Bengali of assumptions gendered analyzingunderlyingin the criticalvery Bangladesh not were in scholarly discourses ally of liberal feminists and NGOs to protest the misogynist propaganda. Therefore the feminist equality and ininheritance other law civil rights.Therefore,Ben the anti the opposing is nationalism -

Shahbag Shahbag B women that have been encountered in Bangladesh. Therefore, the idea of ‘Islam vs. ‘Islam of idea the Therefore, Bangladesh. in encountered been have that women emerged

as the

subject where women are theobject oftheir possessionby atta

which which is y, engali - Liberation’ nationalist and appearance

nationalist, secular and the Islamist, pro a n

dominant discourse the to nationalist gendered n gendered ideological product of global politics. Therefore, politics. global of productideological

and sexuality. - eua Ilms fundamentalism Islamist secular d otion otion to make to 77 discursive battleground fo of nationali of

Jamati

a critical examination of liberal masculine masculine liberal of examination critical a

bloggers started to sm reproduces and strengthen and reproduces sm Jamati - - Jamati, Jamati, supporters of accused feminist feminist ally. This ‘Islam vs. because; gali became nationalists an that r

and Bengali nationalist Bengali and

both of th attach each other with

r aant gender against are the secular Bengali cking each other for the feminist the for ese two poles.

the male male the

gender s . CEU eTD Collection by needed scholarly a make to want therefore I distance stance nationalist secular the misogyny, Islamist and women vs. Islam of idea orientalist global against fight propagand misogynist their and fundamentalism the of B

this orientalist and Islamophobic construction. However, at the same time, the rise of Islamist of rise the time, same the at However, construction. Islamophobic and orientalist angladesh it is important

research. criticism

from Bengali

shouldn’t

gendered

nationalists

Bengali not to

a n

is needed to fight against all kind of gendered power relations.

uncritical ally ally uncritical subscribe contribution

nationalism 78

this this idea without dist

a need to need a

in in for

feminist context

Bangladeshi feminists. A more critical critical more A feminists. Bangladeshi

of protest knowledge

Shahbag ancing their arguments from ed . I want to argue that, to to that, argue to want I .

protest by

making

Ban

this gladesh

much

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