The Symbolism of Veiling and the Poetics of Unveiling in Early Modern Persian Poetry

KHIL{A 1 (2005), pp. 107-121

Ìijab-i rah tu}i ÎafiÂ az miyan barkhiz khusha kasi ki dar in rah bi-Ìijab ravad O ÎafiÂ, you are the veil of the way, rise from the middle; happy is he who journeys without a veil on this road.1

A.A. SEYED-GOHRAB Leiden University

INTRODUCTION (…) If you remove the veil from her two tulips (i.e. cheeks), The purpose of this paper2 is to analyse the sym- the sun will hide itself behind a veil.5 bolism of the veil (chadur, lit. ‘tent’) and the poetics of unveiling in Persian poetry.3 The paper is In another place, the poet compares the plumage of divided into two parts: in the first part, I will briefly a hoopoe to a veil with different colours: discuss the veil’s wide range of symbolic meanings In the surroundings of Sarakhs, I saw a hoopoe, in classical Persian poetry, and in the second part, singing so loud that its song reached the clouds; I will focus my attention on the poetics of the veil I saw how a colourful veil donned her, during the last decades of the Qajar dynasty (1785- a veil of many different colours.6 1925). During the latter period, Persia underwent many political, economic and social changes, which The Isma{ili propagandist NaÒir Khusrow (c. 1004- influenced the way poets looked at a woman and 1072) compares a ‘promise’ (qowl) to a face covered the veil. Poetry became a forum to discuss the pos- itive and negative aspects of veiling and unveiling. Some poets were in favour of veiling and considered unveiling as an idea imported from the West 1 MuÌammad Shams ad-Din ÎafiÂ, Divan, ed. P. Natil and a breach in traditional Persian culture, while Khanlari, Tehran: Kharazmi, 1362/1983, vol. i, p. 448, ghazal 216, l. 9. other poets fervently believed that veiling withhold 2 This article is an elaboration of a speech delivered at the Persia from progress. conference on Dress and Costume of Nineteenth-Century To understand the meaning of the veil, veiling Iran, at Leiden University, on 20 June 2002. This research and unveiling in the context of modern poetry, and was sponsored by the Netherlands Organisation for indeed society in Persia, it is necessary to have some Scientific Research (NWO). idea about the symbolism of the veil in classical 3 The significance of the veil in Persian culture is attested by 4 a rich variety of synonyms and compounds such as chadur, Persian literature. From the emergence of New ruband(a), sarband, dastar, parda, picha, sitr, Ìijab, niqab, Persian literature in the ninth century, almost all burqa{, sari and rusari, signifying a sort of covering used by Persian poets have made use of metaphors based on women and infrequently by men. Another synonym such the veil. These metaphors have little (or nothing) to as vashmag may be mentioned here. This word is used in do with women’s veiling, but they refer to a cultural Middle Persian texts. 4 dimension of the veil and how it is used in the For a discussion on the symbolism of the veil see F. Milani, Veils and Words: the Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Persian language. The father of Persian literature, Writers, London: I.B. Tauris, 1992, chapter one, pp. 1-16. Abu{Abdullah Ja{far Rudaki of Samarqand (d. 940) B. Cheiby, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Cador, i. In Early alludes to the veil in his Divan several times. The Literary Sources. In previous studies, limited references have poet describes the beloved’s face in the following been made to the veil in pre-modern Persian culture and a systematic study of this subject in classical sources is a couplet, using hyperbole as a figure of speech: if desideratum. someone removes the veil from her brilliant face, 5 Rudaki, Divan, ed. M. Danishpazhuh, Tehran: Tus, the sun will hide itself, because it is embarrassed 1374/1995, p. 24, l. 92. since it cannot match the beloved’s radiant counte- 6 Rudaki, Divan, p. 27, ll. 145-46. Other references to the nance: veil can be found on p. 72, l. 13.

107 by a veil; the removal of the veil means the fulfil- Abu}l-Najm AÌmad Manuchihri of Damghan ment of one’s promise: (d. 1040) alludes to the veil in his vivid descriptions of nature: O wise man, a promise is like a countenance under a veil You would say that in the garden on the day of snow- you must remove this veil by means of your deeds.7 fall the row of elm-trees and the row of junipers One of the most favoured images depicting night Formed many sisters on a golden road makes use of the veil. Poets usually depict the black- having dark foot-gears9 and white veils. ness of the night and how it falls over the face of Under the veils, they all wore with gold embroidered the earth through the metaphor of the veil. A won- silken garments, covering them from the top of their derful specimen of this image occurs in NaÒir heads to the thighs.10 Khusrow’s Divan, in which he compares the night to an old black woman, who possesses beautiful Here, the snow that covers gardens is poetically daughters, the stars, peeking through their mother’s compared to a white veil. The poet describes a veil: beautiful sunny winter day, comparing the rays of the sun to gold. Metaphoric references to the veil You are like a black lady, displeasing and old, occur quite frequently in classical texts, describing while your little daughters are all enchanting and natural events such as sunrise, sunset, snowfall, etc. young. Poets often refer to veils of different colours. For O decayed old being, that you have given birth to instance, chadur-i abnus is an allusion to the black- them ness of night, and chadur-i ihram, not only refers to is a wonder like a reward after punishment. the white pilgrim’s garment worn by people visiting Unless you appear, the little daughters would not the Ka{ba in the city of Mecca, but it also some- reveal any part times points to the dawn and to snow.11 Poets often of their little faces from behind the veil. use this veil imagery to describe dawn, snowfall and You are a niqab upon the face of the earth but so forth. your niqab is not your daughters’ niqab.8 The romantic poet NiÂami of Ganja (c. 1141- In the last couplet, using the rhetorical figure ‘rep- 1209) usually uses metaphors of the veil to show etition’ (takrir), the poet emphasizes that despite the the imprisonment of his female protagonists.12 huge black veil, the night is unable to cover the Generally speaking, NiÂami condemns veiling in his faces of the stars. romances, and many of his female characters do not wear veils. Perhaps the most forceful example in his oeuvre is the following anecdote in Sharaf-nama. 7 NaÒir Khusrow, Divan, ed., M. Minuvi & {A,A, Dihkhuda, Here, NiÂami describes how the soldiers of Tehran: Dunya-yi Kitab, 1372 (third edition), p. 41. Again Alexander the Great, who have not seen women in in another poem, NaÒir Khusrow compares promise to a a long time, arrive at Kipchaq, an area in the veil: “Reason is hidden behind the speech / reason is the Caucasus. When they see many beautiful unveiled bride and the promise the veil.” women, they are excited. Seeing uproar in his army, 8 NaÒir Khusrow, Divan, p. 38. 9 Alexander asks the chief of this area to cover the Referring to tree-trunks. faces of his women. The chief disagrees and states: 10 Divan -i Manuchihri-yi Damghani, ed., M. Dabirsiyaqi, Tehran: second edition 1375/1996, p. 75. But it is not our custom to cover faces;13 11 Dictionaries of Persian poetry usually list these types of surely this quality is not the custom of Kipchaq. compounds. See {A.A. Dihkhuda, Lughat-nama, under If your custom is to cover the face, Chadur, Parda; see also R. {Afifi, Farhang-nama-yi shi{ri, In our custom, we cover the eyes. (…) Tehran: Surush, 1372/1993, vol. i, pp. 593, 366-73. Do not mangle the face of people by a burqa{; 12 For an analysis of NiÂami’s metaphors of the veil in Layli and Majnun see A.A. Seyed-Gohrab, A Narration of Love: you should put a veil on your own eyes. An Analysis of the Twelfth Century Persian Poet Nizami’s Layli He, who covers his eyes by a niqab, and Majnun, Ph.D. Dissertation, Leiden: 2001, pp. 289- can neither see the moon, nor the sun.14 90. 13 Literally: “We have not agreed on covering faces.” Alexander does not accept this answer and asks one 14 Sharaf-nama, ed. W. Dastgirdi, Tehran: {Ilmi, second edi- of his shrewd courtiers to prepare a magical device tion 1363/1984, p. 426, ll. 2-3, 7-8. to veil the women, and the courtier succeeds to do

108 so. In addition to this episode, NiÂami usually uses value of the veil is, of course, secondary to its sym- metaphors of the veil depicting the position of his bolism. It stands for her chastity and virginity. female protagonists such as Layli in his {Udhrite {A††ar tells an anecdote about Rabi{a and her veil in romance Layli and Majnun.15 To give only one his MuÒibat-nama (‘The Book of Lament’). Here her example, NiÂami puts his finger on the woman’s veil possesses a magical quality: inferior position in the patriarchal Bedouin society A burglar went to the house of Rabi{a, when he describes Layli’s position. By playing on while that bird, who was subject to this burglary, was the word parda, meaning ‘curtain’, ‘veil’, ‘musical sleeping. mode’, ‘respect’, ‘secret(ly)’, NiÂami highlights how When the burglar took her veil, he could not find the Layli is imprisoned both physically and emotion- way out. ally. Initially she lives in her parental home where he put it back and then rushed towards the door. she has no freedom to either express her feelings Once again, he took the veil but could not see the openly, nor to go outside and meet Majnun. Even way to go out; when she is married off to a rich Arab against her when he again put the veil away, the door became vis- will, she lives a double life. One of the changes this ible immediately. marriage brings is that she takes initiatives to meet He became helpless and a voice told him: Majnun. In chapter 36, Layli’s unhappy condition “At this moment, you have to give back the veil, in her parental home is described by veil imagery. Because as a friend is deeply asleep, Here, when a chevalier named Nowfal tries to unite her Friend is awake in this way.”17 her with Majnun, her father interferes and by using a trick, he misleads the chevalier. When Layli’s {A††ar’s main point in this anecdote is to show how father tells her how he has deceived Nowfal, she God keeps watch over his lovers. Commenting on becomes extremely disappointed, yet she fears to this anecdotes, Badi}az-Zaman Furuzanfar (1900- reveal her feelings to her father, who is against her 1970) states that the purpose of this story is to marriage with Majnun: Behind the veil (parda) sighing secretly; she held respect (parda) for her father. 15 For a brief analysis of NiÂami’s metaphors of the veil in As her father went outside [her] private room (parda) Layli and Majnun see Seyed-Gohrab, A Narration of Love, her narcissus became rose-coloured by tears. pp. 289-90. In several other Persian romances, female protagonists wear veils. See, for instance, Fakhr ad-Din Asad She let so many tears stream along her lashes Gurgani’s Vis and Ramin in which women cover themselves that she swept away the dust from her way. by veils. ∑adiq Hidayat gives several references to chador in his essay entitled “Chand nukta dar bara-yi Vis u Ramin” The second hemistich of the first couplet can also in Nivishtaha-yi parakanda, Stockholm: Arash 1369/1990, be read as “she held it secret from her father”. Here, p. 494. In Vis and Ramin, the heroine Vis sits behind the NiÂami shows the short-sightedness of Layli’s father curtains and is wearing a veil. In fact, the reason why Ramin falls in love with Vis is due to the accidental unveil- who cannot see beyond the veil, behind which ing of Vis: “A brisk and vernal wind blew / removing the Layli’s true feelings are. He loses Layli by disregard- curtains one by one from the [Vis’] litter // You would say ing her feelings and later by marrying her off to a that a sword was drawn from a sheath / or that the sun rich Arab. came out of clouds // [As soon as] the face of Vis appeared from the parda / Ramin’s heart turned into a slave at see- Other medieval Persian poets and writers used ing her. See Vis u Ramin, ed. M.J. MaÌjub, Tehran: the veil to emphasise various ethical concepts Andisha, 1337/1959, p. 65. such as chivalry and virginity. Farid ad-Din {A††ar 16 For an English translation of {A††ar’s account about Rabi{a (d. c. 1221) introduces the Muslim saint woman see, M.A. Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur’an, Mi{raj, Rabi{a al-{Adawiyya (d. 185/801) in his hagiogra- Poetic and Theological Writings. New York: Paulist Press, phy Tadhkirat al-owleyaˆ (“Memoirs of the Saints”) 1996, pp. 155-70. 17 with the following words: (mastura-yi sitr-i ikhlas) MuÒibat-nama, ed. Nurani ViÒal, Tehran: Zavvar, 16 1373/1994, p. 335. {A††ar also tells a story about Fa†ima, “Veiled with the veil of sincerity.” Bearing the epi- the daughter of the Prophet and the wife of the fourth thet of ‘the Crown of Men’ (taj ar-rijal), Rabi{a had caliph, {Ali b. Abi ™alib, in which Fa†ima’s modest jihaz, renounced all her worldly possessions except her veil “paraphernalia” (or dowry) are described. Among the few (chadur). It is interesting for the present discussion things that she takes with her to {Ali’s house, is an old veil which is torn in seven pieces. See Ilahi-nama, ed. H. Ritter, to see that a woman mystic such as Rabi{a, who had reprinted Tehran: Tus, 1368/1989, pp. 274-275. Also in no worldly interests, keeps her veil. The material this story, the veil may symbolise honour and chastity.

109 explain the mystical concept baqa} ba{d al-fana}, i.e. sister) of the Persian mystic Îusayn ManÒur to live eternally with the beloved after annihilating Îallaj, who was executed in Baghdad in 922 on one’s lower soul.18 This means that Rabi{a lives with charges of blasphemy. Shams ad-Din Kafi of God and it is God that takes care of her. This anec- Samarqand tells the following story in Bustan al- dote may also refer to another mystical concept, {arifin: namely tavakkul, ‘trust in God’, meaning that the At the moment that Îusayn ManÒur was put on the traveller in the path of love should entirely rely on gallows, the news reached his sister. She came to her God and destroy his own will. To interpret this brother while her face and head were uncovered. anecdote outside a mystical context, one can say Îusayn said: “O sister, where is your covering (sitr)?” that the burglar tries to steal the woman’s honour, She answered: “Where are the men?” Her brother to assault her chastity, but he cannot succeed said: “O pious woman, [lit. ‘female ascetic’ (zahida)] because of a supernatural intervention. are these no men?” She responded: “No. O brother. There are several reports about pious women and You, who have been revealed to people, are half a man the veil in Persian literature. Several of these women while I am a complete man (mardi tamam).” He then unveiled themselves in public, claiming to be more asked her: “Who is a perfect and a complete man?” mard, ‘man’, ‘manly’ or ‘chivalrous’ than male mys- She responded: “S/he who is concealed from all tics, who were the archetypes of spiritual ‘chivalry’ glances; neither anyone can see him/her nor anyone (javanmardi).19 One of these famous stories can know him/her.” Îusayn said: “O sister, can is attributed to the daughter (and sometimes to the nobody see you then?” She said: “Ask them yourself.” He shouted from the tree (i.e. gallows): “[People,] do you see my sister?” They answered: “We do not see anything.” She said: “O brother, I have to go.” And 18 The phrase literally means: “subsistence after annihilation”. she placed her foot on the air and, as she flew like a B.Z. Furuzanfar, SharÌ-i aÌval va naqd va taÌlil-i athar-i Shaykh Farid ad-Din MuÌammad {A††ar Nayshaburi, Tehran: bird, she said: “You fit the eye of men, and men Dihkhuda, 1353/1974, p. 529. (mardan) fit the eye of the Truth (Îaqq).20 19 From the early history of Sufism, chivalry (javanmard, or futuvvat) was one of the indispensable traits of a mystical As in {A††ar’s story about Rabi{a, here the author traveller. Najm ad-Din Daya included it as the tenth sta- uses the veil to teach mystics a lesson. By unveiling tion of the Sufi path. See MirÒad al-{ibad, ed. M.A. RiyaÌi, herself and by ignoring male mystics, Îallaj’s sister Tehran: Intisharat-i{Ilmi va Farhangi, 1371/1992, p. 260; questions the mystic’s manliness and even their for an English translation see Razi: The Path of God’s Bondsmen, trans. H. Algar, Persian Heritage Series 35, New identities and sex. She does not take them as men. York: Caravan Books, 1982, p. 262. Rather she teaches them that a woman like her can 20 As cited by M.A. RiyaÌi in an explanatory note in MirÒad be more ‘manly’ in the mystical path than Îallaj, al-{ibad, p. 701. The story occurs in Shams ad-Din Kafi of who is the paragon of spiritual manliness in Sufism. Samarqand, Bustan al-{arifin, ed. A.{A. Raja{i, Tehran: One may think that this story is a criticism against Tehran University Press, 1354/1975. As noted by RiyaÌi, this story is probably taken from the tale of Buzurgmihr’s Îallaj, who revealed the mystical secret by publicly daughter, the vizier of King Anushirvan. It also occurs in saying ‘I am the Truth’ (ana}l-Ìaqq). Many mystics, ‘Owfi’s Javami{ al-Ìikayat. When Buzurgmihr’s daughter among whom Shibli reproached Îallaj for this pub- sees that her father is unjustly put on the gallows, she lic revelation of the secret.21 appears without veil and protests against the king. Such an unveiling is a clear sign of protest. In this brief introduction, we have seen how poets used metaphors inspired by the veil. Romantic 21 For an account on Îusayn ManÒur Îallaj see Farid ad-Din {A††ar, Tadhkirat al-owliya}, ed. H. Khalili, Tehran: poets such as NiÂami used the veil to depict the ago- Manuchihri, 1370/1991, pp. 509-18. Najm ad-Din Razi, nies and imprisonment of a woman in a patriarchal better known as Daya, tells a similar story in MirÒad al- society, emphasising how the veil may alienate a {ibad, emphasising the manliness of Îallaj’s sister: “Îusayn father from her daughter and a lover from the ManÒur had a sister who laid claim to manly intent on the Path, and was also beautiful. She would come to Baghdad beloved. In mystical writings, by unveiling them- with one half of her face covered by a veil and the other selves women underscored their elevated spiritual half exposed. A great one came to her and asked: “Why do stations, questioning men’s manliness. Moreover, you not cover your face entirely?” She said: “show me a the veil functioned as a symbol of women’s chastity, man, that I may cover my face. In all of Baghdad there is only half a man, and that is Îusayn. If it were not for him, honour and sanctity, as {A††ar depicted in the anec- I would leave this half uncovered also.” dote of Rabi{a and the burglar.

110 THE VEIL DURING THE LAST DECADES OF THE QAJAR stealing from Iran. According to Ashraf, unveiling DYNASTY is a Western import, violating traditional norms of the society, in which women were expected to cover In the previous section, we have seen how the veil themselves. In the following excerpt, although the symbolises a woman’s chastity, spiritual chivalry as poet curses the ‘unveiling’ pagans, he fears that God well as her incarceration in patriarchal societies. may hear the supplication of the poor and He may During the last decades of the Qajar dynasty (1785- punish the unbelievers: 1925), poets described the veil as a barricade, May God curse the thieves of the pure soil of Persia restraining women’s progress and emancipation.22 A bunch of shameless unbelievers who wear no veils, However, women were so attached to wearing veils Some cruel pagan dogs without any religion or faith, that many intellectuals, who introduced a new idea, Have devoured the possession of the poor like a were accused of being a supporter of unveiling and dragon. thus they were seen as the enemies of Islam and I fear the weeping complaints [of the poor] at dawn.27 Iran.23 Many Persian people considered unveiling as an imperialist Western import, trying to destroy The idea of unveiling as a Western import lived Persia’s religious and cultural traditions.24 throughout the twentieth century. Several decades Experiencing interventions of foreign powers in later, the poetess Zaynab Burujirdi writes: “Is it not Islamic countries, people were extremely sceptic true that Islam is the fortress, the shield, and the about new ideas. It was during the end of the Qajar castle imperialists wish to conquer? Then what is rule that many conspiracy theories about foreign better than to assault the very personification of this powers came into existence.25 It was also under- stronghold? Unveiling, in fact, is the most brutal standable why people avoided trusting Western weapon used to attack this fortress. It is the longest powers. As Ahmad Ashraf observes: step imperialists have ever taken to invade our country and other Islamic nations.”28 In her discus- The weakness of Persia under the last three Qajar sion on the discourse of the veil in Egypt at the end Shahs (1896-1924), coupled with such events as the of the nineteenth century, Leila Ahmed observes: constitutional Revolution (1905-11) which had the “The peculiar practices of Islam with respect to support of Great Britain against Russian interests; the Anglo-Russian Conventions of 1907, by which Russia and Great Britain divided Persia into zones of influ- ence; the occupation of Persian territory by Great 22 G.M. Vogelsang-Eastwood & L.A.F. Barjesteh van Waalwijk van Doorn, An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress, Rotterdam: Britain, Russia, and Turkey during World War I; the Uitgeversmaatschappij, 2002, pp. 41-44, in which several abortive 1919 Anglo-Persian agreement by which terms of women’s outdoor dress during Qajar period are Persia was to become a kind of semiprotectorate; and briefly explained. the British backed coup d’etat of 1921, which led to 23 For a discussion on this theme see Y. Aryanpur, Az ∑aba ta the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty, encouraged Nima, Tehran: Zavvar, 1376/1997, vol. iii, pp. 5-10. the development of conspiracy theories focused on Aryanpur refers to Mirza Îusayn Khan {Adalat who was imprisoned for writing an article on unveiling. foreign powers. During most of this period foreign 24 This type of resistance against modern Western ideas can embassies openly intervened in Persian affairs through also be found in other fields. To give only one example, individual political notables, tribal khans, wealthy when many Iranians heard of the popularity of ¨Umar merchants, and members of the {ulama}.26 Khayyam (d. 1132) in Europe and saw how Persian youths were impressed by the huge success of the Persian poet in Seeing how Western powers intervened with Persia’s Europe, they considered this success as a conspiracy to cor- affairs, people regarded unveiling of Iranian women rupt the moral of young Iranians by encouraging them to as a serious assault on Persia’s traditional culture. For drink wine and other alcoholic drunks. See ∑iddiqi-yi Nakhjavani, Khayyam-i Pindari va pasukh-i afkar-i qalan- instance, the poet Ashraf ad-Din of Qazvin consis- darana-yi u, Tabriz, second edition, 1320/1941. tently rejects unveiling and accuses the enemies of 25 For a list and analysis of conspiracy theories see Ahmad Iran, “who are unbelievers and women without Ashraf in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Conspiracy Theories. veils” (bi-Ìijab), of destroying Persian culture. In his 26 Ahmad Ashraf in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Conspiracy poem Nimitarsam (“I do not fear”), sketching the Theories. situation during the Constitutional Revolution 27 Divan-i Nasim-i Shimal, p. 423. (1905-1911), Ashraf regards bi-Ìijabs as thieves 28 As cited by F. Milani in Veils and Words, p. 154.

111 women had always formed part of the Western nar- Persians, poets could easily channel their views to peo- rative of the quintessential otherness and inferiority ple in poetic forms in dozens of newly founded news- of Islam.”29 The Europeans considered Islam as a papers. The literature of the period was topical, treat- religion innately oppressive towards women, and ing social, political and economic issues during a the “veil and segregation epitomized that oppres- turbulent period. Nationalism, anti-traditionalism, sion.”30 Ahmed cites a missionary who stated in a anti-imperialism and thoughts both in favour and conference in London in 1888 that the Prophet had against Islam were among the popular themes dwelled introduced the veil, which “has had the most terri- upon in newspapers, which usually published long ble and injurious effect upon the mental, moral and excerpts of poetry.32 Another favourite topic was spiritual history of all Mohammedan races.”31 women’s veiling. Almost all poets of this period voiced Considering this type of biased Western judgements their opinions on the veil. Whereas proponents of the about Islam, it is no wonder why many Muslims veil fervently believed that the veil would bring ben- reacted to it and accused individuals, who spread efits to society, their opponents used different strate- such ideas, of being agents of Western powers. gies to convince their readers that wearing a veil Before addressing the polemic of Ìijab in the works would only damage society. For instance, while Sayyid of several poets during the last decades of the Qajar MuÌammad Ri∂a Mirzada{Ishqi (1894-1923) relied dynasty, I will first briefly describe the background of on Persia’s pre-Islamic glory, Abu}l-Qasim Lahuti the period. During this period, Persia underwent (1887-1957) wanted Persian women to mimic many changes. The increasing contacts with the West women in the former Soviet Union republics such as introduced new ideas, which forever altered the Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Iraj Mirza chose satire to Iranian culture in several respects. In literature, there reject the veil. Sayyid Ashraf supported veiling but is a break with the normative rules that governed fought for women’s education. {Alam Taj Qa}im Persian poetry and the relationship between the court Maqami known as Zhala chose her own way, severely poet and his patron. With the collapse of the monar- criticising man-dominated society. chy, court poets lost their positions at the Qajar court. Sayyid MuÌammad Ri∂a Mirzada{Ishqi called the Poetry that was mainly used to praise kings and veil the “black shroud” (kafan-i siyah) in an epony- courtiers became an indispensable medium to com- mous play, which can be described as a nationalistic municate with the masses. Poetry achieved a reformist outburst lamenting Persia’s past glory and splen- character, and poets were expected to express their dour.33 {Ishqi couched the play in a new form political views. Using the love of poetry among the unknown in Persian poetry: it consists of stanzas. It has a gloomy tone and is full of contrasts between Persia’s past grandeur and her present decay. The sun, 29 Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots the symbol of Zoroastrian faith, is dead, and conse- of a Modern Debate, New Haven/London: Yale University quently, the world wears a black robe. {Ishqi describes Press, 1992, p. 149. his play as “teardrops trickled from the poet’s eyes on 30 Ibid., p. 152. the paper after seeing the ruins of the city of 31 Ibid., p. 154. Mada}in.” The play has a simple plot. A caravan is 32 M. Rahman, “Social and Political Themes in Modern travelling through the ruins of the Sasanian Empire Persian Poetry 1900-1950” in Critical perspectives on Modern Persian Literature, ed. T.M. Ricks, Washington: Three (A.D. 226-651). At nightfall, they reach the city of Continents Press, 1984, pp. 167-208; see also S. Soroudi Mada}in, once the mighty capital of the Sasanian in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Constitutional revolution, Empire, and they search for a place to sleep. After vii. the Constitutional Movement in Literature. some search, they decide to stay at the home of an 33 For more information on {Ishqi see A. Karimi-Hakkak in old woman. Seeing the ruins of the city, the narrator Encyclopaedia Iranica, under {Esqi; Y. Aryanpur, Az ∑aba ta thinks of Persia’s past splendour and how Arabs Nima (Tarikh-i 150 sal adab-i Farsi), Tehran: Sipihr, fifth ed. 1357/1978, vol. ii, pp. 361-81; see also {Abdul Karim destroyed the Empire. Immersed in such thoughts, Dhakir Îusayn, Adabiyyat-i siyasi-yi Iran dar {aÒr-i the narrator roams about the town looking at the mashru†iyyat: az istiqrar-i mashru†iyyat ta khal{-i Qajar ruins. Finally he arrives at a graveyard, where he (1285-1304), Tehran: {Ilmi, 1377/1998, vol. i, pp. 672-77; meets a black-shrouded girl, who turns out to be the Gh.Î. Yusufi, Chashma-yi rowshan: didari ba sha{iran, Tehran: {Ilmi, fourth ed. 1371/1992, pp. 370-81. daughter of the Sasanian king Khusrow Parviz II. She 34 Mirzada {Ishqi, Collected Works. Middle Eastern Series, No. laments the ruined state of Iran, especially the dete- 8, Jahan Book, 1985, pp. 201-19. riorating conditions of women.34

112 In this play, {Ishqi accords the Iranian woman a pared to arrows), the poet turns to Persian women, prominent position: she is the fate of Iran and her advising them to remove the veil and to adorn their emancipation is the liberation of the entire Iran. beautiful faces with knowledge:39 {Ishqi does not elaborate on several key issues such O idol, in this age of civilization, it does not suit as the concept of ‘shame’, equality between men and A heart-ravisher like you to be devoid of the adorn- women, etc., yet the way he deals with the veil by ment of knowledge. suggesting that half of the Iranian nation is dead as It is a disgrace that you are in veil while [the rest of] long as it is covered in a black shroud, is certainly the world is free. interesting. It is a shame that you sleep while the world wakes. Abu }l-Qasim Lahuti, one of the major commu- Is it not a pity that a moon like you is without light? nist poets of Persia, called the veil “the mask of dis- Is it not a flaw that a tree like you is without fruit?40 grace” (niqab-i nang) and asked women to end Leave your veil, go to school and gather knowledge; humiliation by burning their veils.35 The reason for The branch of ignorance bears no other fruit except Lahuti’s rejection of the veil is not only because of declining fortune. his preference for Western ideas about emancipa- Gather knowledge and be aware of the conditions of tion, but it has also something to do with his feel- the world ing of embarrassment. In several places of his And remove this black niqab from your august face.41 Divan, he feels uncomfortable when Westerners mock the appearance of a Persian woman covered While {Ishqi used nationalistic sentiments to reject in a black veil. In the following poem, Lahuti uses the veil and Lahuti asked Persian women to follow a sympathetic tone when he asks his female compa- triots to lift the veil: O idol, my moon-faced beloved, remove your veil 35 For more information on the poet’s life and specimens (parda) of his poetry see Y. Aryanpur, Az ∑aba ta Nima, vol. ii, So that your face increases my devotion. pp. 168-72, 381-83; see also S. Nafisi, “Abolghassem Lahuti Wherever people talk of your veil (niqab),36 [1887-1957]: the Occasion of the Publication of his Selected The rival laughs while tears come to [my] eyes. Works” in Critical perspectives on Modern Persian Literature, ed. T.M. Ricks, Washington: Three Continents Press, 1984, I like to see you free in society; pp. 381-83; M. Rahman in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, [I swear] by your soul, I do not have other wish under Lahuti. Abu }l-Qasim Lahuti, Collected Poetical Works, except this.37 ed. A. Bashiri, Jahan Books, vol. i, 1985, p. 67. See also Gh. Î. Yusufi, Chashma-yi rowshan, pp. 468-75. In another poem, Lahuti urges Persian girls to imi- 36 The word niqab literally means ‘mask’, or ‘face-veil’. tate young girls in Uzbekistan, who had removed 37 Abu }l-Qasim Lahuti, Collected Poetical Works, vol. i, their veils and had taken up books instead. Lahuti pp. 67-8 also blames husbands, who force their wives to wear 38 Abu }l-Qasim Lahuti, Collected Poetical Works, vol. i, p. 273. veils. Again in another poem, which is addressed 39 For a catalogue of these images see Seyed-Gohrab, “To the Daughters of Iran”, he makes a parody of A Narration of Love, pp. 253ff. For a mystical interpreta- conventional imagery and metaphors of classical tion of parts of the beloved’s body see idem, The Mirror of Persian love poetry: Meanings, Costa Mesa: Mazda: 2002, pp. xxxii-xxxix. 40 Conventionally, the beloved’s stature is compared to a From now on, my heart will not be afraid of your cypress tree. beauty spot and the lines (…) 41 Abu }l-Qasim Lahuti, Collected Poetical Works, vol. i, p. 274. because I have nothing to do with your beauty any For an excellent analysis of this poem see A. Karimi- Hakkak, Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic more. Modernity in Iran, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, How long should I make a chain of your locks and put 1995, pp. 188-202. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak states that this them around my neck? poem “attempts to reintegrate Iranian women into the How long should I shoot arrows from your eyelashes social sphere and demonstrates the conservatism of tradi- 38 tional poetic practice, increasingly understood as incongru- to my weeping heart? ous with modern age. In the process, the very being and After mocking a series of codified metaphors such identity of the object of love is transformed, turned from a source of the lover’s pain and pleasure to a national resource as the beloved’s long black tresses (compared tradi- capable of miraculously changing the fortune of a whole tionally to chains and serpents), her eyelashes (com- country.”

113 Soviet girls, other poets used satire to reject the veil. Although the narrator sees the veil as an object The best example of this specimen is Iraj Mirza’s heightening men’s desire to see the woman’s face, epic poem {Arif-nama (“Book of {Arif”), written for the veil covers one’s identity. By a series of compar- the poet Arif of Qazvin.42 In this poem, consisting isons the poet expresses that by wearing a veil, a of 511 couplets, Iraj addresses the issue of sexual- woman’s identity may be reduced to some vegetables. ity, criticising homosexual practices of {Arif, and at In fact, by mockingly likening veiled women to the the same time, questioning the ethics of the veil. round forms of garlics, onions and aubergines, the Iraj makes a connection between pederasty and poet dehumanises women wearing veils: women’s veiling and criticises both pederasts and May I be your offer! Are you perhaps garlic or an veiled women. In this poem, Iraj inserts an anec- onion dote in which he depicts “the effect of the veil” That you are wrapped in knapsack and a prayer-veil? (ta}thir-i chadur).43 Here, the narrator seduces a You are the mirror of God’s Beauty; woman while she resolvedly covers her face, unwill- Why are you like a turnip in sack? ing to reveal her identity. By putting an emphasis When you come on the street while covered from on the woman’s refusal to show her face, the poet head to foot, refers to a woman’s false chastity. At the beginning, You are not a ‘dear-Lady’ (khanum-jan) but rather an when the narrator tries every trick to see her face, aubergine (badimjan). she protests and is not willing to show her face to strangers. Here, the poet refers to two important Here the veil is no more a protection of a woman’s functions of the veil: it is not only a means to honour and chastity, but merely a means to strip seduce a man by fanning the veil open at certain her from her identity and humanity. The veil is not moments, by showing certain parts of the body, but an ornament increasing women’s beauty, but it it is also a vehicle to keep one’s identity secret. It is, rather demonises them. The poet concludes that a in fact, by the amorous movements and gestures of veiled woman resembles anything but a human the woman under the veil, and by revealing only being. some small parts of her body that the woman Iraj champions the idea that chastity has nothing seduces the narrator. When he sees a bit of her face to do with wearing a veil and it is just a habit. By for the first time, the narrator becomes ecstatic giving a detailed description of his love-making to comparing her face to the bright moon and her veil the woman while she insists to wear the veil, the to a black cloud covering its brilliance: poet expresses that covering the face is just a sign of false morality. According to Iraj, the only protec- It was as if from a corner of a black cloud, tion of women’s chastity is education, because an Part of the moon showed herself.44 educated woman cannot be deceived by any trick- ery. Iraj continues to say that when a man meets an educated unveiled woman, he will be shameful of himself:

42 For a short biography of the poet see M.J. MaÌjub’s intro- When a woman goes to school and gathers knowledge, duction in Ta Ìqiq dar aÌval va athar va afkar va ash{ar-i [When] she purifies her soul by the fire of perception, Iraj Mirza va khandan va niyagan-i u, Tehran: Andisha, Through no spell, she will turn her face from chastity. 1342, pp. 3-51. Iraj devoted other poems to the theme of [Even] if she falls into an ocean, she won’t become wet. Ìijab, see pp. 11-12. Also see p. 172, in which the poet describes how the picture of a woman without a veil is Like the sun, she will shine on the world. painted on the door of an inn; this specific poem is trans- While she herself will remain at a distance from lated by F. Milani in Veils and Words, pp. 30-1; see also oppression. Gh.Î. Yusufi, Chashma-yi rowshan, pp. 357-69. For infor- A woman who has attended a college, who has seen mation on {Arif see J. Matini in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under {Aref Qazvini. a university faculty, 43 Ta Ìqiq dar aÌval, pp. 77-82. For a translation and an analy- If she comes to a man with a décolleté, sis of this poem see Paul Sprachman, “The Poetics of Îijab When you see that she possesses chastity and modesty, in the satire of Iraj Mirza” in Iran and Iranian Studies: Essays You will look at her with a shameful eye. in Honor of Iraj Afshar, ed. K. Eslami, Princeton: Zagros, 1998, pp. 341-57. Iraj’s provocative poem and the immediate reactions 44 p. 77, l. 107. to it show how the Persians look at Ìijab and how

114 serious this issue actually is. Iraj does not ask him- One of the poets who wholeheartedly defended self why for hundreds of years both men and Ìijab but at the same time encouraged women to women supported the veil. Did women consider the attend schools and to gather knowledge was Sayyid veil as a symbol of ‘backwardness’, ‘lack of chastity’, Ashraf ad-Din of Qazvin, better known as Nasim- and oppression or is it the poet’s male-orientated i Shimal. Despite Ashraf’s immense popularity judgement of this piece of clothing? Despite the among people and his role as a poet during the advice of poets such as Iraj, {Ishqi and Lahuti, who Constitutional Revolution, only a few studies on his were influenced by Western ideas about (among oeuvre are available.47 According to Aryanpur, others) clothing, the majority of the Persians, both “Ashraf was the most popular and famous national male and female, were in favour of wearing a veil. poet during the Constitutional Revolution. In all Several authors, among whom Amir ash-Shu{ara respects, he supported the working class and shied (lit. “the Prince of poets”) Nadiri, severely criticised away from the upper class.”48 Ashraf was the promi- Iraj, writing a counter-poem in which they demon- nent satirist of the period who addressed the theme strated the flaws in Iraj’s argumentation on anti- of Ìijab extensively in his newspaper Nasim-i Shimal Ìijabism. Nadiri first takes sides with Iraj in con- (“Breeze of the North”). He wrote all the material demning homosexual activities of the poet {Arif, of the paper himself. The paper consisted of two to and then starts his relentless attack on Iraj: four small pages, which he published in Rasht, and later in Tehran in a small Jewish printing-house.49 Whatever you have said about {Arif was right The subjects he treated were partly taken from because this man is an unfaithful friend. ∑abir‘s Hophop-nama and Mulla NaÒr ad-Din But, o prince, your words on Ìijab have destroyed your nobleness and dignity.45 In another place of his poem, Nadiri suggests to Iraj to remove the veil from the face of his own wife if he is truly against unveiling: 45 Literally: “have entrusted your nobleness and dignity to the Dear prince [addressing Iraj], if you are commanding wind.” For Nadiri’s reaction to Iraj’s poem see the explana- to remove the veil tory notes by M.J. MaÌjub, pp. 263-64. The following cita- why do you cover your own wife? tions of Nadiri’s poem are all taken from this source. You should first show your face in this regard, 46 Despite Iraj’s opinion that unveiling will improve women’s lifting off the veil from your daughter. positions in the society, there are several passages about women in his Divan, which are traditional. For instance, If you are the first man who unveils his wife, when he writes about Ìijab, he praises unveiled women but come forward, because then, you can see how we are looks down to veiled women and regards them as inferior. following you. For instance, in one of his odes, in which he praises NaÒir Say to your wife, that shining candle in the night ad-Din Shah and encourages him to go on a journey, Iraj attributes a higher position to men than women. Although to enlighten the thought of many [men] day and the following piece is a poetic device, a proverb to convince night. the king to embark on a journey, it reveals Iraj’s sexist’s view on women in general: “(…) it is woman’s habit to stay at Nadiri provokes Iraj by saying that the woman with one place / If a man does not pass through alleys and streets whom the narrator had made love to was his own // How can man excel woman? / Are you sitting like a sister. In fact, the reason why she was reluctant to woman at home / hoping that your sustenance may come reveal her identity was this endogamous relationship: from an opening?” See Ta Ìqiq dar aÌval, p. 42, ll. 787-88. In this context, it needs to be mentioned that Iraj wrote If you want to know the [identity of the] veiled several exquisite poems, praising the place of a mother, in which he delineates the active role of a woman in society. woman, 47 who was in your embrace, it was your own sister. E.G. Browne, Press and Poetry of modern Persia, Cambridge: At the University Press, 1914, pp. xvii-xviii, on his paper Since a brother loves his own sister in this way pp. 148-49. she does not desire to remove the veil from her face. 48 Aryanpur, As ∑aba, vol. ii, p. 62. At the end, Nadiri advises Iraj, saying that Ìijab is 49 The first issue of the newspaper appeared in 1325/1907-8. Browne characterises the paper as follows: “This was one an old tradition, which is based on the Koran. Like of the best literary papers, and in particular contained many many other authors, Nadiri criticises Iraj’s lack of noteable poems, both serious and satirical.” See E.G. respect for veiled women.46 Browne, Press and Poetry of modern Persia, p. 148.

115 (founded by Jalil MuÌammad Qulizada), which he and religious complications of Ìijab. For women of translated from Azeri into Persian.50 a low social class, the veil was a means to cover their Concerning Ashraf’s view about the position clothing and, of course, a symbol of their chastity. of women and Ìijab, the following topics occur Ashraf sees unveiling as an act against Islamic rules quite frequently in his collected work: reproaching and against the traditional culture of his readers. One patriarchal ideas about women; encouraging women should not forget that his poems were mainly read to go to school; and advising them to cover them- by lower classes of the society, including many selves.51 As we shall shortly see, Ashraf’s view about illiterates to whom Ashraf’s poems were read in cof- women differs from the mainstream contemporary feehouses and other social gatherings. The majority poets when it comes to the woman’s Ìijab. Sirus of these people were deeply religious and their Mir argues: “even when we take into consideration knowledge did not extend beyond traditional that Ashraf’s readers were largely ordinary people at beliefs. Considering the culture of his readers, it the beginning of the twentieth century, his justifica- would have been counter-effective to encourage an tion of Ìijab is contrary to his other views about unequivocal unveiling. In his poem titled FaÒl-i gathering knowledge and the new civilization. (…) bahar (“Season of Spring”), Ashraf urges women to He turns out to be an orthodox Muslim (musalman- attend a school instead of sitting at home, yet he i mutishari{).”52 Wearing a veil while gathering advises them to cover themselves: “My girl (…), knowledge and fighting for equality are not mutu- wear a veil out of chastity and honour / And then ally exclusive. What is missing, however, in the go to school to gather virtues. (…) because people entire poetry about Ìijab of this period is that male contempt a girl without knowledge.53 writers usually dictate their opinions about how Ashraf voices his opinion about Ìijab in several women should dress and behave, and never ask of his poems. In {A l amat-i Âuhur (“Signs of the women’s opinions on this matter. They often look Return”),54 in which Ashraf names several signs of at European women and try to convince Iranian the Return of the Twelfth Shi{ite Imam, he refers women to remove the veil, leaving cultural, social to women’s Ìijab.55 Here, he regards women’s unveiling, their being “ready-witted” (Ìa∂ir-javab), and their preoccupation with outward appearance as signs of the Return.56 50 For information on the newspaper Mulla NaÒr ad-Din The poet’s most candid justification of Ìijab (1869-1932) see Aryanpur, Az ∑aba ta Nima, vol. ii, pp. 40-6; for information on ∑abir see ibid., pp. 46-60; for occurs in an eponymous poem with the refrain Ashraf’s use of Mulla NaÒr ad-Din see pp. 64-72. “why don’t you cover yourself in the alley” (tu-yi 51 See S. Mir, “Nasim-i Shimal va mas}ala-yi zan dar nihzat-i kucha ru nimigiri chira). Alluding to the name of mashru†a” in Iran-nama, 11, no. 3, 1372, p. 436. his newspaper “breeze”, Ashraf considers his poem 52 Ibid., p. 440. a “breeze that advocates women.”57 In his view, 53 Divan-i Nasim-i Shimal, p. 217. covering is a shield protecting women against cor- 54 The word Âuhur means literary ‘appearance’ but in this con- ruption, but at the same time, it is an erotic object text, it means ‘Return.’ arousing men’s sexual desire: 55 See M. Momen, An Introduction to Shi{i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi{ism, New Haven/London: Yale The girls are safe, who wear a covering University Press, 1985, pp. 166ff. For a description of the In the presence of mothers who wear a covering twelfth Imam’s Return see MuÌammad Baqir b. The girls who cover themselves, rob [men’s] hearts MuÌammad Taqi Majlisi, Îaqq al-yaqin, Tehran: Qa}im, May my life be offered to women who cover themselves n.d., pp. 335-68. Why don’t you cover yourself in the alley?58 56 “Women are ready-witted against their husbands / Their thoughts are focused on shoes and masks (niqab) / A group What is implicitly behind Ashraf’s message is that of women are without veil like men. See Divan-i Nasim-i when a woman wears a veil, she protects not only Shimal, p. 353. herself, but more importantly she protects man 57 Ibid., p. 591. 58 from reprehensible acts. As in the case of Iraj, for Divan-i Nasim-i Shimal, p. 590. Ashraf, the veil accentuates women’s charm and 59 Even these Paradisiacal beauties wear special veils. In his beauty. He compares veiled women with virgin Îaqq al-yaqin, MuÌammad Baqir Majlisi assures the male believers that when they arrive in Paradise, each of them maidens of Paradise, who will welcome believers to will have as many virgins as they desire. The dress of these the heavenly gardens.59 Elsewhere, Ashraf brings up

116 again the idea of Ìijab as an embellishment for The fruits of the garden of youth are purity and women. In his opinion, women are treasures that chastity.62 should be covered from strangers’ eyes. In Ashraf’s words, when a woman wears a veil, she turns her Despite Ashraf’s consistent urge to veiling and his lovers mad. Ashraf believes that the veil increases a traditional look at this issue, he sometimes contra- woman’s beauty, yet at the same time, it is the poet’s dicts himself. For instance, Ashraf rejects the idea strategy to encourage girls to wear veils. According of not seeing the future wife before marriage, advis- to Ashraf, a veiled woman will be saved on ing men to first see the future bride before marry- Judgment Day because Fa†ima, the Prophet’s ing her. Here, he explicitly suggests that one of the daughter, will intercede for her. possible reasons for a polygamous marriage is that Ashraf identifies the veil with chastity ({iffat) and men do not have the chance to see their future purity ({iÒmat). In his other poem entitled “Sing wives before marriage. According to Ashraf, when a Sisters” (khaharan bikhanand), he elaborates on this man has not seen his wife before marriage, he may topic, advocating that “covering the face (ru girif- dislike her and will desire to marry another girl. In tan) is one of the conditions of our faith and tradi- this way, he marries several girls, hoping to find the tion”,60 and that {iÒmat is one of the obligatory con- right partner. Although Ashraf could solve this ditions of Islam: problem easily by advocating unveiling, he simply ignores one of the serious flaws of Ìijab in the rela- Covering the face is one of the conditions of our reli- tionship between men and women. In his poem gion and way of life. titled, One should not marry more than one woman, We are Muslims and {iÒmat is one of the conditions he states: of our religion The meaning of Islam (i.e. surrender) becomes like You should first see the woman’s lovely stature sweet fruit for us Look at her beautiful cheeks. {iÒmat and chastity ({iffat) are rays glittering from our Ask about the parts of her body from those who are coloured cloth. permitted to see her. {iÒmat is necessary for girls among the people.61 it is wrong to take more than one wife.63 In Ashraf’s view, women without {iÒmat are prosti- Despite Ashraf’s traditional view on women’s Ìijab, tutes. Unlike Iraj Mirza, who makes a distinction he is liberal on other issues related to women, crit- between veiling and chastity, Ashraf does not make icising several traditional practices. For instance, he such a distinction and a woman’s chastity is based severely condemns a marriage between a young girl on covering herself from the strangers’ eyes. Ashraf’s and an old man in several of his poems. Also, he is observation is thoroughly based on Shi{ite Islam and against the institution of polygamous marriage, and is shared by many other Iranians even in present day the satirical way he portrays men with several wives Iran. For Ashraf, the concepts of {iÒmat (“purity”) and {iffat (“chastity”) are connected to veiling: a woman loses her virtue and moral excellence without a veil. In a long poem entitled Dar taÌriz-i dukhtaran-i mah-†al{at ba {iffat va {iÒmat (“Urging paradisiacal virgins is described as follows: “The Ìuri wear moon-faced girls to be chaste and pure”), Ashraf seventy robes in different colours, woven by gold and sil- ver and are adorned with pearls and diamonds and chryso- explains how these two concepts are connected to a lite. They smell like musk and the marrow of their forelegs woman’s honour and her position in society. is visible from behind these seventy robes.” See Îaqq al- yaqin, p. 482. For more information on this subject see I saw a girl, who had covered her face by a veil (niqab) Seyed-Gohrab, “Magic in Classical Persian Amatory Literature” in Iranian Studies, vol. 32, No. 1, Winter 1999, out of chastity. pp. 71-97; also see J.E. Bertel’s “Îuriyan-i bihishti” in Like the Sun, she had covered herself in a veil Ta Òavvuf va adabiyat-i taÒavvuf, trans. S. Izadi, Tehran: Amir (chadur). Kabir, 1357/1978, pp. 111-35. When I saw her bashfulness, chastity and veiling 60 Ibid., p. 587. I said to her: “Bravo”, and composed these two excel- 61 Ibid., p. 587. lent refrains: 62 Ibid., pp. 389-90. The girl’s soul-mates are purity and chastity 63 Ibid., pp. 195-96.

117 and mistresses shows his aversion against it. For To round off the discussion so far, we can conclude instance, in Fakhriyya-yi yik pirimard-i dowlatmand that despite his support of Ìijab, Ashraf took a small (“The pride of an fortunate old man”), he portrays step towards women’s emancipation by sharply con- a picture of a ninety years old man, with a bent demning several traditional views on women. back, who has four wives and ten mistresses.64 Like Analysing his poetry, one should take into consid- his other contemporary poets and writers, Ashraf eration Ashraf’s own background and his reader- encourages women to attend school and to gather ship. He was a poet born and raised in a traditional knowledge.65 He takes men and women as equals, family and lived a poor life, finally dying in a men- supporting his view by several famous Prophetic tra- tal institution in Tehran.68 ditions. In his poem entitled, AÌval-i zanan-i {Arab Having discussed the poetics of Ìijab in the (“The Conditions of Arab Women”), he appeals to works of several poets, it is interesting to see how women, advising men to treat them fairly. Here, women thought of veiling and unveiling during the Ashraf first summarises the stereotyped ideas of the same period. Women writers usually complained Persians about women’s position in the Arab world about their subordinated positions in a man-dom- before the coming of Islam.66 Towards the end of inated society. Apart from the poetess ™ahira Qurrat the poem, he demonstrates how women’s positions al-{Ayn, who cast off the veil in 1848, there are changed with the coming of the Prophet and how several other women who followed her example the Prophet forbade several formidable practices such as Shams Kasma}i. The poetess {Alam Taj such as burying baby-girls alive. Ashraf reports the Qa}im Maqami (1262-1325/1883-1946) better following piece from the Prophet’s point of view: known as Zhala, writes about her own condition as a woman, complaining about her arranged mar- Love [your] daughters with fidelity, riage, and the inhumane way her husband treats Do not harm them by your oppression. her.69 Other themes to be found in her Divan are Whoever makes a girl happy, inequality between men and women; women’s Thrives his own home in Paradise. Ìijab; Europe as an ideal place; nationalism; elegies Each woman can demand her right. on her children’s death; an ideal husband, and Girls have their own rights. women’s position in society. Unfortunately, we do I love three things in this world, not know how many lines of poetry Zhala pro- perfume, rosary and discerning women. duced: as she herself states, she burned her poems Whoever treats his wife fairly, at least two times. More than one third of her God will give him lawful sustenance.67 poetry, which has fortunately come down to us, is a complaint of her husband. Several times, she asks her parents why they gave her hand to a man whom she did not love. Zhala repeatedly complains about women’s weak position in society. For instance, in her poem, Payam ba zanan-i ayanda (“Message to 64 Divan-i Nasim-i Shimal, pp. 188-89. See also Ashraf’s other Future Women”), she states: poem titled Shikayat (‘Complaint’), in which a woman complains of his husband who despite his old age, still Chains of chastity, chains of tradition, chains of reli- desires to marry another woman. See pp. 278-79. gious law, chains of customary law are all ornaments 65 See, for instance, the poem titled NaÒihat-i yik khanum ba of women’s feet; they are not made for men’s feet. dukhtarash (‘A lady’s advice to her daughter’), pp. 386-87. There is a society in Europe where women have some 66 See N. Tomiche, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, under al-Mar’a; power, while See also chapter three, “Women and the Rise of Islam” of Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, pp. 41-63. if in our country, women come together, 67 Ibid., p. 369. they will not be counted as one individual. Weakness of the soul, deficiency of reason and lack 68 Divan-i Nasim-i Shimal, p. 63. Ashraf states: dar yatimi khana-am ra Shaykh burd / mulk u malam ra zi ru-yi ghaÒb of confidence khurd, “The Shaykh took away my house when I was an made such a being from us that nothing suits us more orphan / By force he took all my possessions.” Ashraf wrote than these things! another poem about himself. See ibid., pp. 525-26. 69 For biographical information on Zhalal see Gh.Î Yusufi, At the end of the poem, she invites women to Chashma-yi rowshan, pp. 424-40 protest against their inequality:

118 O women, start a movement so that the world can see Woe to me because in this oppressing homeland, that men do not possess more than what we possess. woman has neither a refuge nor a judge. If men and women were named ‘existence’ and ‘non- In several of her poems, Zhala alludes to the veil. existence’ [respectively] In her descriptions, the veil is a black wall suffocat- these are appropriate names, because women are the ing a woman. In Chahsar-i Ìaram (“The Pit of the disgrace of existence Harem”), Zhala depicts a lonely woman who is Since they are wrapped in black veils.73 imprisoned in a cage. The harem is compared to a graveyard, with long walls barricading her views, The veil is not the main subject Zhala addresses in and finally suffocating her. Incarcerated in such a her Divan. What occurs quite frequently is the place, she envies a fly, which can freely fly over the unpleasant characterisation of men. Since several of town. Her only crime is her gender: “(…) My crime these poems are about her husband, it is difficult to is being a woman, being in the dustbin of human- conclude whether she is speaking about men in gen- ity, I am no one. In the cemetery of the harem, eral or specifically her own husband. Still, her dis- wrapped by a tar-coloured shroud. Like a straw, dain of men is evident overall in her Divan. In the they threw me in the sewage of existence.”70 Zhala same way that Iraj compared veiled women to explains that one of the reasons for her incarcera- plants and vegetables, in the following piece, Zhala tion is the male opinion about the character of dehumanises men by comparing them to cabbages, women: they define a woman as the “slave of lust” to empty objects that destroy everything: (banda-yi havas), “yielding oneself to carnal desire” What is a man? This outward form without content, (sar-sipurda-yi nafs), “the rebel of carnal desire” this nothing, this cabbage? (fitna-yi havas), etc. Here, Zhala is referring to the You would say that Heaven has mixed his clay with conservative male view about a woman as a destruction. temptress, who is responsible for men’s banishment The appearance of his ‘manly intentions’ ({aÂm al- from the Gardens of Eden. Although in Islam, it is rijalash) has been erected on the Spheres Satan that deceives Adam to eat a grain of wheat, Yet his judgement about a woman is mixed with his the Jewish-Christian view has been quite popular in {aÂm al-rijal. the Persian-speaking world, and a woman is some- What is a man except preparing a piece of unpleas- times seen as the source for Adam’s sin. Towards the ant bread end of the poem, the incarcerated persona first begs A loaf of bread mixed with his wife’s tears and blood. the chamberlain (parda-dar) to remove the veil but His fiery love extinguishes in bed then she turns to God saying: His union depends on [the change of] seasons, his O hand of God! Come through the door and unlock love is commingled with war. the heavy chains In Cha mishud (“What would have happened?”), 71 from women’s feet, surely this is my plea. Zhala asks her mother: As we can conclude from her poetry, Zhala wore a O mother, What would have happened if I had not veil, but she advises Iranian women to unveil them- been married? selves, even if this is against the orthodox religion: What would have happened if I had not been trapped O, o, girls, rise and unite; by an affliction? If you need a guide, here is my excellent ode. If you tell stories about my ill fate, you are telling sto- You should not think that the veil is a blockade on ries, your way, because my shout and tumult is coming from behind this black veil. If fire falls into your skirt, remove your veil 70 [And] say to the Shaykh to take me as an unbeliever Divan-i Zhala, pp. 93-4. 71 for my fatva.72 Divan-i Zhala, p. 94. 72 Pishgu’i dar bara-yi azadi-yi zanan (“Predicting Women’s In another poem, she considers the veil as the reason Freedom”), p. 174. why women are called “the disgrace of existence”: 73 p. 91.

119 I swear by my ill fate, because I could not believe in for men to cover their eyes. The topic of veiling those stories. became a serious issue in the twentieth century Was I a heavy burden? Could my handful of bones when poets such as {Ishqi, Lahuti and Iraj called on bend my father’s back if I had not been married? Persian women to imitate the Western lifestyle. What was I at your generous banquet? I was a little kit- They considered the veil as a symbol of mourning ten over the death of Persian past glories, a symbol of that apart from a piece of bread, had no other needs. men’s oppression and women’s lack of knowledge. I appreciate the gold and many ornaments that you By satirising the veil and its social and religious val- gave me ues, Iraj opened a discussion on the ethics of the but I never desired to have any of them (…). veil. His provocative poem generated several poetic Then Zhala turns directly to the issue of marriage answers in which the authors defended veiling. and with an erotic tone expresses her unhappiness Although Iraj rejected the veil, he did refer to its to her mother: erotic element and how the veil sometimes could increase a woman’s charm and beauty. By contrast, Imagine that the hand of my matchless beloved Ashraf was proud of the veil and saw the veil as a graced the Fount of Life, protection as well as a moral and physical ornament. What would have happened if I had not poured his What is conspicuous in the writings of all these wine into the goblet? modern poets, is their male-centred view. Each of What would have happened if I had not been mar- them wants the best for an Iranian woman, but ried under age? none of them asks her own opinion about the veil. To conclude, in this brief literary survey, I have dis- As it can be seen from the growth of women’s cussed some of the symbolic meanings of the veil education after the Islamic Revolution of 1979, veil- in Persian culture. Both during the medieval period ing forms no barricade to gather knowledge and it and at the beginning of the twentieth century, the is certainly not necessarily a symbol of ‘backward- issue of wearing a veil was a favourite subject for ness’ as it was repeatedly voiced during the first Persian poets. In the twelfth century, NiÂami decades of the twentieth century. Veiling and referred to women’s dress code, suggesting that unveiling is much more complex than these poets instead of veiling women, it would be a possibility tried to depict.

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