By Aijaz Ahmed

THESIS ISLAM IN MODERN TURKEY (1938-82) flBSTRflCT THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MLOSOPHY IN ISLAMIC STUDIES BY AIJAZ AHMED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. SAYYIDAHSAN READER DEPARTMiNT OF ISLAMIC STTUDISS ALI6ARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 20Di STffô % ABSTRACT In tenth century, the Turks of central Asia had converted to Islam and by the eleventh century they began to push their way into South-Eastern Russia and Persia. The Ottoman State emerged consequent to an Islamic movement under Ghazi Osman (1299-1326), founder of the dynasty, at Eskisehir, in North- Eastern Anatolia. Sufis, Ulema and Ghazis of Anatolia played an important role in this movement. For six centuries the Ottomans were almost constantly at war with Christian Europe and had succeeded in imposing the Islamic rule over a large part of Europe. The later Sultans could not maintain it strictly. With the expansion of the Ottoman dominions the rulers became more autocratic with the sole aim of conquering alien land. To achieve this the rulers granted freedom and cultural autonomy to his non-Muslim subjects and allowed the major religious groups to establish self governing communities under the leadership of their own religious chiefs. The recent work is spread over two parts containing eight chapters with a brief introduction and my own conclusions. Each part has four chapters. Part I, chapters I to IV, deals with the political mobilization of the Turkish peasants from the beginning of the modernization period and to the war of Independence as well as the initial stages of the transition to comparative politics. In these instances the use of religion for securing mass support was made possible through traditional authority channels. Part II is a study of the development of religious education, religious literature and the role of the Presidency of Religious Affairs and the Faculty of Ilahiyat in providing Islamic Literature under the rule of different political parties. A brief account of the Religious reform movements and Religious life of the Turkish Muslims has been given. Chapter I deals with the condition of Islam from Empire to the Republic with the causes of decline and the process of modernization. It is difficult to point out the exact date of the decline of the Ottoman Empire but it began after Suleyman, the magnificent. After the industrial revolution, Europe had improved its war techniques which proved fatal for the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire began to lose its European territories. In its long decline the Ottoman Empire had been humiliated and defeated by the West and lost vast territories. These defeats and humiliations impregnated an inferiority complex in the Turks given rise to the belief that they could only survive by adopting Western ideas and techniques. So began the modern ntroducing western reforms by force and suppressing Yeniceri and those Ulema who were not in favour of western reforms and education. This misunderstanding proved dangerous for the Ottoman Empire and provided a chance to the European Powers to interfere in the legal as well as internal affairs of the state. In the nineteenth century there was a change in the attitude of the Turks towards their non-Muslim fellow subjects. It was also due to European diplomatic pressures, weakened the Islamic forces. In the reign of Sultan Abdiil Mecit I (1839- 1861) a second phase o.f reforms were started known as the Tanzimat. The Sultan issued two noble rescripts Hatt-i Serif in 1839 prepared by Mustafa Reît Pasa, and Hatt-i Hiimayiin of 1856. These re-scripts confirmed the equality before law of all the subjectsrespective of their religion and race. The Sultan's government, through these reforms, tried to convince the European powers of its sincerity in implementing reforms and ensuring full equal rights to non- Muslims. These diplomatic contacts started a cultural infiltration whence peoples were encouraged to go abroad for study and to learn foreign languages. The Ulema vehemently opposed the reforms considering it as an encroachment upon the jurisdiction of Serial, f A group of intellectuals known as the Young Ottomans also opposed the Tanzimat. Instead they wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy and revitalize Islam choosing Islam as a spiritual ideological base for their Nationalism. Among them Ziya Pap (1825-1880), Ibrahim înasi (1824-1871), Namik Kemal (1840-1888) and Ziya Gokalp (1875-1924) were prominent. They opposed the policy of Sultan Abdiil Aziz (1861-1876) in which Midhat Pasa played an important role. For his survival the Sultan played the Pan Islamic card. Sultan Abdiil Hamit II encashed the opportunity promising to ratify a new constitution (Kanun-i Asasi) drafted by Midhat Pasa. Sultan Abdiil Hamit did as he promised but soon after he dissolved the parliament in 1878 and shelved the constitution. It was a great set back to the Young Ottomans and to their cause. The Sultan banished and exiled Midhat Pasa alleging his involvement in the murder of Sultan AbdiiT Aziz. Although they failed to fit the Islamic theories in the concept of democratic popular government but they were successful to introducing new values to the Turks. All the reforms in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries were results of the policy of Frakophil Sultans who introduced their reforms by force and due to diplomatic pressures that weakened the forces of Islamic traditionalism. These reforms played major role in widening the gulf between the rulers, the subjects and the Ulema. But these internal conflicts invoked an enthusiasm of nationalism among the non- Muslims subjects. The Young Turks, then, formed a Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) which opposed the policies of Sultan Abdiil Hamit II. The CUP was lead by mainly Talat Bey, Ahmet Riza, Mehmet Murat and Anwar Pasa. They wanted the restoration of the constitution of 1878. After a long struggle the Young Turks succeeded, through a revolution in 1908, in replacing Sultan AbdUl Hamit by Mehmet V (1909-1918). But World War I broke out and dismembered the Ottoman Empire. The defeat of the Ottomans was also a result of the successfully exploitation of Arabs and non-Muslims subjects of Turkey on the basis of nationalism. The Allies succeeded in their aims and the Sultan became a puppet in their hands. The idea of Pan-Islamism used by the Sultan was bitterly shattered by the Arab revolt in World Warl. It was the charismatic personality of Mustafa Kemal, a nation builder and educationist, who gathered the scattered army of the Empire and was able to unite the army against the Allied powers. Mustafa Kemal's movement was different from that of the Young Turks. He did not want to overthrough the government. His fight was against foreign intervention. To achieve this he used Islam and was able to get support not only from the local people but also from those Ulema and religious reformers like Sait Nursi who wanted to revitalize Serial. In this war of Independence many military figures like Rauf Orbey, Kazim Karabekir as well as some influential peoples supported him. He was able to win the battle against the Allies but with his victory he laid down the foundation of a modern State and began a series of secular reforms. These reforms brought criticism from all over the Muslim world as well as form his own friends and colleagues. Chapter II deals at length with the secular reforms introduced by Mustafa Kemal alongwith their reactionary demonstrations. In a series of reforms he abolished the Sultanate in 1922, the Caliphate in 1924, and deposed and exiled Sultan Abdiil Mecit II, thus putting an end to thirteen centuries of Muslim political system and marking a victory of the West over Islamic ideals and system. Mustafa Kemal did not pay any attention to the criticism of secularism. He took many steps to secularize the country, which apart from the religious life also effected the social and cultural life of the people. In 1925 wearing of Fez was declared a criminal offence. Asainst this new law a revolt broke out and a few hocas were hanged for preaching against it. Officially all Tarikat Orders were dissolved Tekkes and Turbes of holy men were closed, veil was discouraged and, Polygamy was abolished. Serial courts and ministry of .^vA:a/were abolished and in 1926 a new civil code was adopted. On November 1, 1928 the GNA passed a law introducing the Latin Script and forbade the use of Arabic letters in publication after the end of the year. He was not against Islam and its teachings but wanted to curb the power of those Ulamas who misguided the people of Turkey through their superficial knowledge of Islam. These reforms widened the gulf between the secularists and Islamists, which is continues till the present day. Chapter III deals the political activities after Mustafa Kemal upto first military takeover. After Atatiirk, especially during the events of the World War II, different types of Islamism and Turkism began to appear in public life. After World War II political liberalization and a period of reassertion of Islam was begun in which Islam returned to political discourse alongwith competitive politics which affected the states understanding of nationalism. Ismat Inonu, Mustafa Kemal's successor, allowed forming opposition parties, which brought much liberalism in Turkey. 8 During this period a number of parties emerged with sought to use religion in order to gain a foothold in electoral competition. Of the 24 parties, founded during this time, at least eight had explicit references in their programme to Islamic themes. But these parties did not participate in the elections or gain much familiarity. Islam became the centre pillar of politics.

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