An Investigation of Fourth and Fifth Year Pre-Service Music Teachers’ Preferences For, Familiarity With, and Willingness to Teach Six Ethnic Music Styles in Taiwan

AN INVESTIGATION OF FOURTH AND FIFTH YEAR PRE-SERVICE MUSIC TEACHERS’ PREFERENCES FOR, FAMILIARITY WITH, AND WILLINGNESS TO TEACH SIX ETHNIC MUSIC STYLES IN TAIWAN

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Chia-Chieh Wu, M.M.

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2017

Dissertation Committee:

Jan H. Edwards, Advisor

Daryl W. Kinney

Julia T. Shaw

Timothy J. San Pedro

Copyrighted by

Chia-Chieh Wu

2017

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with, and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles (i.e., Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian) to the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. Participants (N = 126) listened to 18 excerpts and rated their preferences for, familiarity with, and willingness to teach the ethnic music examples on seven-point Likert-type scales. As a validity check, the pre-service music teachers were required to identify the ethnic language in which each music example was performed. However, their abilities to identify the languages were not strongly correlated with their preferences for, familiarity with, and willingness to teach the music examples.

Findings indicated that the pre-service music teachers’ preference and familiarity ratings were positively correlated to their willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles.

Additionally, the participants’ enrollment year, and the interaction between the year of enrollment and certificate level significantly affected the participants’ familiarity with the ethnic music styles. Furthermore, music training was a significant variable that affected the participants’ willingness to teach the Hokkien ethnic music style. Three open-ended

ii questions regarding what the participants liked and disliked about the selected music and what would influence their willingness to teach the music examples were addressed to the pre-service music teachers. Participants’ most common responses for these open-ended questions focused on music style, timbre, and language, respectively.

iii

Dedication To my parents and my family

Acknowledgments

I am deeply indebted to my adviser, Dr. Jan Edwards, for her continued patience,

assistance, encouragement, and guidance throughout this study. I would like to express

my gratitude to the committee members, Dr. Daryl Kinney, Dr. Julia Shaw, and Dr.

Timothy San Pedro for their valuable insights and suggestions about the development of

this dissertation.

I would like to thank the university faculty for their assistance in allowing me to

conduct my study in their schools. I would also like to thank all the pre-service music

teachers who contributed to this research. This study would not have been completed

without their participation.

My family and friends have given me tremendous support and encouragement.

My beloved parents, Yu-Hsin and Yu-Ting, have always been supportive of my goals and

dreams with their unconditional love and believed I could make it throughout the period.

I would like to thank my husband, Hung-Yuan, for his constant inspiration, patience, and

devotion. Special thanks go to my three-month daughter, Claire Wu, for accompanying me when I wrote my dissertation and giving me great strength in my life. Finally, I would like to thank my dear friends in Ohio for their countless care and help.

Vita

2005 ...... B.A. English Teaching, National Dong Hwa

University, Taiwan (Formerly National

Hualien Teachers’ College)

2008-2012………………………………….. Music Teacher, Nantun Elementary School,

Taichung, Taiwan

2011 ...... M.M. Music Education, National Taichung

University of Education, Taiwan

2013 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio

State University, Columbus, Ohio

Publications

Wu, C. C. & Edwards, J. (2016). Implications of the evaluation of the arts IMPACT program in Columbus, Ohio. In T.S. Brophy, J. Marlatt, & G. K. Ritcher (Eds.),

Connecting practice, measurement, and evaluation: Selected papers from the 5th

International Symposium on Assessment in Music Education, (pp. 155-162). Chicago, IL:

GIA.

Wu, C. C. & Chuang, M. J. (2012). An investigation of the feasibility of developing music teacher certification in Taiwan. In T.S. Brophy (Eds.), Music Assessment across

Cultures and Continents-The Culture of Shared Practice: Selected papers from the 3rd

International Symposium on Assessment in Music Education, (pp. 201-214). Chicago, IL:

GIA.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

vii

Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………….. iv

Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………... v

Vita………………………………………………………………………………………..vi

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………. xii

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………...……... xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………...1

Background……………………………………………………………………………..5

Need for the Study……………………………………………………………………...6

Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 10

Definitions of Terms………………………………………………………………….. 11

Delimitations of the Study…………………………………………………………… 13 Chapter 2: Review of Literature……………………………………………………….. 15

Philosophical Perspectives of Multicultural Music Education………...……………...17

Rationales for Multicultural Music Education………...…………………………...… 21

Philosophical Foundation: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy…………………………25

Definition……………………………………………………………………………25

viii

Culturally Responsive Curriculum and Teaching………………………………….. 26

Music Preference……………………………………………………………………... 31

Historical Account of Studies in Music Preference…………………………………31

Familiarity………………………………………………………………………….. 34

Music Training…...………………………………………………………………… 37

Language and Children’s Responses to Music…………………………………….. 40

Teacher Attitudes…………….………………………………………………………..43

Summary………………………………………………………………………………48

Chapter 3: Research Method and Design……………………………………………….. 51

Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 51

Participants…………………………………………………………………………… 52

Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………. 54

Music Preference Rating (MPR)…………………………………………………….56

Music Teacher’s Willingness to Teach Rating (MTWR)…………………………...56

Ethnic Language Identification (ELI)……………………………………………….57

Music Selection…………………………………………………………………….. 57

Pilot Study………………………………………………………………………….. 59

Procedure……………………………………………………………………………... 64

Main Study…………………………………………………………………………. 64

Chapter 4: Results……………………………………………………………………….. 67

Descriptive Statistics for Participants’ Demographic Data…………………………... 68

Research Question 1………………………………………………………………….. 70

Research Question 2…………………………………………………………………..73

Research Question 3…………………………………….…………………………….76

Research Question 4…………………………………………………………………..80

Research Question 5…………………………………………………………………..82

Research Question 6…………………………………………………………………...84

MANOVA for Preference, Familiarity and Willingness Ratings by Year, Music

Training, and Music Certificate Level …………….………………………………..85

MANOVA for Preference by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate Level..85

MANOVA for Familiarity by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate Level.89

MANOVA for Willingness by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate Leve.95

MANOVA for Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings by Internship…..100

Open-ended Questions……………………………………………………………… 104

Chapter 5: Discussion…………………..…………………………………………….. 118

Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………….. 119

Participants’ Preference Responses..……………………………………………... 119

Participants’ Familiarity Responses...…………………………………………….. 120

Participants’ Willingness Responses…………………………………………….. 122

Language Identification………………………………………………………….. 125

Implications………………………………………………………………………… 127

Recommendations for Future Research……………………………………………...129

Conclusions..…………………………………………………………………………131

References………………………………………………………………………………133

Appendix A: Fourth-Year Music Listening Questionnaire English and Chinese

Version …..…………………………………………………………………………..143

Appendix B: Fifth-Year Music Listening Questionnaire English and Chinese Version. 158

Appendix C: Letter to Solicit Instructor’s Permission English and Chinese Version…. 173

Appendix D: Consent Form English and Chinese Version…………………………… 176

Appendix E: Verbal Recruit Script English and Chinese Version…………………….. 181

List of Tables

Table 1. Questionnaire Content…………………………………………………………. 59

Table 2. List of Music Excerpts on the Music Listening Survey…………...……………62

Table 3. Item and Reliability Analysis of the Music Excerpts Selection………………. 63

Table 4. Descriptive Analysis of Participants’ Gender…………………………………. 68

Table 5. Descriptive Analysis of the to be Gained Certificate Level…………………... 69

Table 6. Descriptive Analysis of Participants’ Music Training…………………………. 70

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics for Preference by Ethnic Music Style…...……………... 72

Table 8. Descriptive Statistics for Preference Ratings for the Six Ethnic Music Styles... 73

Table 9. Descriptive Statistics for Familiarity by Ethnic Music Style…...………..……. 75

Table 10. Descriptive Statistics for Familiarity Ratings for the Six Ethnic Music Styles.76

Table 11. Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Teach the Six Ethnic Music Styles.. 78

Table 12. Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Teach Ratings for the Six Ethnic

Music Styles…………………………………………………………………... 79

Table 13. Frequency Count for the Identification of the Six Ethnic Languages (N =

126) …………………………………………………………………………... 80

Table 14. Frequencies of Correct Responses for Identifying Six Ethnic Languages…… 82

Table 15. Pearson Correlations between Accuracy of Language Identification and

Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings for Each Ethnic Music

Style (N = 126)..……………………………………………………………… 84 xii

Table 16. Participants’ Preference for the Six Music Styles…………..……………….. 86

Table 17. MANOVA Results of Music Preference for Six Ethnic Music Style Categories

by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122)….……………...... 89

Table 18. Participants’ Familiarity with the Six Music Styles…………………………. 90

Table 19. MANOVA Results of Music Familiarity for Six Ethnic Music Style

Categories by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122)..……... 94

Table 20. Participants’ Willingness to Teach the Six Music Styles……………………. 96

Table 21. MANOVA Results of Music Willingness to Teach Six Ethnic Music Style

Categories by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122)………100

Table 22. Means and Standard Deviations of Preference by Internship (N = 49)……. 101

Table 23. Means and Standard Deviations of Familiarity by Internship (N = 49)…….. 102 Table 24. Means and Standard Deviations of Willingness to Teach Ratings by Internship

(N = 49)……………………………………………………………………... 103

Table 25. MANOVA Results of Music Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings

for Six Ethnic Music Style Categories by Internship (N = 49)…………..…. 104

Table 26. Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What They Liked of the

Music…………………………………………………………………………105

Table 27. Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What They Disliked of

the Music……………………………………………………………………..108

Table 28. Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What Influenced Their

Teaching Willingness………………………………………………………...111

xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Interaction between Certificate Level and Year in School on Mean Ratings of

Familiarity………………………………………………………………………………..95

xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction

Cultural diversity and music teaching and learning became a crucial topic for discussion at the Yale Seminar in 1963, the Tanglewood Symposium in 1967, and later the

Housewright Symposium in 1999 (Madsen, 2000; Volk, 1998). At the Tanglewood

Symposium, the final declaration served as a landmark for multicultural music education:

“Music from all periods, styles, forms, and cultures belongs in the curriculum. The musical repertory should be expanded to involve music of our time in its rich variety, including currently popular teenage music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of other cultures” (Choate, 1968, p. 139). In 1994, the Music Educators National

Conference (now the National Association for Music Education) published the National

Standards for Music Education. The document included nine content standards to guide music teaching and learning including the following: “understanding music in relation to history and culture” (Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 1994).

The most recent census data from the United States confirms the need to re- examine some of the concerns and topics from the Yale Seminar, the Tanglewood

Symposium, and the Housewright Symposium. However, many of the ideas that promoted music teaching from a multicultural approach emerged from the Yale Seminar, 1

Tanglewood Symposium and later, the Housewright Symposium. The current demographic makeup in the United States as documented in the 2010 United States Census, shows that the majority population is white (U.S. Census, 2011). If the earlier predictions continue, single-race non-Hispanic white children who under 18 (currently at 52%), are expected to decrease to 36% by 2060. Further, the non-white population, currently at 38%, is expected to rise to 56% in 2060 (U.S. Census, 2015).

As with in the United States, in the current culturally diverse Taiwanese society, multicultural education has also become an important issue for educators. For example, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education (2016) reported on an emerging shift in the

Taiwanese population structure. According to the Hakka Affairs Council (2011),

Taiwanese participants were asked to self-identify their ethnicit y. The results indicated that the Taiwanese population consisted mainly of four ethnic groups: Hokkien (67.5%),

Hakka (13.6%), Mainland Chinese (7.1%), and Taiwanese Aborigines (1.8%). Among the four populations, the Chinese language was used most often by the population, followed in descending rank by Hokkein, Hakka, and Taiwanese Aboriginal languages. However, the fifth population termed “New Immigrants” emerged. The percentage of students who are New Immigrants studying in elementary schools and junior high schools had increased from 2.2% to 10.6% over the past ten years (Taiwanese Ministry of Education,

2016). The majority of these New Immigrants had come from Vietnam, China, and

Indonesia and the New Immigrants from Vietnam and Indonesia mainly spoke 2

Vietnamese and Indonesian, respectively. The increase in the number of ethnic

immigrants has impacted the racial and ethnic diversity in Taiwanese education and

culture. Due to the increase in diversity in Taiwanese schools, music educators have been

faced with the challenge of teaching multicultural music to a diverse Taiwanese

population.

Taiwanese Ministry of Education (2015) developed 12-year Basic Education

Curriculum Guidelines that emphasize the importance of multicultural education.

Students are expected to possess beliefs of self-culture identity, respect and appreciate multi-culture, positively care about global issues and international conditions; also,

according to the time movements and social needs to develop international

understanding, multicultural values and world peace minds. Originally students’ language

Vietnamese and Indonesian, are included in the language selection. Students can select

native languages (Hokkien, Hakka, and Taiwanese Aboriginal language) or New

Immigrants’ languages (Vietnamese and Indonesian) based on their learning needs

(National Academy for Educational Research, 2014).

In keeping with the demographic changes in Taiwan, the Taiwanese Arts and

Humanities Curriculum Guidelines (2008) emphasize the importance of art and historical 3

culture for students (Taiwan Elementary and Secondary Educator Community). For instance, first and second graders are encouraged to understand the relationship between

art and historical culture from various works. Third and fourth graders should be given

opportunities to collect and appreciate music in daily life and from different races. Fifth

and sixth graders should learn to perform different cultural music styles by imitating or

reading notation; appreciate representative music works from different periods, regions

and cultures; and know domestic and international music performing groups.

Many scholars have provided or supported rationales for multicultural music education. For example, Fung (1995) stated that the process of learning culturally unfamiliar music is similar to a journey from knowing oneself to knowing unfamiliar people and their cultural experiences. Blair and Kondo (2008) stated that “multicultural music offers a wealth of rich musical works for students to explore. Through active engagement with new musical ideas, [individuals] learn about the music and about other people” (p.50). Individuals whose learning experiences include the music of other cultures may develop a global perspective both of society and of various music systems (Dobbs,

1982). Learning multicultural music is one way to learn art and historical culture that is emphasized by Taiwanese Arts and Humanities Curriculum Guidelines. Furthermore, through music learning, teachers can address issues concerning sociocultural inequity and cultural experience. Elliott (1989) stated, “If the process of music education reflects, distils and abstracts cultural values,—if music education functions as culture—then music 4 education may also have the potential to change prejudicial attitudes and behaviors”

(p.14).

To achieve Taiwanese Ministry of Education’s 12-year Basic Education Curriculum

Guidelines as well as Taiwanese Arts and Humanities Curriculum Guidelines, some teaching pedagogies in the United States regarding cultural orientations of diverse students may serve as philosophical foundations for Taiwanese music teachers to increase students’ music and cultural understanding. Those pedagogies use students’ culture as a critical source of education to enhance their learning achievements and identities (Gay, 2000;

Irizarry, 2007; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Nieto, 1999).

Background

Ladson-Billings (1995) proposed culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP), a theoretical teaching model. According to Ladson-Billings (1995), culturally relevant pedagogy “must meet three criteria: an ability to develop students academically, a willingness to nurture and support cultural competence, and the development of a sociopolitical or critical consciousness” (p. 483). Geneva Gay (2000, 2010) advocates for culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP) that uses “the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2000, p.29). Gay (2000) states that CRP invites students to “know and praise their own and each others’ cultural heritages” (p.29). Recent research on the use of CRP in music education by Bulter and McKoy (2007), Kelly- 5

McHale (2013), Robinson (2006), Safrina (2013), Shaw (2012, 2015), Stauffer (2009), and

Irizzary (2007) may influence CRP in 21st century music teaching and learning.

Music educators may serve as significant agents of change when they teach and invite students to appreciate and learn multicultural music. However, most music teachers in Taiwanese public schools are trained with a Eurocentric approach (Hung, 2011), a central reason being that the dominance of Western art music traditions in college and music teacher education (Kindall-Smith et al., 2011; Wang & Humphreys, 2009).

Hargreaves and North (2001) pointed out that Western art music has prevailed in many countries and has brought negative influences on peoples’ attitudes toward the traditional local musics of some countries.

Need for the Study

Many researchers (Brittin & Sheldon, 1995; Fung, 1996; Keston & Pinto, 1955;

Misenhelter & Price, 2001; Palmquist, 1990; Sheldon, 1995) have examined the effect of musical training by comparing musicians’ and non-musicians’ different responses to the same musical stimuli. However, fewer studies have examined music training types on music preference. Some researchers have indicated that music training may affect listeners’ music preference (Chiang, 2014; Ginocchio, 2009; Gregory, 1994; Hargreaves,

Comber, & Colley, 1995; Kelly, 1961). In this study, I investigated whether participants’ music training revealed a difference in their music preference for familiar and unfamiliar ethnic music styles from Taiwan. The music preferences of teachers may affect their 6 music selection in classroom settings. Therefore, this study also investigated fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from Taiwan.

Most music teachers in Taiwanese public schools are trained with a Eurocentric approach. However, their attitudes toward multicultural music have been underexplored.

To promote the development of multicultural music education as described by the

Ministry of Education in Taiwan, research that explores pre-service music teachers’ music preference, familiarit y, and their expressed willingness to teach Taiwanese ethnic music styles may serve as one starting point.

In Taiwan, pre-service music education students become either fourth-year or fifth-year pre-service music education students in their final year in the college undergraduate degree program. Fourth-year pre-service music teachers who take music education coursework and have not started their half-year internship at elementary/secondary schools. Fifth-year pre-service music teachers are those who complete their coursework and begin a half-year internship at elementary/secondary schools. During this period, they are teaching students from different cultural backgrounds, observing music teaching practice, and learning diverse music styles inside/outside of textbooks. The effect of multicultural music experiences was found to influence pre-service elementary majors’ attitudes or willingness to teach multicultural music activities (Teicher, 1997). After fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ internship at 7

elementary/secondary schools and obtaining a teaching certificate, music teachers could

play an important role in the implementation of multicultural music approaches in the

music classroom.

If music teachers are willing to teach multicultural music and use children’s music

culture as a vehicle for learning, it “builds bridges of meaningfulness between home and

school experiences as well as between academic abstractions and lived socio-cultural

realities” (Gay, 2000, p.12). When diverse students learn music within the cultural

context of their own and others, students’ musical experiences can be expanded, and thus

they may become more receptive to a wide variety of music styles (Anderson &

Campbell, 2010). Although the statement has not yet been confirmed through research,

findings in many studies (McCrary, 1993, 2003; McCrary & Gauthier, 1995; Morrison &

Yeh, 1999) strongly suggest that exposure may broaden students’ music preferences for

unfamiliar music. For instance, Teo (2008) compared the differences of preferences,

familiarity, and identification of Chinese, Malay, and Indian music styles between

secondary students from Singapore and the United Kingdom. Findings revealed that

cultural exposure and education would affect students’ responses to different music styles.

One important factor that influences music preference is familiarity (Bradley,

1971; Demorest & Schultz, 2004; Fung, 1994a; Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves &

Castell, 1987; Teo, Hargreaves, & Lee, 2008). Many studies (Bradley, 1971; Getz, 1966; 8

Hargreaves & Castell, 1987) have explored the inverted-U theory (Walker, 1981).

According to these studies, the nearest optimum preference might be achieved through an intermediate level of complexity; but the lower and higher levels of complexity might decrease preference. Also, repetition of musical stimuli can affect higher or lower preferences for selected music (Bradley, 1971; Getz, 1966).

In addition, listeners’ music preferences are linked to their language background or usage. For example, Abril and Flowers (2007) found that bilingual (English/Spanish) students preferred music that was sung in Spanish more than music that was sung in

English or music without vocals (i.e., instrumental only). Bilingual students pointed out that Spanish “connected them with a musical style, characterized by its language (i.e.,

“Spanish music”)” (p.215). Sakai (2011) suggested that for “children with migrational backgrounds, language background plays a more important role for music orientation than do media usage or verbal preferences” (p.190). According to Sakai (2011), students’ music preferences were predicted by participants’ family language background. However,

Britten (2014) only found small links between young listeners’ preference and number of languages spoken. At present, research on pre-service music teachers’ understanding or use of the languages sung in non-Western music styles is scarce.

Accordingly, the present study was an investigation of Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. The six 9

ethnic music styles were Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese,

and Indonesian. As a validity check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which each music example was performed. This study used the

definition for “style” that was used in Teo, 2008: “By style, we refer to national styles,

not general genres, such as pop” (p.71).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six

ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. As a validity

check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which

each music example was performed. The six ethnic music styles were Chinese, Hokkien,

Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian. The research questions were

as follows:

1. What were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers’ preferences for the ethnic

music examples within each music style?

2. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers familiar with the ethnic music

examples within each music style?

3. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers willing to teach the ethnic music

examples within each music style?

4. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers able to correctly identify the ethnic 10

language for each music example?

5. Were there any relationships among the participants’ willingness to teach, preferences

for, familiarity with, and ability to correctly identify the languages of the six ethnic

music styles?

6. Did the participants’ Western and non-Western music training, year of enrollment,

certificate level, and internship experience reveal any differences in the participants’

preferences, familiarity and willingness to teach responses?

Definitions of Terms

Culture: “Shared beliefs, values, and customs of a group or society” (Howe & Lisi,

p.397).

Culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP): A pedagogical approach that “uses the cultural

knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically

diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them”

(Gay, 2000, p.29). Also, according to Shaw (2014), CRP to music education implies

child-centered approach, rather than solely focusing on musical products or processes.

Ethnic: “The common characteristics of a group of people based upon a common

language, racial, or national origin (Howe, 2014, p.397).”

Familiarity: “Assumption of having heard [the musical stimuli] somewhere before.

Predictability, as a result of repeated exposure to same or similar music” (Price, 1986, p.153). In this study, participants responded on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = I am not familiar with this music, 7 = I am familiar with this music).

Multicultural education: “a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students” (Nieto & Bode, 2008, p.44); a rejection of discrimination; and infusion of multicultural education through the curriculum and teaching approach, including interaction among teachers, students, and parents (Nieto & Bode, 2012).

Preference: “An act of choosing, esteeming, or giving advantage to one thing over another” (Price, 1986, p. 154). “Music preference decisions are based upon the interaction of input information and the characteristics of the listener, with input information consisting of the musical stimulus and the listener's cultural environment”

(LeBlanc, 1987, p. 139). In this study, participants’ music preferences were examined by a 7-point Likert scale (1 = I dislike, 7 = I like).

The fifth-year pre-service music teachers: Prospective music teachers who finished their music education coursework and graduated from universities in summer 2015. They began their half-year internship in August 2015 and finished their intern program in late 12

January 2016.

The fourth-year pre-service music teachers: Prospective music teachers who took music education coursework with the purpose of teaching music in school settings and have not started their half-year internship at elementary/secondary schools.

World Music: World music is defined as “music from any culture in the world” (Fung,

1994a, p.26) and non-Western art music. “The rubric ‘world music’ was first coined . . . to categorize instruction in traditions other than those of European classical music”

(Wade, 2004, p.129).

Delimitations of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. As a validity check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which each music example was performed. Some delimitation existed. First, this study only investigated pre-service music teachers from five of the eleven universities that provide music teacher education programs in Taiwan. Pre-service teachers who have completed most or all of their coursework, are described as fourth-year or fifth-year pre-service teachers. For this study, the fourth-year participants were in their fourth and final year of 13

coursework and had not started their half-year internship. The fifth-year intern pre- service music teachers had completed their four-year music education degree coursework and were in their fifth-year internship at elementary or secondary schools. Most prospective music teachers are trained in Western-art music in music teacher education.

Some universities may require a world music course and others may not require any study in non-Western art or folk music. Second, in this study, I selected music excerpts from six of the largest ethnic populations in Taiwan: Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka,

Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese and Indonesian. The sample of excerpts were restricted to female vocal with instrument rather than solely vocal or instrumental pieces to control confounding factors such as gender of the singers and the difficulty in obtaining pieces that were completely vocal or instrumental in six ethnic music styles.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

In 2016, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education reported on an emerging shift in the

Taiwanese population structure. According to the Hakka Affairs Council (2011),

Taiwanese participants were asked to self-identify their ethnicit y. The results indicated that the Taiwanese population consisted mainly of four ethnic groups: Hokkien (67.5%),

New Immigrants from Vietnam and Indonesia mainly spoke Vietnamese and Indonesian, respectively. The increase in the number of ethnic immigrants has impacted the racial and ethnic diversity in Taiwanese education and culture.

Taiwanese Ministry of Education (2015) developed 12-year Basic Education

Curriculum Guidelines that emphasize the importance of multicultural education. 15

Students are expected to possess beliefs of self-culture identity, respect and appreciate multi-culture, and positively care about global issues and international conditions; also,

according to the time movements and social needs to develop international

understanding, multicultural values and world peace minds. Originally students’ language

courses include Chinese, English, second foreign language, and native languages. The native languages are Hokkien, Hakka, and Taiwanese Aboriginal language. To implement the goal of respect multiculturalism, New Immigrants’ languages, including Vietnamese and Indonesian, are included in the language selection. Students can select native languages (Hokkien, Hakka, and Taiwanese Aboriginal language) or New Immigrants’ languages (Vietnamese and Indonesian) based on their learning needs (National Academy for Educational Research, 2014).

In keeping with societal change, the Taiwanese Arts and Humanities Curriculum

Guidelines (2008) emphasize the importance of art and historical culture for students

(Taiwan Elementary and Secondary Educator Community). For instance, first and second

graders are encouraged to understand the relationship between art and historical culture

from various works. Third and fourth graders should be given opportunities to collect and

appreciate music in daily life and from different races. Fifth and sixth graders should

learn to perform different cultural music styles by imitating or reading notation;

appreciate representative music works from different periods, regions and cultures; and

know domestic and international music performing groups. 16

Philosophical Perspectives of Multicultural Music Education

Originally, multiculturalism was primarily concerned with issues of race and ethnicity and contemporarily expanded its scope to include religion, age, exceptional ability, gender, social class, language, and sexual orientation (Banks & Banks, 2007).

Banks (2004) advocated that the purpose for multicultural education is “to reform the school and other educational institutions so that students from diverse racial, ethnic, and social-class groups will experience educational equality” (p. 3). However, similar to the dominance of Western art music traditions in college and music teacher education in the

United States and perhaps other countries, most music teachers in Taiwanese public schools are trained with a Eurocentric approach (Hung, 2011).

Reimer (2003) pointed out that music not only comes from a western art music system but from other social structures or cultures. Each culture’s music can have a different meaning and musical system. If we believe that only Westerners own well- developed aesthetic criteria, we ignore the fact that all cultures have their own criteria.

We should understand that a given culture cannot determine the culture for the rest of the world and cannot force others to conform to its beliefs, needs and practices. What we can do is to honor, cherish, encourage, preserve and protect the existing diversity of music

(Reimer, 2003).

In K-12 school, a wide array of musical voices is ignored and cannot be fully represented when music educators make choices regarding curriculum content (Jorgensen, 17

2007; Hay, 2003). Similarly, Elliott (1995) indicated that if school programs only offer students a few Western classical, or jazz practices, students may lose the opportunity to learn that “MUSIC is a diverse human practice” (p.208) and “MUSIC is a diverse national, regional, and local practice” (p.208). Furthermore, Elliot stated that “If MUSIC consists in a diversity of music cultures, then MUSIC is inherently multicultural. And if

MUSIC is inherently multicultural, then music education ought to be multicultural in essence” (1995, p. 207).

Reimer (2003) supported a comprehensive music curriculum that offers diverse interactive ways of learning, such as listening, performing, and improvising; also, people can think and learn about music in many ways, including cultural contexts, and musical functions. He also highlighted that general music’s goal is to “enable all students to develop their awareness of the roles that music encompasses in their culture, so that those roles can be appreciated, understood, and seen as the repertoire of musical possibilities open to all” (p.252). Music educators may encourage students to explore all the important ways concerning how diverse cultures play different roles in music making, appreciation, as well as delivering musical values (Reimer, 2003).

Within his philosophy, Reimer (2003) indicated that students’ musical experiences do not need to be restricted to familiar music; furthermore, the less familiar music can become more familiar. Reimer identified four types of knowing music: knowing within, knowing about, knowing why, and knowing how. Knowing within 18

features “some measure of internalizing, in one’s mind, body and feelings, the particular

‘flavor’—the characteristic musical qualities—of that music” (p.196). “To internalize any

unfamiliar music it is necessary to get that music ‘in one’s ears’— to immerse oneself in

what it sounds like” (p.196). Reimer stressed that listening is a forthright way of knowing

a music. Meanwhile, we need to be more cognizant of the expectations within any given

music. Knowing about is characterized by an appreciation of a culture's “life, belief, behavior, and values” (p.196). Knowing why entails understanding the reasons behind a

culture’s significant characteristics and how those influence the culture's interaction with

the world. Knowing how requires deep immersive listening to internalize the unfamiliar

music. Knowing about and knowing why serve as means to contribute to the purpose of

knowing within and knowing how (Reimer, 1992).

Elliott (1995) advocated for a praxial philosophy of music education that serves as

a way in supporting the development of a multicultural music curriculum. “The term

praxial emphasizes that music ought to be understood in relation to the meanings and

values evidenced in actual music making and music listening in specific cultural contexts”

(Elliott, 1995, p.14). According to this philosophy, music education features “curriculum-

as-practicum” (Elliott, 1995, p.293). Through reflective musical practicums, students

develop insights into “deeper understandings of the beliefs (artistic, social, and cultural) that influence music making and listening in different practices” (p.293). When a music

teacher introduces students to an unfamiliar music culture, the teacher can invite the 19 students to interpret and later, perform this music. The process would continue as the teacher introduces other related and unrelated works to expand the students’ musicianship.

A multicultural music curriculum ideally “connects the individual self with the personhood of other musicers and audiences in other times and places (Elliott, 1995, p.209).

Based on Pratte’s (1979) ideologies for multicultural education, Elliott (1989) identified music curricular approaches for multicultural music education. The first three models, assimilationist, amalgamationist, and open society, eliminate cultural diversity.

According to Elliott, an assimilationist music curriculum is concerned with the Western

European traditions. The major aims are the “elevation of taste and the breakdown of minority students’” cultural music (p.15). An amalgamationist music curriculum involves inclusion of a few ethnic and subculture music, but only if their elements and ideas can support the dominant musical styles. An open society curriculum is characterized by an

“allegiance to the music of one’s cultural heritage [and] represents an obstacle to social unity” that impedes progress (Elliott, 1989, p.16). This curriculum only pursues music for the nation-state’s development.

Elliott identified three additional categories concerning the preservation of cultural diversity. First, insular multiculturalism features a curriculum that teaches minority music that reflects the local community within a dominant culture. This curriculum does not modify the original curriculum. Modified multiculturalism offers 20 students a variety of music based on the “regional and/or national boundaries of culture, ethnicity, religion, function, or race” (p. 17). Students learn how music has been modified by the dominant culture. This music education is organized as it would be in the native culture. However, this curriculum is structured using conceptual perspectives, such as

“musical elements, processes, roles and behaviours” (p.17). Dynamic multiculturalism features a variety of music styles and is characterized by the creation of a musical community of interest that “recycles concepts and experiences in a variety of musical contexts thereby enriching these concepts and experiences” (p.18). Music is approached with diverse perspectives; Western European perspective is replaced by music concepts endemic to the culture. Elliott (1989) recommended the dynamic multicultural music curriculum cultivates appreciation toward both world music and the world’s people. Also,

Volk (1998) suggested that dynamic multiculturalism facilitates “a two-way interaction between various music cultures and topics such as turning systems, the role of teachers and listeners, or music and other art forms” (p.13).

Rationales for Multicultural Music Education

Many scholars stated rationales for the inclusion of multicultural music education including practical, musical, aesthetic, social, global, and sociocultural reasons (Anderson

& Campbell, 2010; Blair & Kondo, 2008; Boele, 2001; Dobbs, 1982; Elliott, 1989; Fung,

1995; Jenne, 1986; King, 1991; Norman, 1999; Reimer, 2003; Schippers & Kors, 2002;

Slobin, 1992; Volk, 1998). Based upon a practical rationale, Boele (2001) felt that we 21 should invite our students to be cognizant of diverse music and offer activities that feature different kinds of music. Boele posited, “We should teach our students to act in a musical world of choice. We should make them aware of the manifold of musics in society [sic] and, in order to enable them to survive in this world of choice, to relate their activities to many kinds of music and to an audience that is constantly making choices”

(Boele, 2001, p.26). Similarly, Schippers and Kors (2002) suggested that in the near future listeners would have more opportunities to know diverse music genres. Through greater exposure to diverse music genres, embracing world music enables young musicians to be better prepared for professional musical activities.

Some scholars stated that musical value is another rationale for multicultural music education (Anderson & Campbell, 2010; Jenne, 1986). For example, by studying a wide array of music, students’ musical experiences may be expanded and thus, allow them to become more receptive to a variety of music styles (Anderson & Campbell, 2010;

Jenne, 1986). Anderson and Campbell (2010) identified other benefits, including a) students have opportunity to know that diverse music and culture in the world are as sophisticated as their own, b) students are invited to explore many different ways to construct music, and c) students develop better musical flexibility in performing, listening, and appreciating music.

Reimer (2003) and Volk (1998) offer aesthetics as another rationale for multicultural music education. Terese Volk (1998) explained, “listening to, performing, 22 or composing music from any culture can lead to aesthetic experiences for the students.

The intrinsic value of music from any culture may be appreciated to some extent by anyone, regardless of background” (p.6). Similarly, Reimer (2003) believed that “music can be described as sounds organized to be inherently meaningful” (p. 152) and brings in aesthetic responses.

The social rationale posited by Fung stated that music can be an agent to teach students the importance of tolerance, open-mindedness, and unbiased thinking and to reflect ethnic diversity (Fung, 1995). Similarly, Norman (1999) investigated nine college professors’ perspectives on the potential societal benefits of multicultural music education. The findings regarding societal benefit included: “(a) sensitivity and respect for difference, (b) tolerance, (c) cross-cultural understanding, and (d) achievement and self-esteem for minorities” (p.45). Additionally, Reimer (1991) described the process of learning other music cultures as a journey from knowing one’s own culture and cultural values to knowing and absorbing the culture and values of others equally well. Other scholars (Blair & Kondo, 2008) also stated that students learn both the music and people when they actively engage in exploring a wide variety of multicultural music.

Fung (1995) stated a global rationale for world music. With the advent of the internet and communication, world music does not need to be limited within geographical boundaries but can be exchanged and transmitted (Slobin, 1992). Dobbs (1982), like

Fung, stated that students who engage in learning experiences of music of other cultures can develop a global perspective of diverse music systems and societies.

Finally, multicultural music education can address issues of sociocultural inequity

(Elliott, 1989; King, 1991). King (1991) pointed out that some students showed “limited knowledge and understanding of societal inequity” and were unaware of their own ideology and subjective identities that showed “uncritical identification with the existing social order” (1991, p. 135). Elliott (1989) indicated “If the process of music education reflects, distils and abstracts cultural values—if music education functions as culture— then music education may also have the potential to change prejudicial attitudes and behaviours” (p.14). Irizarry (2007) described how a teacher facilitated mini-discussions in which students’ addressed their struggle for educational equity and social justice. To provide a safe space for authentic conversations among the students, the teacher used rap music as a tool for making space for students to voice their perspectives and critique institutional oppression.

In Irizarry’s (2007) study, the teacher’s use of familiar music to encourage positive responses from young learners and the desire to increase learners’ musical knowledge, experience, and positive responses to culturally unfamiliar music has deep ties to the literature on music preference. According to Price (1986), preference “is the act of choosing, esteeming, giving advantage to one thing over another” (p. 154). However, relying on the works of several scholars, many of whom are cited in the following 24

sections, (e.g., Farnsworth, 1950; LeBlanc, 1982), Price defines taste as “a person’s

overall attitude toward collective musical phenomena. Long-term commitment to musical

preferences. A social matter that tends to vary with varying groups of people, places, and

times…” (p. 154). Although multicultural music education should be a part of the school

music curriculum, teachers must be aware of their own preferences for different music

which may impact their willingness to teach the music of other cultures.

Philosophical Foundation: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy

Definition

In the United States, some teaching pedagogies regarding the culture orientations

of diverse students have been referred to in different ways, including culturally relevant

(Ladson-Billings, 1995), culturally sensitive, reflective, synchronized, centered, and

responsive (Gay, 2000). These pedagogies can serve as philosophical foundations for

Taiwanese music teachers in using them to increase students’ musical and cultural understanding.

Ladson-Billings (1995) proposed culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP), a theoretical teaching model. The theory of this pedagogy was developed from practices and reflections of eight excellent teachers. Those teachers had 12 to 40 years of teaching experience, worked with African-American students and were concerned with their students’ academic achievement. According to Ladson-Billings (1995), culturally relevant pedagogy “must meet three criteria: an ability to develop students academically, a willingness to nurture 25

and support cultural competence, and the development of a sociopolitical or critical

consciousness” (p. 483).

Nieto (1999) stated that “[c]ulturally responsive education, an approach based on

using students’ cultures as an important source of their education, can go a long way in

improving the education of students whose cultures and backgrounds have been maligned

or omitted in schools” (p.68). Similarly, Irizarry (2007) stated that “connecting with

students and responding to their cultural identities are at the heart of culturally responsive

pedagogy” (p. 21). Also, Geneva Gay (2000, 2010) advocated for CRP that uses “the

cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of

ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for

them” (Gay, 2000, p.29). As a philosophical base for this study, I used Gay's CRP because

it refers to a teacher's response to students’ culture, and the teacher’s willingness to provide an effective approach to improve student learning. Also, according to Shaw (2012),

CRP in music education implies that the teacher uses a child-centered approach, rather than solely focusing on musical products or processes.

Culturally Responsive Curriculum and Teaching

Music teachers should respect each individual’s uniqueness, respond to students’

culture, develop a student-centered curriculum and implement multisensory pedagogies to

meet students’ different needs. Many scholars (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 1999; Irizarry, 2007;

Shaw, 2012) suggest using children’s culture for learning “builds bridges of 26 meaningfulness between home and school experiences as well as between academic abstractions and lived socio-cultural realities” (Gay, 2000, p.12). Lu (2012), who adopted

CRP in teaching immigrant students in Taiwan, believed that students performed better when teachers aroused students’ learning motivations and incorporated immigrant students’ authentic life experiences in the curriculum. Similarly, Shaw (2012) described how teachers should select repertoire considering their students cultural and personal experiences with music first. When selecting repertoire, students’ cultural backgrounds serve as a starting point, thus allowing the music teacher to include their cultural backgrounds, and their musical and life experiences.

Previously, Taiwanese populations consisted mainly of four ethnic groups including Hokkien, Hakka, Mainland Chinese, and Taiwanese Aborigines (Hakka Affairs

Council, 2011). Additionally, the fifth population mainly comes from Vietnam, China, and

Indonesia, termed as New Immigrants, has gradually increased. Considering the variety of ethnic groups that the teacher may face, most pre-service music teachers in Taiwan may not be familiar with all students’ music and culture and their willingness to teach these music style has not be investigated. Thus, this study examined pre-service music teachers’ willingness to teach students’ music from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan.

Gay’s (2002) criteria for teachers who wish to engage in CRP can easily transfer to music education settings. Gay posited that culturally responsive teachers should “[develop] a knowledge base about cultural diversity”, “[include] ethnic and cultural diversity into the 27

curriculum”, and strive to “[build] learning communities” (p.106). Gay (2002) also believed in classrooms that promote “cultural congruity in classroom instruction,” noting students’ prior and cultural experiences can be used as learning materials (p.112).

To offer a culturally responsive curriculum to music students, teachers must understand “detailed factual information about the cultural particularities of specific ethnic groups” (Gay, 2002, p. 107). For example, in music education, music teachers’ curricular

decisions, such as repertoires, types of ensembles, and activities can determine inclusion or

exclusion of certain groups of diverse populations (Butler, Lind, & McKoy, 2007), as well

as affect students’ cultural heritages and ethnic identity development (Gay, 2002).

Robinson (2006) reported, music teachers can enhance their knowledge base about musical

and cultural content in a variety of ways, including audiotaping or videotaping music

making of students’ families, attending special classes, or learning from students outside of

school. Robinson (2006) and Stauffer (2009) encouraged music teachers to attend world

music concerts, participate in workshops, and get assistance from arts-in residence

personnel.

Approved music textbooks in Taiwan are part of the formal curriculum. Currently

these textbooks include several music examples from large ethnic music styles in Taiwan.

According to Gay (2002), the formal curriculum constitutes textbooks and curriculum

materials that are approved by educational bodies and school districts. Culturally

responsive teachers in Taiwan and other countries should determine the strengths and 28

weakness of teaching materials in terms of “quantity, accuracy, complexity, placement,

purpose, variety, significance, and authenticity of the narrative texts, visual illustrations,

learning activities, role models, and authorial sources” (Gay, 2002, p.108). Similarly, music teachers should give attention to musical authenticity, functional context of music, traditional aesthetic value system, and cultural context (Palmer, 1992; Robinson, 1996).

For example, Campbell (2004) stressed that music teaching is not solely music itself, but

also teaching “what the music truly means to the people within the culture and why it is a

valued human expression” (p.31).

Students “value what is present and devalue that which is absent” (Gay, 2002,

p.108). However, through my observations, some music styles of the local ethnic groups

are not currently represented in Taiwanese music textbooks. Therefore, students will not

have the opportunity to learn about the missing ethnic groups and their music. In addition

to teaching from a music textbook, music teachers could teach music styles based on their

students’ diverse cultural backgrounds.

According to Gay (2002), teachers should recognize that mass media provides

students with a lot of information and sometimes can be more influential and memorable

than books in classrooms. However part of the information can be biased and prejudicial.

Thus, teachers should be more careful in using information for activities and projects. In a

technologically advanced time period, music teachers can select teaching materials via

mass media, such as YouTube, and students can be exposed to a wide array of music. For 29

example, early researchers (LeBlanc 1982; 1987) were concerned for the performance

quality found in recorded music of that time period. Performance quality, even today,

remains an issue for contemporary listeners. For example, when selecting music examples

on YouTube, some excerpts may not have a high visual or audio quality. Therefore, music

teachers should monitor their listening and performance choices for young listeners.

Music teachers can create positive “learning communities” for their students (Gay,

2002, p. 109). For instance, Robinson (2006) interviewed three experienced urban elementary general music educators who described their approaches to learning students’ music and culture. In her study, Robinson described a teacher who visited her students’ families to learn their own songs and dances. During the visits, the teacher asked to audiotape or videotape their families’ music making, hoping to collect wide array of

materials and music from the families' countries to use in her teaching. Additionally, the

teacher successfully applied a grant for inviting a West African dance residency to school

in order to be more connected to her female African students. This collaboration fostered

students’ learning about themselves and recognition of their own dance. Furthermore,

students have opportunities to “know and praise their own and each other’s cultural heritages” (Gay, 2000, p.29). Similarly, Stauffer (2009) suggested teachers should get assistance from artists-in-residence to help form a connection between the teacher and the students’ community.

To promote “cultural congruity in classroom instruction,” students’ prior and

cultural experiences can be used as learning materials (Gay, 2002, p. 112). Teachers create

bridges by connecting “prior knowledge with new knowledge, the known with the unknown, and abstractions with lived realities” (Gay, 2002, p.113). For example, Safrina

(2013) suggested that teachers can teach songs that children are familiar with, create experiences that encourage children to think musically, and value new songs and musical experiences. In this way, students can learn and grow from all musical experiences based on their prior experiences and make connections between prior and new knowledge and ideas (Blair & Kondo, 2008).

Music Preference

Historical Account of Studies in Music Preference

Some pioneers explored a wide array of ways to measure and examine individuals’ tastes. As early as 1950, Farnsworth (1950) investigated musicologists’ and students’

(college, senior high school, and fifth- and sixth-grade students) rankings of eminence of composers as well as their enjoyment of listening to composers’ music. Eminence was determined by space allocation of composers in scholarly journals; and by the frequency of composers’ work to be listed in orchestra programs or recorded on disks. Findings showed that participants tended to “agree on what [they] enjoy” (p.10). Farnsworth concluded that

“musical taste is a phenomenon of the social sciences, rather than a conglomeration of chance responses or a set of absolutes. Like all other folkways, musical taste is peculiar to 31

a particular group of people, a particular place, and a particular period of history. No music,

then, can be inherently good or bad, for goodness is only an evaluation by a group of

[people] trained to accept a particular set of standards” (p.3).

Although Farnsworth did not establish a theory to support listeners’ music

preference development, he paved the way for further investigation. He proposed and

discussed several variables—for instance, knowledge of composers, training, incidental

learning, continuous repetition, quality of tones, experiences of environment (i.e., homes,

schools), the radio, record disks, age, intelligence, and music itself—that may influence

listeners’ music preference.

In The Social Psychology of Music, Farnsworth (1969) concluded that some

variables can affect musical taste, however musical taste does not follow absolute or

metaphysical rules. Musical tastes were relative. They were “culture-bound” but not culture-free (p.133). He suggested bringing in the social and cultural factors that determine different taste of individuals and groups. The cultural and social domains of music taste to be important for future research.

To explore more understandings of musical preferences, researchers have made efforts to develop theoretical foundations of listening preferences. Prince (1972) proposed a rationale for a paradigm on music listening, described the relationships of the variables within the paradigm, and discussed ways to employ the paradigm. Listening, according to

Prince, was defined as a dynamic process in which some variables were more stable while 32

others were more changeable. Prince explained that some variables may affect listening responses, including listeners’ characteristics, affective responses, as well as perceptual and conceptual processes. Prince’s paradigm furthered a crucial step of Farnsworth’s research.

LeBlanc (1982) developed an interactive theory of music preference to describe variables that are likely to affect listeners’ preference decisions. LeBlanc (1987) later revised the model by grouping the variables into three large categories: variables that are part of the music stimulus (e.g., referential meaning, the quality of the performance), the listeners’ cultural environment (e.g., peer group and family influence), and personal characteristics of listeners (e.g., musical training, ethnic group, gender, socio-economic

status, maturation).

In LeBlanc’s summary of his theory, he stated “music preference decisions are

based upon the interaction of input information and the characteristics of the listener, with

input information consisting of the musical stimulus and the listener’s cultural

environment” (p.29). LeBlanc and other researchers conducted many studies examining

factors influencing preferences, including performance medium (Darrow, Haack, &

Kuribayashi, 1987; Fung, 1995; LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983; Shehan, 1981),

tempo (Fung, 1996; LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983; LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983),

performance quality (LeBlanc, 1982), familiarity (Bradley, 1971; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves

& Castell, 1987), cultural environment (Abril & Flowers, 2007; Britten, 2014; Morrison, 33

Demorest, & Stambaugh, 2008; Morrison & Yeh, 1999; Sakai, 2011); basic attention

(Abril & Flowers, 2007); complexity of stimulus (Morrison, Demorest, & Stambaugh,

2008) ; music training (Brittin & Sheldon, 1995; Fung, 1994b, 1996; Ginocchio, 2009;

Gregory, 1994; Hargreaves, Comber, & Colley, 1995; Kelly, 1961; Keston & Pinto, 1955;

Misenhelter & Price, 2001; Morrison & Yeh, 1999; Palmquist, 1990; Sheldon, 1995;

Wang, 2007); gender (Britten, 2014; Sakai, 2011); maturation (Sakai, 2011); and race and

ethnicity (Abril & Flowers, 2007; McCrary,1993, 2000; McCrary & Gauthier, 1995).

Familiarity

Studies found that familiarity is closely related to music preference (Bradley, 1971;

Demorest & Schultz, 2004; Fung, 1994a; Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves & Castell,

1987; Teo, Hargreaves, & Lee, 2008). The repetition of musical stimulus can affect higher

or lower preferences for selected music (Bradley, 1971; Getz, 1966). For instance, Getz

(1966) investigated the effect of familiarity based on repetition on seventh grade students’

(N = 339) musical preference to selected music. Participants rated their preferences on a

scale ranged from one (low) to nine (high). Findings showed that “familiarity through

repetition” was the main reason for listeners to make decisions of musical preferences

(p.190). In a similar study, Bradley (1971) examined whether repetition affected seventh grade students’ preferences. Participants listened to 12 excerpts three times within 14 weeks. The 12 selected contemporary excerpts included categories of tonal, polytonal, atonal, and electronic music examples. Preference ratings were given on a pre-test and 34 post-test. Results indicated “familiarity with music through repetition” resulted in listeners’ more favorable response to music, especially, for unfamiliar music (p.298). Additionally,

Bradley believed that repetition could also serve as a “very useful pedagogical routine in any serious listening program” (p.298).

Hargreaves and Castell (1987) investigated young listeners’ music preferences for familiar and unfamiliar music. Findings revealed that participants preferred the familiar melodies the most, followed in rank order by the unfamiliar melodies, “near approximations, and far approximations” (p.67). Fung (1994b) examined non-music major students’ (N = 50) world music preferences and their familiarity with the world music examples. Findings showed that no significant relationships between the participants’ scores of preference and identification. Nevertheless, Fung proposed the results may be affected by the low reliability of participants’ identification of the excerpts’ music styles.

He suggested that “even if students could correctly identify the world musical styles, they did not necessarily prefer that particular style over the others” (p. 55). Two years later,

Fung (1996) investigated the relationships between musicians’ (n = 180) and nonmusicians’ (n = 269) preferences and familiarity for world music. World music styles were drawn from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The correlation between music preference and familiarity was significant and positive (r = .47).

Demorest and Schultz (2004) conducted two studies to examine fifth graders’ preferences and familiarity for authentic and arranged versions of multicultural music. In 35 the first study, participants listened to either an authentic or arranged version of the 19 world music excerpts. No significant differences were found between students’ preferences for authentic and arranged conditions. The correlation between familiarity and preference was significant (r = .87). In the second study, participants listened to “both versions of each song side by side” and indicated their preferences between the authentic and arranged versions (p. 300). Overall, participants preferred the arranged versions more than the authentic versions. There was a significant correlation between familiarity and preference (r = .92).

Teo, Hargreaves, and Lee (2008) examined the relationship among preferences, familiarity, and identification of music styles between secondary students in Singapore and the United Kingdom. The participants were asked to listen to Chinese, Malay, and Indian music and to indicate the following: their preference for the music examples, their familiarity with each music example, and to identify each music style. Findings indicated that Singaporean students revealed higher preference, familiarity, and identification for

Chinese and Malay styles than students in the United Kingdom. The result may be explained by the listening experiences of students in Singapore for whom greater exposure to Chinese and Malay music is more prevalent in Singapore society. As for Indian music,

Singaporean students could better identify this music style; however, both the Singaporean and United Kingdom groups of students rated Indian music lowest for familiarity and preference. It should be noted that Indians are a minority in both countries, and 36 participants might be less exposed to Indian music. Additionally, a strong and positive correlation was found between preference and familiarity (r = .65). Positive correlations were also found among familiarity, preference, and identification for the Chinese music style. Researchers suggested that cultural exposure and education would affect students’ responses to different music styles.

Although most of the studies in this area have included younger participants, the findings show similar patterns in the participants’ music listening preferences and responses to familiar and unfamiliar world music examples. The limited research on music teachers’ listening preferences supports the need for the present study which examined music teachers’ responses to ethnic music examples. Secondly, it is important for music teachers to understand the influence of familiarity on their students’ affective responses to music. The following section examines the influence of musical training on older listeners’ music preferences.

Music Training

Music training is another important variable in determining listeners’ music preferences in LeBlanc’s theory (e.g., 1982/1987). Many studies (Brittin & Sheldon, 1995;

Fung, 1996; Keston & Pinto, 1955; Misenhelter & Price, 2001; Palmquist, 1990; Sheldon,

1995) examined the effect of music training or music experiences by comparing musicians’ and non-musicians’ different responses to the same musical stimuli. Participants who were enrolled and trained in a music major degree program were often described as “musicians” 37

and the non-music majors were described as “non-musicians.” Some studies showed that music training affected listeners’ music preferences (Brittin & Sheldon, 1995; Buzarovski,

Humphreys, & Wells, 1995/1996; Fung, 1996; Keston & Pinto, 1955; Misenhelter &

Price, 2001). However, some research (Palmquist, 1990; Sheldon, 1995) did not find significant effects of music training on listeners’ music preferences. Fewer studies have

examined whether different types of music training affect listener music preferences. Some

researchers indicated that music training types or years of training may affect listeners’

music preference (Chiang, 2014; Ginocchio, 2009; Gregory, 1994; Hargreaves, Comber, &

Colley, 1995; Kelly, 1961).

Fung (1996) investigated the relationships between musicians’ and nonmusicians’

preferences for world music. Participants (N = 449) were undergraduate music majors (n =

180) and nonmusic majors (n = 269), listening to world music excerpts selected from

Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The findings showed that both musicians’ and non-

musicians’ music preferences had common musical characteristics, such as “fast tempo,

loud, tonal-centered, having many different pitches, consonant, moderately embellished,

smooth-sounding, and bright timbre” (p.60). Overall, musicians showed significantly

higher preference ratings, and they preferred music with complex textures. However, non-

musicians preferred music with a moderately complex texture. The correlation between

music preference and familiarity was significant (r = .47).

Some studies examined participants’ music training on their music preference. For

example, Gregory (1994) investigated three groups’ music preference, including college

music majors, high school students in music preference groups, and sixth-graders in public

schools. Participants listened to representative excerpts including genres of keyboard,

choral, orchestral, and band as well as rated their music preference. Based on performance

experiences, high school and college participants were categorized into four groups:

keyboard, chorus, band, and orchestra. Findings revealed that the relationship between

music training and music preference was still not clear. Gregory suggested that “[t]he

degree to which subjects report knowledge of a specific music excerpt appears to lack any

predictive connection with the degree of reported preference for that selection” (p. 341).

Later, Ginocchio (2009) investigated the effect of different music training amounts

and types on college non-music majors’ music preferences (N = 176). The amounts of

music training were the number of years in which participants participated in music

experiences or activities. The types of music training included choir, piano, and band.

Music selections were 19 musical excerpts in both popular and non-popular styles.

Findings revealed that participants with at least five years of music training had significant

overall higher preference scores than those with less training. The amounts of music

training played a significant role in determining preference for different music genres,

including orchestral classical, classical piano, vocal classical music, dance music, and instrumental jazz. 39

Chiang (2014) compared the music preference of students (N = 782) in elementary music talented programs and general classrooms in terms of four music genres—classic, pop, world music, and traditional Taiwanese music. Data collection included both interviews and researcher-developed questionnaires. The study had several major findings.

First, in both groups, the music preference ranks from high to low were pop music, classical music, world music, and traditional Taiwanese music. Second, among general elementary schools students, Hokkien students showed significantly higher preference for traditional Taiwanese music than Hakka students. Third, students’ music learning experiences affected their music preference. In the music talented programs, students with instrument-learning experiences outside of school significantly preferred pop music compared to those with no such experience. In general, elementary school students with instrument-learning experience outside of school preferred classical music and pop music compared to those with no such experience. Finally, students in music talented programs whose majors were “traditional instruments” liked traditional Taiwanese music more than students whose majors were piano, stringed music, and percussion music. Instrumental majors in their second or third year preferred world music more than those who have majored in instrument for over three years.

Language and Children’s Responses to Music

Several researchers have discussed participants’ responses to languages in studies of music preferences (Abril & Flowers, 2007; Britten; 2014; McCrary, 2003; Sakai, 2011). 40

Although little research exists on music teachers’ response to unfamiliar languages and their music listening preferences, several studies have examined K-12 learners music listening preferences. The findings in these studies have contributed to music teachers’ understanding of young children’s listener preferences and some of the factors that influences their responses to unfamiliar music as they develop. The studies and some of their findings follow.

McCrary (2003) examined African American (n = 207), European American (n =

234), and Latin American (n = 95) students’ music preferences. Participants listened to unfamiliar music by African American, European American, and Latin performers.

Findings showed that African American listeners preferred music by African American performers; European American listeners preferred music by European American performers; and Latin American listeners had higher preference ratings for Latin American performers.

Abril and Flowers (2007) examined the effect of three versions of the same song

(English, Spanish, and instrumental) on sixth-grade students’ (N = 60) attention, preference and identity. Participants were monolingual (English) and bilingual (English,

Spanish) from two schools in America. One of the study’s findings showed a significant positive correlation existed between preference and identity. Specifically, bilingual students preferred best for the Spanish version, followed in rank order by the English, and

41 the instrumental version, while monolingual students preferred most for the instrumental, followed by the English, and the Spanish version.

Similarly, Sakai (2011) investigated primary school students’ (N = 267) music preference and their family language backgrounds with migrational backgrounds in

Germany. Selected music included both occidental and oriental music including Turkish,

German, and Anglo-American. Four listening preference profiles included “Germany

Music Market Chart,” “Turkish,” “Mainstream,” and “Balanced” (p.183). Participants’ immediate reactions to different music were measured by computer interactive music software. They were also asked to respond to questions including demographic items, music preferences, music activities, migration backgrounds, first language, daily language practices, and birthplaces of the children, their parents, and grandparents. Findings indicated that participants’ family language backgrounds were crucial predictors for their preferences for German Music Market Charts and Turkish. The author suggested that for

“children with migrational backgrounds, language background plays a more important role for music orientation than do media usage or verbal preferences” (p.190).

However, findings of Abril and Flowers (2007) and Sakai (2011) were not strongly supported by Britten’s (2014) research. Britten (2014) investigated students’ preferences for different instrumental and vocal music styles. Participants were fourth (n = 288), fifth

(n = 136), and sixth (n = 119) grade students (N = 543) from schools with diverse ethnic groups. Music selections included both male and female voices, and various styles, such as 42

jazz, country, art music, and pop music; and popular selections in three languages: English,

Spanish, or Asian. Participants rated their music preferences on a 6-point Likert scale and wrote down reasons for making their preference decisions. Also, participants were asked questions about their identification with Hispanic and Asian cultures, languages they spoke, and the music to which adults in their family listened at home. Findings showed a small

significant correlation between preferences and cultural identification, preference and languages spoken, and overall preference and the music styles to which parents listened at home.

Teacher Attitudes

Researchers tend to believe that “teachers’ beliefs are central to determining their

actual behavior toward students” (Wigfield et al., 1999). Nieto and Bode (2008) indicated

that teachers’ attitudes toward diversity are important in supporting multicultural education

within schools. McGeehan (1983) examined whether pre-service teachers’ characteristics

related to their levels of readiness for multicultural education training. Findings revealed

that “participants displaying the greatest gains in knowledge of multicultural education

tended to express more accepting initial attitudes and feelings toward other ethnic groups”

(p.166).

Scholars (Banks & Banks, 1993; Sleeter & Grant, 1987) have advocated for teacher

training that provides opportunities for prospective teachers to rethink and reflect on their

beliefs and attitudes toward culturally diverse students. For example, Ladson-Billings 43

(1999) described a master program termed “Teach for Diversity” (TFD) in University of

Wisconsin-Madison (p.237). TFD is a 15-month elementary certification program. Many

participants came into the program believing themselves to be “liberal”. But, TFD

destabilized and reconceptualized prospective teachers’ initial beliefs and attitudes toward

diversity. Prospective teachers started to understand the meaning of teaching diverse

students from the community.

Similarly, Moore and Reeves-Kazelskis (1992) conducted pretest and posttest

surveys to examine the effect of formal instruction in multicultural education on pre-

service teachers’ beliefs and attitudes. Although the study’s sample size was somewhat

small (N = 31), the findings showed pre-service teachers’ beliefs on cultural diversity may

change after receiving “carefully planned and implemented formal instruction” (p.1).

Teicher (1997) investigated the effect of multicultural music training on pre-service elementary teaching majors’ attitudes of willingness and preparation for teaching multicultural music. The researcher developed a quasi-experimental pretest and posttest to examine elementary education teachers’ attitude changes. Participants rated their own willingness and preparedness on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5

(strongly agree). It was assumed that after pre-service teachers wrote multicultural music lesson plans and implemented them in music methods courses, their familiarity with multicultural teaching would increase, and resulted in positive attitudes toward teaching.

Findings showed that “developing and implementing multicultural music lessons can 44

positively affect pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward future multicultural music teaching”

(p. 415). However, Teicher did not find differences in their “willingness to work in a culturally diverse setting” and their “preparedness in teaching multicultural music” (p.423).

In a study of student responses, Knapp (2012) indicated that whether students had

world music training or not, there were no differences in their preference responses for

teaching multicultural music. Knapp examined the effects of college music education

majors’ (N = 71) world music training on their preference for teaching multicultural music.

Participants listened to 16 multicultural music excerpts, rated these pieces’ authenticity, and responded to their preference for teaching the selected music on a 7-point Likert-type

scale. Results showed that the participants’ perception of authenticity played an important

role in affecting their preference. Authenticity seemed to be recognized as

“instrumentation, rhythm, language, performance, and other musical qualities” (p.x)

However, participants indicated that their multicultural training was not sufficient to make

judgments between authentic and inauthentic multicultural music.

Although several researchers have examined the effects of training on teachers’

attitudes and beliefs, others have explored the effects of immersion on teachers’ attitudes

and beliefs. For example, Emmanuel (2005) investigated pre-service music teachers’

beliefs and attitudes prior to, during, and after the music education immersion internships.

The participants were five music education majors and all female. Two were master’s

students and three were undergraduate students. Participants examined their beliefs and 45 attitudes during the first week. Later, they engaged in immersion internship activities including observation and team-teaching for two weeks. This study utilized collective case studies. Data sources were autobiographies, individual and group interviews, class assignments, audio taped classroom discussions, daily journals, and videotaped teaching practices. Findings showed that immersion experiences along with coursework with reflection opportunities profoundly influenced pre-service music teachers’ attitudes and beliefs. Participants became more socially and culturally aware of their biases and the struggles of the marginalized. Also, they realized how their beliefs could affect their teaching.

Several studies examined in-service music teachers’ attitudes toward multicultural music (Meidinger, 2002; Moore, 1993; Robinson, 1996). For example, Moore (1993) investigated general music teachers’ attitude toward the inclusion of multicultural music in class and their allotted time to teach those music in practice. Participants were 237 general music teachers in elementary or secondary schools. Findings indicated that although 75% of the participants’ attitude toward inclusion of world music in curricula was positive, less than 10% class time was spent on teaching world music in their educational settings. The participants pointed out that they were not familiar with world music and their music training was inadequate to teach world music. However, when given an opportunity to receive training in conference sessions, the participants still tended to attend the sessions about the music that they were more familiar with rather than world music. 46

Similarly, Robinson (1996) investigated 262 elementary general music teachers’

attitudes toward and the practice of multicultural music. Findings indicated that although

most participants recognized the importance of inviting students to know the music of their

own culture as well as other less familiar cultures, few teachers taught world music in class.

The difficulties of teaching world music were a lack of enough training, supportive

educational policies, awareness of multicultural resources, and knowledge of original

language of music. Most participants indicated that singing the original language of

multicultural music was very difficult. More than a half of participants stated that

additional training in multicultural music was necessary.

Meidinger (2002) investigated six expert general music teachers’ attitudes toward

and practices of teaching multicultural music as well as fourth-grade students’ perceptions

of multicultural music. Findings revealed that most teachers believed each music style is

important. When teaching multicultural music, they encountered limitations, such as a lack

of teaching time, language translation, and the budget for attending related training. One

teacher believed that teaching music should start from students’ culture as well as what

they were familiar with. Generally, the students had positive attitudes toward multicultural

music. Teachers’ attitudes and practices played important roles in influencing students’

responses toward multicultural music.

The current study examines pre-service teachers’ listening attitudes and their willingness to teach six ethnic music styles to children enrolled in Taiwanese schools. The 47 previous research described in this section indicates that training may have a positive effect on teachers’ willingness to teach and increase their self-awareness of their own social and cultural biases.

Summary

Previously, Taiwanese populations consisted mainly of four ethnic groups including Hokkien, Hakka, Mainland Chinese, and Taiwanese Aborigines (Hakka Affairs

Council, 2011). Recently, the fifth population from Vietnam, China, and Indonesia, termed as New Immigrants, has gradually increased. Many scholars (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 1999;

Irizarry, 2007; Shaw, 2012) suggested using children’s culture for building “bridges of meaningfulness between home and school experiences as well as between academic abstractions and lived socio-cultural realities” (Gay, 2000, p.12).

When learning music and culture, Reimer (2003) indicated that listeners’ musical experiences do not need to be restricted to the music which they are familiar with; furthermore, the less familiar music can gradually become more familiar. Listening is a forthright way of knowing music (Reimer, 2003). To understand listeners’ music preference, LeBlanc’s (1982) interactive theory of music preference indicated several variables that are likely to affect listeners’ preference decisions. For example, familiarity is closely related to music preference (Bradley, 1971; Demorest & Schultz, 2004; Fung,

1994a; Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves & Castell, 1987; Teo, Hargreaves, & Lee,

2008). Given the diverse ethnic groups in Taiwan, pre-service music teachers in Taiwan 48 may not be familiar with all kinds of students’ music and cultures. In this study, I examined their familiarity with and preference to the music styles of students’ ethnic groups. Pre-service music teachers may have the training of Western art music or Chinese music. Previous studies indicated that music training types may affect listeners’ music preference (Chiang, 2014; Ginocchio, 2009; Gregory, 1994; Hargreaves, Comber, &

Colley, 1995; Kelly, 1961).

Researchers have discussed participants’ responses to languages when conducting studies of preferences (Abril & Flowers, 2007; Britten; 2014; McCrary, 1993, 2003; Sakai,

2011). Among the four populations in Taiwan, the Chinese language was used most often by the population, followed in descending rank by Hokkein, Hakka, and Taiwanese

Aboriginal languages. The fifth population, the New Immigrants, from Vietnam and

Indonesia, mainly spoke Vietnamese and Indonesian, respectively. Due to the different languages spoken in Taiwan, when music teachers try to teach music of students’ cultures, they may not understand their languages. In addition, it is unknown whether they are willing to teach music of students’ cultures.

Thus, this study sought to examine Taiwanese pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. Also, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which each music example was performed. The six

49 ethnic music styles were Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian.

Chapter 3: Research Method and Design

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year

pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six

ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. As a validity

check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which

each music example was performed. The six ethnic music styles were Chinese, Hokkien,

Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian. Independent variables were

the participants’ year of enrollment (4th year pre-internship—completing their last year of undergraduate coursework, or 5th year intern—undergraduate coursework completed and

in final stage of internship experience); certificate level (elementary or secondary music

training); and formal music training (in Western, Chinese and other art and folk music styles). Dependent variables were participants’ familiarity with the ethnic music styles, preference for the music styles, and willingness to teach the music styles. The research questions follow:

1. What were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers’ preferences for the ethnic

music examples within each music style? 51

2. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers familiar with the ethnic music

examples within each music style?

3. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers willing to teach the ethnic music

examples within each music style?

4. Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers able to correctly identify the ethnic

language for each music example?

5. Were there any relationships among the participants’ willingness to teach, preferences

for, familiarity with, and ability to correctly identify the languages of the six ethnic

music styles?

6. Did the participants’ Western and non-Western music training, year of enrollment,

certificate level, and internship experience reveal any differences in the participants’

preferences, familiarity and willingness to teach responses?

Participants

Participants in this study were recruited using the purposive sampling approach.

Participants were fourth-year pre-intern music teachers enrolled in undergraduate music teacher programs and fifth-year pre-service music teachers enrolled in an internship program in Taiwan. Eleven universities offer music teacher education in Taiwan. The universities are National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU), National Taipei University of Education (NTUE), University of Taipei (UT), National Hsinchu University of

Education (NHCUE), National Taichung University of Education (NTCU), National 52

Chiayi University (NCYU), National University of Tainan (NUTN), National Kaohsiung

Normal University (NKNU), National Pingtung University (NPTU), National Dong Hwa

University (NDHU), and National Taitung University (NTTU). I contacted the music faculty at the eleven universities named above. However, only five of the universities had both fourth- and fifth-year teachers to recruit participants from their classes. From the five universities, I was able to recruit 133 participants to participate in the study.

Only 3 of 133 participants chose not to complete the survey and they were allowed to leave the classrooms in which the study took place. Four participants missed one or more items on the survey and their surveys were discarded and not included in this study. The total number of participants who completed the survey items was 126 pre- service music teachers. Of the 126 participants, there were fourth-year (n = 73) and fifth- year (n = 53) participants from music teacher programs in five of the eleven universities in Taiwan. The fourth-year participants were in their fourth and final year of coursework and had not started their half-year internship. They were recruited from music education or music-related courses. The fifth-year intern pre-service music teachers had completed their four-year music education degree coursework and graduated from university in summer 2015. These participants were in their fifth-year internship at elementary or secondary schools. Additionally, the fifth-year participants were supervised by teacher education or music teacher education faculty. I recruited the participants from the class meetings they attended at their respective universities. The fifth-year participants began 53 their six months internship in August 2015 and finished in late January 2016. Unlike the emphasis in Eurocentric courses that dominated their four years of study, it is possible that the fifth-year year pre-service music teachers may have been exposed to children and the music from the Taiwanese ethnic groups featured in this study.

I examined the curriculum offerings among the five universities that offer music education degree programs. Both world music and introduction to musicology were offered as elective courses by the five universities. Some of the universities offer non-

Western art music as elective courses, such as Asia music, Chinese music, traditional

Chinese instruments, traditional drama music, Taiwanese music, and Taiwan Aboriginal music. However, an examination of the participants’ training in specific ethnic music styles is beyond the scope of this study.

Instrumentation

This study used a researcher-developed music listening questionnaire (see appendix A and B) which consisted of two parts: a) demographic data, and b) Music

Listening Survey (MLS) (see Table 1). After each listening example on the MLS, the participants were asked to indicate their preference for and familiarity with the music example (Music Preference Rating—MPR), their willingness to teach the example to children (Music Teacher’s Willingness to Teach Rating—MTWR), and the ethnic language used in the music example (Ethnic Language Identification—ELI). The MLS

ended with three open-ended questions that were used to examine any common themes

that emerged.

In part one, participants provided demographic data including their gender, age,

year of study, teacher certificate type, and formal music training on instrument(s) and

voice. Participants were asked to confirm their enrollment year of study to make sure that

the participants corresponded to this research purpose and design. In addition, regarding

the type of teacher certificate, participants could have obtained elementary, secondary or

both levels. The teacher certificate type was examined because it determined the school

levels at which the teachers would be able to intern. Formal musical training was also

examined in this study. The questionnaire included a modified definition of musical

training from Teo (2008): “having taken lessons to play a musical instrument” or

received vocal training, excluding self-learning (p.22). The question and response format

for musical training is based on previously published studies by Fung (1994) and Wang

(2007). Participants indicated their years of formal instrumental and vocal training for

Western European, Chinese, and other art and folk music in this form.

In part two, the Music Listening Survey included 18 music listening examples.

After each music example, the participants were asked to respond to four items: how

much they liked the example (preference), how familiar they were with the music

example (familiarity), if they would be willing to teach the example (willingness ratings),

and to identify the music example’s ethnic language (ethnic language identification). 55

In the MLS, 18 excerpts of six ethnic music styles were selected (three excerpts of

each style). The music stimulus consisted of music excerpts of six ethnic music styles

including Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese and Indonesian.

Each piece was approximately 30 seconds in length, starting and fading at a logical

phrase ending. A 15 second interval was inserted between examples so that participants

could complete their responses.

Music Preference Rating (MPR)

Although versions of Likert-type scales have been used in previous studies, I decided to use the seven-point Likert-type scale which is often found in music preference studies published in academic journals (e.g., Demorest & Schultz, 2004; Fung, 1994;

Fung, 1996; LeBlanc, 1979; LeBlanc et al., 1999; McCrary, 1993; Morrison &Yeh, 1999).

Similar to previous studies on music preference, this study used a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = I dislike, 7 = I like) to examine pre-service music teachers’ music preferences.

Additionally, the participants indicated their familiarity with each excerpt on a 7-point

Likert-type scale (1 = unfamiliar, 7 = familiar).

Music Teacher’s Willingness to Teach Rating (MTWR)

The MTWR was used to examine the participants’ willingness to teach six ethnic

music styles that represent the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan on a 7-point

Likert-type scale (1 = not willing to teach; 7 = willing to teach). This instrument was

modified from previous studies (Teicher, 1997; Wilson & McCrary, 1996). 56

Ethnic Language Identification (ELI)

Several researchers have discussed participants’ responses to languages in studies

of music preferences (Abril & Flowers, 2007; Britten, 2014; McCrary, 2003; Sakai,

2011). In this study, I asked the participants if they could correctly identify the ethnic language in which the music examples were sung to determine if their ability to correctly identify the language correlated with their familiarity with the music examples, willingness to teach the music examples, or how much they liked the music examples.

The ethnic language options were as follows: Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese

Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian that corresponded to the languages of the given

six ethnic music styles. Also, another language—Thai—was added as a distractor from

the languages that were used in the listening measurement. An additional option, “I’m not

sure,” was included for each music example.

Music Selection

According to previous studies, variables that affect listener’s music preference

include familiarity, performance medium, gender of singers, tempo, and performance

quality. For instance, listeners’ familiarity may affect music preference (Bradley, 1971;

Getz, 1966; Hargreaves & Castell, 1987). Thus, this study sought to select excerpts with

which most people are not familiar. First, the panel of experts believed the examples were

less familiar to most listeners in Taiwan. Second, the data from the pilot study confirmed

that the excerpts were unfamiliar to the fourth-year and fifth-year participants in the pilot 57 study. Previous studies also indicated that the effect of performance medium, such as instrumental or vocal presentations, may affect listeners’ music preference (Darrow,

Haack, & Kuribayashi, 1987; Fung, 1995; LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983;

Shehan, 1981). To control for performance medium, only vocal with instrumental accompaniments were selected rather than solely vocal or instrumental pieces because of the difficulty in obtaining pieces that were completely vocal or instrumental in six ethnic music styles. In addition, studies indicated that the gender of singers may affect music preference (Britten, 2014; Sakai, 2011). To control for confounding factors such as gender of the singers and due to the difficulty in obtaining music examples with male vocal accompanied by instruments, only female vocal with instrumental accompaniments excerpts were selected. Furthermore, tempi might influence listeners’ preferences. Thus, tempi were controlled by selecting Andante performed excerpts (Fung, 1996; LeBlanc,

1981; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983; LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983). Performance quality is another variable that may impact listeners’ preferences (LeBlanc, 1982). To ensure sound quality, all excerpts were selected from compact discs (CD) recordings classified as commercial recordings or recordings available for purchase on the internet.

A panel of nine experts for the ethnic music styles evaluated the selected music examples to determine whether the examples were valid representations of the ethnic music style. The procedure for selecting the final 18 music excerpts required agreement among two-thirds of the judges that the example was representative of one of the six 58

ethnic music styles. The procedure continued until there were three different excerpts for

the six ethnic music styles.

All excerpts were randomly placed on a CD in advance. The researcher

randomized the order of the recorded music selections to control for order effect. The

random placement of the recordings followed the process described by Johnson and

Christensen (2014) as “equal probability of selection method” (EPSEM) (p.251).

Table 1

Questionnaire Content Part I Demographic Data: Gender, age, year of study, teacher certificate, formal music training on instrument(s) and voice II Music Listening Survey (MLS) 1) Music Preference Rating (MPR) 2) Music Teacher’s Willingness To Teach Rating (MTWR) 3) Ethnic Language identification (ELI) 4) Open-ended questions

Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted with a small sample of fourth-year (n = 23) and fifth-

year (n = 20) undergraduate music students enrolled in three universities that provide

music teacher education in Taiwan. The universities were not among the five universities

from which the investigator recruited participants for the primary study. The data

obtained from the pilot study was not included in the main study. For the pilot study, participants were informed that the purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese 59

fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with

and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in

Taiwan. As a validity check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which each music example was performed.

Participants indicated their preference for each excerpt on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = I dislike, 7 = I like); familiarity with each piece on a 7-point Likert-type scale

(1 = I am not familiar with this music, 7 = I am familiar with this music); willingness to teach each excerpt on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = I am not willing to teach this music;

7 = I am willing to teach this music); and from a list provided for this survey item, to select the ethnic language of the music selections. After the researcher obtained data from the pilot study, Cronbach’s alpha was computed to examine the internal consistency reliability of the research instrument (See Table 2). For the pilot participants’ preference, familiarity, and willingness to teach 18 excerpts, the Cronbach’s alphas for all six music ethnic styles were .965, .87 for Chinese, .84 for Hokkien, .91 for Hakka, .88 for

Taiwanese Aboriginal, .89 for Vietnamese, and .87 for Indonesian ethnic music style.

These Cronbach’s alpha values confirmed the high internal consistency reliability of this study’s instrument.

The item and reliability analyses including the critical ratio (CR), item-total correlation, and reliability were examined among preference ratings of 18 excerpts within each ethnic style category (See Table 3). According to the results, 17 excerpts met all 60

criteria of item and reliability analysis (Wu, 2011). Only excerpt 15 did not meet criteria in critical ratio (CR) value (2.745 < 3.0), however, excerpt 15 achieved item-total correlation criteria. Without selecting excerpt 15, the Cronbach's alpha value (.933) was not much higher than the overall 18 excerpts’ internal reliability (.931). Also, considering the difficulty in obtaining pieces that were completely female vocal with instrumental, excerpt 15 was still selected to be used in the main study.

The pilot study allowed the investigator to examine the reliability of the 18 excerpts and confirm that they could be used in the main study. Also, the letter to solicit instructor’s permission (Appendix C), consent form (Appendix D), and verbal recruit script (Appendix E) of the pilot study were identical to the instruments used in the main study.

Table 2

List of Music Excerpts on the Music Listening Survey Six styles Order Title of Excerpt Length Media Performer Tempo alpha in (gender) Sec. Hakka Sample Porters 27 Hakka Bi Xia Lai 103 ensemble Chinese 1 Shell-flower 20 Ensemble of Li Yao 121 .87 Silk and Bamboo 8 Tune of Review 21 Ensemble of Wei Zi 97 Silk and Bamboo 13 Girls of the Tea 30 Ensemble of Yun Liu 115 Mountain Silk and Bamboo Hokkien 2 Tune of the 28 Yueqin Bi Lan Zhang 99 .84 Plain People 10 A Little 30 Ensemble of Xiu Yue 80 Chirping Bird Silk and Zheng Bamboo 15 Four Seasons 25 Yueqin Er Mei Xie 112 Like Spring Hakka 4 Hakka Folk 30 Hakka Bi Xia Lai 94 .91 Song ensemble 9 Song for the 21 Hakka Qing Xiang 100 First Month of ensemble Liu the Lunar Year 17 Embroidered 27 Hakka Yun Yu Jiang 90 sachet ensemble Taiwanese 6 Puyuma 27 Rattle/ 1)Xiu Lan Lu; 94 .88 Aboriginal People— tambourine 2) Ai Zhi Welcome Song Zheng; 3) Da Mei Wu 11 Atayal People- 25 Jew's harp Jin-Ye Gu Lin 87 Song of Reminiscence of the Gathering of the Elders 18 Thao People— 34 Prestle Singers 117/76 Pestle Song Vietnamese 3 The egret is 36 Stringed, Singers 102 .89 flying, flying plucked zithers 7 Song of the 25 Zither Singer 80 Nightingale 14 The Boat Song 23 Zither Singer 84 Indonesian 5 Sinur 26 Gamelan Arliani 90 .87 12 Ladrang 34 Gamelan Singer 91 'Pangkur' pelogbarang 16 LindeukJapati 28 Gamelan TatiSaleh 122 *Tempo is designated as beats per minute (BPM) 62

Table 3

Item and Reliability Analysis of the Music Excerpts Selection Discrimination Index Item-Total Correlation Reliability Item Critical Ratio(CR) Item-Total Corrected Cronbach's Correlation Item-Total Alpha if Item (Pearson Correlation Deleted Correlation) (Cronbach's Alpha) 1 4.395*** .585*** .534 .929 2 4.274*** .696*** .649 .927 3 4.892*** .784*** .743 .925 4 5.204*** .760*** .72 .925 5 4.294*** .733*** .693 .926 6 5.975*** .643*** .604 .928 7 3.957** .733*** .692 .926 8 5.668*** .573*** .529 .930 9 8.310*** .797*** .76 .924 10 8.091*** .726*** .683 .926 11 4.178*** .624*** .562 .929 12 4.025** .655*** .594 .929 13 5.503*** .617*** .573 .929 14 5.503*** .733*** .695 .926 15 2.745** .489** .414 .933 16 4.190*** .669*** .614 .928 17 6.348*** .753*** .718 .926 18 5.842*** .714*** .675 .927 Criteria ≧.3000 ≧.4000 ≧.4000 ≦.931 *p < .05.**p < .01.***p < .001.

Procedure

Main Study

I visited fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers, respectively, from

music teacher education degree programs in five universities in Taiwan. For each school

visit, I brought a laptop (on which the music examples were played), speakers, and extra

survey sheets for each session. When meeting with the potential participants, I introduced

the study’s purpose, discussed participants’ rights, described what they would do in this survey, and then distributed the consent form (see Appendix D). Participants listened to my description, read the consent form, and decided whether to participate in the study.

For those pre-service music teachers who were willing to participate, I received their formal consent forms and then started the survey. Only three participants choose not to take the survey. They were allowed to leave the classroom.

The approximate time to administer the procedure was 25 minutes. All questions and responses were printed in Chinese. Participants were fourth-year (n = 73) and fifth- year (n = 53) music teachers from five universities in Taiwan. Participants responded in two parts: (a) demographic data, and (b) Music Listening Survey and three open-ended questions. In the demographic data, participants wrote their gender, age, year of study, teacher certificate type, and years of formal instrumental and vocal training for Western

European, Chinese, and other art and folk music. After all participants wrote down their demographic information in part one, the researcher started part two—the Music 64

Listening Survey. The researcher recorded introductory directions in advance. At the

beginning of the survey, participants heard the following recording, which, for the

purpose of this document, has been translated to English:

Each example will be played approximately 30 seconds. Please listen to each of

them carefully. Following each musical example, you will have 15 seconds to

indicate (a) how much you like the music, (b) if you are familiar with the music,

identify the ethnic language in which the music example is performed. Please

listen to the whole excerpt, and circle the answer that best indicates your

perspective for each musical example. You will hear one practice example that

demonstrates how another listener responded.

After the participants heard the directions, they started with a practice example.

They listened to a music excerpt which was followed by the recorded instruction, “please mark your answer.” At that point, the participants had 15 seconds to record their responses to the four prompts for the example. After the practice example, the participants had an opportunity to ask questions about the procedure and heard the following recorded instruction: “If you have any questions, please raise your hand, and the researcher will assist you. This is the end of the practice section. Please turn the page

65 and proceed to Part Two. You will hear 18 musical examples in this music listening survey. Test start.”

After listening to each music excerpt, participants indicated their preference for each excerpt on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = I dislike, 7 = I like); familiarity with each piece on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = not familiar, 7 = familiar); willingness to teach each excerpt on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = not willing to teach; 7 = willing to teach); and identified the ethnic language of the music selections. Following the completion of the listening survey, participants completed three open-ended questions. These questions asked what things the participants liked and disliked about the music, and what would influence their willingness to teach some of the music. The questions were given to the participants after listening to the selected 18 pieces. The participants’ free responses could describe style, rhythm, instrumentation, melody, arrangement, timbre, or other musical or non-musical characters of their choice.

Chapter 4: Results

Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian. Data in this study were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, and a Multivariate Analysis of

Variance (MANOVA) via Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics were calculated for the participants’ familiarity, preferences, willingness ratings and language identification for the ethnic music examples within each music style and each music style composite. Pearson correlations were computed to determine the relationships among language identification, preferences, familiarity, and willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles. MANOVA statistics were computed for the participants’ familiarity, preference, and willingness responses by grade, music training, music certificate level, and internship. Also, the investigator reviewed the open-ended responses,

categorizing common terms and phrases from the participants’ responses and used

frequency data and narrative descriptions to report the findings.

Descriptive Statistics for Participants’ Demographic Data

The investigator conducted the main study in five of the eleven universities that

offer music teacher education programs in Taiwan. Participants included 126 pre-service music teachers in their fourth-year of study (n = 73) and fifth-year of study, which

devoted to the internship experience (n = 53) of music teacher education. Table 4 shows

the participants’ gender.

Table 4

Descriptive Analysis of Participants’ Gender Participants (N=126) Gender 4th Year (n=73) 5thYear (n=53) Combined (N=126) Male 5 (6.8%) 4 (7.5%) 9 (7.1%) Female 68 (93.2%) 49 (92.5%) 117 (92.9%) Total 73 53 126

Of the 126 pre-service music teacher participants, the fourth-year participants (n =

73) took music education coursework and had not begun their half-year internships at

elementary or secondary schools. The fifth-year year intern pre-service music teachers (n

= 53) had finished their music education coursework and were completing their half-year

internships in the elementary or secondary schools. Participants were asked to report the

certificate type in the questionnaire. I examined the fourth-year and fifth-year participants’

teacher certificate to determine at what level they would intern and later, teach. Table 5

presents the levels of teacher certificate which the participants obtained: elementary,

secondary or both levels. Only four fifth-year pre-service music teachers had both

certificates. However, of the 53 fifth-year pre-service music teachers, 26 had internships in elementary schools and 27 interned in secondary schools.

Table 5

Descriptive Analysis of the to be Gained Certificate Level Participants (N=126) Certificate Level 4th Year (n=73) 5thYear (n=53) Combined (N=126) Elementary Level 29 25 54 Secondary Level 44 24 68 Both Certificates 0 4 4 Total 73 53 126

Table 6 presents the participants’ music training. The researcher collected

participants’ formal training years for Western European, Chinese, and other art and folk

music. However, only seven participants indicated that they had formal music training in

other art and folk music and their other art and folk music training ranged from 3 to 6

weeks. Consequently, the analysis of the participants’ formal music training was limited

to the following three categories: participants with formal music training in Western

music styles only, participants with formal music training in Western music styles and

less than four years of Chinese music training, and participants with formal music

training in Western music styles and four or more than four years of Chinese music

training. Of the 126 participants, 38 (30.2%) had Western only training, 35 (27.8%) with

Western and less than four years of Chinese training, and 53 (42.1%) with Western and

four or more years of Chinese training.

Table 6

Descriptive Analysis of Participants’ Music Training Participants (N=126) th th Combined 4 Year (n=73) 5 Year (n=53) (N=126) Western Only 24(32.9%) 14(26.4%) 38(30.2%) Western & 20(27.4%) 15(28.3%) 35(27.8%) Chinese( < 4 years) Western & 29(40.0%) 24(45.3%) 53(42.1%) Chinese( ≥ 4 years) Total 73 53 126(100.0%)

Research Question 1

What were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers’ preferences for the ethnic music examples within each music style?

This study examined pre-service music teachers’ preference for each excerpt

within six ethnic music styles on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = I dislike, 7 = I like).

Table 7 shows the means and standard deviations of participants’ preference ratings. To

compare the preference mean scores for the fourth-year participants to the fifth-year

participants, I examined the responses to see if there were similarities between the fourth-

year and fifth-year participants’ preferences for each selection within the ethnic music styles. Table 7 shows how the participants’ preference ranked within each ethnic music

style where 1 = highest mean sore, 2 = second highest mean score, and 3 = the lowest

mean score for the question concerning preference. Except for Chinese ethnic music style,

the rank of preference ratings was in exactly the same order in both fourth-year and fifth- year pre-service music teachers.

The range of the aggregate preference mean scores was between M = 3.19 to M =

5.19. The highest mean scores were reported for the three Chinese ethnic music excerpts

(M = 4.10, M = 5.06, M = 5.19), two Hokkien excerpts (M = 4.03, M = 4.83), one Hakka piece (M = 4.48), two Taiwanese Aboriginal examples (M = 4.17, M = 4.94), and one

Indonesian music excerpt (M = 4.57). By comparison, of the aggregate mean scores for the three Vietnamese excerpts was M = 3.19, M = 3.42, and M = 3.71.

Table 7

Descriptive Statistics for Preference by Ethnic Music Style 4th Year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Combined (N=126) Style Excerpt M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 1 Shell-flower 4.00 1.11 3 4.25 1.60 3 4.10 1.13 3 8 Tune of Review 4.99 1.28 2 5.17 1.12 1 5.06 1.21 2 13 Girls of the Tea 5.30 1.30 1 5.04 1.18 2 5.19 1.25 1 Mountain

Hokkien 2 Tune of the Plain 3.30 1.28 3 3.47 1.27 3 3.37 1.27 3 People 10 A Little Chirping 4.89 1.28 1 4.74 1.08 1 4.83 1.19 1 Bird 15 Four Seasons Like 4.00 1.38 2 4.08 1.33 2 4.03 1.36 2 Spring

Hakka 4 Hakka Folk Song 3.48 1.32 3 3.45 1.23 3 3.47 1.28 3 9 Song for the First 4.07 1.41 2 3.87 1.14 2 3.98 1.30 2 Month of the Lunar Year 17 Embroidered 4.53 1.41 1 4.42 1.20 1 4.48 1.32 1 sachet

Taiwanese 6 Puyuma People— 4.97 1.12 1 4.89 1.33 1 4.94 1.21 1 Aboriginal Welcome Song 11 Atayal People- 3.29 1.52 3 3.34 1.36 3 3.31 1.45 3 Song of Reminiscence of the Gathering of the Elders 18 Thao People 4.23 1.38 2 4.08 1.47 2 4.17 1.41 2 —Pestle Song

Vietnamese 3 The egret is flying, 3.19 1.42 3 3.19 1.30 3 3.19 1.37 3 flying 7 Song of the 3.47 1.39 2 3.36 1.42 2 3.42 1.39 2 Nightingale 14 The Boat Song 3.73 1.33 1 3.70 1.31 1 3.71 1.31 1

Indonesian 5 Sinur 4.71 1.26 1 4.38 1.27 1 4.57 1.27 1 12 Ladrang 'Pangkur' 3.49 1.55 3 3.36 1.53 3 3.44 1.54 3 pelogbarang 16 LindeukJapati 3.56 1.71 2 3.49 1.33 2 3.53 1.55 2

To examine the participants’ preference for each music style, I computed a composite score of preference by style. Table 8 shows the means and standard deviations 72

of participants’ preference ratings of the six ethnic music styles. Results show that both

the fourth-year and fifth-year participants revealed highest preference ratings in Chinese,

followed in descending rank order by Taiwanese Aboriginal, Hokkien, Hakka,

Indonesian, and Vietnamese music styles. Except in fifth-year participants’ Chinese,

Hokkien, and Hakka music styles, standard deviations for each music style were larger

than 1.

Table 8

Descriptive Statistics for Preference Ratings for the Six Ethnic Music Styles Participants (N=126) 4th Year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Combined (N=126) M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 4.76 1.00 1 4.82 .93 1 4.78 .97 1 Hokkien 4.06 1.02 3 4.09 .73 3 4.08 .91 3 Hakka 4.03 1.17 4 3.91 .99 4 3.98 1.10 4 Taiwanese Aboriginal 4.16 1.14 2 4.10 1.02 2 4.14 1.09 2 Vietnamese 3.46 1.14 6 3.42 1.05 6 3.44 1.10 6 Indonesian 3.92 1.17 5 3.74 1.03 5 3.85 1.11 5 Note: R = rank order

Research Question 2

Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers familiar with the ethnic music examples within each music style?

This study examined pre-service music teachers’ familiarity with each excerpt for

six ethnic music styles on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = unfamiliar, 7 = familiar). Table

9 shows the means and standard deviations. I examined fourth-year and the fifth-year participants’ responses for similarities between their familiarity with each of the selections within the ethnic music styles. Table 9 shows how the participants’ familiarity ranked within each ethnic music style where 1 = highest mean sore, 2 = second highest mean score, and 3 = the lowest mean score for the question concerning familiarity. The rank of familiarity ratings showed exactly the same order in both fourth-year and fifth- year pre-service music teachers.

The overall range of the participants’ combined familiarity mean scores was between M = 1.75 to M = 4.60. The music excerpts that received the highest mean scores were found in two of the Chinese ethnic music excerpts (M = 4.31, M = 4.57) and one

Hokkien excerpt (M = 4.60). By comparison, the lowest mean scores were revealed in two of the Vietnamese excerpts (M = 1.75, M = 1.93), and one Indonesian example (M =

1.95). Except for the Vietnamese examples, the standard deviation values were larger than one in the Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, and Indonesian music pieces.

Table 9

Descriptive Statistics for Familiarity by Ethnic Music Style 4th Year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Combined (N=126) Style Excerpt M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 1 Shell-flower 2.48 1.23 3 2.74 1.61 3 2.59 1.40 3 8 Tune of Review 4.34 1.72 2 4.26 1.76 2 4.31 1.73 2 13 Girls of the Tea 4.70 1.71 1 4.40 1.87 1 4.57 1.78 1 Mountain

Hokkien 2 Tune of the Plain 2.16 1.25 3 1.98 1.37 3 2.09 1.30 3 People 10 A Little Chirping 4.75 1.90 1 4.40 1.86 1 4.60 1.89 1 Bird 15 Four Seasons Like 3.75 1.71 2 3.49 1.88 2 3.64 1.78 2 Spring

Hakka 4 Hakka Folk Song 2.85 1.48 3 2.57 1.60 3 2.73 1.53 3 9 Song for the First 3.47 1.56 2 2.83 1.67 2 3.20 1.63 2 Month of the Lunar Year 17 Embroidered 3.96 1.77 1 3.26 1.78 1 3.67 1.80 1 sachet

Taiwanese 6 Puyuma People— 3.71 1.59 1 3.34 1.87 1 3.56 1.72 1 Aboriginal Welcome Song 11 Atayal People- 2.49 1.38 3 2.42 1.75 3 2.46 1.54 3 Song of Reminiscence of the Gathering of the Elders 18 Thao People 2.99 1.60 2 2.75 1.64 2 2.89 1.62 2 —Pestle Song

Vietnamese 3 The egret is flying, 1.77 .99 3 1.74 1.13 3 1.75 1.05 3 flying 7 Song of the 1.96 .92 2 1.89 .99 2 1.93 .95 2 Nightingale 14 The Boat Song 2.26 1.13 1 2.17 1.40 1 2.22 1.25 1

Indonesian 5 Sinur 2.55 1.46 1 2.49 1.33 1 2.52 1.40 1 12 Ladrang 'Pangkur' 2.23 1.43 2 2.09 1.48 2 2.17 1.45 2 pelogbarang 16 LindeukJapati 1.97 1.12 3 1.92 1.25 3 1.95 1.17 3

To examine participants’ familiarity for each music style, I computed a composite

score of familiarity by style. Table 10 shows the means, standard deviations, and rank of 75

participants’ familiarity ratings of the six music styles. Results show that both the fourth-

year and fifth-year participants were most familiar with Chinese, followed in descending rank order by Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Indonesian, and Vietnamese music styles. The range of aggregate familiarity mean scores were between M = 1.97 to M

=3.82. Except in Vietnamese ethnic music style, standard deviations for each music style

were larger than one.

Table 10

Descriptive Statistics for Familiarity Ratings for the Six Ethnic Music Styles Participants (N=126) 4th Year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Combined (N=126) M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 3.84 1.37 1 3.80 1.53 1 3.82 1.44 1 Hokkien 3.56 1.30 2 3.29 1.39 2 3.44 1.34 2 Hakka 3.42 1.32 3 2.89 1.57 3 3.20 1.45 3 Taiwanese Aboriginal 3.06 1.22 4 2.84 1.24 4 2.97 1.23 4 Vietnamese 2.00 .84 6 1.93 .95 6 1.97 .89 6 Indonesian 2.25 1.04 5 2.17 1.11 5 2.22 1.07 5 Note: R = rank order

Research Question 3

Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers willing to teach the ethnic music examples within each music style?

An important research question in this study examined pre-service music teachers’

willingness to teach each excerpt within six ethnic music styles on a 7-point Likert-type

scale (1 = not willing to teach; 7 = willing to teach). Table 11 shows the means, standard

deviations, and rank of participants’ willingness ratings. I examined the responses to see

if there were similarities between the participant groups’ willingness to teach ratings for

each selection within the ethnic music style. Table 11 shows how the participants’ willingness ranked within each ethnic music style where 1 = highest mean sore, 2 =

second highest mean score, and 3 = the lowest mean score for the question concerning

willingness. The rank of willingness ratings, except for Chinese and Indonesian ethnic

music style, showed exactly the same order in both fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers.

The overall range of the aggregate willingness mean scores were between M =

3.10 to M = 5.13. The highest mean scores were reported for two Chinese ethnic music excerpts (M = 5.04, M = 5.13), two Hokkien excerpts (M = 4.40, M = 4.92), two Hakka pieces (M = 4.02, M = 4.44), two Taiwanese Aboriginal examples (M = 4.08, M = 4.83), and one Indonesian music excerpt (M = 4.30). By comparison, of the combined means in three Vietnamese excerpts were M = 3.10, M = 3.23, and M = 3.66. The standard deviation values were larger than 1.00 in all music pieces.

Table 11

Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Teach the Six Ethnic Music Styles 4th Year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Combined (N=126) Style Excerpt M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 1 Shell-flower 3.68 1.39 3 4.42 1.47 3 3.99 1.47 3 8 Tune of Review 4.92 1.47 2 5.21 1.12 1 5.04 1.34 2 13 Girls of the Tea 5.08 1.29 1 5.21 1.36 1 5.13 1.32 1 Mountain

Hokkien 2 Tune of the Plain 3.22 1.43 3 3.53 1.66 3 3.35 1.53 3 People 10 A Little Chirping 4.93 1.62 1 4.91 1.17 1 4.92 1.44 1 Bird 15 Four Seasons Like 4.36 1.65 2 4.45 1.48 2 4.40 1.57 2 Spring

Hakka 4 Hakka Folk Song 3.56 1.64 3 3.60 1.68 3 3.58 1.65 3 9 Song for the First 3.99 1.39 2 4.06 1.39 2 4.02 1.39 2 Month of the Lunar Year 17 Embroidered 4.49 1.63 1 4.38 1.26 1 4.44 1.48 1 sachet Taiwanese 6 Puyuma People— 4.89 1.44 1 4.75 1.66 1 4.83 1.53 1 Aboriginal Welcome Song 11 Atayal People- 3.55 1.72 3 3.79 1.78 3 3.65 1.75 3 Song of Reminiscence of the Gathering of the Elders 18 Thao People 4.11 1.55 2 4.04 1.59 2 4.08 1.56 2 —Pestle Song

Vietnamese 3 The egret is flying, 3.03 1.52 3 3.19 1.63 3 3.10 1.56 3 flying 7 Song of the 3.16 1.39 2 3.32 1.57 2 3.23 1.46 2 Nightingale 14 The Boat Song 3.64 1.51 1 3.68 1.41 1 3.66 1.47 1 Indonesian 5 Sinur 4.19 1.64 1 4.45 1.48 1 4.30 1.57 1 12 Ladrang 'Pangkur' 3.36 1.70 3 3.62 1.80 2 3.47 1.74 2 pelogbarang 16 LindeukJapati 3.47 1.83 2 3.40 1.73 3 3.44 1.78 3

To examine the participants’ willingness ratings for each music style, the investigator calculated a composite score of willingness by style. Table 12 shows the

78 means, standard deviations, and rank of participants’ willingness ratings of the six music styles. The composite willingness ratings revealed that the fourth-year participants’ highest willingness ratings were for the Chinese excerpts. Taiwanese Aboriginal was rated second, followed in descending rank by Hokkien, Hakka, Indonesian, and

Vietnamese. Similarly, the composite willingness scores indicated that the fifth-year participants showed highest willingness ratings to teach Chinese, followed in descending rank by Hokkien, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Hakka, Indonesian, and Vietnamese.

The overall willingness scores showed that participants’ highest willingness ratings were for Chinese excerpts, followed in descending rank order by Hokkien,

Taiwanese Aboriginal, Hakka, Indonesian, and Vietnamese music styles. Standard deviations for each music style were larger than 1.

Table 12

Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Teach Ratings for the Six Ethnic Music Styles Participants (N=126) th th Combined 4 Year (n=73) 5 year (n=53) (N=126) M SD R M SD R M SD R Chinese 4.56 1.12 1 4.94 1.09 1 4.72 1.12 1 Hokkien 4.17 1.22 3 4.30 1.03 2 4.22 1.14 2 Hakka 4.01 1.29 4 4.01 1.25 4 4.01 1.27 4 Taiwanese Aboriginal 4.18 1.29 2 4.20 1.41 3 4.19 1.34 3 Vietnamese 3.28 1.26 6 3.40 1.34 6 3.33 1.29 6 Indonesian 3.67 1.38 5 3.82 1.46 5 3.74 1.41 5 Note: R = rank order

Research Question 4

Were the Taiwanese pre-service music teachers able to correctly identify the ethnic language for each music example?

Table 13 shows participants’ response of language identification in each music excerpt. Their responses were categorized into three types: correct, incorrect, and not sure.

The highest mean percentage of correct identification of three excerpts in each music style was Chinese (100%), followed in descending rank by Hokkien (78.83%), Taiwanese

Aboriginal (67.46%), Hakka (45.23%), Indonesian (29.37%), and Vietnamese (10.58%).

Additionally, the highest two “not sure” ratings were found in Vietnamese (61.9%), and

Indonesian (46.3%) ethnic music styles.

Table 13

Frequency Count for the Identification of the Six Ethnic Languages (N = 126) Style Excerpt Response Item Total Correct Incorrect Not Sure Chinese 1 126 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 126 8 126 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 126 13 126 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 126 MP (100%) (0%) 0 (0%)

Hokkien 2 49 (38.9%) 23 (18.3%) 54 (42.9%) 126 10 125 (99.2%) 1 (.8%) 0 (0%) 126 15 124 (98.4%) 1 (.8%) 1 (.8%) 126 MP (78.8%) (6.6%) (14.6%)

Hakka 4 53 (42.1%) 37 (29.4%) 36 (28.6%) 126 9 45 (35.7%) 39 (31.0%) 42 (33.3%) 126 17 73 (57.9%) 35 (27.8%) 18 (14.3%) 126 MP (45.2%) (29.4%) (25.4%) (continued) 80

Table 13 (continued) Style Excerpt Response Item Total Correct Incorrect Not Sure Taiwanese 6 112 (88.9%) 1 (.8%) 13 (10.3%) 126 Aboriginal 11 75 (59.5%) 13 (10.3%) 38 (30.2%) 126 18 68 (54.0%) 14 (11.1%) 44 (34.9%) 126 MP (67.5%) (7.4%) (25.1%)

Vietnamese 3 9 (7.1%) 33 (26.2%) 84 (66.7%) 126 7 18 (14.3%) 27 (21.4%) 81 (64.3%) 126 14 13 (10.3%) 44 (34.9%) 69 (54.8%) 126 MP (10.6%) (27.5%) (61.9%)

Indonesian 5 46 (36.5%) 44 (34.9%) 36 (28.6%) 126 12 44 (34.9%) 15 (11.9%) 67 (53.2%) 126 16 21 (16.7%) 33 (26.2%) 72 (57.1%) 126 MP (29.4%) (24.3%) (46.3%) Note: MP = Mean Percentage

Within each ethnic music style, the participants listened to three excerpts. The

researcher calculated the participants’ number of correct answers for the three excerpts

within each ethnic music style. The number of correct responses ranged from zero to three (See Table 14). In descending rank, participants were able to identify the excerpts in

the following ethnic music styles: Chinese (n = 126, 100%), Hokkien (n = 49, 38.9%),

Taiwanese Aboriginal (n = 42, 33.3%), Hakka (n = 19, 15.1%), Indonesian (n = 6, 4.8%),

and Vietnamese (n = 0, 0%). For the three excerpts of each music style, several

participants had none of the correct responses: Vietnamese (n = 92, 73.0%), followed by

Indonesian (n = 47, 37.3%), Hakka (n = 28, 22.2%), and Taiwanese Aboriginal (n = 6,

4.8%).

Table 14

Frequencies of Correct Responses for Identifying Six Ethnic Languages Style Participant Number of Correct Responses Total 0 1 2 3 Chinese 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (%) 126 (100%) 126 Hokkien 0 (0%) 2 (1.6%) 75 (59.5%) 49 (38.9%) 126 Hakka 28 (22.2%) 44 (34.9%) 35 (27.8%) 19 (15.1%) 126 Taiwanese Aboriginal 6 (4.8%) 26 (20.6%) 52 (41.3%) 42 (33.3%) 126 Vietnamese 92 (73.0%) 28 (22.2%) 6 (4.8%) 0 (0%) 126 Indonesian 47 (37.3%) 54 (42.9%) 19 (15.1%) 6 (4.8%) 126

Research Question 5

Were there any relationships among the participants’ willingness to teach, preferences for, familiarity with, and ability to correctly identify the languages of the six ethnic music styles?

The relationships among the participants’ preference, familiarity, willingness, and

language identification were computed by using Pearson product-moment correlations

(See Table 15). The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between the participants’ preference and familiarity for each ethnic music style showed a moderate positive relationship ratings (r = .34 to r = .50, p < .01). Additionally, the participants’

degree of preference was strongly related to their willingness to teach the six ethnic

music styles (r = .66 to r = .73, p < .01). For each music style, the Pearson product- moment correlation coefficients between preference and willingness ratings were as follows: Chinese (r = .70), Hokkein (r = .68), Hakka (r = .73), Taiwanese Aboriginal (r

= .71), Vietnamese (r = .66), and Indonesian (r = .66). For the test of the participants’ 82

familiarity with the ethnic music styles and their willingness to teach the music styles, the

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were statistically significant, yielding

moderate to high positive correlation coefficients within the following range: r = .38 to r

= .54, p < .01. The specific correlation coefficient r values for the participants' familiarity with the music styles and their willingness to teach the music styles were as follows:

Chinese (r = .49), Hokkein (r = .54), Hakka (r = .51), Taiwanese Aboriginal (r = .40),

Vietnamese (r = .38), and Indonesian (r = .51). The results indicated that the participants’

preference and familiarity ratings were positively correlated with their willingness to

teach the six ethnic music styles.

As a validity check, I asked the participants to identify the language of the music

examples that were used to correlate the participants’ ability to identify the excerpt’s

language with the participant’s preference, familiarity and willingness to teach the music

excerpt. The findings showed that the participants’ correct responses for the Indonesian

language excerpts were positively related to their preference (r = .28, p < .01), familiarity

(r = .41, p < .01), and willingness (r = .39, p < .01) to teach the ethnic music style. The

positive relationship was also observed between identification for Taiwanese Aboriginal

language and familiarity (r = .27, p < .01). Correlations among identification language,

preference, familiarity, and willingness ratings were not examined in Chinese ethnic

music style because all participants correctly identified the Chinese excerpts; therefore, I

was unable to examine the correlations. 83

Table 15

Pearson Correlations between Accuracy of Language Identification and Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings for Each Ethnic Music Style (N = 126) Style Factors Preference Familiarity Willingness Chinese Preference Familiarity .37** Willingness .70** .49** Hokkien Preference Familiarity .45** Willingness .68** .54** Identification .02 .13 -.07 Hakka Preference Familiarity .50** Willingness .73** .51** Identification .12 .15 .03 Taiwanese Preference Aboriginal Familiarity .34** Willingness .71** .40** Identification .08 .27** .13 Vietnamese Preference Familiarity .40** Willingness .66** .38** Identification .00 .14 .01 Indonesian Preference Familiarity .39** Willingness .66** .51** Identification .28** .41** .39** ** < .01

Research Question 6

Did the participants’ Western and non-Western music training, year of enrollment, certificate level, and internship experience reveal any differences in the participants’ preferences, familiarity and willingness to teach responses?

MANOVA for Preference, Familiarity and Willingness Ratings by Year, Music

Training, and Music Certificate Level

Of the 73 fourth-year pre-service music teachers, 29 participants had elementary

certification, and 44 had secondary certification. Of the 53 fifth-year pre-service music

teachers, 25 participants had elementary level certification, 24 had secondary level

certification, and 4 had both elementary and secondary levels of certifications. Only four participants had both certificates and therefore, they were eliminated from this portion of the analysis. Participants’ formal music training was also categorized into three groups:

W, Western only training; WC < 4, formal training in Western music and less than four years of formal training in Chinese music; and WC ≥ 4, where the participants’ written responses showed formal training in Western music and four or more years of formal training in Chinese music.

MANOVA for Preference by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate

Level. I used Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to examine the effects of

year of enrollment, music training, and music certificate level on music preference. Table

16 displays the descriptive statistics of participants’ preference by music certificate level, music training, and year of enrollment. In general, the participants with Western music training and four or more years of Chinese training (WC > 4) gave higher preference

ratings for the six ethnic music styles. Table 17 shows the MANOVA results of each of

the six ethnic music styles. There were no significant differences in preference by year of 85 enrollment, music certificate level, and music training.

Table 16

Participants’ Preference for the Six Music Styles

Chinese Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.47 .93 12 4.96 .82 9 4.68 .90 21 WC < 4 4.62 .85 7 4.83 .50 8 4.73 .67 15 WC ≥ 4 5.27 .91 10 5.63 .49 8 5.43 .76 18 Total 4.78 .94 29 5.13 .70 25 4.94 .85 54

Secondary W 4.39 1.01 12 4.75 1.34 4 4.48 1.07 16 WC < 4 4.74 .92 13 4.20 .99 5 4.59 .95 18 WC ≥ 4 4.98 1.13 19 4.51 .97 15 4.77 1.08 34 Total 4.75 1.05 44 4.49 1.00 24 4.66 1.03 68 Total W 4.43 .95 24 4.90 .96 13 4.59 .97 37 WC < 4 4.70 .88 20 4.59 .76 13 4.66 .82 33 WC ≥ 4 5.08 1.05 29 4.90 .99 23 5.00 1.02 52 Total 4.76 1.00 73 4.82 .92 49 4.78 .96 122

Hokkien Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.22 1.23 12 4.11 .55 9 4.17 .98 21 WC < 4 3.62 1.30 7 3.96 .72 8 3.80 1.00 15 WC ≥ 4 4.40 .81 10 4.38 .74 8 4.39 .76 18 Total 4.14 1.12 29 4.15 .67 25 4.14 .93 54

Secondary W 3.83 .89 12 3.75 .69 4 3.81 .83 16 WC < 4 3.64 .79 13 4.00 .97 5 3.74 .83 18 WC ≥ 4 4.39 1.00 19 4.22 .83 15 4.31 .92 34 Total 4.02 .95 44 4.10 .83 24 4.04 .90 68

Total W 4.03 1.07 24 4.00 .59 13 4.02 .92 37 WC < 4 3.63 .96 20 3.97 .79 13 3.77 .90 33 WC ≥ 4 4.39 .93 29 4.28 .79 23 4.34 .86 52 Total 4.06 1.02 73 4.12 .74 49 4.09 .91 122 (continued)

Table 16 (continued)

Hakka Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.86 1.37 12 4.15 .99 9 3.98 1.20 21 WC < 4 3.38 1.21 7 3.54 .69 8 3.47 .93 15 WC ≥ 4 4.33 1.33 10 4.13 1.07 8 4.24 1.19 18 Total 3.91 1.33 29 3.95 .94 25 3.93 1.15 54

Secondary W 3.50 1.22 12 3.58 1.03 4 3.52 1.14 16 WC < 4 4.21 .74 13 3.33 .91 5 3.96 .86 18 WC ≥ 4 4.42 1.04 19 4.22 1.00 15 4.33 1.01 34 Total 4.11 1.06 44 3.93 1.02 24 4.04 1.04 68

Total W 3.68 1.28 24 3.97 1.00 13 3.78 1.18 37 WC < 4 3.92 .98 20 3.46 .75 13 3.73 .92 33 WC ≥ 4 4.39 1.12 29 4.19 1.00 23 4.30 1.06 52 Total 4.03 1.17 73 3.94 .97 49 3.99 1.09 122

Taiwanese Aboriginal Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.50 1.34 12 4.33 1.09 9 4.43 1.21 21 WC < 4 3.81 1.37 7 3.67 .85 8 3.73 1.09 15 WC ≥ 4 4.57 1.04 10 4.21 1.23 8 4.41 1.11 18 Total 4.36 1.25 29 4.08 1.07 25 4.23 1.17 54

Secondary W 3.72 1.14 12 4.08 .79 4 3.81 1.05 16 WC < 4 3.85 .83 13 3.93 .92 5 3.87 .83 18 WC ≥ 4 4.37 1.11 19 4.27 1.08 15 4.32 1.08 34 Total 4.04 1.06 44 4.17 .98 24 4.08 1.03 68

Total W 4.11 1.28 24 4.26 .98 13 4.16 1.17 37 WC < 4 3.83 1.02 20 3.77 .85 13 3.81 .94 33 WC ≥ 4 4.44 1.07 29 4.25 1.11 23 4.35 1.08 52 Total 4.16 1.14 73 4.12 1.02 49 4.15 1.09 122 (continued)

Table 16 (continued)

Vietnamese Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.75 1.00 12 3.70 1.16 9 3.73 1.04 21 WC < 4 2.81 1.26 7 3.00 .76 8 2.91 .99 15 WC ≥ 4 3.83 .93 10 3.58 1.14 8 3.72 1.00 18 Total 3.55 1.09 29 3.44 1.04 25 3.50 1.06 54

Secondary W 3.08 1.16 12 2.92 .57 4 3.04 1.02 16 WC < 4 3.26 .95 13 3.20 1.17 5 3.24 .98 18 WC ≥ 4 3.70 1.30 19 3.58 1.26 15 3.65 1.27 34 Total 3.40 1.18 44 3.39 1.14 24 3.40 1.16 68

Total W 3.42 1.11 24 3.46 1.06 13 3.43 1.08 37 WC < 4 3.10 1.06 20 3.08 .89 13 3.09 .98 33 WC ≥ 4 3.75 1.17 29 3.58 1.19 23 3.67 1.17 52 Total 3.46 1.14 73 3.42 1.08 49 3.44 1.11 122

Indonesian Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.03 1.23 12 3.81 1.14 9 3.94 1.17 21 WC < 4 3.10 1.40 7 3.46 .78 8 3.29 1.08 15 WC ≥ 4 3.90 1.01 10 4.08 1.21 8 3.98 1.07 18 Total 3.76 1.22 29 3.79 1.05 25 3.77 1.13 54

Secondary W 4.00 1.19 12 3.58 .17 4 3.90 1.04 16 WC < 4 3.38 .72 13 3.80 1.10 5 3.50 .83 18 WC ≥ 4 4.49 1.17 19 3.67 1.13 15 4.13 1.21 34 Total 4.03 1.14 44 3.68 1.00 24 3.91 1.10 68

Total W 4.01 1.18 24 3.74 .94 13 3.92 1.10 37 WC < 4 3.28 .98 20 3.59 .88 13 3.40 .94. 33 WC ≥ 4 4.29 1.14 29 3.81 1.15 23 4.08 1.16 52 Total 3.92 1.17 73 3.73 1.02 49 3.85 1.11 122 Note: W-Western Only, WC < 4-Western & Chinese (< 4 years), WC ≥ 4-Western & Chinese (≥ 4 years)

Table 17

MANOVA Results of Music Preference for Six Ethnic Music Style Categories by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122) Source Wilks’ df F p η2 Lambda Year .986 6 .256 .956 .014 Certificate Level .940 6 1.115 .358 .060 Music training .884 12 1.111 .353 .060 Year x .935 6 1.124 .305 .065 Certificate Level Year x .931 12 .642 .805 .035 Music Training Certificate Level x .928 12 .667 .782 .037 Music Training Year x Certificate .954 12 .421 .954 .024 Level x Music Training

MANOVA for Familiarity by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate

Level. To examine the effects of year of enrollment, music training, and music certificate

level on the participants’ familiarity with the music, I computed Multivariate Analysis of

Variance (MANOVA). Table 18 presents the descriptive statistics of participants’

familiarity by enrollment of year, music certificate level, and music training. In general, participants with four and more years of Chinese training had higher familiarity mean scores in all ethnic music styles.

Table 18

Participants’ Familiarity with the Six Music Styles

Chinese Certificate Music 4th year 5th year Total Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.81 .97 12 3.30 1.61 9 3.59 1.27 21 WC < 4 4.24 1.37 7 2.88 1.15 8 3.51 1.40 15 WC ≥ 4 4.17 1.57 10 4.63 1.25 8 4.37 1.41 18 Total 4.03 1.26 29 3.59 1.51 25 3.83 1.39 54 Secondary W 3.42 1.43 12 4.42 1.13 4 3.67 1.40 16 WC < 4 3.54 1.62 13 3.53 .51 5 3.54 1.38 18 WC ≥ 4 4.02 1.34 19 4.11 1.94 15 4.06 1.60 34 Total 3.71 1.44 44 4.04 1.61 24 3.83 1.50 68 Total W 3.61 1.21 24 3.64 1.53 13 3.62 1.31 37 WC < 4 3.78 1.54 20 3.13 .99 13 3.53 1.37 33 WC ≥ 4 4.07 1.39 29 4.29 1.72 23 4.17 1.53 52 Total 3.84 1.37 73 3.81 1.56 49 3.83 1.44 122

Hokkien Certificate Music 4th year 5th year Total Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.89 1.30 12 3.22 1.57 9 3.60 1.42 21 WC < 4 3.81 1.10 7 2.04 .84 8 2.87 1.31 15 WC ≥ 4 3.53 1.25 10 4.04 .97 8 3.76 1.13 18 Total 3.75 1.20 29 3.11 1.41 25 3.45 1.33 54

Secondary W 3.17 1.36 12 3.00 .61 4 3.13 1.20 16 WC < 4 3.15 1.50 13 3.20 .30 5 3.17 1.27 18 WC ≥ 4 3.79 1.26 19 3.80 1.82 15 3.79 1.51 34 Total 3.43 1.37 44 3.54 1.48 24 3.47 1.40 68 Total W 3.53 1.35 24 3.15 1.32 13 3.40 1.34 37 WC < 4 3.38 1.38 20 2.49 .89 13 3.03 1.28 33 WC ≥ 4 3.70 1.24 29 3.88 1.56 23 3.78 1.38 52 Total 3.56 1.30 73 3.32 1.45 49 3.46 1.36 122 (continued)

Table 18 (continued)

Hakka Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.14 1.06 12 2.63 1.77 9 2.92 1.39 21 WC < 4 3.29 1.46 7 1.88 .69 8 2.53 1.30 15 WC ≥ 4 3.67 1.25 10 3.42 1.40 8 3.56 1.28 18 Total 3.36 1.20 29 2.64 1.47 25 3.02 1.37 54

Secondary W 3.22 1.46 12 2.25 .96 4 2.98 1.39 16 WC < 4 3.44 1.40 13 2.40 .43 5 3.15 1.29 18 WC ≥ 4 3.65 1.41 19 3.53 1.98 15 3.60 1.66 34 Total 3.47 1.40 44 3.08 1.70 24 3.33 1.51 68

Total W 3.18 1.25 24 2.51 1.53 13 2.95 1.37 37 WC < 4 3.38 1.39 20 2.08 .64 13 2.87 1.31 33 WC ≥ 4 3.66 1.33 29 3.49 1.76 23 3.58 1.53 52 Total 3.42 1.31 73 2.86 1.58 49 3.20 1.45 122

Taiwanese Aboriginal Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.33 1.24 12 2.74 1.01 9 3.08 1.16 21 WC < 4 3.33 1.44 7 1.88 .94 8 2.56 1.38 15 WC ≥ 4 3.53 1.45 10 3.13 .99 8 3.35 1.25 18 Total 3.40 1.32 29 2.59 1.08 25 3.02 1.27 54

Secondary W 2.78 1.06 12 3.50 1.04 4 2.96 1.07 16 WC < 4 2.79 1.34 13 2.53 .87 5 2.72 1.21 18 WC ≥ 4 2.91 1.04 19 3.18 1.63 15 3.03 1.32 34 Total 2.84 1.11 44 3.10 1.41 24 2.93 1.22 68

Total W 3.06 1.16 24 2.97 1.04 13 3.03 1.11 37 WC < 4 2.98 1.36 20 2.13 .94 13 2.65 1.27 33 WC ≥ 4 3.13 1.21 29 3.16 1.42 23 3.14 1.29 52 Total 3.06 1.22 73 2.84 1.27 49 2.97 1.24 122 (continued)

Table 18 (continued)

Vietnamese Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 2.31 .82 12 1.96 .82 9 2.16 .82 21 WC < 4 2.00 .69 7 1.29 .38 8 1.62 .64 15 WC ≥ 4 2.30 1.35 10 1.92 .61 8 2.13 1.07 18 Total 2.23 .98 29 1.73 .69 25 2.00 .89 54

Secondary W 1.72 .58 12 1.75 .74 4 1.73 .60 16 WC < 4 1.95 .74 13 1.73 .64 5 1.89 .70 18 WC ≥ 4 1.84 .77 19 2.27 1.30 15 2.03 1.04 34 Total 1.84 .71 44 2.07 1.11 24 1.92 .87 68

Total W 2.01 .76 24 1.90 .77 13 1.97 .76 37 WC < 4 1.97 .71 20 1.46 .52 13 1.77 .68 33 WC ≥ 4 2.00 1.01 29 2.14 1.10 23 2.06 1.04 52 Total 2.00 .84 73 1.90 .93 49 1.96 .88 122

Indonesian Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 2.28 .87 12 2.67 1.41 9 2.44 1.12 21 WC < 4 1.95 .99 7 1.42 .43 8 1.67 .77 15 WC ≥ 4 2.13 1.07 10 2.71 1.39 8 2.39 1.22 18 Total 2.15 .95 29 2.28 1.28 25 2.21 1.11 54

Secondary W 2.61 1.20 12 1.50 .43 4 2.33 1.15 16 WC < 4 2.05 .83 13 1.73 .72 5 1.96 .79 18 WC ≥ 4 2.32 1.22 19 2.16 .89 15 2.25 1.08 34 Total 2.32 1.11 44 1.96 .82 24 2.19 1.02 68

Total W 2.44 1.04 24 2.31 1.30 13 2.40 1.12 37 WC < 4 2.02 .86 20 1.54 .55 13 1.83 .78 33 WC ≥ 4 2.25 1.16 29 2.35 1.09 23 2.29 1.12 52 Total 2.25 1.04 73 2.12 1.08 49 2.20 1.06 122 Note: W-Western Only, WC < 4-Western & Chinese (< 4 years), WC ≥ 4-Western & Chinese (≥ 4 years)

Table 19 shows the MANOVA results of the test for familiarity for the six ethnic

music style categories by year of enrollment, certificate level, and music training. The

MANOVA (Wilk’s Lambda criterion) results revealed significant overall multivariate

main effects for year, and for the two-way interaction between year and certificate level.

Differences were significant beyond the .05 level. All other interactions did not reveal

statistically significant differences (p > .05).

The analysis showed year of enrollment was a significant variable that affected

the participants’ music familiarity (Wilks’ Lambda = .89, p < .05). Significant univariate

differences were found in the Hakka music style, F (1,110) = 6.44, p < .05. The fourth-

year pre-service music teachers (M = 3.42, SD = 1.32) had a significantly higher mean for

the Hakka music style than the fifth-year participants (M = 2.86, SD = 1.58).

Because the interaction of year of enrollment and certificate level was significant

for Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style (Wilks’ Lambda = .770, p < .000). I further investigated the interaction between means for certificate level and enrollment year (See figure 1). Fourth-year participants with an elementary certificate were more familiar with

Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style than the fourth-year participants who had a secondary certificate. The trend was reversed for fifth-year participants. Fifth-year participants with a secondary level certificate were more familiarity with Taiwanese

Aboriginal ethnic music style than those with elementary level certificate.

Table 19

MANOVA Results of Music Familiarity for Six Ethnic Music Style Categories by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122) Source Wilks’ df F p η2 Lambda Year .888 6 2.208 .048 .112 Certificate Level .987 6 .231 .966 .013 Music training .870 12 1.263 .242 .067 Year x .770 6 5.220 .000 .230 Certificate Level Year x .915 12 .791 .659 .043 Music Training Certificate Level x .891 12 1.041 .412 .056 Music Training Year x Certificate .841 12 1.580 .099 .083 Level x Music Training

Univariate F Test: Year, Year x Certificate Level Source df MS F p η2 Year Chinese 1 .075 .036 .850 .000 Hokkien 1 2.926 1.652 .201 .015 Hakka 1 13.013 6.443 .013 .055 Taiwanese 1 2.120 1.402 .239 .013 Aboriginal Vietnamese 1 1.012 1.330 .351 .012 Indonesian 1 .952 .873 .352 .008 Year x Certificate Level Chinese 1 4.420 2.128 .147 .019 Hokkien 1 2.328 1.314 .254 .012 Hakka 1 .001 .002 .978 .000 Taiwanese 1 7.162 4.736 .032 .041 Aboriginal Vietnamese 1 1.971 2.591 .110 .023 Indonesian 1 2.873 2.635 .107 .023

3.6

3.4

3.2

2.8 Elementary Secondary 2.6

Mean Familiarity Familiarity ScoresMean 2.4

2.2

2 4th Year 5th Year Certificate Level

Figure 1. Interaction between Certificate Level and Year in School on Mean Ratings of Familiarity.

MANOVA for Willingness by Year, Music Training, and Music Certificate

Level. To examine the effects of grade, music training, and music certificate level on

teachers’ willingness to teach six ethnic music styles, I computed Multivariate Analysis

of Variance (MANOVA). Table 20 presents the descriptive statistics of participants’

willingness to teach the six ethnic music style categories by grade, music certificate level,

and music training. Generally, participants with four or more years of Chinese training

had higher willingness ratings to teach all ethnic music styles.

Table 20

Participants’ Willingness to Teach the Six Music Styles

Chinese Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.67 .68 12 4.96 .72 9 4.79 .70 21 WC < 4 4.19 1.05 7 5.00 .73 8 4.62 .96 15 WC ≥ 4 5.23 1.04 10 6.08 .90 8 5.61 1.05 18 Total 4.75 .97 29 5.33 .92 25 5.02 .98 54 Secondary WO 4.00 1.28 12 4.17 1.45 4 4.04 1.28 16 WC < 4 4.49 1.12 13 4.73 .64 5 4.56 1.00 18 WC ≥ 4 4.68 1.20 19 4.64 1.14 15 4.67 1.16 34 Total 4.44 1.21 44 4.58 1.08 24 4.49 1.16 68 Total WO 4.33 1.06 24 4.72 1.01 13 4.47 1.04 37 WC < 4 4.38 1.08 20 4.90 .69 13 4.59 .96 33 WC ≥ 4 4.87 1.16 29 5.14 1.25 23 4.99 1.20 52 Total 4.56 1.12 73 4.97 1.06 49 4.72 1.11 122

Hokkien Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.67 1.24 12 4.37 1.06 9 4.54 1.15 21 WC < 4 3.38 1.25 7 3.88 .78 8 3.64 1.02 15 WC ≥ 4 4.47 1.09 10 4.83 .93 8 4.63 1.01 18 Total 4.29 1.27 29 4.36 .98 25 4.32 1.13 54

Secondary W 3.83 1.45 12 3.50 .69 4 3.75 1.29 16 WC < 4 3.69 .89 13 4.33 .67 5 3.87 .86 18 WC ≥ 4 4.53 1.13 19 3.67 1.20 15 4.59 1.15 34 Total 4.09 1.20 44 4.40 1.09 24 4.20 1.17 68 Total W 4.25 1.38 24 4.10 1.02 13 4.20 1.26 37 WC < 4 3.58 1.01 20 4.05 .74 13 3.77 .93 33 WC ≥ 4 4.51 1.10 29 4.72 1.09 23 4.60 1.09 52 Total 4.17 1.22 73 4.38 1.03 49 4.25 1.15 122 (continued)

Table 20 (continued)

Hakka Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.39 1.31 12 4.04 1.50 9 4.24 1.37 21 WC < 4 3.19 1.32 7 4.04 .82 8 3.64 1.13 15 WC ≥ 4 4.33 1.17 10 4.17 1.04 8 4.26 1.08 18 Total 4.08 1.32 29 4.08 1.13 25 4.08 1.22 54

Secondary W 3.56 1.48 12 2.83 1.37 4 3.38 1.44 16 WC < 4 4.03 .98 13 3.60 1.16 5 3.90 1.01 18 WC ≥ 4 4.19 1.34 19 4.60 1.14 15 4.37 1.26 34 Total 3.97 1.29 44 4.10 1.33 24 4.01 1.29 68

Total W 3.97 1.43 24 3.67 1.52 13 3.86 1.45 37 WC < 4 3.73 1.15 20 3.87 .95 13 3.79 1.06 33 WC ≥ 4 4.24 1.27 29 4.45 1.10 23 4.33 1.19 52 Total 4.01 1.29 73 4.09 1.22 49 4.04 1.26 122

Taiwanese Aboriginal Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.92 1.21 12 4.26 1.74 9 4.63 1.46 21 WC < 4 3.48 1.44 7 3.79 1.04 8 3.64 1.20 15 WC ≥ 4 4.43 1.20 10 3.92 1.23 8 4.20 1.21 18 Total 4.40 1.34 29 4.00 1.34 25 4.22 1.35 54

Secondary W 3.81 1.51 12 4.08 2.10 4 3.88 1.60 16 WC < 4 3.92 1.90 13 5.00 1.11 5 4.22 1.17 18 WC ≥ 4 4.26 1.18 19 4.60 1.31 15 4.41 1.23 34 Total 4.04 1.24 44 4.60 1.38 24 4.24 1.31 68

Total W 4.36 1.45 24 4.21 1.77 13 4.31 1.55 37 WC < 4 3.77 1.20 20 4.26 1.19 13 3.96 1.20 33 WC ≥ 4 4.32 1.17 29 4.36 1.30 23 4.34 1.22 52 Total 4.18 1.29 73 4.29 1.38 49 4.23 1.32 122 (continued)

Table 20 (continued)

Vietnamese Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 3.83 1.18 12 3.33 1.36 9 3.62 1.25 21 WC < 4 2.52 1.05 7 3.17 1.26 8 2.87 1.17 15 WC ≥ 4 3.30 1.18 10 3.58 1.27 8 3.43 1.19 18 Total 3.33 1.22 29 3.36 1.26 25 3.35 1.23 54

Secondary W 3.36 1.54 12 2.33 1.09 4 3.10 1.48 16 WC < 4 2.92 .93 13 3.73 1.19 5 3.15 1.04 18 WC ≥ 4 3.39 1.36 19 3.89 1.43 15 3.61 1.39 34 Total 3.24 1.29 44 3.60 1.41 24 3.37 1.33 68

Total W 3.60 1.36 24 3.03 1.33 13 3.40 1.36 37 WC < 4 2.78 .97 20 3.38 1.22 13 3.02 1.10 33 WC ≥ 4 3.36 1.28 29 3.78 1.35 23 3.54 1.32 52 Total 3.28 1.26 73 3.48 1.32 49 3.36 1.28 122

Indonesian Certificate Music 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=49) Total (N=122) Level Training M SD N M SD N M SD N Elementary W 4.17 1.51 12 3.93 1.75 9 4.06 1.58 21 WC < 4 2.52 1.67 7 3.46 .91 8 3.02 1.35 15 WC ≥ 4 3.57 1.40 10 4.00 1.83 8 3.76 1.57 18 Total 3.56 1.59 29 3.80 1.52 25 3.67 1.55 54

Secondary W 4.08 1.23 12 3.33 1.31 4 3.90 1.25 16 WC < 4 3.05 1.12 13 3.93 1.66 5 3.30 1.30 18 WC ≥ 4 4.00 1.16 19 4.07 1.39 15 4.03 1.25 34 Total 3.74 1.23 44 3.92 1.39 24 3.80 1.28 68

Total W 4.13 1.35 24 3.74 1.59 13 3.99 1.43 37 WC < 4 2.87 1.32 20 3.64 1.21 13 3.17 1.31 33 WC ≥ 4 3.85 1.24 29 4.04 1.52 23 3.94 1.36 52 Total 3.67 1.38 73 3.86 1.44 49 3.75 1.40 122 Note: WO-Western Only, WC < 4-Western & Chinese (< 4 years), WC ≥ 4-Western & Chinese (≥ 4 years)

Table 21 shows the MANOVA results of teachers’ willingness to teach the six

ethnic music style categories by enrollment of year, certificate level, and music training.

The MANOVA results revealed statistical significance for the main effects of music

training, Wilks’ Lambda = .81, F (12, 210) = 1.89, p < .05, partial-η2 = .10. The interactions did not reveal significant differences (p > .05).

Music training was a significant variable that affected participants’ willingness to teach the different ethnic music styles. Significant univariate differences were found in

Chinese, F (2, 110) = 5.00, p < .05, Hokkien, F (2, 110) = 5.15, p < .05, and Hakka, F (2,

110) = 3.20, p < .05, ethnic music styles. Scheffe post hoc analysis was conducted as a follow-up procedure. Because of the conservative nature of the Scheffe post hoc test, only one result proved statistically significant. Results revealed that the participants with

Western and at least four years of Chinese music training (M = 4.60, SD = 1.09) were

more willing to teach Hokkien music style than participants with Western and less than

four years of Chinese music training (M = 3.77, SD = .93)

Table 21

MANOVA Results of Music Willingness to Teach Six Ethnic Music Style Categories by Year, Certificate Level, and Music Training (N = 122) Source Wilks’ df F p η2 Lambda Year .930 6 1.324 .253 .070 Certificate Level .904 6 1.868 .093 .096 Music training .814 12 1.891 .037 .098 Year x .898 6 1.980 .075 .102 Certificate Level Year x .908 12 .865 .583 .047 Music Training Certificate Level x .869 12 1.278 .233 .068 Music Training Year x Certificate .905 12 .895 .553 .049 Level x Music Training

Univariate F Test: Music Training Source df MS F p η2 Music Training Chinese 2 5.471 5.001 .008 .083 Hokkien 2 6.323 5.149 .007 .086 Hakka 2 4.930 3.203 .044 .055 Taiwanese Aboriginal 2 .629 .363 .696 .007 Vietnamese 2 2.085 1.278 .283 .023 Indonesian 2 4.558 2.366 .099 .041

MANOVA for Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings by Internship

I computed MANOVA tests to examine the differences between the fifth-year participants’ enrollment in an elementary and secondary internship. Table 22 shows the means and standard deviations of participants’ preference ratings of the six ethnic music styles by internship. Mean preference ratings for participants who interned in elementary schools ranged from M = 3.44 to M = 5.13. For participants who interned in secondary

100

schools, mean familiarity ratings ranged from M = 3.39 to M = 4.49. Mean preference

ratings for both groups combined ranged from M = 3.42 to M = 4.82. Except in

Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style, the participants who interned in elementary schools had higher preference ratings than participants interning in secondary schools.

Standard deviations for preference for participants who interned in elementary schools ranged from .67 to 1.07. For participants who interned in secondary schools, standard deviations ranged from .83 to 1.14. The combined standard deviations for both groups ranged from .74 to 1.08.

Table 22

Means and Standard Deviations of Preference by Internship (N = 49) Internship Mean SD N Chinese Elementary School 5.13 .70 25 Secondary School 4.49 1.01 24 Total 4.82 .92 49 Hokkien Elementary School 4.15 .67 25 Secondary School 4.10 .83 24 Total 4.12 .74 49 Hakka Elementary School 3.95 .94 25 Secondary School 3.93 1.02 24 Total 3.94 .97 49 Taiwanese Elementary School 4.08 1.07 25 Aboriginal Secondary School 4.17 .98 24 Total 4.12 1.02 49 Vietnamese Elementary School 3.44 1.04 25 Secondary School 3.39 1.14 24 Total 3.42 1.08 49 Indonesian Elementary School 3.79 1.05 25 Secondary School 3.68 1.00 24 Total 3.73 1.02 49

101

Table 23 shows the means and standard deviations of the participants’ familiarity

ratings for the six ethnic music styles by internship. Mean familiarity ratings for

participants interning in elementary schools ranged from M = 1.73 to M = 3.59. For participants who interned in secondary schools, mean familiarity ratings ranged from M =

1.96 to M = 4.04. Mean familiarity ratings for the two groups combined ranged from M =

1.90 to M = 3.81. Except in the Indonesian ethnic music style, participants interning in secondary schools had higher familiarity ratings than participants interning in elementary schools. For both participants who interned in elementary and secondary schools, the

standard deviation values were larger than 1.00 in Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, and

Taiwanese Aboriginal music pieces.

Table 23

Means and Standard Deviations of Familiarity by Internship (N = 49) Internship Mean SD N Chinese Elementary School 3.59 1.51 25 Secondary School 4.04 1.61 24 Total 3.81 1.56 49 Hokkien Elementary School 3.11 1.41 25 Secondary School 3.54 1.48 24 Total 3.32 1.45 49 Hakka Elementary School 2.64 1.47 25 Secondary School 3.08 1.70 24 Total 2.86 1.58 49 Taiwanese Elementary School 2.59 1.08 25 Aboriginal Secondary School 3.10 1.41 24 Total 2.84 1.27 49 Vietnamese Elementary School 1.73 .69 25 Secondary School 2.07 1.11 24 Total 1.90 .93 49 Indonesian Elementary School 2.28 1.28 25 Secondary School 1.96 .82 24 Total 2.12 1.08 49 102

Table 24 shows the means and standard deviations of participants’ willingness to

teach ratings for the six ethnic music styles by internship. The mean willingness ratings

for the participants who interned in elementary schools ranged from M = 3.36 to M =

5.33. For participants interning in secondary schools, mean willingness ratings ranged

from M = 3.60 to M = 4.60. Mean willingness ratings for both groups combined ranged

from M = 3.48 to M = 4.97. The willingness to teach standard deviations for participants

who interned in elementary schools ranged from .92 to 1.52. For participants who

interned in secondary schools, standard deviations ranged from 1.08 to 1.41. The

combined standard deviation for both groups ranged from 1.03 to 1.44. For the

participants who interned in elementary and secondary schools, except in Chinese and

Hokkien ethnic music styles, the standard deviation values were larger than 1.00 for the

remaining music styles.

Table 24

Means and Standard Deviations of Willingness to Teach Ratings by Internship (N = 49) Internship Mean SD N Chinese Elementary School 5.33 .92 25 Secondary School 4.58 1.08 24 Total 4.97 1.06 49 Hokkien Elementary School 4.36 .98 25 Secondary School 4.40 1.09 24 Total 4.38 1.03 49 Hakka Elementary School 4.08 1.13 25 Secondary School 4.10 1.33 24 Total 4.09 1.22 49 Taiwanese Elementary School 4.00 1.34 25 Aboriginal Secondary School 4.60 1.38 24 Total 4.29 1.38 49 (continued) 103

Table 24 (continued) Internship Mean SD N Vietnamese Elementary School 3.36 1.26 25 Secondary School 3.60 1.41 24 Total 3.48 1.32 49 Indonesian Elementary School 3.80 1.52 25 Secondary School 3.92 1.39 24 Total 3.86 1.44 49

I computed MANOVA tests to examine the differences between the fifth-year

participants’ enrollment in an elementary and secondary internship. Specifically, I used

the Wilks’ Lambda test to examine the fifth-year elementary and secondary participants’

preference, familiarity, and willingness to teach the ethnic music styles. The analyses did not reveal any significant differences (p > .05) (See Table 25).

Table 25

MANOVA Results of Music Preference, Familiarity, and Willingness Ratings for Six Ethnic Music Style Categories by Internship (N = 49) Source Wilks’ df F p Lambda Preference Internship .828 1 1.449 .219 Familiarity Internship .800 1 1.755 .132 Willingness Internship .760 1 2.212 .061

Open-ended Questions

What are some of the things you liked about the music you heard?

Participants responded to open-ended questions after listening to the selected 18

pieces. Table 26 lists common themes and frequency of appearance in the participants’

free responses of what they liked of the music they heard. Music style was the most 104 common theme that emerged from the participants’ free responses. Other prominent themes were melody, instrumentation, rhythm, timbre, and language.

Table 26

Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What They Liked of the Music Items 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Total (N=126) Melody 32 (43.84%) 24 (45.28%) 56 (44.44%) Rhythm 27 (36.99%) 16 (30.19%) 43 (34.13%) Instrumentation 25 (34.25%) 23 (43.40%) 48 (38.10%) Timbre 13 (17.80%) 23 (43.40%) 36 (28.57%) Harmony 4 (5.48%) 2 (3.77%) 6 (4.76%) Arrangement 2 (2.74%) 3 (5.66%) 5 (3.97%) Vocal Skill 3 (4.11%) 0 (0%) 3 (2.38%) Style 42 (57.53%) 27 (50.94%) 69 (54.76%) Language 20 (27.40%) 7 (13.21%) 27 (21.43%) Familiarity 9 (12.33%) 3 (5.66%) 12 (9.52%) Lyrics 3 (4.11%) 2 (3.77%) 5 (3.97%)

One participant directly stated that music style is a major factor in affecting his or her music preference. Some participants indicated that they like all the music styles they heard because each ethnic music style has its own features. One participant described that

“Vietnamese, Indonesian, and Thailand music styles can be teaching materials for exotic music appreciation.” While some respondents discussed that they are more familiar with

Chinese music style leading them to like Chinese music more, others indicated that music styles that they were less exposed to were more interesting. For example, one participant indicated that “although I am not familiar with the Gamelan music style and excerpts, the richness of music characteristics are appealing to me.” Another participant commented

105

that “I am more impressed with music styles with special characteristics.”

Among the remaining terms that received frequent mention in the open-ended

responses was the language in which the excerpts were sung. Most of the participants

indicated that they prefer Chinese or Hokkien ethnic music styles for their familiarity,

understandability, and greater exposure in daily life. In other words, Chinese and

Hokkien ethnic languages are heard more often in Taiwan. In regard to Chinese music,

one participant commented that she likes Chinese music, especially music from 1930-

1970. However, another participant pointed out that although he or she likes Chinese

music, some songs created in previous periods of time are difficult to relate to. This implies in addition to familiarity, the music’s associated periods of time also affect listeners’ preference.

Some of the participants commented on, and liked, the music’s melodic qualities.

Specifically, several participants liked the music excerpts that included a clear melodic contour, and one person liked the alto voice range. Others preferred the music examples that could easily be sung.

It is interesting to note that some of the participants’ comments indicated that they like familiar melodies. For example, one participant stated “I like music that has similar melody as earlier Taiwanese songs because of familiarity.” However, others preferred

“exotic melodies that are special to them because they have seldom heard of this music.”

With respect to rhythm, generally, participants stated they like brisk or clear rhythms. 106

One participant also mentioned he/she likes special rhythms, such as microtone and syncopation.

When the participants commented on the music’s instrumentation, their preferences were at times similar and at other times different. Some of the participants indicated simple instrumentation is pleasant to their ears, however other people liked music with multi-layered instrumentation. Another area in which the participants did not always agree concerned the percussion instruments. Some stated that they like music that does not have too many percussion accompaniments, while others indicated that they prefer music with percussion accompaniment. Several participants liked the familiar instrumentation in some of the excerpts, but others indicated that they were curious about the special and different instrumentation heard in some of the excerpts. Some respondents stated that music using traditional instruments as accompaniment was unique.

Respondents also indicated that some of the instrumentation in the music excerpts had distinctive features, “for example” as one respondent noted, “in music pieces NO. 7, 12, and 18.” The participants’ previous music training also affected their instrumentation preference. For example, while one participant expressed his or her preference of Chinese music because of his/her background of learning Chinese instruments, a cello player preferred music played by string instruments.

Participants who discussed timbre in their comments stated that they like gentle/ mellow timbres. For example, when one of the participants wrote about the excerpts, the 107

person said some singers’ expressive ways and timbre are different from what we

normally hear in general singing today. Additionally, some instruments’ timbre is special

or appealing. One participant indicated that he or she prefers solo performances more

than ensemble performances. This participant believed the timbre for some of the

ensemble performances sounded discordant.

What are some of the things you disliked about the music you heard?

Timbre was the most common theme that emerged when the participants

described what they disliked about the music. Other prominent themes were melody,

style, instrumentation, and language. Table 27 shows the themes and frequency of

appearance in the participants’ free responses concerning what they disliked of the music

they heard.

Table 27

Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What They Disliked of the Music Items 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Total (N=126) Melody 22 (30.14%) 24 (45.28%) 46 (36.51%) Rhythm 10 (13.70%) 2 (3.77%) 12 (9.52%) Instrumentation 14 (19.18%) 12 (22.64%) 26 (20.63%) Timbre 32 (43.84%) 23 (43.40%) 55 (43.65%) Harmony 0 (0%) 1 (1.89%) 1 (0.79%) Arrangement 6 (8.22%) 3 (5.66%) 9 (7.14%) Vocal skill 10 (13.70%) 1 (1.89%) 11 (8.73%) Style 17 (23.29%) 14 (26.42%) 31 (24.60%) Language 11 (15.07%) 9 (16.98%) 20 (15.87%) Familiarity 2 (2.73%) 1 (1.89%) 3 (2.38%) Lyrics 1 (1.37%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.79%)

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One participant indicated that the timbre and accompanied music did not match

well with the singers’ timber. Many participants indicated that some “singers’ timbre is

too sharp and unrefined,” making it difficult to accept the vocalist’s singing. For instance,

one participant commented that “although each country’s singers have their own

features…if the singers’ timbre is too sharp that would directly affect my preference.”

Another participant said that “In the music industry, most music is pursuing a

homogeneous voice, thus part of traditional music’s presentation and timbre are not

understandable.”

In the open-ended responses, melody received a great amount of attention as something that was liked and disliked. One participant pointed out that melody directly determines his/her liking or disliking toward a given music rather than the language of the music. Participants commented that they dislike incorrect pitch, extremely high pitch, too many extreme leaps in pitch, as well as discordant and old fashioned melodies. Some participants stated that they “dislike complicated melodies,” while others “dislike simple and plain melodies.” In terms of repetition pattern, one participant indicated that “if the melody does not have repeated patterns, it is hard to memorize it and resonate with it.”

However, some participants commented that they dislike repeated melody.

With regard to the instrumentation, many participants indicated that the music excerpts with too much percussion “sounds noisy” and they were “not used to some instrumentation sounds.” Some participants commented about disliking simple 109

instrumentation, while others held opposite opinions and said they disliked complicated

instrumentation. One participant also pointed out that the “instruments and vocals do not

match well.”

In terms of music style, one participant indicated that, “there are no music styles

that I dislike, and hope [sic] to learn all of them.” Some of the participants’ specific comments used the following terms to describe the music styles they disliked: “sad,”

“exotic,” or “primitive.” Unfamiliarity was a major factor in causing participants’ to not

resonate with or express less liking for some music styles. For example, many

participants commented that “I seldom have contacted with these music styles thus I

cannot understand them.” Another participant stated, “I am not familiar with some music

styles and did not resonate with them.” In a more direct statement, a respondent said “I

am not familiar with some ethnic music styles thus I do not like them that much.”

Most of the participants indicated that they dislike language that is unfamiliar and

not understandable. For example, one participant commented that “I can only appreciate

the instrumentation used in Southeast music styles.” The respondent continued, “because

I do not understand what they are singing,…it is hard for me to like them.” Another respondent indicated that “some voices sound ear-piercing or like shouting, perhaps

because of the language characteristics.”

In the other comments, one participant commented that “it is difficult to like a

given music without knowing the social or cultural meaning behind the music. I am not 110

used to sounds of some music styles. Perhaps I have been trained with Western art music

for a long time and do not know how to appreciate other ethnic music styles. To improve

this, I can start to learn from music’s historical backgrounds, languages, or instruments.”

What would influence your willingness to teach some of the music you heard?

Participants indicated what influenced their willingness to teach the music they heard. Language was the most common theme that emerged from the participants’ free responses. Other prominent themes were preference, music value, student-centered, melody, familiarity, and instrumentation. Table 28 presents the themes and frequency of appearance in the participants’ free responses concerning what influenced their willingness to teach music.

Table 28

Frequencies from Participants’ Free Responses of What Influenced Their Teaching Willingness Items 4th year (n=73) 5th year (n=53) Total (N=126) Melody 11 (15.07%) 17 (32.08%) 28 (22.22%) Rhythm 6 (8.22%) 4 (7.55%) 10 (7.94%) Instrumentation 12 (16.44%) 15 (28.30%) 27 (21.43%) Timbre 5 (6.85%) 6 (11.32%) 11 (8.73%) Harmony 1 (1.37%) 1 (1.89%) 2 (1.59%) Arrangement 2 (2.74%) 0 (0%) 2 (1.59%) Vocal Skill 6 (8.22%) 1 (1.89%) 7 (5.56%) Style 10 (13.70%) 7 (13.21%) 17 (13.49%) Language 28 (38.36%) 23 (43.40%) 51 (40.48%) Familiarity 15 (20.55%) 12 (22.64%) 27 (21.43%) Preference 23 (31.51%) 13 (24.53%) 36 (28.57%) Lyrics 5 (6.85%) 3 (5.66%) 8 (6.35%) Student-centered 12 (16.44%) 16 (30.19%) 28 (22.22%) Music Value 22 (30.14%) 9 (17.00%) 31 (24.60%) 111

With regard to the languages used in the ethnic music styles, three participants indicated that the language in which the song is performed is their priority concern when teaching music. Whether the teachers could understand the target language and whether they were familiar with it were the two important factors that affected their willingness to teach the music. Another participant indicated that, “although my preference for music affects my willingness to teach it, language plays a more important role.” Generally, most participants indicated that they are more willing to teach a familiar language. For example, some participants commented that “I am more willing to teach our own languages, such as Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, and Taiwanese Aboriginal.” However, some pre-service music teachers also pointed out that they are willing to teach unfamiliar languages. As one participant commented, “I am more willing to teach music that has more elements and characteristics different from our own culture.” Another participant commented that “the familiarity to a language is an important factor. For instance, I am more exposed to Chinese, Taiwanese, and Hakka, and I am more willing to teach the related music. However, if a music style and instrumentation are interesting, such as

Taiwanese Aboriginal special instruments or Southeast music style, I would like to teach them too.”

Clearly, the pre-service teachers’ knowledge of a language affected their willingness to teach the ethnic music styles. Some participants’ concerns were as follows:

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“Can I correctly teach a language to my students after I practice pronouncing the

language?”

“If I do not understand a language, it is hard to teach it, for instance, Taiwanese

Aboriginal, Hakka, and Southeast languages.”

“If a teacher does not understand a given language, the willingness to teach it will

be lower.”

“It is difficult to teach a language that I do not understand.”

Other participants also commented that when teaching an unfamiliar language, they may have difficulty providing an in-depth teaching and learning experience, thus they may teach music appreciation of the music rather than teach the lyrics and singing.

The participants’ music preference also emerged as a prominent factor to influence their willingness to teach a music style. For instance, one respondent commented that “I will teach repertoires that interest me.” Some participants also indicated that they have more passion and are more willing to teach the music that they like. Although most participants expressed having more willingness to teach music they like more, one respondent indicated that “I will teach music even if I dislike it, because I can still learn a lot when teaching it.” Similarly, another participant commented that

“some music I do not like very much, but if the music and culture contents are worthy of teaching, I hope to incorporate music with daily interesting materials and teach it to my students.” 113

Many respondents indicated the importance of music’s culture and meaning, art value, background meaning, social function, and value of cultural heritage. Also, respondents discussed the following concerns that would influence their willingness to teach the ethnic music styles: whether music is representative of a country’s music style or a culture’s important folk songs, whether music is played by representative traditional instruments and whether ethnic music characteristics (e.g., elements) are clearly represented and worth teaching. One participant also proposed other concerns, including

“where does the music come from? What is the music composed of? What are the characteristics of instrumentation or singing?”

Many participants discussed student-centered considerations from different perspectives. For example, the respondents believed the students’ prior knowledge of, response to, acceptance, preference, interest, and familiarity with music are important sources of input and consideration. Additionally, many participants believed it is important to select repertoire that is appropriate for students to sing, related to their life, or seldom encountered in their daily life. Also, participants cared about “whether music is meaningful to students” and “can let students understand their hometown background” or the music used “for special rituals.” Generally, participants indicated that they hope to teach their students to appreciate multicultural music. For instance, one participant commented that “hopefully, I can introduce multicultural music for my students to appreciate.” Another respondent described that “hopefully, my students can listen to 114

different world music and absorb this kind of knowledge.” Furthermore, some

participants provided some approaches they want to adopt in their teaching. One

participant commented that “If students can accept a given music, I will offer them a

more in-depth teaching; [sic] if not, I will invite them to appreciate” the music. Another

respondent indicated that “In addition to listening to and appreciate a given music, I want

to use easy-understood teaching materials and introduce instrumentation, timbre, and music style to promote my students’ learning willingness” [sic].

Additional qualities emerged as influential factors that would affect participants’

willingness to teach the ethnic music styles. The participants noted that the following

melodic qualities would influence their willingness to teach the music: range, the degree

of difficulty, and whether a piece can be easily sung. Also, participants’ preference for

and familiarity with the melody were related to their willingness to teach a piece of music.

In terms of instrumentation, some participants indicated that special and multi-types

instrumentations are worth teaching. Meanwhile, teachers’ understanding of certain

instrumentation would affect their willingness to teach the music. One participant

commented that “if I cannot understand the instrumentation of a repertoire, my teaching

willingness will be lower.”

With respect to familiarity, many participants pointed out that the more familiarity

they have with music, the more willingness they have in teaching it. One respondent

commented that “I want to teach music that I am more familiar with, or I do not know 115

how to teach it.” Additionally, one participant explained that his or her familiarity with the music’s societal culture would also affect their willingness to teach the music, as well.

Another participant indicated the difficulty in teaching unfamiliar music. The participant commented that “all the music excerpts are worth teaching and I want to teach them. But

I do not know how to start because some excerpts are so unfamiliar.” Although most

respondents expressed greater willingness to teach familiar music, one participant held a

different perspective and commented that “familiarity and language would affect my

teaching willingness, however if it is teaching Asian music, world music, or multicultural

music content, those two factors are not that important. I want to dig in more of the music

that I am not familiar with and teach my students special or interesting music content.”

In addition to the above concepts, participants also commented on some other

issues. First, participants’ concerns included the amounts of music elements in a music

selection, whether the music elements or knowledge can be analyzed, whether the music

elements can be applicable in teaching, and whether special music elements can be

representative of a country. Second, teachers were concerned with whether they would

have access to sufficient music teaching resources. Third, some participants started to

examine their prior and professional knowledge. One participant commented that “after

listening to the music, I realize my understanding of Asian music is insufficient. World

music’s width and depth is worth studying more.” Fourth, some participants recognized

that all the music excerpts can be good teaching materials. For example, one participant 116

commented that “I am open to all kinds of music. Based on cultural richness, all the excerpts are good teaching materials.” Another respondent believed that “instrumental music can be good materials for music appreciation; songs that are easy to sing can serve as singing songs.” Finally, some participants advocated that teachers should be able to teach students to learn and be more familiar with Taiwanese local music and multicultural music.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six

ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. As a validity

check, the pre-service music teachers were asked to identify the ethnic language in which

each music example was performed. The six ethnic music styles were Chinese, Hokkien,

Hakka, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian. The independent variables

for this study were the participants’ year of enrollment (4th year pre-internship— completing last year of undergraduate coursework, or 5th year intern—undergraduate

coursework completed and in final stage of internship experience); certificate level

(elementary or secondary music training); and formal music training (in Western,

Chinese and other art and folk music styles). The dependent variables were the

participants’ familiarity with the ethnic music styles, preference for the music styles, and

willingness to teach the music styles. The following discussion presents a summary of

research findings, implications, and recommendations for future research.

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Summary of Findings

Participants’ Preference Responses

Descriptive statistics indicated that generally, pre-service music teachers with

Western and four and more years of Chinese music training had higher preference ratings in all ethnic music styles (See Table 16). This study found that the type and amount of music training pre-service music received influenced the participants’ preference ratings which is similar to findings in previous music preference studies. For example, Chiang

(2014) reported that Taiwanese elementary students in music talented programs whose majors were traditional Chinese instruments liked traditional Taiwanese music more than students whose majors were piano, stringed music, and percussion music. Ginocchio

(2009) also found similar preference ratings for non-music majors with music training in choir, band or piano. In this study, participants with at least five years’ of music training had statistically significant overall higher preference ratings than those with less training.

When the participants were given an opportunity to indicate what they liked and disliked about the music through open-ended responses, in respect to what they liked, music style was the most common theme that emerged from participants’ free responses.

Other prominent themes were melody, instrumentation, rhythm, timbre, and language.

Regarding what they disliked, timbre was the most common theme that emerged from the participants’ free responses. Other prominent themes were melody, style, instrumentation, and language. 119

Generally, the participants indicated that they liked specific musical

characteristics, such as a clear melodic contour, brisk or clear rhythms, and gentle/mellow

timbres. However, there were specific musical characteristics they disliked, such as sharp

and unrefined timbre, extremely high pitch, too many extreme leaps in pitch, and

discordant melodies. These results were similar to Fung’s (1996) finding that musicians’

music preferences had common musical characteristics, such as “fast tempo, loud, tonal-

centered, having many different pitches, consonant, moderately embellished, smooth-

sounding, and bright timbre” (p.60).

Participants’ Familiarity Responses

Previous studies indicated that listeners’ familiarity with a music stimulus may

affect their positive music preferences for the music stimulus (Bradley, 1971; Demorest

& Schultz, 2004; Fung, 1994; Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves & Castell, 1987; Teo,

Hargreaves, & Lee, 2008). Thus, this study selected music excerpts most of the

participants were not familiar with. In this study, the aggregate mean score range of the

participants’ familiarity with the six ethnic music styles was between M = 1.97 to M =

3.82.

It should be noted that participants’ familiarity (See Table 9) and preference (See

Table 7) rankings were the same for each example within Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka,

Taiwanese Aboriginal, and Vietnamese ethnic music styles. Additionally, the correlation

coefficients between participants’ familiarity and preference ratings for the six ethnic 120

music styles showed a moderate positive relationship (r = .34 to r =.50, p < .01),

indicating that the more familiarity the participants had with the music style, the greater

preference they had for the style. The results were in accord with findings of previous

studies. For example, Fung (1996) reported the relationship between musicians’ and non-

musicians’ preference and familiarity was positive for world music. Teo, Hargreaves, and

Lee (2008) found a strong correlation between preference and familiarity (r = .65).

Similarly, Demorest and Schultz (2004) indicated that a significant correlation was found

between fifth graders’ preferences and familiarity.

The finding that participants’ music familiarity was related to their preference

may explain why the participants expressed lower preference ratings for the Vietnamese

and Indonesian ethnic music styles (See Table 8). Participants’ familiarity ratings for

Vietnamese and Indonesian revealed that these two ethnic music styles were the least

familiar to them (See Table 10).

The MANOVA results revealed that the enrollment year of the students, and the

interaction between the year of enrollment and certificate level significantly affected participants’ familiarity (See Table 19). Statistically significant univariate differences were found in the Hakka music style and the fourth-year pre-service music teachers’ familiarity ratings were significantly higher than the fifth-year participants.

The interaction of year of enrollment and certificate level was significant for

Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style (Wilks’ Lambda = .770, p < .000). Figure 1 121

showed that fourth-year participants with an elementary certificate were more familiar

with Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style than the fourth-year participants who had a

secondary certificate. The trend was reversed for fifth-year participants. Fifth-year

participants with a secondary level certificate were more familiarity with Taiwanese

Aboriginal ethnic music style than those with elementary level certificate. Participants’

familiarity with Taiwanese Aboriginal ethnic music style maybe related to the courses

that they had taken. I examined the curriculum offerings among the five universities that

offer music education degree programs. Both world music and introduction to

musicology were offered as elective courses by the five universities. Some of the

universities offer non-Western art music as elective courses, such as Asia music, Chinese

music, traditional Chinese instruments, traditional drama music, Taiwanese music, and

Taiwan Aboriginal music. Future study could examine the relationship between

participants’ familiarity with and training in specific ethnic music styles.

Participants’ Willingness Responses

Pearson product-moment correlations indicated that the participants’ degree of preference was strongly related to their willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles (r

= .66 to r = .73, p < .01). The finding may explain why participants expressed a higher willingness to teach Chinese ethnic styles and a lower willingness to teach the

Vietnamese and Indonesian ethnic music styles (See Table 12). Participants revealed the

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highest preference for Chinese ethnic music style and lower preference ratings for

Vietnamese and Indonesian ethnic music styles (See Table 8).

The participants’ free responses also indicated that music preference was a prominent factor in influencing their willingness to teach a music style. Some participants indicated that they have more passion and are more willing to teach the music that they like. However, other participants expressed that they still are willing to teach music they dislike. For example, one participant stated “I will teach music even if I dislike it, because I can still learn a lot when teaching it.”

Significant moderate positive correlations were found between familiarity and willingness to teach ratings within each music style (r = .38 to r = .54, p < .01). Also, participants’ qualitative data indicated their familiarity with a language would influence their willingness to teach music. The finding that participants’ familiarity was related to their willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles may explain why participants expressed higher willingness to teach the Chinese ethnic music style and lower willingness to teach the Vietnamese and Indonesian ethnic music styles (See Table 12).

Participants revealed the highest familiarity for Chinese ethnic music style and lower familiarity ratings for Vietnamese and Indonesian ethnic music styles (See Table 10).

The results indicated that participants’ preference and familiarity ratings were positively correlated to their willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles. Participants’ qualitative data also indicated that preference and familiarity were two factors that likely 123 influenced their willingness to teach some of the ethnic music styles and examples. It is interesting to note that the correlations among the rank order for the preference, familiarity, and willingness ratings were identical for the Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka,

Taiwanese Aboriginal, and Vietnamese ethnic music styles.

Previous music preference studies reported that music training may affect listeners’ music preference (Chiang, 2014; Ginocchio, 2009; Gregory, 1994; Hargreaves,

Comber, & Colley, 1995; Kelly, 1961). This study further examined the relationship between participants’ music training and their willingness to teach the six ethnic music styles. The MANOVA results revealed that music training was a significant variable affecting participants’ willingness to teach the Chinese, Hokkien, and Hakka ethnic music styles. The results of the Scheffe post hoc analysis revealed that participants with Western and four or more than four years of Chinese training (M = 4.60, SD = 1.09) were more willing to teach Hokkien music style than participants with Western and less than four years of Chinese training (M = 3.77, SD = .93). Additionally, descriptive statistics showed that participants with four and more years of Chinese training had higher willingness ratings to teach all ethnic music styles (See Table 20). These findings may be related to the performance medium of selected music examples. Music examples selected in the current study were vocal with traditional instrumental accompaniments. Participants with

Western and four and more years of Chinese training may be more familiar with these

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ethnic music styles, and they expressed more preference for and willingness to teach the

ethnic music styles.

Language Identification

The participants were asked to identify the ethnic language of the music

selections. Their responses were categorized into three types: correct, incorrect, and not

sure. The highest mean percentage of correct identification of three excerpts within each

music style was Chinese, followed in descending rank by Hokkien, Taiwanese

Aboriginal, Hakka, Indonesian, and Vietnamese (See Table 13). Additionally, the highest two “not sure” ratings were found in Vietnamese (61.9%), and Indonesian (46.3%) ethnic music styles.

I also calculated participants’ number of correct answers for three excerpts within each ethnic music style. The number of correct responses ranged from zero to three (See

Table 14). In descending rank order, participants were able to identity all three excerpts in

the following music styles: Chinese, Hokkien, Taiwanese Aboriginal, Hakka, Indonesian,

and Vietnamese. The findings were similar to current spoken language phenomenon in

Taiwan, Chinese is the most popular language, and Hokkien is the second most common

language. By comparison, for most participants, Indonesian, and Vietnamese are less

familiar languages.

Previous studies examined a relationship among preference, familiarity, and

identification for music styles (Fung, 1994; Teo, 2008). Fung (1994) did not find 125 significant relationships between scores of preference and identification. He proposed the results may be affected by participants’ low reliability to identify excerpts’ music styles.

However, Teo (2008) found positive correlations among familiarity, preference, and identification in Chinese music style. The current study attempted to examine the relationships among preference, familiarity, and identification of language. The Pearson product-moment correlations indicated that participants’ correct responses for Indonesian language were positively related to their preference (r = .28, p < .01), familiarity (r = .41, p < .01), and willingness (r = .39, p < .01) to teach Indonesian ethnic music style. A positive relationship was also observed between identification for Taiwanese Aboriginal language and familiarity (r = .27, p < .01). Participants’ free responses may also support the findings as they indicated that their preference and familiarity were factors affecting their willingness to teach. However, it should be noted that for those participants who have learned Indonesian ethnic music in their coursework, they may have had an opportunity to learn Indonesian music style, and culture; however, perhaps they did not have the opportunity to learn the language. Given that participants gave low composite familiarity ratings with Indonesian language (M = 2.22) (See Table 10) and high “not sure” mean percentage of Indonesian language identification for three excerpts (M =

46.3%) (See Table 13), it is possible that when a listener identifies a piece of music, the listener may identify the music either by the language or its music style, especially for an unfamiliar language. Future research is needed in this area. 126

Implications

The purpose of this study was to examine Taiwanese fourth-year and fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ preferences for, familiarity with and willingness to teach six ethnic music styles from the largest student cultural groups in Taiwan. The findings of the current study have important educational and curricular implications for music education.

Familiarity plays an important role in music preference (Bradley, 1971; Demorest

& Schultz, 2004; Fung, 1994; Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966; Hargreaves & Castell, 1987; Teo,

Hargreaves, & Lee, 2008). ). Results of the current study also found that the correlation

coefficients between participants’ familiarity and preference ratings for the six ethnic

music styles showed moderate positive relationships (r = .34 to r =.50, p < .01),

indicating that the more familiarity the participants had with the music style, the greater

preference they had for the style. Based on the finding, the implication is that music

teacher education should prepare and expand pre-service music teachers’ knowledge and

appreciation of diverse music types as well as familiarize them with a wide range of

music. A rich music experience can be achieved by offering a wide variety of music

styles in pre-service music teachers’ coursework or activities, such as choir, ensemble,

music appreciation courses, and recitals.

The results revealed that music training was a significant variable in affecting the

participants’ willingness to teach ethnic music styles. The participants’ preference and 127

familiarity ratings were also positively correlated to their willingness to teach the six

ethnic music styles. These results indicate that music education should provide pre-

service music teachers an opportunity to learn a wide variety of music styles—not only

the Western art music, but also other multicultural styles of music—that are all valuable

learning resources. As one participant indicated, “after listening to the music, I realize my

understanding to Asian music is insufficient. World music’s width and depth is worth

studying more.”

Music teacher education should also invite pre-service music teachers to appreciate different music systems and cultures. One participant commented that “I am not used to sounds of some music styles. Perhaps I have been trained with Western art music for a long time and do not know how to appreciate other ethnic music styles.”

Reimer (2003) stated that music not only comes from a western art music system but from other social structures or cultures. Each culture’s music can have a different meaning and musical system. All cultures have their own criteria.

After fifth-year pre-service music teachers’ internships at elementary/secondary schools and their obtaining a teaching certificate, music teachers could play an important role in developing curriculum and implementation of multicultural music approaches in the music classroom. Pre-service music teachers also have to consider their students’ background and use those students’ music culture as a critical source of music curriculum. As participants cared about music “can let students understand their 128

hometown background.” Also, students can “know and praise their own and each other’s

cultural heritages” (Gay, 2000, p.29), and “grow in understanding and respect for their

cultures of origin” (Ladson-Billings, 2002, p.111). Both the majority and minority

students’ music and culture can provide important learning materials. As one participant

put it “based on cultural richness, all the excerpts are good teaching materials.”

Participants’ open-ended responses provided important implications for music educators. When teaching music, it is crucial to teach music’s culture and meaning, art value, background meaning, social function, and value of cultural heritage. As one participant commented, “it is difficult to like a given music without knowing the social or cultural meaning behind the music”. Scholarship in this area also supports this response.

For example, Campbell (2004) stressed that music teaching is not solely music itself, but

also teaching “what the music truly means to the people within the culture and why it is a

valued human expression” (p.31). Similarly, Reimer (2003) highlighted that “enable all

students to develop their awareness of the roles that music encompasses in their culture,

so that those roles can be appreciated, understood, and seen as the repertoire of musical

possibilities open to all” (p.252). Elliott (1995) also “emphasizes that music ought to be

understood in relation to the meanings and values evidenced in actual music making and

music listening in specific cultural contexts” (p.14).

Recommendations for Future Research

The following recommendations are made for further investigation from the 129 current study:

1. It is recommended that this study be replicated with in-service music teachers. The

results could be compared with the results of the current study to provide educators

and researchers a better understanding of music teachers’ willingness to teach

different music styles.

2. This study examined six ethnic music styles: Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka, Taiwanese

Aboriginal, Vietnamese, and Indonesian. It is recommended that future study to

examine excerpts of more music styles.

3. This study examined three excerpts from six ethnic music styles. Future research

could examine more samples of selected music styles. Findings of previous music

preference indicated that the effect of performance medium, such as instrumental or

choral, may affect music preference (Darrow, Haack, & Kuribayashi, 1987; Fung,

1995; LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983; Shehan, 1981). To control for

performance medium, only vocal excerpts with instrumental accompaniments were

selected in this study. However, the ethnic music examples included a variety of

instrumental and choral timbres. Future research should examine listeners’ responses

to the instrumental and choral timbres in familiar and less familiar music styles.

4. This study examined whether the participants’ Western and non-Western music

training, grade level, certificate level, and internship experience revealed significant

differences in the participants’ preferences, familiarity and willingness to teach 130

responses. However, this study did not examine the content or duration of the music

courses the participants had taken. Future study could further examine whether these

courses influence preference and willingness to teach various ethnic music styles.

5. One participant commented that “all the music excerpts are worth teaching and I want

to teach them. But I do not know how to start because some excerpts are so

unfamiliar.” To help develop pre-service music teachers’ familiarity and

understanding with different music styles and learn how to teach music, future study

could investigate approaches to facilitate pre-service music teachers’ teaching and

learning for different music styles.

6. This study used a music listening survey and open-ended questions to investigate pre-

service music teachers’ preference for, familiarity with, and willingness to teach six

ethnic music styles. Future study could adopt a qualitative research study to delve

deeply into factors that influence music teachers’ willingness to teach.

7. This study investigated pre-service music teachers’ willingness to teach six ethnic

music styles. Future study could examine what reasons influence music teachers’

unwillingness to teach certain music styles and excerpts.

Conclusions

In the face of demographic change, pre-service music teachers in Taiwan are being challenged to be aware of the dynamic and flow of multicultural music, meet students’ different needs, develop student-centered curricula, and implement pedagogies 131 for teaching multicultural music. In the process of teaching and learning, it is important that pre-service music teachers listen to, respect, understand, and appreciate ethnic groups’ different music and culture. Meanwhile, music education programs and internship experiences play crucial roles in broadening pre-service music teachers’ familiarity with and preferences for wider music styles. When more music teachers are willing to teach multicultural music, students may get more balanced music curricula, and the benefits of diverse music can be practiced in classrooms.

132

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Appendix A: Fourth-Year Music Listening Questionnaire English and Chinese Version

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English Version

Thank you very much for your participation. The music listening survey instrument consists of two parts: a) Demographic Data, and b) Music Listening Survey. Please provide the information requested below. All of your responses will be kept confidential.

Other Art or Folk Western Art or Music European Art or Chinese (please specify Folk Music Folk Music which country, e.g. India/ 3 years Vocal or Choral ______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument: Piano ______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Others:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) 144

Music Listening Survey

You will hear 18 musical examples in this music listening survey. Each example will be played for approximately 30 seconds. Please listen to each example carefully. Following each musical example, you will be given 15 seconds to indicate 1) how much you like the music, 2) if you are familiar with the music, 3) if you would be willing to teach the music to your students, and 4) if you can identify the ethnic language in which the music example is performed. If you do not know the language, of course you may select “I’m not sure.” Please listen to the whole excerpt, and then circle the answer that best indicates your perspective for each musical example.

Practice Example You will hear one practice example that demonstrates how another listener responded.

(Someone else’s answers.)

1. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music with this music

I am Not Willing | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I am Willing to to teach this music teach this music .Hokkien The language of .Chinese .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

Turn to the next page.

145

1. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

2. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

3. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

4. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

146

5. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

6. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

7. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

8. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure 147

9. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

10. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

11. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

12. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure 148

13. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

14. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

15. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

16. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

149

17. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

18. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

19. What are some of the things you LIKED about the music you heard?

20. What are some of the things you DISLIKED about the music you heard?

21. What would influence your willingness to teach some of the music you heard?

End of the survey. Thank you very much for your participation and valuable opinions. 150

音樂聆賞調查非常感謝你/妳參與本研究，本音樂聆賞調查問卷分為兩個部分，第一部分為個人資料，第二部分為音樂聆賞調查，請根據問題作答，你/妳所提供的資料皆會完全保密。

【第一部分個人資料】 1. 性別： 女  男 2. 年齡：______3. 就讀年級： 大四 (尚未開始半年實習)  大五 (正在半年實習中)  其他 (請說明:______) 4. 請問你/妳預計畢業後要獲得何種教師證？(可複選)  國民小學教師證  中等學校教師證  我沒有修習教育學程，沒有計畫要獲得教師證  其他 (請說明:______) 5. 請寫下你/妳接受音樂訓練的情形: 此處音樂訓練是指不分校內或校外你/妳跟著老師學習樂器或是聲樂(包括合唱團)，但是不包括自學。請在下列表格中寫下你/妳學習聲樂與樂器所練習的曲目類別與時間：

練習曲目類別西洋藝術音樂中國藝術音樂非左述二類之或民俗音樂或民俗音樂其他藝術音樂 (Western (海峽兩岸四地) 或民俗音樂聲樂/樂器 European Art or (Chinese Art or (請說明哪個國家 Folk Music) Folk Music) 例如：印度/3 年) 聲樂或合唱團 ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器：鋼琴 ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器名稱： ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器名稱： ______年 ______年國家：______年其他： ______年 ______年國家：______年 151

【第二部分音樂聆賞調查】

(一)填答說明你/妳將聽到 18 首音樂之片段，每首音樂會撥放一遍約 30 秒，請仔細聆聽音樂，每當一首音樂撥放完畢後，你/妳會有 15 秒的時間「圈選」下列四個問題： 1、對此首音樂喜歡的程度 2、對此首音樂熟悉的程度 3、教導此首音樂的意願 4、指出該音樂演唱所使用的語言，如果您不確定該首歌曲演唱所使用的語言，請圈選「我不確定」。

(二)填答範例：你/妳會先聽到一首音樂之片段，請先聽完整首音樂後再進行作答，圈選出最符合你/妳意見之選項。

(圈選方式)

1. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

請翻頁作答

152

1. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

2. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

3. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

4. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 153

5. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

6. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

7. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

8. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 154

9. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

10. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

11. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

12. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 155

13. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

14. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

15. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

16. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 156

17. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

18. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡我不熟悉此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我熟悉此音樂樂我不願意教此我願意教此音 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 音樂樂本首音樂使用 .中文 .福佬語 .客家語 .原住民語

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

19. 對於你/妳剛剛聽到的音樂，有哪些音樂特性是你/妳所喜歡的? (例如：風格、節奏、配器、曲調、編曲、音色…等等，不限於此處所列，請自由作答)

20. 對於你/妳剛剛聽到的音樂，有哪些音樂特性是你/妳所不喜歡的? (例如：風格、節奏、配器、曲調、編曲、音色…等等，不限於此處所列，請自由作答)

21. 對於你/妳剛剛聽到的音樂，什麼會影響到你/妳的教學意願？

本調查到此結束，非常感謝您的參與以及寶貴的意見 157

Appendix B: Fifth-Year Music Listening Questionnaire English and Chinese Version

158

English Version Thank you very much for your participation. The music listening survey instrument consists of two parts: a) Demographic Data, and b) Music Listening Survey. Please provide the information requested below. All of your responses will be kept confidential.

Demographic Data 1. Gender:  Female  Male 2. Age:______3. Year of study:  4th year pre-intern (Have not started my half-year internship)  5th year intern (In my internship)  Other (Specify:______) 4. What level of teacher certificate do you obtain (Select all that apply):  Elementary level  Secondary level  I do not plan to obtain teacher certificate(s)  Other (Specify:______) 5. Where are you taking your internship?  Elementary school  Secondary school  Other (Specify:______) 6. Formal Music Training: Please indicate your formal training on your primary instrument and/or voice in the following categories. (Formal musical training is defined as having taken lessons to play a musical instrument or receive vocal training, excluding self-learning.) Other Art or Folk Western Music Chinese Art or European Art or (please specify Folk Music Folk Music which country, e.g. India/ 3 years Vocal or Choral ______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument: Piano ______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Instrument:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) Others:______Year(s) ______Year(s) Country：______Year(s) 159

Music Listening Survey

Practice Example You will hear one practice example that demonstrates how another listener responded.

(Someone else’s answers.)

1. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music with this music

I am Not Willing | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I am Willing to to teach this music teach this music .Hokkien The language of .Chinese .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

Turn to the next page.

160

1. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

2. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

3. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

4. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

161

5. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

6. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

7. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

8. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure 162

9. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

10. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

11. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

12. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure 163

13. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

14. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

15. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

16. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar

with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to

to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

164

17. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

18. I Dislike | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I Like

I am Not Familiar I am Familiar with this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | with this music

I am Not Willing I am Willing to to teach this music | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | teach this music

The language of .Chinese .Hokkien .Hakka .Aboriginal

the ethnic music is .Vietnamese .Indonesian .Thai .I am not sure

19. What are some of the things you LIKED about the music you heard?

20. What are some of the things you DISLIKED about the music you heard?

21. What would influence your willingness to teach some of the music you heard?

End of the survey. Thank you very much for your participation and valuable opinions. 165

音樂聆賞調查非常感謝你/妳參與本研究，本音樂聆賞調查問卷分為兩個部分，第一部分為個人資料，第二部分為音樂聆賞調查，請根據問題作答，你/妳所提供的資料皆會完全保密。【第一部分個人資料】 1. 性別： 女  男 2. 年齡：______3. 就讀年級： 大四 (尚未開始半年實習)  大五 (正在半年實習中)  其他 (請說明:______) 4. 請問你/妳預計取得何種教師證？(可複選)  國民小學教師證  中等學校教師證  我沒有修習教育學程，沒有計畫取得教師證  其他 (請說明:______) 5. 請問你/妳在哪邊實習？  國民小學  中等學校  其他 (請說明:______) 6. 請寫下你/妳接受音樂訓練的情形: 此處音樂訓練是指不分校內或校外你/妳跟著老師學習樂器或是聲樂(包括合唱團)，但是不包括自學。請在下列表格中寫下你/妳學習聲樂與樂器所練習的曲目類別與時間：練習曲目類別西洋藝術音樂中國藝術音樂非左述二類之或民俗音樂或民俗音樂其他藝術音樂 (Western (海峽兩岸四地) 或民俗音樂聲樂/樂器 European Art or (Chinese Art or (請說明哪個國家 Folk Music) Folk Music) 例如：印度/3 年) 聲樂或合唱團 ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器：鋼琴 ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器名稱： ______年 ______年國家：______年樂器名稱： ______年 ______年國家：______年其他： ______年 ______年國家：______年 166

【第二部分音樂聆賞調查】

(一)填答說明你/妳將聽到 18 首音樂之片段，每首音樂會撥放一遍約 30 秒，請仔細聆聽音樂，每當一首音樂撥放完畢後，你/妳會有 15 秒的時間「圈選」下列四個問題： 5、對此首音樂喜歡的程度 6、對此首音樂熟悉的程度 7、教導此首音樂的意願 8、指出該音樂演唱所使用的語言，如果您不確定該首歌曲演唱所使用的語言，請圈選「我不確定」。

(二)填答範例：你/妳會先聽到一首音樂之片段，請先聽完整首音樂後再進行作答，圈選出最符合你/妳意見之選項。

(圈選方式)

1. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

請翻頁作答

167

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

3. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 168

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

7. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 169

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

11. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 170

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

14. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定 171

17. 我不喜歡 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 我喜歡

的語言為何？ .越南語 .印尼語 .泰國語 .我不確定

19. 對於你/妳剛剛聽到的音樂，有哪些音樂特性是你/妳所喜歡的? (例如：風格、節奏、配器、曲調、編曲、音色…等等，不限於此處所列，請自由作答)

21. 對於你/妳剛剛聽到的音樂，什麼會影響到你/妳的教學意願？

本調查到此結束，非常感謝您的參與以及寶貴的意見 172

Appendix C: Letter to Solicit Instructor’s Permission English and Chinese Version

173

Dear Dr./ Professor______:

I am a doctoral student in music education working on my dissertation guided by Dr. Jan Edwards in the School of Music at The Ohio State University. The purpose of this study is to learn about 4th and 5th year undergraduate music students’ preference for and familiarity with various music styles as well as their willingness to teach those music styles in educational settings. I am looking for the opportunity to survey Taiwanese pre- service music teachers. I am soliciting your permission, and if you agree, your assistance in recruiting potential participants with whom you are in contact. Specifically, I would like to recruit 4th or 5th year pre-service music teachers for the research pilot study. My study includes the following procedures. The participants will be asked to complete a music listening survey that consists of two parts and takes about 25 minutes to complete. First, participants will answer demographic data that includes their gender, age, enrollment year, teacher certificate type, and formal music training on voice and instruments. Second, participants will hear 18 short musical examples recorded on a CD for the music listening survey. Following each musical example, participants will indicate (a) how much they like the music, (b) if they are familiar with the music, (c) if they would be willing to teach the music, and (d) if they can identify the ethnic language in which the music example is performed. There are no known risks for participating in this study. This study will not collect the participant’s name or other personal information that would link the participant with their responses. Participation in this study is voluntary. The benefit of the individual’s participation may assist in the continued development and improvement of music teacher training programs. If you are willing to assist me in recruiting potential participants for this study, please state this in your email reply. After I receive your reply, I will ask to visit with the potential participants in a suitable location and at a time that is convenient for you and the potential participants. During my visit, I will introduce the study, discuss the potential participants’ rights as volunteer participants, and distribute and discuss the consent form. I will collect the consent forms from individuals who agree to participate in the study. I look forward to receiving your email reply. Should you have any question, please contact me at [email protected] or my dissertation advisor, Dr. Jan Edwards in the School of Music at The Ohio State University at [email protected].

Sincerely, Chia-Chieh Wu Doctoral Candidate Music Education The Ohio State University School of Music

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敬愛的學術界前輩______：

老師您好，學生是美國俄亥俄州立大學音樂教育博士生，目前在 Jan Edwards 教授的指導下進行博士論文，我的研究主題是了解音樂系大四與大五〈正在實習〉職前教師對於不同音樂風格的音樂偏好與熟悉度，以及教導這些音樂風格的意願。我正在尋找研究對象，懇請教授給予我一個機會，希望能夠獲得您的同意與幫助，讓我能邀請您大四或大五的學生參加此研究。我的研究包括以下的步驟：

本研究之音樂聽力調查，大約需要 25 分鐘，問卷分為兩個部分，第一部分會請研究對象填寫個人基本資料，內容包括他們的性別、年齡、年級、以及教師證照的類型〈國小、或是國高中〉，以及在聲樂和器樂方面受到正式音樂訓練的情形；第二部分是音樂聽力調查，將請研究對象聆聽已錄製於 CD 內的十八首音樂之片段，當受試者聆聽完一首歌曲的片段後，會請他們分別指出 1、對於此首歌曲喜歡的程度，2、對此首歌曲的熟悉程度，3、教導此首歌曲的意願，以及 4、指出該首歌曲演唱所使用的語言。

參與此研究不會帶來任何已知的風險，本研究蒐集資料採用不記名，受試者的回答並不會透露他們的個人資料。本音樂聽力調查屬於自願參與的性質，學生的參與將會幫助音樂師資培育持續的發展與進步。

如果老師願意協助我招募研究對象，可否煩請您回覆此封電子郵件告知我，我再請教老師較適合拜訪您與您的學生的時間與地點。當我見到您的學生時，我會介紹本研究，讓學生了解他們的權益—可自由選擇參與此研究，並且講解參與本研究之同意書內容，我會先請有興趣參與本研究的同學填寫同意書，才開始進行本研究。

如果老師您時間方便，可否能煩請您回覆此郵件，如果您有任何疑問，懇請與我聯繫 [email protected] 或者與我的博士論文指導教授 Dr. Jan Edwards 聯繫 [email protected]，非常謝謝您，感恩，敬祝

學安

學生吳佳潔敬上美國俄亥俄州立大學博士候選人

175

Appendix D: Consent Form English and Chinese Version

176

Dear Pre-Service Music Teacher:

I am a doctoral student in music education working on my dissertation guided by Dr. Jan Edwards in the School of Music at The Ohio State University. The purpose of this study is to learn more about your preference and familiarity for various music styles as well as your willingness to teach those music styles in educational settings. This music listening survey consists of two parts and takes about 25 minutes to complete. First, you will answer demographic data that includes your gender, age, year of study, teacher certificate type, and formal music training on voice and instruments. Second, you will hear 18 musical examples in this music listening survey. Following each musical example, you will indicate (1) how much you like the music, (2) if you are familiar with the music, (3) if you would be willing to teach the music to your students, and (4) if you can identify the ethnic language in which the music example is performed. This study does not collect personally identifiable information. Your identity will not be recognized by anyone, including the researcher. The researcher will be the only person with access to your responses on the questionnaire. Your answers will be used for scholarly purposes only and will not be shared with anyone. The results of this study may be published, but no information will reveal your identity. Your participation in this study is voluntary. You can choose not to take this study. If you decide to participate in this study, you are free to skip any questions you would not like to answer, or withdraw at any point. No matter what decision you make, there will be no penalty to you and no effect on your relationship with the university or its staff or instructors. Your participation will not affect your grades or your academic standing in your degree program. Please ask questions of the researcher if there is anything you do not understand before, during, and after this study. There are no known risks for participating in this study. Although you will not receive any direct benefit from participating in this study, the benefit of your participation will help us to facilitate pre-service music teachers’ music preference development. You will not be financially compensated for participating in this study. However, as a thank you, you will receive stationery with musical figures (e.g., L shape folders, clips), even if you choose to withdraw from this study at any time. If you have any questions about this research, please contact us. For questions about your rights as a participant in this study, please contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1-614-688-4792. Thank you very much for your participation. Sincerely,

Doctoral Candidate: Faculty Supervisor: Chia-Chieh Wu Dr. Jan Edwards Music Education Music Education Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] The Ohio State University The Ohio State University

177

*********************************************************************

Statement of Consent I have read the above information and consent to participate in this study. I have been given opportunity to ask questions and all of my questions have been answered satisfactorily. I give permission to allow data in my survey to be used in this study.

Your Name (printed) ______

Your Signature ______Date ______

178

各位音樂教師，您好：

我是美國俄亥俄州立大學音樂教育博士生，目前在 Jan Edwards 教授的指導下進行博士論文，我的研究主題是了解您對於不同音樂風格的音樂偏好與熟悉度，以及教導這些音樂風格的意願。本音樂聽力調查，大約需要二十五分鐘，問卷分為兩個部分，第一部分會請您填寫個人基本資料，內容包括您的性別、年齡、就學年級、教師證照的類型〈國小、或是國高中〉，以及在聲樂和器樂方面受到正式音樂訓練的情形；第二部分是音樂聽力調查，會請您聆聽已錄製於 CD 內的十八首音樂之片段，每當聆聽完一首歌曲的片段後，請您分別指出：1. 對於此首歌曲喜歡的程度，2. 對此首歌曲的熟悉程度， 3. 教導此首歌曲的意願，以及 4. 指出該首歌曲演唱所使用的語言。本研究不會蒐集個人可辨識的資料，您的個人資料不會被任何人辨認出，包括研究者；您填寫的資料除了研究者會看到，並不會透露給其他人；您的回答只會用於學術目的，研究結果會發表，但是不會涉及您的個人資料。本音樂聽力調查屬於自願參與的性質，您可以選擇不參與本研究，如果您決定參與本研究，您可以跳過您不願意回答的題目，或是在施測中途任何階段退出，不論您的決定為何，都不會影響到您課程的成績與學術的表現，以及您與學校或是教授的關係。在本音樂聽力調查前、中、後的任何階段，如果您對本研究有任何的問題，歡迎發問。參與此研究不會帶來任何已知的風險。也許本研究不會帶給您立即的益處，但是您的參與將會幫助音樂教師音樂偏好的發展。本研究雖然無法提供金錢上的回饋，但是為了謝謝您，當你同意參加此研究〈即使您施測時決定中途退出〉，您將會獲得有音樂圖案之小禮物。如果您對本研究有任何疑問，懇請與我們聯繫。如果您對於參與本研究的權益有問題，請與負責執行研究辦公室(Office of Responsible Research Practices) Ms. Sandra Meadows 聯繫，連絡電話是 1-614-688-4792，非常謝謝您願意參與此研究，感恩。

博士候選人指導教授吳佳潔 Jan Edwards 博士音樂教育音樂教育 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] 俄亥俄州立大學俄亥俄州立大學

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************************************************************************ 同意書

本人已經閱讀以上內容並且同意參與此研究。我有機會問研究者問題，而我的問題也已經獲得滿意地回答。我同意本研究可以使用我在問卷上填寫的資料。

參與者姓名〈正楷〉______

簽名______日期______

180

Appendix E: Verbal Recruit Script English and Chinese Version

181

Dear Pre-Service Music Teacher:

This music listening survey consists of two parts and takes about 25 minutes to complete. First, you will answer demographic data that includes your gender, age, year of study, teacher certificate type, and formal music training on voice and instruments. Second, you will hear 18 musical examples in this music listening survey. Following each musical example, you will indicate (1) how much you like the music, (2) if you are familiar with the music, (3) if you would be willing to teach the music to your students, and (4) if you can identify the ethnic language in which the music example is performed.

This study does not collect personally identifiable information. Your identity will not be recognized by anyone, including the researcher. The researcher will be the only person with access to your responses on the questionnaire. Your answers will be used for scholarly purposes only and will not be shared with anyone. The results of this study may be published, but no information will reveal your identity.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. You can choose not to take this study. If you decide to participate in this study, you are free to skip any questions you would not like to answer, or withdraw at any point. No matter what decision you make, there will be no penalty to you and no effect on your relationship with the university or its staff or instructors. Your participation will not affect your grades or your academic standing in your degree program. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to ask me. If you are willing to participate in this study, please read and sign the consent form that is in front of you. If you are not willing to participate in this study, do not sign the consent form. Thank you very much.

182

各位敬愛的音樂教師，您好：

我是美國俄亥俄州立大學音樂教育博士生，目前在 Jan Edwards 教授的指導下進行博士論文，我的研究主題是了解您對於不同音樂風格的音樂偏好與熟悉度，以及教導這些音樂風格的意願。

本音樂聽力調查，大約需要二十五分鐘，問卷分為兩個部分，第一部分會請您填寫個人基本資料，內容包括您的性別、年齡、就學年級、教師證照的類型〈國小、或是國高中〉，以及在聲樂和器樂方面受到正式音樂訓練的情形；第二部分是音樂聽力調查，會請您聆聽已錄製於 CD 內的十八首音樂之片段，每當聆聽完一首歌曲的片段後，請您分別指出：1. 對於此首歌曲喜歡的程度，2. 對此首歌曲的熟悉程度， 3. 教導此首歌曲的意願，以及 4. 指出該首歌曲演唱所使用的語言。

本研究不會蒐集個人可辨識的資料，您的個人資料不會被任何人辨認出，包括研究者；您填寫的資料除了研究者會看到，並不會透露給其他人；您的回答只會用於學術目的，研究結果會發表，但是不會涉及您的個人資料。

本音樂聽力調查屬於自願參與的性質，您可以選擇不參與本研究，如果您決定參與本研究，您可以跳過您不願意回答的題目，或是在施測中途任何階段退出，不論您的決定為何，都不會影響到您課業的成績與學術的表現，以及您與學校或是教授的關係。如果您有任何問題，歡迎發問，如果您願意參與此研究，請您在閱讀同意書後簽名，如果您不願意參與此研究，請不要在同意書上簽名，非常謝謝您，感恩。

183