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Issue 13 Michaelmas 2008 www.bluesci.org No Peppered Myth Darwinian Evolution in Action Hydrogen Economy The Future of Fuel Global Warming First Predicted in 1895

Cuckoo Trickery Co-evolution in Action

Science in the Media Influential Science Reporting

ScientistsSaliva’s at Play Secrets . Space . TravelAubrey . Scentde Grey Technology Organ Appetite Donation Control . The. Biofuels Carving . Science Power ofand Blood the Web Flow Patent Attorneys

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Issue 13 Michaelmas 2008 FEATURES Carved by the Flow Ciara Metcalfe describes the role of blood flow during tissue formation ...... 8

Mission to Mars Lindsey Nield explores our expanding horizons and if we’ll ever make the move to Mars ...... 10

Kidneys Wanted Organ transplantation is not an entertaining business, as Tricia Peters explains ...... 12

Click and Sniff Mico Tatalovic weaves the future of the smell-o-web ...... 20

The Perfect Crime? Jo Illingworth looks at the evolution of cuckoo trickery ...... 22

FOCUS...... 15

If much of our daily dose of science is brought to us in the news, how good are the reports that we hear? FOCUS follows the journey of science topics into the mass media.

REGULARS News Scientific Soundbites ...... 5 Book Reviews Michio Kaku and Béla Bollobás ...... 6 Technology Virtually Science ...... 7 Undergraduate Your Research Projects ...... 14 A Day in the Life of... A Conservation Manager ...... 24 Away from the Bench It’s a Dirty Job ...... 25 Arts and Reviews Are Great Scientists Like Children? ...... 26 History More Than Just an Equation ...... 28 The Pavilion Science Inspires Art ...... 30 Initiatives Chasing Chemical Contaminants ...... 31 Dr Hypothesis Answers to Your Scientific Stumpers ...... 32 3 ISSUES FOR £1 WHEN YOU SUBSCRIBE TO FOCUS MAGAZINE TODAY

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Uni_advert.indd 1 1/9/08 11:42:13 EDITORIAL Amy Chesterton Issue 13: Michaelmas 2008 Editor: Amy Chesterton Editor Managing Editor: Nora Schultz Business Manager: Michael Derringer If you have recovered from blown-out-of-proportion Advertising Assistant: Chris Adriaanse the frenzy surrounding CERN’s messages discarded, or particle accelerator, switched taken seriously? In this on (and off) in September, you issue, BlueSci investigates Sub-Editors: may have started to wonder this matter, and tackles Terry John Evans, Jon Heras, Rose Spear, what all the media hype was the media’s role in Arthur Turrell, Frances Wesley about. Dubbed the ‘big bang communicating science machine’ and the ‘super- to the public in our smasher’, the world’s largest FOCUS article “Science Second Editors: experiment is set to reproduce for the masses”. Alexandra Lopes, Lindsey Nield, conditions moments after We also explore smelly Silke Pichler, Juliet Redhouse, the creation of the Universe. technology in “Click Rose Spear, Chloe Stockford, Euvian Tan, Newspaper headlines had us and Sniff”, Arrhenius’s Mico Tatalovic, Omar Yousaf believing that a black hole was great prediction in “More unavoidable, swallowing us out Than Just an Equation” of existence. Unsurprisingly and the ongoing battles Dr Hypothesis: Mike Kenning it went by without a flicker, of the cuckoo in “The News Team: Chris Adriaanse, Rachel Swain, Euvian Tan leaving the scientists to tinker Perfect Crime?” Focus Editor: Ashley Winslow with their new toy, and leaving So, whether you’re a Undergraduate Editor: Daniel Shanahan us in Cambridge to commence devoted BlueSci fan, or another academic year. new to the University, take But just how seriously did five minutes out of your busy Production Team: the public take these empty- schedule and have a read… Terry John Evans, Jon Heras, threat headlines? Were the Kelly Neaves, Lindsey Nield, Rose Spear, Katherine Thomas, Djuke Veldhuis Nora Schultz Pictures Editor: Adam Moughton Managing Editor Submissions Co-ordinator: Maya Tzur HERE AT BlueSci, we are our weekly local science news extremely excited about the service throughout term-time. Publicity: Amy Zhou many brilliant opportunities If your perusal of BlueSci’s President: Jon Heras for fun and fascinating tales has whetted your appetite science communication for science communication, projects that the brand there couldn’t be a better time new academic year will than now to get involved. ISSN 1748-6920 bring. I would like to invite Join BlueSci for our series of you first to sit back with fabulous workshops. Some are this issue and enjoy the hands-on sessions on writing, ride. As in previous terms, recording, filming and editing excellent submissions science stories, and others are

for Cambridge’s popular interactive presentations from Varsity Publications Ltd science magazine came inspirational speakers. Write Old Examination Hall Free School Lane pouring in, and we are for us, join our editorial and Cambridge, CB2 3RF delighted to once again production teams and keep Tel: 01223 337575 www.varsity.co.uk be able to offer great bonus an eye out for the BlueSci [email protected] contents on www.bluesci.org. committee positions, advertised BlueSci is published by Varsity Publications Ltd and Please do visit our website to later this term. For more printed by Warners (Midlands) plc. All copyright is the discover more engaging stories information, email info@ exclusive property of Varsity Publications Ltd. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval and some very special podcasts, bluesci.org. We look forward to system or transmitted in any form or by any means, and bookmark us to follow working with you! without the prior permission of the publisher.

Michaelmas 2008 3 ON THE COVER Healing a Broken Heart

Jon Heras discusses our cover illustration and the concept of using cell scaffolds to grow new hearts for patients, by using their own cells

protein fibres as the scaffold. These 40 days would be a trifle inconvenient fibres are non-patient specific and – but remains a truly inspired piece of will not create an immune response, tissue engineering. EQUINOX GRAPHICS EQUINOX which is a major complication in organ transplants. This fibre scaffold is the “Once the engineered framework upon which new living heart muscle is grown. Heart muscle is heart is stimulated to beat regenerated by injecting patient stem it will continue without cells into this matrix, and providing essential nutrients for growth via the further input” existing network of blood vessels. The image on the cover, while it looks like microscope data, is in fact a “The research has the computer-generated image, showing an artistic interpretation of cells growing Cover image showing detail of unrendered potential to prevent many on the fibre scaffold. The surface was 3D mesh deaths worldwide” sculpted on a PC using tools analogous Heart disease is one of the to pushing and pulling with fingers. A largest killers in the UK, with 12,000 In a truly Frankenstein-inspired cluster of cells was created to reflect deaths each year. Researchers at the moment, once the engineered heart the traditional scientific view of a cell, Center for Cardiovascular Repair at the is stimulated to beat it will continue but with features to hint at engineered University of Minnesota have pioneered without further input. So far, only rat structures. This resultant knobbly an ambitious technique for growing hearts have been experimented upon, surface was then textured, lit and ray- functional, beating hearts, which attempts and these have lived independently traced to produce the final translucent to overcome the shortage of organ for up to 40 days. Research continues result. Et voilà, a pseudo-scientific donors. The research has the potential on pig hearts (which are of a similar impression of a cell scaffold. to prevent many deaths worldwide, and size to human hearts, and are a viable to control the heart disease epidemic transplant option for humans), and Find out more at www.e-nox.net. afflicting western culture. into obtaining suitable stem cells from Living tissue is stripped away from patients. The research still has some way Jon Heras is a chemical engineering PhD a donated heart, leaving a matrix of to go – a replacement operation every graduate, turned science illustrator

A rat heart in three stages of de- cellularization via a process developed by Professor Doris Taylor and her col-

leagues at the University of Minnesota. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

In the left photo, the heart chambers are labelled showing the aorta (AO), left ventricle (LV), right ventricle (RV), left atrium (LA) and right atrium (RA). The middle photo shows areas where cells remain (pink) and where they have been removed (white). The right photo shows the heart matrix after all the cells have been removed.

www.bluesci.org 4 NEWS

Britain’s bird populations Researchers from Cambridge, white heron originally bred in Southern Durham and the RSPB have shown Europe, has been rapidly rising, since linked to climate change that climate change has stuck its claws the first breeding pair was spotted on into British bird populations. Birds such Brownsea Island, Dorset in 1996. as the Snowy Owl, the Redwing and Whilst this research is significant for the Purple Sandpiper, which breed in bird watchers and environmentalists alike, the colder, more northern latitudes of it was also used to validate a statisti- northeastern England and Scotland, were cal model of population variation. The found to be declining in numbers. researchers used climate envelope models MJOBLING, WIKI COMMONS MJOBLING, The researchers looked at how the which predict species’ distribution – warming temperatures of the UK, past, present and future – based on their have been paralleled by changes in the current habitats. The researcher’s model populations of over forty bird species correctly calculated how rising average between 1980 and 2002. temperatures have altered bird popula- However, it’s not all bad news; some tions. The model’s success means it can be bird species normally native to southern used to predict how changes in the UK latitudes prefer our new, milder climate. climate will affect both the size and range A Purple Sandpiper The number of Little Egrets, a small of populations in years to come. RS

Is evolution to blame for schizophrenia? Chimpanzee and Rhesus Macaque monkeys looking for evolutionary and During the last six million years The relatively short time in which our medical evidence. human brains have evolved to be larger brains have had to adapt has meant that “Our new research suggests that in size, and require more energy. This the energy supply has not been properly schizophrenia is a by-product of the may be the cause of neuropsychiatric optimised – pushing it to its limits. increased metabolic demands brought disorders such as schizophrenia, in which A restricted energy supply can affect about during human brain evolution,” human-specific cognitive abilities are cognitive ability, with consistent reports said Philipp Khaitovich, leader of the impaired, claims research published in the of reduced blood flow in the prefrontal collaboration. The team found a change in Journal of Genome Biology. cortex in schizophrenic patients. the expression levels of genes relating to Higher cognitive abilities – such as A collaboration of scientists from energy metabolism in schizophrenic brains. being able to talk and have complex Cambridge, Leipzig and Shanghai When compared to monkey brains, these social relationships – have increased the compared the brains of healthy and genes were seen to be significantly different energy demands placed on our brains. schizophrenic patients with those of as a result of rapid evolution. CA

New strategy to observe were initially protected with very high targets, a new method to aid drug concentrations of detergent micelles, discovery. ET membrane proteins which closely mimic the hydrophobic nature of cellular membranes. Upon Scientists from the University of removal of this protective layer in the Cambridge and the University of Bristol gas phase, the researchers found that the AGUERA SONIA have developed a new method of studying complexes remained intact and could membrane protein complexes. Membrane be isolated. proteins form complexes with other Mass spectroscopy allows the mass of molecules inside the cell and within the charged species to be very accurately cell membrane, which do not normally measured and has been used to determine survive the measurement process. the structure, topology and interaction The team led by Carol Robinson, networks of protein complexes. chemistry professor at the University This finding paves the way for a of Cambridge, identified a new strategy more comprehensive investigation for maintaining the structural integrity into their structural and functional An artistic representation of a sodium of membrane proteins during mass properties and, as membrane proteins channel, a particular example of a spectroscopy. The membrane proteins account for about 60% of all drug membrane protein.

Michaelmas 2008 5 BOOK REVIEWS

the possible is to venture a little way motion machines and precognition past them into the impossible.” violate the laws of physics as we currently This book explores the frontiers of understand them and are probably scientific knowledge in order to clarify impossible. However, he refuses to accept the differences between the imminent, that scientific laws are infallible and

“The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible”

the unlikely and the impossible. Its gives examples where an open-minded strength is that it doesn’t indulge in approach has led to important new wild speculation, but carefully analyses discoveries about how the Universe works. how some amazing contraptions might Physics of the Impossible is aimed at work in real life. The author, theoretical the non-specialist reader. Nevertheless, physicist Michio Kaku, surveys an there is sufficient technical information assortment of fantastic ideas and to make its conclusions entirely concludes that some of them might credible. Perhaps its greatest asset is the soon become reality. way it conveys its author’s enthusiasm According to Kaku­, force fields, cloaks for the scientific method and celebrates You don’t have to be a science of invisibility, light sabers and teleportation the incredible possibilities available to fiction fan to enjoy Physics of the devices do not violate the known laws the human intellect. Impossible, but it probably helps. of physics and therefore could be created Chapter one begins with a quotation sometime in the next century or so. With Michio Kaku, Physics of the from Arthur C. Clarke that perfectly some modifications, the hover board from Impossible, Penguin, 2008, £20 RRP encapsulates the spirit of this Back to the Future II and Luke Skywalker’s interesting and informative book, “The landspeeder might someday become Peter Basile is a graduate student in the only way of discovering the limits of commonplace. Kaku states that perpetual Faculty of English

is about the beauty of mathematics at them alone first. If this doesn’t work, and how to solve even the silliest of the reader can look at hints and partial problems. It is to be enjoyed like a solutions before giving in and checking cappuccino, and not like an espresso – the actual answer – if there is one! sip by sip, not all at once. One doesn’t have to be a The author puts together intriguing mathematician to appreciate the problems, some of which he solves using intrigue of the problems this book mathematical skills and others which poses. However, in order to follow are left open to solution. One example and understand many of the solutions comes from the question, “If a Christian I would recommend at least a strong is running around an arena and a hungry GCSE mathematics knowledge. Apart lion is released into the arena, can the from that, the book seems an excellent lion ever catch the Christian if they way to engage in elegant mathematics both run at the same maximum speed?” and provide some yoga for your brain. Interestingly, for some time there was a The jury is still out on whether reading solution to this problem that suggested this book in a café would make you one answer, but eventually another look cool or geeky. solution was proposed that proved the opposite to be true! Can you work it out? Béla Bollobás, The Art of Mathematics: The beauty of this book is not only Coffee Time in Memphis, Cambridge the variety of problems and the every University Press, 2007, £19.99 RRP Inspired by the author’s meetings day appeal of many of them, but also with various mathematicians at the that the questions and answers are Mico Tatalovic is an MPhil student in the University of Memphis, this book provided separately so one can have a go Department of Zoology

www.bluesci.org 6 TECHNOLOGY Virtually Science

Mico Tatalovic looks into the technology of virtual reality

In virtual worlds practically anything reviewed journals like CyberPsychology & Many people visit online exhibits set is possible. But can virtual reality also Behavior explore the issue academically. up by renowned science museums and help us to improve our understanding Several interactive games and online institutions such as Exploratorium and of the natural world, or even advance communities exist and some claim NASA. These exhibits allow for the science and medicine? millions of people are spending increasing creation of experiences and exhibits that amounts of time online, living virtual would be impossible in real life, such as a lives. Dr Edward Castronova, an associate journey through a human cell, or walking “The boundary between professor of telecommunications at Indiana on the surface of Mars. Some virtual University USA, wrote Exodus to the Virtual worlds such as Second Life allow users to virtual reality and the real World about the dangers and delights of bypass potentially embarrassing situations world has blurred” moving to virtual reality. In an interview they may experience in the real world. For with the BBC, Castronova said that example, teenagers may talk to doctors in some people use virtual worlds as refuges an online clinic about their sexual health. Jump back to 1962. In the days when to escape the reality of their own lives. Sensorama was a vision that failed, television began to draw audiences Inevitably, some people will spend less time partly due to a lack of technology that away from the cinema, Morton Heiling, in the real world and more and more time was unable to convincingly produce an a young cinematographer inspired by online. Colonising this ‘virtual frontier’, as immersive experience. Virtual worlds innovative cinema concepts such as of the present day have come a long 3D Cinerama, invented Sensorama, way to appear more credible, however the world’s first virtual reality machine. “Millions of people are there is still room for improvement. Sensorama had moving seats, 3D film, spending increasing amounts Researchers from Rensselaer wind and scent sensations all working Polytechnic Institute are working on to enhance the cinematic experience. of time online” artificial intelligence to make avatars In Heiling’s vision, cinema would reveal more responsive and fun to be with. the scientific world to man “in the full Castranova calls it, may be dangerous to the So, just as we now have automatic sensual vividness and dynamic vitality of health of those who spend too much time sliding doors and robots thanks to his consciousness.” in their virtual world. sci-fi visionaries, maybe we will soon Fast forward to 2050. With the help However, used responsibly, virtual have intelligent holographic avatars of science, the boundary between worlds may benefit society in many ways interacting with humans as equals. virtual reality and the real world has including the potential to aid scientific blurred. The digital representations of endeavours, develop failsafe practices people – the avatars – have rights equal and observe human interactions without

to those of humans. Avatars learn from intruding or communicating directly MOUGHTON ADAM the experiences and acts of their human with the people. counterparts. They allow people to be Virtual worlds enable the exploration of in more than one place at a time and different scenarios, allowing the best course work as spokespeople for their human of action to be found in complex situations counterpart. Such is the vision of the such as city developments and military future that recently won first prize in the fighting.T hey are increasingly used in New Scientist and Microsoft ‘Visions of science and medical education for concepts the Future’ writing competition. that are difficult to visualise or comprehend Back to the present day. Popular science in the real world, or simply to make them magazines write about online, multiuser, fun. They also allow us to explore human virtual worlds as cyber ‘test tubes’ and social interactions such as altruism and ‘laboratories”’used to study society and autism without the observer disrupting or Mico Tatalovic is an MPhil student in the human behaviour whilst dedicated peer- altering the outcome. Department of Zoology

Michaelmas 2008 077 ADAM MOUGHTON ADAM

Carved by the Flow Ciara Metcalfe describes the role of blood flow during tissue formation

Whether it’s the aggressive of blood flow during the formation and Vermot and colleagues noticed that downpour of torrential rain into development of the embryo – a process blood flow follows a very specific sun-baked ground, or the leisurely known as embryogenesis, the early stages pattern at the boundary between meandering of majestic rivers towards of an organism’s development. This small, the ocean, the flow of water over the and rather lovely looking fish presents an Earth’s surface has a massive influence ideal biological research system; there are “There are striking parallels over the shape of our landscape. Just as striking parallels between early human water flow has the capacity to carve out and fish development, it’s easy to breed, between early human and new formations, it is thought that the and its genetics are well understood and fish development” flow of blood through our bodies can easy to modify. The zebrafish embryo is shape our internal landscape. also transparent, allowing observation of events within the fish, which is crucial to the two heart chambers during the the investigation. embryo’s development. This precise “Blood flow through our Combined microscopy and fluorescence- point, the atrioventricular boundary, bodies can shape our labeling of zebrafish blood cells allow the is where the valve will form later in flow of blood to be traced through the development. Blood flows forward, internal landscape” developing heart. The zebrafish heart is a stops momentarily, and then flows relatively simple tube-like structure with backward, before going forward again. Julien Vermot, California Institute of two muscular ‘pumping chambers’ – the This pattern of flow is unique to the Technology, who recently presented atrium and the ventricle – separated by a boundary region and does not occur a seminar at the prestigious MRC set of valves. In the adult heart the valve anywhere else in the developing heart. Laboratory of Molecular Biology plays an important role in ensuring one- Elsewhere blood flows in one direction, in Cambridge, has been helping to way blood flow, from atrium to ventricle to stops and then resumes in the same unravel the mysteries surrounding this outflow tract, and not back into the atrium. direction. The researchers found that astounding phenomenon. Vermot, uses In the early stages of heart development, if they manipulated this very specific the zebrafish, Danio rerio, as a model however, there is no valve and so some pattern of flow at the boundary, by system in which to investigate the role blood flows backwards as the heart pumps. changing temperature, the blood

www.bluesci.org 8 viscosity or by using drugs, the heart valve did not form. It has now been established that cultured vascular cells – those that line blood vessels – can change their genetic program in response to frictional stresses & STEVE BASKAUF AGUERA SONIA

“The elegance and simplicity of the system is astounding” imposed by fluid flow.T hese cells are able to differentiate between a steady laminar flow and a more turbulent flow, and modify their gene expression profiles Left: illustration of a zebrafish heart showing the two chambers. The atrioventricular bound- accordingly. Aided by these previous ary region is characterized by a unique pattern of blood flow. Right: adult zebrafish. findings, Vermot and coworkers were able to identify a gene that is activated in the A close examination of the zebrafish unanswered. How exactly do cells ‘sense’ developing heart, in the very region of embryo reveals tiny beating whip-like flow? How is sensing at the cell surface the unique flow pattern, exactly in the structures in various regions of the connected to the gene’s activation? spot where the valve will develop. If the developing fish.T hese structures, called Where else in the body is the flow flow is in any way disrupted, this gene is cilia, are extensions of cells themselves. profile responsible for generating new not activated and no valve will develop. The beating of the cilia generates ‘landmarks’? These are some of the This suggests that cells in the atrio- movement, or flow, of the surrounding questions that researchers hope to address ventricular boundary region can sense liquid and, like the pumping of the in the future; perhaps they will uncover the pattern of blood flow across them heart, creates flow that influences the more surprising and magical parallels and respond to that flow by activating the development of nearby structures. between our external environment and gene responsible for the valve formation. Incidentally, mutations in proteins the intricacies of embryogenesis. Thus, the flow of blood through the important to cilia function are associated heart controls the exact placing and with numerous developmental disorders To see live imaging of a zebrafish heart development of the valve. The elegance in humans, including hydrocephalus and go to the Microscope Imaging Station at and simplicity of the system is astounding. renal cystitis, highlighting the importance www.exploratorium.edu/imaging_station This exquisite mechanism of using of correct fluid flow in embryogenesis. blood flow to mould the organs of Despite the discovery of this amazing Ciara Metcalfe is a PhD student at the the body is not restricted to the heart. mechanism, many questions still remain MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology

Michaelmas 2008 9 ADAM MOUGHTON ADAM

Mission to Mars

Lindsey Nield explores our expanding horizons and whether we’ll ever make the move to Mars

Thousands of people choose on 21 July 1969, the competition was over for human explorers to investigate. The to emigrate each year. The Office for and the USA declared the victors. plan also calls for an extended human National Statistics reported an all-time Despite the initial rivalry, co-operation presence on the Moon, requiring high in 2006 with 207,000 Britons followed. In 1975, the first collaborative extensive research into the problems choosing another country for residence. docking between American and Soviet astronauts would face living there for Popular destinations were Australia, Spain spacecraft took place, paving the way long periods. and the United States; but what if the for future international missions. The “Radiation is a potential show choice was greater? Could we emigrate 1990s saw the first two modules of stopper”, says John Charles of the to other planets in the future? the International Space Station (ISS) Johnson Space Center in Houston. The human desire to explore and connected in orbit and since late 2000 Space is filled with high energy particles discover has led us to map the globe’s emitted by the sun during solar flares continents and oceans, turning our and cosmic rays from exploding stars. attention to the skies. Great advances have “Radiation is a potential Particle radiation penetrates the human been made since our first steps into space show stopper body damaging cells which can lose the and, if plans drawn up by the National ” ability to perform normally or repair Aeronautics and Space Administration themselves. The Earth’s magnetic field (NASA) go to schedule, the next decade the ISS has had a constant human shields us from most of these particles, will see humans living on the Moon. presence on board and has grown to its atmosphere blocking out the rest. The space race was born in the midst include American, Japanese and European The atmosphere of Mars is about 1% of the Cold War with the United States laboratories. The ISS is the first human as dense as Earth’s so will cut out some of America and the Soviet Union battling habitat outside of our planet and will of these particles, but the Moon has no to prove their superiority. The Soviets serve as a base for future missions. atmosphere at all. For humans to live on gained the initial lead by putting the first In 2004 President Bush announced the Moon, their whole environment will man-made object – Sputnik – into orbit plans to return humans to the Moon require shielding from this radiation. in October 1957 and the first man into as a stepping stone to Mars. He called Any missions travelling further afield space on 12 April 1961. However, when for robotic missions to the lunar surface will be exposed to even greater levels Neil Armstrong stepped onto the Moon later this decade to pinpoint locations of radiation as ships will not have the

www.bluesci.org 10 human missions to the red planet. In the

NASA meantime, robotic rovers and orbiters will be used to uncover clues to the geology and biological potential of the planet. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and the Phoenix Mars Lander are just two of the missions currently sending back data. The MRO has already identified a delta inside a crater which once held a lake. Ancient rivers would have ferried clay-like minerals into the lake forming the delta. The Phoenix Lander: a robotic spacecraft that landed on Mars this year. These clays tend to trap and preserve organic matter, making the delta an ideal protection of the planet. Aluminium electricity for the lights, life support site for future missions to search for signs is the material of choice for building systems, communications and rovers of of life. The Phoenix is already looking spacecraft since it is lightweight and the lunar outpost but will only work for those signs by investigating the ice strong but to reduce the radiation passing during the day. Even at the Moon’s that lies beneath the soil in the northern through, it will need extra shielding. South Pole, night covers the surface in plains of Mars. Each new discovery One possibility is a form of reinforced darkness for more than 100 hours so brings the idea of life on other planets to polyethylene developed at Marshall Space researchers must find a way to efficiently the forefront of our minds. Flight Center which absorbs 20% more store power. The solution may lie with Plans for future space missions cosmic rays than aluminium and is ten a special fuel cell system originally certainly include sending astronauts to times stronger. So perhaps space ships designed for use on a high-altitude the Moon and Mars but will we ever of the future will be made of plastic or solar-electric airplane. The fuel cell was live elsewhere? The technological at least have plastic shielding, something developed at NASA’s Glenn Research advances needed may well begin to that is already implemented on the ISS. Centre and demonstrated in 2005 by appear in the next century with research electrical engineer David Bents and his going into human habitats and new Could we emigrate to team. The cell works by combining forms of propulsion enable us to travel “ hydrogen and oxygen to produce larger distances. But colonising a new other planets in the future?” electricity, leaving water and heat as world is still well in the future. With by-products. What makes this fuel cell the expanding population of Earth we To properly explore the Moon, special is that it is a fully closed-loop might reach a point where demand for spacesuits will need updating. Astronauts regenerative system meaning that it can the planet’s dwindling resources may with the Apollo missions minimised also work in reverse using electricity make space exploration a necessity, but the time spent on the surface to reduce to divide water into hydrogen and for now it is just an exciting field of exposure to radiation but any future oxygen, which are then fed back into discovery to inspire us all. missions will require greater periods the cell to produce more electricity. outside to complete the exploration. “On the Moon, you would start with Lindsey Nield is a PhD student in the Today’s suit is built for space where a tank of water. You’d use the solar Department of Physics astronauts work with their hands whilst arrays to make hydrogen and oxygen floating. A new suit must be designed during the day, then use the hydrogen NASA for exploring planets enabling walking, and oxygen to make electricity during riding, climbing and digging. Not the night when there’s no sun” says only does the current spacesuit reduce Bents. “Ideally, if nothing broke and mobility but astronauts on the space nothing wore out, it could run forever station currently spend three hours without being refuelled.” The first fuel preparing for every hour of space cell tested ran continuously for five days walking they perform. “The goal is to and nights proving the cell’s potential as reverse the ratio” says Mike Gernhardt, an energy storage device. The system an astronaut and principal investigator will need to run for much longer if it in the design process. By designing is to be used in the lunar environment suits with more incorporated parts the and Bents and his team are currently astronauts can reduce the time spent working on a prototype. assembling them. Expeditions to Mars are still at least One of NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers On the Moon solar power will be 50 years away and we will rely on what which has been exploring the surface of Mars since 2004 an important method of producing we learn from lunar outposts to plan

Michaelmas 2008 11 TOM WILKS

Organ transplantation is not an entertaining business, as Tricia Peters explains

In June 2007, Dutch television worthy) would be assuming the between the years 1992 and 2005. station BNN made the headlines with God-like role of determining fate… Where prevention and treatment fail, the advertisement of a new primetime Inevitably, news media worldwide the result is a backlog of patients facing reality TV show. In De Grote Donor caught wind of the show, and Show (The Big Donor Show), a controversy ensued. terminally ill 37-year-old woman, This particular news story piqued “The gap between Lisa, was to play a role similar to The my attention for a variety of reasons: transplants performed and Apprentice boss Sir Alan Sugar – except my interest in health and medicine, my that herein she would determine not loathing for reality television, and most patients in need continues which of two final contestants vying directly, my personal experience having for a business world boon would a family member waiting patiently on a to rise” receive an illusory position, but which kidney donor list in the United States of three contestants dying of kidney after being diagnosed five years ago a lifetime of blood dialysis or awaiting complications would be granted an with a kidney disorder. With the help an organ transplant. In the USA, organ upon her impending death. of this television broadcast, and many national data show that for 2004-2005, families sharing personal stories, the the number of individuals on a waiting dire state of organ donation became a list for a donor kidney rose by 8.5%, “The burden of kidney topic of conversation throughout the now totalling 73,000. Although the disease has multiplied in Netherlands and beyond. number of transplanted kidneys has also Whether caused by genetic diseases, increased, the gap between transplants the Western world” high blood pressure, or complications performed and patients in need associated with the increase in continues to rise, and more patients are Bizarrely, only one contestant could obesity and diabetes, the burden of dying on donor lists. win. One kidney was up for offer; Lisa kidney disease has multiplied in the It is overwhelmingly clear that a high would take the other to her grave. In Western world. Kidney Research UK demand for kidneys exists globally, making the decision, this woman and reports that chronic kidney disease is and that the response so far has been this television production (and those increasing by 5% each year, and the shockingly inadequate. Considering viewers who paid to text-message number of Americans being treated the potential for voluntary donation their advice regarding who was most for kidney failure more than doubled (most of us possess two kidneys but

www.bluesci.org 12 require only one for survival), we must wonder if this supply shortage is really necessary. In fact, figures show JAMIE MARLAND that the waiting list in the USA could be eliminated if a mere 0.06% of healthy American adults aged 19-65 were to donate one of their kidneys. Yet despite limited health risks to the donor and improved organ- and patient-survival rates following living donor transplants, a lack of incentive on the part of donors as well as ethical issues regarding matters of intent have complicated the process. Cadaveric kidneys (from dead organ donors) provide the majority of transplanted organs, but currently the supply cannot meet the demand. While admittedly complex in terms of ethical and religious considerations, the number of potential donor kidneys lying six feet under should provide enough impetus for reorganisation Patients with kidney failure must undergo lengthy haemodialysis every week of the organ donation process. An ‘opt-out’ donation system seems While the ODTF recommendations associations. In an extreme example, nothing but logical, and evidence and the funding provisions are reported by the New York Times, an illegal from nations with such policies, encouraging, any delay in the debate “kidney ring” in India assumed the guise including Austria and Spain, has shown over presumed consent is frustrating of offering work to poor men to steal increased annual organ donations each for those individuals who would their organs to supply this need. year since conversion to a system of benefit from a quicker reorganisation, presumed consent. Recently in the especially when considering the many UK, the government-established Organ problems and debates that surround “Embrace organ Donation Task Force (ODTF) delivered voluntary kidney donation. donation as a usual event” 14 recommendations for organ To begin with, charity and altruism donation reform. These included a provide little motivation for most So given all these obstacles stacked target to increase donation by 50% over individuals to donate an organ. Next, against voluntary donation, we must the next five years. In response, the strict matching criteria in terms of blood wonder why there has been a delay government has pledged £11 million and tissue type and antibody titres add in establishing the opt-out system. At towards this effort, with projected further difficulty to the co-ordination of the conclusion of the first (and only) savings of approximately £500 million transplants. Third, the concept of paired episode of De Grote Donor Show, the anticipated to derive primarily from exchanges or ‘swap lists’ to provide better audience learned that this show was reducing the costs associated with matches for willing voluntary donors not in fact reality TV, but that Lisa was has been met with much legal and an actress and the show was intended ethical debate, because of worry that this to raise awareness of the many issues “An opt-out organ sort of trade may lead to creation of a surrounding organ donation. donation system seems commercial marketplace for exchanging Yet for the contestants – all truly in organs. Fourth, the idea of regulated need of a kidney transplant – and for nothing but logical” or compensated donation is met with the thousands of individuals worldwide ethical scorn by those who argue that suffering end-stage renal disease, this is dialysis. Despite one recommendation even if regulated, receipt of payment for their reality. De Grote Donor Show was urging that we “embrace organ organs would disproportionately enlist a one-off, never to be aired again, but donation as a usual, not an unusual, the poor; nonetheless such an incentive for the response of the UK government event” directly addressing the issue of has increased the living donor pool and health organizations worldwide, we reforming the UK’s system of consent and eliminated the waiting list in Iran. will all stay tuned. was delayed and depends largely on a Fifth, the phrase ‘transplant tourism’ to report from an Expert Working Group describe an industry developed to meet Tricia Peters is a PhD student in the due later this year. a need, has created further negative MRC Epidemiology Unit

Michaelmas 2008 13 UNDERGRADUATE

Crabby Crabs British seaside holidays tend to be Captured crabs were checked for size and more rain than sunshine. One thing that noticeable damage. Crabs in the area of keeps children happy is the hours spent heaviest crabbing were found to be missing

HELEN GREEN crabbing: collecting crabs of all shapes, more limbs indicating that crabs are being sizes and colours from the beach and indirectly injured by this seaside sport. rock pools and finally releasing them in “We are not saying people shouldn’t go the evening when parents refuse to take crabbing but there are concerns at how them home. But this British pastime has they are treated,” said researcher Will Pearse, come under threat as conservationists adding, “In the sea, males grapple with warn of the damage done to the crabs. each other and the weaker one retreats. But Research found that over-crowding they cannot run away in a bucket and keep in buckets could stress smaller crabs and fighting, leading to limbs being torn off or lead to fights between the males.T o get shed as a form of defence.” an idea of the damage done, traps were One of the largest crabs found during laid in areas where crabbing was actively Helen Green and Will Pearse are the research carried out and in less prone control areas. students in the Department of Zoology

In January 2008, the popular Bone, Sweet Bone horses, it was found that the sulphation science magazine Scientific American pattern of a type of glycosaminoglycan, reported findings of a research group set out to answer such questions by chondroitin sulphate, does correlate which challenged the widely held investigating whether the nature of with the extent of mineralisation. belief that proteins cement bone glycosaminoglycan molecules could This novel finding, if verified, could mineral together. The results from the affect the mineralisation of cartilage and influence disciplines ranging from tissue University of Cambridge’s Department thereby influence the formation of bone. engineering to the prevention of diseases of Chemistry suggested that sugars, called A sophisticated technique called such as atherosclerotic plaque calcification, glycosaminoglycans, could in fact be the Solid State Nuclear Magnetic which affects arterial blood vessels. magic glue. Resonance Imaging Spectroscopy So are our skeletons really “Bone, Sweet If it is indeed sugars which are (NMR spectroscopy), allowed Bone”? It appears to be the case, but as binding the mineral, could subtle Marianne to measure proportions of yet, we’re still a long way from home. differences in these sugars explain why different molecules in hard tissue with our ears remain cartilaginous, yet our minimal sample damage. Marianne Neary is a third year medical ribs become bone? After the analysis of cartilage from student reading Part II Physiology Medical student Marianne Neary various animals, ranging from rays to Development and Neuroscience

Stellar Collisions weight and begins to collapse. Rapid contraction makes the central regions Many theories have been proposed increasingly dense, possibly achieving to explain the origin of super massive sufficient density for mergers to occur. stars; those with a mass many times that Olaf Davis runs simulations of star of our Sun. One such theory involves clusters undergoing this potential energy a process whereby small stars form growth. His work investigates the number

individually, before colliding with one of collisions needed before the system (RICE UNIVERSITY) WONG O’DELL & S.K. C.R. NASA, another and merging. However, stars are ceases collapsing and begins to re-expand. generally few and far between which The results indicate a strong dependence poses the question; what could cause them of the number of collisions on the ratio of to come close enough to merge? the mass-doubling time to the relaxation One model involves young star timescale; a measure of how quickly kinetic clusters. Any interstellar gas still present energy is transported through the cluster. The Orion Nebula Cluster, on which some around the periphery of the system falls Further work is intended to examine simulations were based. Light hilights the into the cluster, increasing its potential the effects of binary star systems on the clouds of dust and gas. energy. When the potential energy vastly rate of energy transfer in more detail exceeds the kinetic energy, the system and attempt to apply the model to data Olaf Davis is an undergraduate student becomes too heavy to support its own from real clusters. in the Institute of Astronomy

Bonus Content: Read more undergraduate research reports on www.blusci.org/undergrad

www.bluesci.org 14 Michaelmas 2008 the masses. educating in has media the role the and communication science about newsworthy science. andvoice opinionswill form science in uninterested completely public the of members those even But understanding. basic a only with equipped majority the leaving science, study to continue and fewer peoplechoosingto fewer of trend a seen have years education. science formal any stopped sixteen-year-olds results, anestimated 55%of GC their of arrival awaited long the This summer, after looks into into looks BlueSci This term R SE ecent ecent Just EnoughEducationtoPeform While scientists share results, share scientists findings While ultimately improve, theirqualityoflife. impact, can finding and scientific are withhow more concerned a conduct research. to enough arereason knowledge for quest the and understanding easier andmore comfortable. technology have madeourlives healthier, thatscienceand and mostpeopleagree public are aware ofthevalue ofscience, an impactonoureveryday life. physics toappreciate thatsciencehas Y ou don’tneedaPhDintheoretical For scientists, fundamental The public, however, The science education alongtimeagoand masses. For thepeoplewho gave up is plentiful, but doesn’t always reach the make itontobest-seller lists. Information supplements andpopularscience books newspapers have weekly science quality, well-researched programmes, science. Broadcasters produce high audience already hassomeinterest in business, andincreasingly so, thetargeted world’s largesteducators: themedia. whatthey canfromto learn oneof the left conferences, at areoften public the and journals scientific through ideas and Although popularscienceisbig

15 ADAM MOUGHTON have little in interest popular science, Surprisingly, breaking science the general public can become their only exposure to science is from the stories are written by news journalists misinformed. First impressions persist, headlines, an altogether different beast. rather than science journalists, even and opinions made at this time become Scientific unknowns, controversial though at this point, it is critical to hard to rectify. subjects and moral dilemmas can cause Compounding the problem of poorly mass hysteria, paranoia and concerns presented information is the 24 hour relating to choice, or the lack of it. This “When a story first breaks, news cycle – deadlines are tighter and is the science that makes the headlines. this is when most people are journalists are fighting to stay one step The big science stories of the last ahead. Understanding a publication decade have all shown aspects of this: listening” on a specialist subject with unfamiliar the measles, mumps & rubellea (MMR) vocabulary is not an easy task, even vaccine, mad cow disease, genetically get the science right. Research shows without time pressure. Mistakes happen. modified crops and cloning. But are the that when a story first breaks, this Science is, however, treated slightly people who read these headlines getting is when most people are listening differently to most other news. a fair representation of the science and when public opinion is the Press releases, issued by journals and involved and subsequently forming most impressionable. If the science is universities, summarising their latest balanced opinions? poorly presented, or out of context, results come with an embargo – normally

Under Embargo

the night before the of the author’s work will journal’s publication. This be refused by the journal allows journalists time for in question, and possibly ADAM MOUGHTON MOUGHTON ADAM background research for an others. Scientists must article, hopefully improving therefore be extremely accuracy, whilst giving the careful when discussing journal and authors added work with journalists that is publicity. Additionally, still under review. the delay ensures that the Many science journalists original journal article and feel that this system is the news story are published antiquated. Some journals simultaneously. are relaxing their embargo This system was policies, particularly in the formalised in 1969 by Franz physical sciences. They now Should scientists published to prevent early Ingelfinger, the then editor simply request that the be able to talk to whoever publication of newsworthy of The New England Journal authors wait until a paper is they like about their research. of Medicine. After being released to the printer before research? The journals that This delay – the embargo scooped by the Medical World initiating publicity. Many publish their articles do not system – compensates News, the journal published journals offer online access always think so. science journalists with a set of guidelines stating to their articles, which can In the first instance a extra time. Each week, that any material already be posted weeks before they journal is a business and journals such as Nature and published elsewhere would appear in print. The internet must ensure that the articles Science send a press release not be accepted. has given scientists new printed are of interest to to journalists worldwide If an embargoed story ways to communicate their their customers. Thus, there summarising the most is published before the research via collaborative are strict rules concerning interesting articles of specified date, or an author websites and preprint servers. how, and with whom, their coming issue. The solicits press coverage, the If this encourages change scientists may discuss their journalists gain privileged embargo is considered to in the way that science is submitted work. Most access to headline science be broken. This can have reported, perhaps the future notably, journals require news, under the restriction serious consequences. The of the embargo system itself that authors do not speak that they do not publish journalists involved will may be under review. to the press until a week these findings until a be denied future press before their article is to be specified date – usually releases and publication Lindsey Nield

www.bluesci.org 16 Michaelmas 2008 of many such groups has a tendency tendency a has groups such many of language dramatic the by countered T where thedebate’s middlegroundlies. over influence strong a has events by affected directly those of and groups T parents assources togeneratesympathy. concerned used journalists many more engaging,their news stories was notwell transmittedtothepublic. readers. its of judgment the influence can point view- place emphasisonaparticular to Choosing sphere. ethical or political the enters issue an when particularly line,can adoptaspecificeditorial contempt. and defamation fair, whilenewspapersmust onlyavoid and balanced impartial, be must media not. are radio) ( media broadcast that way a in like they what write to freedom or biased. be incomplete, confusing, misleading accurate doesn’t meanthatitcan’t also factually is story science a because Just to unambiguoussciencereporting. quotes andclarification. the research and contact scientists for gives the journalists time to understand released (seeUnderEmbargo box). information from being prematurely a coupleofdays –preventing the autism. autism. with link a suggesting study lone the on expanded was coverage news but considered the vaccine tobesafe, overwhelming scientificview of theMMRvaccine where the reporting the in than apparent more matter. the on consensus scientific the and study a of significance the about confusion cause can viewpoints all to weight equal sometimes bedetrimental. Giving present awell rounded story, itcan messages from different mediasources. conflicting and confused or issue the This canprovide abiasedview of somewhere onthepolitical spectrum. fall read they newspapers the this; he measured stance of a scientist scientist a of stance measured he pressure of language emotive he Furthermore, while striving to make make to striving while Furthermore, The press are given unprecedented But accuracyisnottheonlybarrier Even strive to whenjournalists T he weight of scientific opinion opinion scientific of weight he T he public are aware of of aware are public he N I n Britain, broadcast broadcast Britain, n owhere was this this was owhere N T ewspapers ewspapers V and and V T his sensationalism sells. as sidelined get can science the that being worry the science; the and public provide thesolelinkbetween the to media the not,leaving Probably manuscript? scientific a source easily to able be people most would Besides, thorough groundinginthesubject. significance canbelostwithout a and subtleapproximations and of thepapercanbeimpenetrable, expertise. of area their outside subjects on scientists qualified T simply notanoptionformostpeople. paper todraw theirown conclusionsis R media’s portrayal ofthescientific issues. the on reliant are people these extent, education? science quit individuals. affected orconcerned of voices opinionated the to compared when voice persuasive less a provides but restraint and measure likelihood, science isinprobability, significance, emotive response. view towardsto shiftthemajority the his is a challenge even for highly highly for even challenge a is his “ eturning to the original scientific scientific original the to eturning S o where does this leave those that that those leave this does where o People are reliant onthe media’s portrayal of scientific issues The languageof T T he language language he o a greater greater a o ” patronise the public. But do do But public. the patronise and media the criticise to easy is it and transparency andopenness. to shift a been has there and right are facts the sure making and headlines the in science the targeting specifically fornationalpress journalists,service P science accessible an offering by the public voice ofsciencesince2002 strengthening been has Centre Media andrisk.uncertainty communicating as well as media S on ‘ review a published the ‘right’ messagesgetthrough. In2000, the sure make to how on changes through Science Journalism Time box). they oncehad(seeunconditional trust disease, footandmouth, Salmonella cow mad During motives. ulterior have public presume government officials viewed with public scepticism. scepticism. public with viewed generally is scientists government by arguments sensationalist media’s the to have losttheirpedestal, andthe general in scientists universities, from scientists trust majority the that producers. producers. food the of favour in acting was the public thoughtthe government and E. colioutbreaks inrecent years, ociety’ looking at science and the the and science at looking ociety’ T R T o make matters worse, the response response worse,the matters make o he situation is undeniably complex complex undeniably is situation he H ecent years have seen reports and and reports seen have years ecent ouse of of ouse A lthough research shows shows research lthough L ords ords S The Science elect Committee Committee elect S cience and and cience FOCUS T he he R

JOHANNA 17 18

EQUINOX GRAPHICS only beagoodthing. control insciencecommunication can toimplementquality efforts these rising their scienceteacherfrom thatpointon, tothemassmediaas sixteen indeedturn scienceeducationatage quit theirformal something.” who Soifthose55%ofBrits an influence, andit’s teachingsomebody themselves, whatever they produce has whatever they do, however they conduct different people, and so whatever they say, large megaphonethatcanreach alotof said, “Anybody inthemediahasavery discussions aboutsciencetopics. public of quality the improve to desire a reflects certainly alike journalists and scientists for courses communication The recent mushrooming ofscience better (seeBenGoldacreonBadScience). forthecould changesciencereporting that “more andfewer editors writers” science columnist Ben Goldacre believe headlines? the of turmoil the in lost not is accuracy scientific A minority? vocal a simply it is read,or they everything believe public the nd what are we to do to ensure that that ensure to do to we are what nd As Star Wars director GeorgeLucas Source: Eurobarometer 55.2 the out-weighs information they receive. the interest science are public’s for sport but for comparable, Europe. percentages in The science opinion and sport public on compares Figure S ome, like from the scientists that are involved involved are that scientists the from Radio 4consists ofnothingbut quotes on documentaries science the of 80% that is which this, for reason important else. anywhere BBC BBC in thewholeofpopular media, writers. fewer and What theworld needsare more editors are ‘generalists’? who journalists, science to opposed as articles, writing specialists more S aboutit”,write but they were refused. of theeditors’ offices, saying, “let us that they were on the doors clambering around atthetime, they willtellyou were who journalists science and days. two first the after journalists science or health specialist by written were pieces column or news the of one single a the front pagesinthelate1990s, not hit Food’saga the ‘Frankenstein When the handsofspecialistjournalists. of out taken gets coverage the food, issue, like theMMRvaccine orGM contentious major a becomes story a whenever but correspondents, science T is asecond, more interesting problem. But experts. as themselves presenting from or speculating, from and they don’t letthatstopthem medicine or science about little very T ‘bad science’ inthemedia? reporting Why doyou thinkthere issomuch with themedia. relationship its improve can science science writers, editors, andhow about Ben to media.talks BlueSci the in science of misinterpretations the about us Guardian),informs weekly ‘Bad Science’ column(The the of writer award-winning and Ben Gold own words. own their in material their describe them helping and field their in experts are that people with working be should Ben Goldacre onBadScience o do you think there should be be should there think you do o here are a lot of very good specialist specialist good very of lot a are here know journalists of is, lots reality he A R nd if you talk to veteran health health veteran to talk you if nd adio 4 does science better than than better science does 4 adio I a genuinely believe that that believe genuinely a medical doctor doctor cre,medical a A nd there is a very very a is there nd A nd those editors editors those nd I think there there think in the work themselves. themselves. work the in A obliged tobeinterested inallthestuff. true; is this masses. the to it getting about media’, in be ‘popular should everything that idea the with obsession O ablog explainingyourwrite own stuff. or newspapers national for articles write and off mix; go the into shake own your add and wrong things get they when out point is do can you that things important most the of one that issue. health public serious a is media the in coverage health and science the of quality poor T effect onwhatthepublic believes. has amassive write What journalists than good? harm more research scientific doing actually is media the think you Do important. and themselves, scientists by produced being is material there. honesty is there but presenter, the and editors is putaround thatby producers, what you have tosay. in interested really are who people of number smaller a to communicate to Ben Goldacre, andmedicaldoctor journalist nd nd the that doubt no absolutely is here ne thing that worries me a bit is this this is bit a me worries that thing ne I often think it is more satisfying satisfying more is it think often I don’t think people are are people think don’t A I ll of the interesting interesting the of ll think that is very very is that think T o be honest, honest, be o www.bluesci.org I A am not sure sure not am structure structure I think think

BEN GOLDACRE FOCUS

Amongst all the sensationalist the front page of the newspaper, every worse because newspapers are really reporting, is there a way to educate the week in their glossy magazine, their ideas struggling to stay afloat commercially, public, without misinterpretation? are there in the authority of print. And I you know, and bullshit sells much If you are a working scientist or a doctor am just one geezer with a column in the better than common sense. who’s involved in that sort of stuff, you corner of The Guardian. They win hands understand it well, you can write your down and it will never change. own thing, you can be critical, you Article written by PhD students Chris can write more general pieces, just to So you think that the media and their Adriaanse in the Department of promote the general notion. But this will faulty misinterpretations win against the Chemistry and Victoria Russell in the never get as much coverage as the front experts, the scientists and the doctors? Department of Physics. cover scare stories. They will always win. Yeah. There is no doubt that these Interview by Chloe Stockford, a There are no two ways about it. They problems will continue, and I suspect PhD student in the Department of win, they absolutely win. Every week on that they will get much, much Chemistry.

Science Journalism Through Time

It’s 1840 and life is of the National Association changing. The world is of Science Writers in shrinking. Ships cross the America. By 1945 science Atlantic and steam trains journalism has carved MOUGHTON ADAM zip along railways. Farming, out its own identity with textiles, transport, mining, independent recognition medicine... everything from the Science Journalism is benefitting from the awards. New Scientist is industrial revolution. founded just over a decade Newspapers are able to later and scientific reporting travel the length of the remains optimistic. country on new locomotive The 1960s is a time of trains, arriving within a day rebellion, preconceptions of their release, delivering are challenged and old news across the country ideals are thrown out of about science and the the window. Reporters no technological advances. longer unquestioningly Onwards to World War reiterate what they are I. This is the era of the told. Objectivity is key. In aeroplane, the machine 1966 Henry Pierce of The gun and poisonous gas, all Pittsburg Post voices the recent developments in growing concern in science science and of fundamental journalism when he says, importance in the ‘war to “We, bless us, go in with end all wars’. Two years our bright baby-blue pencils the environment heightens. of the internet is changing after the war ends, Edwin poised, faithfully recording Reports of fraudulent everything we do and Scripps founds the Science anything our scientists – our scientific results hit a public the information available. Service – the first syndicate gods – tell us. Never does it reeling from the Watergate This increasing amount of to distribute science news. occur to us that these guys, scandal. Advances in data is causing problems, A seed is planted, which too, may have motives that molecular biology prompt particularly in relation to goes on to be the boom are less than noble.” headlines to the tune validity and provenance. in science journalism seen Disillusionment with of ‘tinkering with life’, The relationship between during the 1930s. science grows. By the 1970s conjuring up images of science and the media is In the following decades, scientists no longer seem Frankenstein’s monster. becoming far more complex science journalism surges, infallible. Public opinion During more recent years, than mere reporting. gaining a professional of science is turning less science journalism has been footing with the foundation favourable, as concern for a mixed bag. The arrival Kat Austen

Michaelmas 2008 19 Mico Tatalovic weaves the future of the smell-o-web TOM WILKS

For a truly immersed synthesiser, in the late 1990s and TriSenx However, neither of these technologies experience of playing a computer developed ScentDome, a scent-producing were well accepted by audiences or critics. game or watching a movie, senses USB plug-in that lets a customised mix The scents, once released, would linger have to be stimulated. Apart from of primary odours waft out of a cartridge about and mix with other scents causing sight, sound and touch, our sense when prompted. Telewest Broadband are unpleasant smells, allergic reactions and of smell also plays an important currently developing ScentDome further nausea for some people in the audience. role. It is considered the most to allow the sending of scented emails. The release of scents was also accompanied primitive of all these senses- Chad Raube, director of internet services by a hissing sound which would distract connected directly to at Telewest Broadband told the BBC “This our emotional core, and could bring an extra whiff of realism to the by-passing the conscious internet.” “Could smell-o-vision control of our feelings. So perhaps a scent-producing plug-in be coming to a screen So, could smell-o- will become a standard part of a computer’s vision be coming to a periphery, as common as printers or near you?” screen near you? speakers. In fact, ScentDome’s power to Imagine shopping transform digital information into real from the movie. In the case of Aroma- for perfume and life scents can already be fully enjoyed at Rama, the scent took a while to diffuse flowers online, sites such as Scenttv.tv. In Japan, the main and would reach some people too late, desperate to get the scent gadgets are Kaori Web, produced and when the appropriate moment in the right choice for trialled in cybercafés by K Opticom and movie was already gone. So although your Valentine. NTT Communications’ USB Aroma Geur media hype predicted scents to be as Down- which can be connected to radios and important as sound in cinema evolution, loading releases scents appropriate for the melody the first public appearance of ‘smellies’ also scent in and tone of the music from Tokyo FM. marked their immediate demise. the way we The idea of aroma-enhanced The next attempt to perfume the screen download entertainment goes back as far as a came when John Waters paid homage music may hundred years, even before sound was to smell-o-vision with the Odorama help with introduced to the cinema. In 1906 a family gimmick for his 1981 film Polyester. the decision, theatre in Pennsylvania used rose essence Odorama supplied the audience with smelling to accompany their news reel of Pasadena scratch-and-sniff cards (hugely popular in for yourself Rose Bowl, and in 1929 cinemas in New the 1980s) at the beginning of the movie. instead of York and Boston tinkered with orange The cards had 10 scents covered by 10 relying on blossom and lilac scent respectively. numbers which had to be scratched when reviews. In the 1940s, Swiss scientist Hans the corresponding number flashed on the The idea Laube, who studied the science of screen to get a whiff of scent related to may not smell, developed a machine he called that point in movie. Pizza, leather, flowers, be so far- Scentavision. Film producer Mike Todd Jr. grass, gas and faeces were amongst the fetched. Some renamed the machine smell-o-vision and featured aromas. The cards were printed companies used it for his film Scent of Mystery in 1960, with an emulsion of essential oils that have already using 30 different scents. The machine formed millions of tiny scent bubbles. developed consisted of a rotating drum which housed Once the cards are scratched, the bubbles technologies the bottles of different scents, connected rupture and release volatile scents that necessary to the film tape for accurate timing. The then find their way to people’s noses. for digitising scents had to travel through plastic pipes, Smell-o-vision and Odorama have only scents. before reaching the audience from under been used in a handful of films since but Californian based their seats. Aroma-Rama was a similar personalised computer scents sent over DigiScent developed contraption, invented by Charles Weiss and internet-cyber-scents-may soon be as iSmell, a personal scent used in the film Behind the Great Wall. common as online shopping.

www.bluesci.org 20 Michaelmas 2008 scents suchassniff-and-cough.com. Why theideaofdigital websites ridiculing technology. There are alsonumerous scent Wired magazineswiththeirdigital after they featured onthe cover of out ofbusiness in2001, just two years popular. DigiScent’s company went here, isstillnotvery scentedInternet effectively creating ahumansmellindex. thatbindtothesereceptors,odours were theshapeof able todetermine these proteins, thecreatorsofDigiScent ofsome looking atthe3Dstructure neurons.million orsoolfactory By odour receptor proteins ontheir10 through anolfactory ‘speaker’: the ‘reeker’. outintotheroom and thenfanned The smells are mixed in a mixing chamber canbereplaced asneeded.These cartridges insidethedevice. incartridges fragrances mix primary odours, stored as oil-based primary colours, so these scent releasers by the computer. Just as a printer mixes based on digital information received to a computer and able to release scents include peripheral devices connected And yet, althoughthetechnology is Humans have around 1000different Digital scents in user interfaces as depression andphobias. oxytocin to help with mental states such or soothingscentsandchemicalslike antimicrobial scents to disinfect the air available over the Internet, providing andmemory.affect learning stimulation has been shown to positively attention of their audiences, and olfactory capture the experiences Multi-sensory as computergamesandonlinefilm. enhance virtual experiences such make theirproducts irresistible. to summer beachesoralpineskiresorts and travel agenciescouldsendsmellsof withsmellsoffreshcustomers produce pornography, couldtempt supermarkets enhance libidoandpromote addictionto send whiffsofpheromones that would profit businesses; x-rated websites could also potentialforexploitationby for- indeed boughtScentDome? There is and hangaround theirroom ifthey stand unpleasantsmellsthatmightform out oftheirlaptop? And whowould just tobeable tosmellthingscoming would peoplewant topay lotsofmoney The inner lining of the nasal passage Also, aromatherapy might become There isnodoubtthatsmellwould Department ofZoology Department Mico Tatalovic isanMPhilstudentinthe enjoyment aswell. oftheinternet take off, forouruseand more important being, and if the likes of ScentDome more important for our health and well going onatthemomentworldwide. and ebolatoantibioticsagainstMRSA, ranging from anti-virals against flu, SARS 120 trials of nasal drug administration toenterourbodies.drugs There are around which provides a quick and easy way for centimetres covered in tiny blood veins in humans has an area of 150 square It seems noses are set to become The TriSenx ScentDome

TRISENX 21 ADAM MOUGHTON ADAM

Jo Illingworth looks at the evolution of cuckoo trickery

Darwin’s theory of natural have been laid, the cuckoo makes her cuckoo’s behaviour puts pressure on the selection aims to explain the amazing visit to the nest and stealthily replaces host to defend itself by detecting parasitic adaptations of organisms to their one of the host’s eggs with one of her eggs and chicks, and in turn there is environment. However, many evolutionary own. The cuckoo chick hatches first, pressure on the cuckoo to overcome stories are a far cry from adaptive and proceeds to systematically push all such defences by ever improving its perfection. Animals sometimes behave in of the host’s eggs out of the nest. And deceptive act. Cuckoos and hosts are thus ways that decrease rather than increase yet the parent warblers continue to in continuous conflict, each exerting their chances of passing on their genes, raise this invader unfazed, as if it were selective pressure upon the other, and and yet these behaviours persist from their own, contributing great time and with each species in turn temporarily generation to generation. Current energy investment with no personal overcoming the successes of the other. evolutionary biology often focuses on If a host is being tricked, the cuckoo- these apparent exceptions to natural host co-evolution is at a stage where the selection and attempts to explain them in “Evolutionary stories are cuckoo has the upper hand. the light of modern evolutionary theory. a far cry from Egg colour is an important feature One particularly challenging example in this co-evolutionary system. For a is found in the unusual parental adaptive perfection” host bird to defend itself against cuckoo behaviour of some birds. Raising young trickery, it must identify and reject the can be very demanding – most birds reproductive reward. They have been foreign egg. Arnon Lotem at Tel Aviv make many trips to and from the nest to tricked. The cuckoo on the other University in Israel studied great reed provide food for their growing chicks, hand has spawned a fully-grown chick, warblers, and found that they learn the often at great personal cost. Why then carrying her own genetic material, with appearance of their eggs when lay their do some birds expend all this energy minimal parental investment. first clutch.H osts that reject eggs that for chicks that are not their own? Reed The maladaptive behaviour of reed differ from their own resist cuckoo warblers, such as those of Wicken Fen in warblers, and of various other host parasitism, and the rejection trait spreads Cambridgeshire, are one such example species, can be explained if we look in subsequent generations. This gives the of evolution gone awry. at natural selection acting on the host an advantage over the cuckoo. The reason is that reed warblers cuckoo as well as on the host. The However, the cuckoo may then are targeted by cuckoos. Cuckoos are mechanisms at work have been likened regain its advantage. A cuckoo that, brood parasites; they lay their eggs in to an evolutionary arms race in which due to variation in certain genes, lays the nests of other birds. The female cuckoos and hosts co-evolve, engaged eggs that happen to match those of the cuckoo watches the warbler build a nest in a constant battle to outwit each other host species, is more likely to have her and lay a clutch of eggs. Once the eggs with deception and detection. The egg accepted. This trait then spreads

www.bluesci.org 22 throughout the cuckoo population using hand if her defences are too low the whole that particular host. Different ‘host- clutch could be lost due to an accepted races’, or gentes, of cuckoo have been cuckoo egg. It appears that individuals OLSEN PER H. identified, with each targeting a different get the balance right by altering their host species. In many cases, the eggs behaviour to fit the situation. of each host-race closely match those There is one host species, however, that of the respective host species. Reed appears to be at a very early stage in the warblers lay green eggs and the cuckoo evolutionary arms race. Dunnocks do that targets them does too. Similarly, the not show flexibility in their egg rejection cuckoo that targets Meadow pipits lays behaviour – in fact they do not show brown eggs to match those of its host. any egg rejection at all. They will accept Egg-matching by cuckoos temporarily any foreign egg and so each cuckoo that gives them the upper hand, which may lays in a dunnock’s nest will be successful. Accordingly, the cuckoo host-race that Cuckoos and hosts engage targets dunnocks has not evolved to lay “ blue eggs to match those of the dunnock, in a constant battle to as no advanced trickery is required yet. outwit each other with Modern genetic techniques may allow scientists to confirm that dunnocks are a deception and detection relatively recent target of cuckoos, at the ” A reed warbler feeding a cuckoo chick early stages of the co-evolution process. explain the observed behaviour of the As Professor Davies explains, “We need reed warbler. In the future, due to the to do more molecular genetic analysis of reproductive disadvantages for the reed the various host-races of the cuckoo to CARR W.B. warbler, the duped birds may evolve test whether the cuckoos that specialise further defences. For example, species on dunnocks are less distinct, which is that are targeted by cuckoos often what you’d predict if they are a younger show greater individual variation in race. Ideally, we’d like to construct a egg appearance. Different females of a family tree of all the host-races, using host species may lay eggs with different DNA sequences.” patterning, creating a kind of individual What, then, is the future of the dunnock egg signature. This enables the host and its cuckoo host-race? Less than 1% of female to distinguish between her eggs dunnock nests are parasitised by cuckoos, and the cuckoo egg, which mimics only so there is no immediate threat to the A cuckoo egg in a dunnocks’ nest the general features of her species. dunnock as a species. If the dunnock situation does in fact demonstrate the for this trait are yet to arise by mutation, The cuckoo chick early stages of an evolutionary arms- or because such a trait conflicts with other “ race, we can predict that the dunnocks pressures of natural selection. Either way, systematically pushes all will evolve egg rejection traits, and the the current behaviour of the reed warbler of the other eggs cuckoos will evolve to lay blue eggs. is far from perfect. However, we can never be sure of the So contrary to common expectations, out of the nest” path that evolution will take. For example, natural selection acting on members of hosts like the reed warbler have evolved one species is not perfect, directed, or even Whilst different individual hosts have egg discrimination, but not the ability to tidy. Adaptation is a dynamic process, and different characteristics, each individual recognise and reject foreign chicks in their maladaptive behaviour in one species may can also show remarkable flexibility.T his nests. If a host had accepted a cuckoo be the result of temporary exploitation is a key finding by Nick Davies who egg, perhaps because it matched her by another. Intriguing advances in our works in the Department of Zoology own, she would benefit from this extra understanding of cuckoos and their at the University of Cambridge and has level of defence. She could abandon the various hosts shed light on the nature of extensively studied cuckoos and their hosts. foreign chick, and not waste her resources behavioural evolution. When a species is “Individual hosts can vary their defences on it. Davies points out that unlike reed so affected by the behaviour of others in depending on their assessment of the warbler chicks, cuckoo chicks have no its environment, could it ever reach what likelihood of cuckoo parasitism. We didn’t mouth-spots. Any reed warbler that only we call behavioural perfection? expect that individuals would be able to fed chicks with mouth-spots would not do this – it came as a surprise,” he explains. be tricked, but this ability to discriminate Jo Illingworth is a Natural Sciences Rejecting eggs too readily could cost the between chicks has not evolved. This may graduate. She specialised in host one of her own eggs, but on the other be because the genetic changes necessary Experimental Psychology.

Michaelmas 2008 23 A DAY IN THE LIFE OF... A Conservation Manager

Marianne Carter explains her work at the Conservation Leadership Programme

would start with an early morning bird- first project – that’s where we step in and walk in the Appalachian mountains, then are prepared to take the risk. a group breakfast and workshops, covering topics such as project planning, fieldwork What do you think are the top skills and communication training. In the challenges for conservation? evenings there would be activities ranging For us, the main focus really is to raise

CONSERVATION LEADERSHIP PROGRAMME CONSERVATION from formal project presentations to local awareness of important conservation cultural nights with music, dance or kung issues. We are hoping to effectively build fu! People rarely made it to bed before an army of local people who are aware half-past one - it’s been intense! and who can make changes.

How does this compare with a Can you give an example of an typical day in the office? inspiring project you’ve supported? A huge chunk of that is answering emails There are so many amazing ones! One from our 6000 alumni! Some people look group of students in the Philippines, for expertise in particular areas, such as who we have worked with since 2003, Marianne Carter in northwest Brazil statistical analysis or community work. have completely turned around people’s Others ask for fundraising ideas, feedback attitude to flying foxes. In the beginning The Conservation Leadership on publications, references or for help in the locals hated the bats, wanted to eat Programme (CLP) supports the work obtaining papers that they cannot access. them and thought they were evil. Now of young people who want to build a The rest of my day I work on the strategy everybody wants to protect them, they career in conservation. Each year, the of the programme and, together with my have a network for monitoring them and CLP awards grants of up to £25,000 to team, manage our funding activities. a significant population of the world’s teams working in conservation hotspots biggest bats is essentially safe. around the world, often providing the How did you end up in this job? crucial first round of funding for new I read geography at university and What are your top tips for young projects. In addition to the financial went to Zimbabwe for 18 months to conservationists hoping to build a support, CLP offers training in fieldwork do conservation projects working with career in this field? and project management skills. Award local communities. I did a Masters Volunteer, go and get experience. It’s so winners also have access to a growing in environmental management at competitive, especially in Europe, but international network of CLP alumni the University of Nottingham and what really gets you to the top of the list and the organisations that support then researched wildlife conflicts in is independent experience. Independent the CLP. Marianne Carter has been Zimbabwe for another 7 months. After student expeditions happen much less managing the CLP since 2000. She is this, I applied for jobs in the UK, and often now. It’s harder to get money and based at their headquarters with BirdLife have been in my current role ever since. easier to go on organised trips, but if you International in Cambridge, but spoke can organise your own project, it’s so to BlueSci during her trip to the annual How has the programme changed in worth it. UK students can still get funded workshop session, which this year was in the time you have led it and why? by us if they collaborate with teams Chattanooga in Tennessee, USA. When I joined, we were still called the in the host countries and our partner BP Conservation Programme and were organisations all have small scale project You have recently attended the CLP giving awards to European or US student ideas. I definitely recommend getting in annual workshops. What was your groups to work with people in the host touch with them. typical day like? country. With spreading internet access, it Find out more about the CLP at www. We organise workshops for several weeks is easier to apply directly and most people conservationleadershipprogramme.org before the annual meeting of the Society we fund are now local to the projects. for Conservation Biology. Forty-five past Our main aim is to fund people at the Nora Schultz is a PhD student in the and present winners trained with us, from very beginning of their conservation Department of Physiology, Development at least 18 different nationalities. Most days career. It’s hard getting support for your and Neuroscience

www.bluesci.org 24 AWAY FROM THE BENCH It’s a Dirty Job...

Oliver Jones delves into the murky world of sewage waste contaminants

I remember it as if it were yesterday. We tied the former to the latter, took a It was five o’clock in the morning and deep breath and lowered it into the tank

I was watching the sun rise over the through a small hatch at the top. SADOWSKI BART still, sleeping city of Hull. On my right By now you are probably asking there were rolling green hills and in the yourself why anybody would want to be distance I could just make out the North taking sewage samples, let alone so early Sea beginning to sparkle in the morning in the morning. I asked myself the same light. The vista was only slightly marred question several times while working on by the fact that I was viewing it from this particular assignment, and kicked the top of a coastal storage tank holding myself more than once for not choosing thousands of gallons of raw sewage. a project that could only be studied Although I was only half way through on a warm beach somewhere abroad. There was a good reason for me to be there though: I was trying to find out “Why would anyone want how a chemical known as tri-butyl-tin to take sewage samples?” (TBT) behaves during the wastewater treatment process. A potent biocide, TBT is an important my twelve-hour shift, the scene in front component in antifouling paints, of me almost made up for it. which are used to keep boat-hulls free “Come on!” called my partner, drawing of marine creatures such as barnacles. my attention away from the view and Large amounts of marine creatures on led to widespread concern and this is back to the somewhat less attractive task a boat’s hull slow it down considerably, why I found myself taking samples in of taking the next sample, “If we don’t get increasing fuel use and associated carbon this strange and smelly place. this one quickly we’ll miss the pump.” dioxide emissions. TBT stops this The main aim of the project was to My colleague was in a rush because the happening although it is unfortunately discover the extent to which TBT and pumps only operate at certain times of the also very persistent in the environment related organotins are degraded as they day and if we missed one it would leave a and causes a multitude of harmful pass through sewage works, and to see publication-unfriendly gap in our results. effects to non-target organisms. These if such organotins and their breakdown There are several highly technical ways to include potentially lethal shell thinning products concentrated in the solid or the take a sample from a tank holding large in oysters and imposex in whelks and liquid phase during treatment to help amounts of sewage, but we had decided to related organisms, which is a condition ensure that each is correctly disposed. We keep it simple. Our equipment consisted where females develop male physical also hoped the research would lead to of just two items: a jug and a long stick. characteristics. As a consequence, the new insights into the general behaviour of International Maritime Organisation pollutants in sewage treatment plants. restricted its use in antifoulant paints in Of course it’s not just TBT which is 1989 and aim to ban it completely by regulated. Water companies are required the end of this year. by law to ensure their effluents are free However, TBT and related from many different pollutants. This is compounds (collectively known as as it should be, but next time you are organotins) are still used in paper enjoying the beach, or messing about in mills, breweries, textile manufacture the river, spare a thought for the people and leather-processing facilities. It is who help to keep the water clean. To therefore often present in industrial borrow a well-worn phrase, it’s a dirty wastewater and can still find its way job, but somebody has to do it. into the environment. The extent of the Molecular structure of tri-butyl-tin industrial applications of organotins, Oliver Jones is a postdoc in the (C H Sn) 12 28 combined with their high toxicity, has Department of Biochemistry

Michaelmas 2008 25 ARTS AND REVIEWS Are Great Scientists Like Children?

Natalie Vokes delves into the world of scientists at play

Great scientists are often said considered from another angle, one intellectual development: assimilation to have something a bit childlike about might wonder, are children in some and accommodation. Assimilation them. Writers have described Albert ways like scientists? The answer, I think, involves incorporating experiences Einstein as such, along with James lies in play. and data into existing mental Watson of DNA discoverers, Watson Consider a child playing with a new frameworks. As very young children and as adults, our experiences are “Scientists and children belong together because they mostly assimilation; we learn new words, new colours, and new facts, are the best learners in the universe” which we incorporate neatly into our already-constructed representation of and Crick. A study of scientific and and intricate toy, studded with levers the world. Accommodation, on the artistic innovations found ‘a childlike and brightly coloured knobs. Most other hand, alters such representations. component in each’, and Sir Isaac children will sit with that toy for some Science, at its best and most innovative, Newton himself declared, “I know time, face furrowed, tongue sticking is accommodative; Newton’s laws of not what I appear to the world, but out, attention rapt, turning it around, motion changed how we understand to myself I seem to have been only pulling at this, pushing at that. Each the world, as did atomic theory and like a boy playing on the sea-shore.” part will be investigated thoroughly the discovery of DNA. Trumbull, Such statements present a startling and carefully. If such exploration yields another psychologist, summarises well contrast to the complexities of their an unexpected outcome – say a bell’s the accommodative nature of scientific scientific discoveries, and provoke clang or a moveable part – the child thought, declaring that scientists the question: What exactly is the will repeat the steps that produced are “people who play with ideas in childlike characteristic that these great the noise, over and over, delighted at order to change the complex into scientists have supposedly retained? Or having done so. Or consider another the simple.” Children’s play too can childhood game: designing and carrying be accommodative. They might use out a project. Children will spend imagination or experiment to explore hours planning an activity, assembling different ways of thinking about the TATIANA BOYLE TATIANA equipment, developing the rules, world. Testing out their ideas – moving gathering information, and rehearsing one lever, pressing another button the objectives. Often, this planning – ­allows them to develop and ­change stage takes so long that very little time their understanding and representations. is spent on the actual activity. More Research from cognitive scientists important, and more exciting, is the supports the view that children learn design process of developing new ideas. about the world through science-like Most scientists will recognise play. The book The Scientist in the Crib aspects of themselves in such play. explicitly makes the connection, stating Developmental psychologists, aware that children “think, draw conclusions, of such similarities, have identified make predictions, look for explanations, some commonalities between how and even do experiments. Scientists and scientists and children interact with children belong together because they the world. One such commonality are the best learners in the universe.” can be described by Piaget’s theories. The book’s argument is that children Jean Piaget, the famous developmental learn like scientists, forming ideas theorist, identified two types of about the world, doing experiments,

www.bluesci.org 26 and altering or preserving their ideas in light of their findings. Children practise this method through play, hitting objects to see what sound they make, or playing with water and sand to discover their physical properties.

Others highlight the naïveté and open- STUBENRAUCH & KURT MOUGHTON ADAM mindedness of juvenile inquiry. Rather than drawing on outside resources and others’ ideas, children approach play with only their own curiosity and eagerness. Scientific biographers and writers emphasise this open-mindedness in their subjects. One, writing on the physicist Richard Feynman, declared, “When Richard Feynman faced a problem he was unusually good at going back to being like a child, ignoring what everyone else thinks and saying, ‘Now, what have we got here?’” Such theories highlight similarities between a child’s playful discovery and self-directed, spirited, and characterised absorbed concentration and excitement the work of a mature scientist. They by some degree of divergent ‘as-if’ before being struck with a great idea. For illustrate how a child’s play can serve thinking’. Such definitions capture children, particularly children absorbed different functions, helping children important features of play, and in play, flow is even easier to achieve. learn about the world in a seemingly important arguments for promoting Some theorists think that this kind scientific way while developing the host play. They do not, however, capture of absorption as a child may motivate the feeling of actually playing, as children to become scientists, or may “Scientists are people who descriptions of experiments do not even be a necessary prerequisite for capture the excitement of scientific experiencing flow as an adult. play with ideas” discovery. For a child playing, the most I wonder if it might be this sense salient feature of play is that it is fun. of fun that unites a child’s playful of skills necessary to be a successful Not necessarily roll-on-the-floor- exploration of the world with the work adult (and scientist). Play, bolstered laughing fun, but the kind of intense of great scientists. The philosopher by such work, has now become the focus that makes one return over and and mathematician Alfred North target of advocacy groups concerned over to the playroom. that children no longer get enough This feeling – an intense but somehow opportunities for unstructured play. uplifting concentration – is called ‘flow’. “Children approach play They fear that without play, children Developed by Csikszentmihalyi, a famous with only their own will become slugs glued to the psychologist with an unpronounceable computer screen, never having learned name, flow describes the feeling of ‘being curiosity and eagerness” trust, empathy, how to interact with in the zone’, that is, being so absorbed others, how to make up a story, or to in a task that feelings of distraction, Whitehead once wrote, “‘Necessity think creatively. The fantastic sales of discomfort, tiredness, and hunger is the mother of invention’ is a silly the Iggulden brothers’ The Dangerous simply disappear. For adults, this state is proverb. ‘Necessity is the mother of Book for Boys suggests the widespread elusive. We can spend hours practising futile dodges’ is much closer to the yearning for play, at least among the a sport but emerge as all elbows and truth. The basis of growth of modern adults buying the book. feet on the field, or study but only feel invention is science, and science Theories of development and slower and more stupid. Yet, under the is almost wholly the outgrowth of cognition focus on the utilitarian right circumstances, in moments of pleasurable intellectual curiosity.” aspects play: what it is good for. attention and motivation, when our Perhaps in this respect we can learn Even definitions of play – which, skills and the task at hand align, we can from our knee-high companions, and like all definitions, are both elusive achieve flow. Scientists are among those temper the scientific method with and controversial – are subjective. who often describe ‘flow-like’ states some good old-fashioned play. Some define play as an act of ‘limited when working. Accounts of scientific immediate function’; for others, play discoveries often describe an intense Natalie Vokes is a Part II student in the activities ‘are internally motivated, focus on answering a question, feelings of Faculty of Philosophy

Michaelmas 2008 27 HISTORY More Than Just an Equation

Chloe Stockford looks at the contributions Arrhenius made to science throughout his lifetime

In 2002 the United States through solutions. But what exactly laude approbatur – “approved without acknowledged for the first time that were these so-called ions? praise”) the lowest possible mark. global warming is largely due to man- But Arrhenius experienced a spell of made pollution. This phenomenon and good fortune: a new division of science, its causes are still a hotbed of debate, perhaps more tolerant of Arrhenius and both politically and scientifically, but his radical theories, was emerging. Two after decades of dispute most people now dynamic scientists, named Ostwald and accept that global warming is very much Van’t Hoff, had become very intrigued a reality. by his theory of ionic dissociation. This admission has been a long time These three scientists worked together coming. Predictions of the greenhouse for a decade until in 1895 Arrhenius effect and global warming first emerged obtained the position of Professor at over a hundred years ago. Swedish the University of Stockholm. Many of scientist Svante Arrhenius was the the elderly professors still disapproved first to argue, in 1895, that increasing of his theories, but nevertheless in 1903 the amount of ‘carbonic acid’ in he won a Nobel Prize for his theory of the atmosphere would increase the ionic dissociation. The theory still caused temperature of the planet. controversy; there was much discussion Arrhenius is readily associated with into whether the prize should have his self-named equation, a core equation been awarded for physics or chemistry. Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927) used in physical chemistry, which Per Theodor Cleve, a Swedish chemist describes how the speed of a chemical As a young doctoral student Arrhenius of the time remarked in his speech reaction varies with temperature. seeked to resolve this open question. at the Nobel banquet, “These new However, this Nobel prize-winner’s He came up with the theory of ‘ionic theories suffered from the misfortune other, and some may argue more dissociation’ (see box) whereby some that nobody really knew where to place significant, findings about a) ionic substances dissociate into ions when them. Chemists would not recognise dissociation and b) global warming, are dissolved. Aware that his ideas were them as chemistry; nor would physicists less familiar. far from those accepted at that time, recognise them as physics. They have in Born in Vik, southern Sweden, in Arrhenius prepared his theory carefully, fact built a bridge between the two.” 1859, Arrhenius was a child prodigy A new division of science had been and taught himself to read by the born: physical chemistry. Arrhenius age of three. After excelling at school “Predictions of global along with Ostwald and Van’t Hoff, in maths, physics and chemistry, he warming first emerged over such controversial thinkers of their time, entered the University of Uppsala began the first steps into integrating in 1878, aged seventeen. During his a hundred years ago” different disciplines. time there he studied how electricity Along with work on ionic dissociation, travelled through solutions. Faraday had endeavouring to make it as acceptable as Arrhenius also had a number of studied this topic a century earlier and possible to a potentially hostile audience. other interests, such as cosmology, deduced that electricity, like matter, Despite this attempt his examiners were meteorology, geophysics and climatology. must be present in the form of tiny not impressed. After a painstaking four He presented many theories on these molecules. He spoke of ‘ions’ that were hour examination they awarded him subjects, including the radical idea that the particles that carried electricity only a fourth-class degree (non sine life was brought to earth from space!

www.bluesci.org 28 his theory that the human carbon is regarded as the discoverer of the

TOM WILKS TOM dioxide emission would be vast enough greenhouse effect, work that he was to avoid a potential ice age. merely doing as a hobby, considered 3 Fourier and Tyndall had already nonsense by geologists at the time. suggested that gases contained in the 1 atmosphere could act as heat protectors of the atmosphere. However, Arrhenius “Arrhenius also had a 2 was the first person to propose that number of other interests, human carbon emissions, somewhat 4 amplified by the current industrial such as cosmology, mete- 5 progression, could be responsible orology, geophysics and for an increase in temperature. The climatology The greenhouse effect: solar radiation striking irony of Arrhenius’ predictions ” passes through the atmosphere (1) is that he thought that this effect of and either warms the Earth (2) or is carbon dioxide warming the earth was He may not go down as a Feyman, reflected away (3). Infrared radiation a positive alteration to the climate. Hawkins, or Einstein of modern is emitted by the Earth as it cools (4) He believed that the warmer climate science, but as one of the first winners and interacts with greenhouse gas would expand crop growth, feeding the of the Nobel Prize, he made significant molecules, causing them to vibrate growing population. contributions both with his theories and and re-emit the energy (5). Some Svante Arrhenius’ most acclaimed how we think about science. His ideas, is re-absorbed by the Earth and scientific contribution was electrolytic thought of as too revolutionary when atmosphere, causing a warming effect. dissociation, making him one of proposed, predicted, one hundred years the fathers of physical chemistry in advance, the global warming that has However, it was another of his ideas as we know it today. He caused only just been acknowledged. that would go on to cause much much controversy in his life, first for Svante Arrhenius died in 1927, aged controversy and debate throughout suggesting that ions could be charged, 68, in Stockholm after serving 22 years the twenty-first century. In 1895 he and then for bridging the gap between as director of the Nobel Institute of presented a paper, “On the Influence physics and chemistry. As such, he Physical Chemistry. of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the was one of the first people to study Temperature of the Ground.” This was an interdisciplinary science, a practice Chloe Stockford is a PhD student in the to be one of his most important pieces that has become widespread today. He Department of Chemistry of work, even though it was done as just a hobby. Ionic Dissociation Within this article he considered the radiative effects of carbon dioxide and Arrhenius made the observation that some substances such as sodium chloride water vapour on the Earth’s surface (NaCl, common salt) conduct electricity in water but others, such as sucrose, do temperature. He performed calculations not. These were named ‘electrolytes’ and ‘non-electrolytes’ respectively. Raoult, making necessary assumptions, and a French chemist also interested in the behaviour of solutions, had previously concluded that the temperature in the found that when a substance was dissolved in water, the freezing point of that arctic regions would rise eight to nine solution was lowered by an amount proportional to the quantity of substance degrees Celsius if carbonic acid increased dissolved in it. Doubling the quantity of an added substance appeared to double two and a half to three times its then the lowering of the freezing point. value. Arrhenius found that this was only true of non-electrolytes. For NaCl, he found Despite this work being based on that for the amount of substance dissolved, the lowering of freezing temperature his calculations and observations from was twice that expected. This was also true for potassium bromide (KBr) and works of great scientists including sodium nitrate (NaNO ), but barium chloride (BaCl ) and sodium sulphate mathematician Joseph Fourier and 3 2 (Na SO ) lowered the freezing point by thrice the amount expected. Arrhenius physicist John Tyndall, it did not get 2 4 came to the conclusion that to produce this effect, each molecule must split into acclaim from geologists of the time. different particles—split into two to produce twice the expected lowering of Although just a hobby, he pursued his freezing point and split into three to produce thrice that expected. pastime, pondering on carbon dioxide and its effect on the climate. He However he realised that after dissolving salt in water, metallic sodium and published many books on this subject gaseous chlorine were not present in the solution. He believed that sodium and along with books on different fields. In chlorine must instead exist in a charged form, with quite different properties 1906 he published Worlds in the Making, from their uncharged counterparts, which conduct electricity. This observation of which targeted a wide-ranging, non- ‘ionic dissociation’ was to be the theme of his doctoral thesis. scientific audience. Here he explained

Michaelmas 2008 29 THE PAVILION Science Inspires ...Art

GALAXY TACTILE GALAXY EAGLE NEBULA

“Poets do not go mad; “It is frequently the but chess-players do. “Man will begin to tragedy of the great Mathematicians go recover the moment artist, as it is of the mad, and cashiers; but he takes art as great scientist, that creative artists very seriously as physics, he frightens the seldom.” chemistry or money.” ordinary man.”

Gilbert Keith Ernst Levy Loren Eiseley Chesterton Artwork: AMANDA SMITH; Background and text: KAT AUSTEN AUSTEN KAT and text: Background SMITH; AMANDA Artwork: Bonus Content: View more science inspired art, including a contemporary dance inspired by quarks on www.blusci.org/pavilion

www.bluesci.org 30 INITIATIVES Chasing Chemical Contaminants

Silke Pichler discusses the penny-sized chip which can detect tiny traces of potentially dangerous substances

From the threat of chemical Owlstone has been able to substantially applications of the invention include warfare and explosives, to chemical reduce the size of their detectors homeland security applications and, in contaminants in your food; the ability compared to competitors (see Box). the longer term, medical applications to detect potentially harmful chemicals To identify the presence of a specific of the system. Breath analysis is one has become increasingly important in chemical the detected signal from potential usage, to monitor or diagnose today’s world. Owlstone Nanotech has an unknown sample is compared diseases. For example, acetone in with that of known chemicals, held in a ‘library’ of molecular signatures. Alternatively, the system can be taught “Mobile phone based chemical what a ‘normal’ signal looks like for any OWLSTONE NANOTECH OWLSTONE detectors could become a part given environment-say the air inside a house-and trigger an alarm if the signal of everyday life” deviates from this standard. So far, Owlstone has developed exhaled air is a marker for diabetes, and several products based on the idea, hydrogen cyanide may play a similar which have applications in defense, role in cystic fibrosis. industry and everyday life. Thanks to the small size of the ‘Lonestar’ for example is a portable Owlstone chip, future devices could gas analyser that can be taken along be connected to mobile phones and Owlstone’s tiny silicon FAIMS sensor for screenings in a wide variety allow chemical detectors to become of suspicious situations, including companions of every day life. developed a technology that can identify monitoring of food and drink safety. chemicals in extremely small quantities, According to Danielle Toutoungi, all in a detector less than the size of a one project manager for new product Silke Pichler is a postdoc in the pence piece. development at Owlstone, further Department of Genetics Founded by University of Cambridge engineering graduate students in 2004, Jiggle Those Ions Owlstone has designed a detector that is one hundred times smaller and Most current devices for chemical threat detection use ion mobility a thousand times cheaper than other spectrometry (IMS), which measures how fast an ion moves in an electric field. available detectors. The United States The molecules of the sample are first ionised and then passed into a chamber Department of Defense obviously where they are subjected to an electric field. Different chemicals are separated loves the idea – it currently has a due to the mobility of their ions along a straight path, which is dependent $3.7 million contract with Owlstone on the ion mass, size and shape. Different species arrive at different times Nanotech for the detection of chemical at the detector for measurement. Owlstone uses a variant of ion mobility warfare agents, toxic chemicals and spectrometry, called Field Asymmetric Ion Mobility Spectrometry (FAIMS). In explosive vapours. FAIMS, the ions are separated based on their mobility in an alternating electric The technology on which Owlstone field; between a high- and a low-electric field. The ions follow a zigzag path, is based has a unique electrode design, which enables the size of the device to be reduced without a corresponding the main advantage being the small size. loss of resolution (which is what would happen with standard ion mobility Because the sensor is made from silicon spectrometry if you tried to make the device smaller). using micro-fabrication techniques,

Michaelmas 2008 31 LETTERS Dr Hypothesis

Dear Dr Hypothesis, toxin, allowing it to be absorbed I’ve been reading lots of stories through the skin, which was not

in the paper recently about black possible before (hence those nasty VELDHUIS DJUKE holes and that the end of the world injections!). Once it’s passed the thanks to the boffins at CERN. Is regulations, you’ll be able to dab away Armageddon really upon us? the wrinkles with face cream! Worried Wilma Dear Dr Hypothesis, DR HYPOTHESIS SAYS: I’m all for these new biofuels. If It’s quite true! There is a possibility we can power the world without that CERN will create black holes but using fossil fuels, we can become only on the nanoscale. Black holes emit more self-sufficient as a species, intense radiation, known as Hawking in addition to the (perhaps Radiation, from time to time loosing controversial) benefits in terms energy and mass. These back holes of climate change. But isn’t there would be so small that they would a better way of producing them, Dear Dr Hypothesis, evaporate immediately. All the boffins rather than dedicating whole crops I’m a pretty slight guy, and so would see is an intense gamma ray just to make bioethanol? am interested in the emerging burst. Ecofriendly Eddie exoskeleton technologies. My understanding though is that too Dear Dr Hypothesis, DR HYPOTHESIS SAYS: much power is required to do all I’m getting on in life and feel Well Eddie, help may just be on the mechanical work for a truly the need to reduce these facial its way. SunEthanol is a company mobile suit to be made. What wrinkles! I have a needle phobia based in Massachussetts which is improvements are being made? though so I’ve ruled out Botox. Is currently marketing an organism Weedy Will there a way to avoid the needles? called Clostridium phytofermentans Vain Victor which they claim will digest any old DR HYPOTHESIS SAYS: plant matter and make lovely ethanol, There are a few advancements in the DR HYPOTHESIS SAYS: making a great addition to a composter. pipelines. Lithium ion batteries are Dear Victor, never fear! Scientists at the The process is anaerobic, and occurs under constant improvement, getting Massachussetts Nanomanufacturing naturally in the soil where these bugs smaller and lighter all the time. Also Centre have your answer. They’ve are found. Biotastic! check out Boston Dynamics ‘Big Dog’ attached nanoparticles to the Botox for improvements in the computer- controlled balance department. In terms of new kinds of motor, Ray Baughman from the University of Texas has a neat DJUKE VELDHUIS DJUKE new trick-metal muscles. These nickel- titanium alloy plates respond to changes in temperature, which he’s currently controlling by allowing methanol on the surface to be oxidised when it comes into contact with air, heating the metal. Cooling occurs when the methanol supply is stopped, allowing the return to “Erm, well yes sir, I the original shape. Currently he’s able to produce a force about 500 times that of admit this situation is not human muscle tissue. ideal ... but isn’t everyone always going on about a Email Dr H with all your scientific unified Europe?” conundrums [email protected]

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