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Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 25 International Journal for in Africa 4(1):25-36

The Challenges And Compromises Of Culture- Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence

Chika Eze Veritas University Abuja (The Catholic University of Nigeria) [email protected]

Abstract Ideally therapeutic processes ought to be context-bound; therefore culture plays vital role in setting the status quo for the interaction between the therapist and the client. It is against this background that this paper examines the challenges and compromises of culture-centered therapy in Africa (Nigeria), particularly as the scheme of work and curriculum for teaching (and all other related areas of study), seems to omit cultural orientation to some extent. Correspondingly, National Universities Commission (NUC) benchmark is used as unit of analysis to portray the seemingly lack of culture-centered therapy in higher education in Nigeria. Supportively, narratives from focus group discussion with students are presented to intensify the lack of inclusion of culture-centered curriculum. As a result, the paper advocates for methodological and clinical integration of cultural perspective (indigenous knowledge system) into higher education’s teaching of psychology otherwise the noble idea of culture-centered therapy would continue to be an illusion. Hence, the African therapist to say the least would be irrelevant in his/her cultural milieu and to the clients who may urgently need culture-bound therapy as means of maintaining and sustainable development. Key words: Culture-centered Therapy, Indigenous Knowledge System, Curriculum, Methodological, Clinical Integration

Introduction education curriculum for teaching This paper uses the discourse of culture- psychology (including all its related areas) centered therapy to present the absence of reflected in the National Universities African indigenous knowledge system, Commission Benchmark (NUC) (2018), particularly Nigeria’s worldview in the supported by narratives from students’ focus current curriculum for teaching psychology group discussion. Consciously or in Nigeria’s universities. Therefore, argues unconsciously most curriculum for teaching that the continual absence of African psychology in Nigeria’s higher education worldview in the teaching of psychology tend to lean on Western perspective in within Africa’s higher education would articulating its scheme of work, as such the negatively impact on the successful prevalent modules reflect theories that are achievement of culture-centered therapy. Western-based including psychodynamic, The starting point of this argument emerges , humanism, cognitive, from the surface survey of Nigeria’s higher positivism and transactional among many

26 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa (4:1) others (Eze, 2018b; Eze & Emen, 2018; Conceptualizing the exclusion of African Nwoye, 2013, 2014). Significantly, most of worldview in the current higher the reflections in these theories and concepts education teaching curriculum are mainly foreign featuring theorists such Primarily, this paper argues that the as , , achievement of culture-centered therapy in Alfred Adler, Aaron Beck, B.K Skinner, Africa (Nigeria) would mean integrating , , Eric Erikson, James African worldview into current curriculum Williams, , , Kurt of teaching and learning psychology in Lewin, , Michael Eysenck, higher education. On this basis, the central Martin Seligman, among argument is that the dominant psychological many others. curriculum taught in most African higher The emergence of this lack of education is predominantly Western based, inclusion could be traced to historical arising from colonial history including the circumstances within the African continent, aftermath of globalization. In principle particularly in the face of colonization Africa has come a long way to work out its which has positioned African nations as independence but in practice there are dependents not only in the sphere of socio- multiple evidences of dependency economic-political sense but also orientations which present Africa as still educationally (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013; struggling to own and name her values. This Nsamenang, 1992). As a result, the is evident in nearly all sphere of life and the trajectory of Africa academic development academic activities are no exception. To this in spite of its laudable achievement has effect, Nwoye (2014, p.57) states: experienced severe setback in terms of relegating its own cultural identity and For the past 50 or 60 years, the values to the background. Correspondingly, professional study of psychology the argument is that, if African in Africa has been dominated by wish to validate culture- the Euro-American approaches. centered therapy, then its higher education Thus, modern scientific psychology, drawing exclusively curriculum must integrate African upon the empirical, positivistic, worldview. Otherwise, culture-centered mechanistic, and materialistic therapy would not only be challenged but traditions of the West, gained also compromised. Thus, the paper argues absolute ascendancy in African that concrete effort be made to integrate academies as part of the general African worldview into higher education impact of our colonial contact teaching of psychology and all its related with the West. For this reason, the areas of study in order to foster the study of psychology in African achievement of culture-centered therapy. If universities became the exclusive not, the African therapist would continue to province of mainstream Western psychology. This situation be an alien in his/her culture, thereby, severely overshadowed and ridicules the achievement of culture- encumbered any early attempts to centered therapy. introduce African perspectives to psychology in African universities.

No doubt, this quote clearly presents

Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 27 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa 4(1):25-36 the scope of exclusion of African worldview going scheme of work. in the teaching of psychology in higher Consequently, all the sub-units that education curriculum among African make up the whole of who ‘an African universities, which if true would certainly person is’ and ‘is becoming’ need to be impact on the success of achieving a culture- integrated and developed as modules to be centered therapy. However, Nwoye (2013, taught in higher education alongside 2014) still acknowledges that much Western concepts. Thus, the Africa’s concerted effort has been made in the 80s psychological worldview that needs to be and 90s by African psychologists who saw integrated could be articulated as follows: the dare need to encompass African Joys and losses, needs and preferences, worldview as means of ‘selective celebrations and rituals, hopes and accommodation’ of the best that is impediments, marriages and family, and said in both African and Western frustrations and challenges, attitudes to psychological traditions. Basically, he place and people, land ownership and argues that these African psychologists displacement, death and the after-life, war recognize that not all aspects of Eurocentric and peace, reconciliation and conflict worldview, psychology and epistemology resolution, spirituality and the supernatural are relevant for meeting the challenges of order, morality and ethics, and African current African worldview. In agreement healing traditions, institutions and with Achebe (2009), these emerging African practices/psychotherapeutic techniques psychologists affirm that Africa has passed including the dynamics of superstitious the age in which the people of Europe and belief. All of these reflect the unique America were doing all the talking including experiences of what it means to be an thinking and Africans were busy doing all African in an African continent (Nwoye, the listening. Thus, the time is due for 2013). Africans to speak and reconstruct their past Furthermore, African psychology and present towards advancing and evolving focuses on understanding the psychological a self-sustaining African-centered significance of oral traditions and psychological curriculum of study. metaphors/proverbs of the great peoples of Besides, the notion of exclusion of Africa. In this context, Obiechina (1992, p. 2 Africa’s worldview rises the question of cited in Nwoye, 2013) refers to African what is it that constitutes an African psychology as “the encyclopaedia of African worldview worthy of inclusion as part of the values, attitudes, history and ethical models” on-going psychological scheme of work and including the expression of cultural curriculum. To say the least, the African traditions, worldviews and ways of worldviews that need to be included are best knowing. In this perspective, African reflected in the cultural, political, religious, psychology can be associated to many social (the community) and the contextual disciplines of study such as African history, life of the individual that is highly profound literature, sociology, anthropology, religion, to Africans with the influence of wars and politics, economics, etc., in order to draw other human-made disasters plaguing the from a diversity of knowledge in an continent (Nwoye, 2013). It is anticipated endeavour to seeking the truths about the that such engagement is the starting point factors that nurture an African human for integrating Afrocentric perspective into behaviour. Hence, African psychology aims psychological teaching curriculum and on- at capturing the unique characteristics of

28 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa (4:1)

‘who an Africa is’ and his/her ways of Besides, one could still argue that African creating out of life experiences. psychology comprises of corrective As well, Jamison (2008) describes psychology, which seeks to redeem the African Psychology as a field of study erroneous image of African people as has interested in investigating and understanding been presented by Western psychology. the key psychological costs of being an There has been erroneous representation of African in America. Therefore, African people by some Western understanding the diaspora Africans’ , as in the case of research experiences add up to what African findings reported by Gordon in collaboration psychology is, particularly in the struggle to with F.W. Vint (Nwoye, 2013) emphasizing overcome denigrations and limitations of that the cortical development of ‘the brain of his/her past, including the understanding of the African corresponds to that of a the positive qualities of his/her life in terms European child of seven or eight years of of success stories and triumphs. Furthering age’. This was reported in a study conducted this argument of what is African to examine cranial capacity and brain weight Psychology, one could say it encompasses of materials selected from autopsies of dead the knowledge of pre-and post-colonial era, bodies from Nairobi hospital mortuary. This which requires that its study goes beyond report, to say the least is disrespectful subjectivity under one paradigm. suggesting some kind of biased, judgmental Therefore, the description of African and misinformation of humanness of Psychology not only requires an in-depth African people, both in the past and the understanding of pre-and post-colonial present. On this basis, African psychology is African people but also the present a corrective psychology that positions itself crossbreeds emerging as a result of towards re-construction of African distorted globalization, reflecting limits and image both in the past and present. Hence, a boundaries within a sustained indigenous psychological presentation of Africa by knowledge sense making (Eze, 2015, 2018a, African psychologists is urgently needed, 2018b; Nwoye, 2014). Aptly, African and it is not that Africans are not already psychology attends to emerging themes of doing psychology (including psychotherapy) hybridization and its impact on human act of but there is need to do greater in-depth meaning making comprising the psychological study in which Africans could psychology of the ‘hard surfaces’ of the explore further issues of Africa’s worldview human existence in the contemporary world, in terms of methodological and clinical including the enduring problems of war and application of Africans’ indigenous refugee conditions and the ironies and knowledge system. paradoxes, and the contradictions and In fact, Nwoye (2013) continued to humiliations of the complicated present emphasize that what is African in Africa African environment (Nwoye, 2013). In psychology is based on the directives: addition, African psychology deals with the psychology of motherhood associated with From the African content of its limits and boundaries including the stresses worldview that is holistic in of inheritance right, childlessness, cases of range, and in which the African polygamy and widowhood. Therefore, it universe is understood as an encompasses the psychology of feminism alive, circular and dynamic and women’s concerns. universe, a universe of multiple

Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 29 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa 4(1):25-36

realities (natural, abstract and them. In this context, some psychologists spiritual) in close proximity have described African psychology as and complicated transactions drawing from several sources such as the with one another (p. 11). observationist, the narrativist, the proverbial, the sage, the generational, the hermeneutic, Based on these varieties of insight, African the kamukunji, the revelatonist, the psychology ought to be included for its dialogical, the propositional, the unique contribution to be recognized and instrumentalist, the dream-related, the celebrated. It includes the bio psychosocial- rationalist and the mythical/metaphorical spiritual (BPS-S) model of explaining epistemologies (Mkhzie, 2004; Mpofu, sources of psychopathology in human 2011; Nwoye, 2013). Maybe the ritualist beings within the holistic interaction of and the vocalist could be added. In fact, the religiosity and spirituality. Basically, it list is endless, pointing tothe reality that reflects a cultural psycho-thesis process. Of African psychological epistemologies are course, it is impossible to exhaust the list of pluralistic, involving multiple dimensions. themes that come under the legitimate object Perhaps, the same assumption informs the of study of African psychology. Nonetheless Western traditions. the survey already given is enough to show On this basis, it can be affirmed that that African psychology as an academic African psychology draws from the writing field of study is extensive and capable of of its forefathers/mothers as in the writings sustaining the academic resources for of great African scholars such as: Aime inclusion as modules of curriculum and Ceśaire, Chinua Achebe, Steve Biko, David could in the future suffice for the award of Diop, Flora Nwapa, Franfz Fanon, Kwame diplomas, degrees, Masters’ and Ph.Ds. Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, Jane Nardal, However, this can only happen when Leopold Sedar Senghor, Suzanne Ceśaire, African psychologists begin to integrate and Wole Soyinka, Ngugiwa Thiong’o, Okot p’ teach African psychology. In this regard, the Bitek, Obimma Nnaemeka, Tsitsi African psychologists must engage Dangarembga, and Mariama Ba etc. These meaningful ways of mapping out writers mainly emerge from literary genre, appropriate strategies of action for greater expressing the voice of pan-African inclusion of African psychology in its movement that had been described as curricula of higher education in every negritude with the main concern of region. Otherwise, psychology as being projecting African cultural identity. taught in African higher education will Brief analysis of some of these remain to some extent irrelevant to attending African epistemologies might be insightful. and nourishing culture-centered therapy Starting with the observational epistemology within the continent. wherein emphasis is laid on knowledge gained through careful observation, study Epistemologies in African Psychology and experimentation (Bailey, 2005). In attempting to appreciate what is African Culturally, Africans learn through close Psychology or what is Africa in African observation and monitoring the other. In this psychology, that needs to be integrated into stance, Africans revered good stories and higher education curriculum, it is imperative storytellers, as do most past and present to understand its sources of knowledge peoples around the world who are rooted in creation as well as methods of acquiring oral cultures and traditions. In contrast to

30 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa (4:1) written literature, African ‘orature’ is of indigenous African traditions wherein outstandingly rich, which in the words of one’s aunt could as well be perceived as Ngugiwa Thiong’o is orally composed and one’s mother at the same time. This Ti’bi- transmitted, and often created to be verbally t’ire logic is in sharp contrast to the and communally performed as an integral Aristotle’s binary logic, in which she is part of dance and music. This oral art either the aunt or mother, not the two at the sustains the development of African cultures same time. In Africa, importance is and meaning making, and they have accorded to the notion of inclusive logic, remained as living traditions that continue to which forms part of Africans’ evolve and flourish today and could be epistemological ways of knowledge creation integral aspects of methodological and expressing sources of truth with regards to clinical psychotherapy. metaphorical logic of inclusion and the In similar ways, proverbs are reality of complementarity of opposites or constituent part of African epistemological the belief in identity of contraries in human ways of knowledge creation expressing in- existence. depth philosophical . Proverbs are The basic tenet for looking at these used to illustrate ideas, reinforce arguments epistemologies is to stress the fact that and deliver messages of inspiration, Africa has got what it takes to develop as consolation, celebration and advice. Achebe well as integrate its own valued ways of (1958) describes proverbs as the palm oil knowledge creation into a viable teaching with which words are eaten. It is an integral curricula. The tasking demand here is to part of knowledge creation. Hence, proverbs diligently work out feasible strategy for are integrated part of African culture and developing all its prospects and precepts, had been in use for centuries, and they are which certainly calls for scientific based still in wide use today and are very much research similar to the steps taken in part of everyday speech and meaning developing Western based knowledge. creation. Having said this, the next section presents As well, the term mythical or the survey of dominant curriculum. metaphorical epistemology is used to refer to knowledge gained through the avenue of Survey of Dominant Curriculum myths and metaphors. It portrays the African The NUC benchmark is used to present the operating logic of things as different from dominant psychology curriculum taught in the binary logic of Aristotle adopted in Nigeria’s universities indicating lack of Western science and psychology. For the inclusion of cultural worldview. In addition, Africans things are not either/or but could be some students’ narratives are presented as the same and one thing in spite of the evidence-base supporting the seemingly lack difference it points to. In this regard, of cultural context. Adésíná (2001) refers to the Ti’bi-t’ire logic

Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 31 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa 4(1):25-36

National University Commission Benchmark Programmes The NUC course content for teaching psychology B.Sc. Honors is presented in the tables below: Year 1 Courses For Teaching Psychology Compulsory Courses Elective from the Faculty Elective from outside Faculty Introduction to Psychology Introduction to Sociology – Chemistry Introduction to Political Biology/Zoology Science Quantitative Methods in Micro & Macro Economics Physics Psychology Analysis –Introduction Learning Processes Fundamentals of Business Studies Organisation Settlement Geography Basic Concepts in General Studies Year 2 Courses For Teaching Psychology Compulsory Courses Required Courses Elective Courses General Experimental Psychology of Ethnicity and One elective from the Psychology Ethnic Groups Department

Physiological Psychology Psycho-Biology One elective from the Faculty

Industrial Psychology Experimental Design Another elective from outside the Faculty Introduction to Social Principles of Criminology and Psychology Juvenile Delinquency

Development Psychology in the Social Sciences Total General Studies

Year 3 Courses For Teaching Psychology Compulsory Courses Required Courses Statistical methods in Psychology Psycho-Biological Study of Behaviour

Clinical Psychology Theories of Economic Development Personality Assessment Advance Experimental Design Sensory Processors Psychology of Substance Abuse The Psychology of Guidance and Counselling and Test Cross – Construction

32 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa (4:1)

Research Methods in Psychology Environmental Psychology Total General Studies Personal Management Demography

Year 4 Courses For Teaching Psychology Compulsory Courses Elective (Any 5 from the below) Psychological Testing and Test Construction Consumers Psychology Psycho-Biological Study of Behaviour Behaviour modification Social Psychology of Vocational Behaviour Practicum in Psychotherapy Organisational Psychology Psychology of Union Management Relations Psychology of Social Change Research Project/Original Essay Current Issues in Psychology

The tables above reflect that little or no no parameter for measuring such details. attention has been accorded to the Narratives from counselling students’ focus integration of Afrocentric worldview group discussion affirmatively confirm the (Nigeria) for courses to be taught for the exclusion of cultural worldviews as follows: award of B.Sc. Psychology. The slightest So far, I would say the representation of the Nigeria’s cultural curriculum we are taught do orientation in the courses recommended by not pay much attention to our NUC benchmark only appeared in the local context. The way of life of detailed description wherein emphasizes are our people in Nigeria is not laid regarding contextualization, demanding taught…though our lecturers that lecturers factor in contextual issues into would always say, as everyday teaching and learning. Such counsellors we must focus on expectation makes one ask the question if the client’s culture including contextualization of teaching and learning is language, values and norms all there is to Nigeria’s worldview. Is it not but I think for this to be possible that at least two or three courses be achieved we need to have an designated to teaching African psychology, encompassing curriculum that reflecting Nigeria’s belief systems, values, includes our cultural value healing, rituals, proverbs etc. system in order for us to be However, the course recommendation abreast with it, leading to its for teaching year two psychology mentioned application whilst interacting ‘Psychology of Ethnicity and Ethnic with clients. Groups’ which is rather broad a speculation and may not be very much narrowed down Another extract that confirms the to Nigerian’s context. That notwithstanding exclusion of African worldviews argues that its contextualization depends on the it might be based on lecturer’s lack of lecturer’s subjective choice since there exist knowledge:

Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 33 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa 4(1):25-36

I feel that even our lecturers background. Maybe there is either do not know much or do none! not know how best to integrate contextual knowledge… To some extent, these students’ therefore, there is needed to narratives validate the exclusion of Nigeria’s explore African cultural views. worldview from the current teaching For some of them even the curriculum, indicating disrespect for the knowledge of their own ethnic context, and by extension the people as well. group is wanting, so how can It means that the higher education as offered they teach it… to Nigerian citizens to a large extent is disembodied from its context (Owuor, Yet another extract focusing specifically on 2008). In the face of such exclusion, the cultural concept of witchcraft and meaningful engagement with culture- what/how such should be handled in order to centered therapy would be compromised. portray lack of skills for handling What makes this exclusion daunting therapeutic engagement, have this to say: is the fact that today’s Nigeria curriculum planners are Nigerians themselves. All the I remember asking one of my players are drawn from within the country; lecturers the other day about therefore, one is bound to ask what has led witchcraft and what if a client them towards relegating their own cultural presents such issues in therapy; worldview to the background. The easiest what should I do. She just sniff answer would always be based on the fact her nose and say that I should that the Nigerian’s academics are by-product send such clients to traditional of Western education, which did not so healers or Church people to much integrate culture-bound context. Be deal with it… and I am still that as it may, the Nigeria academies today wondering, is that all we need have come a long way to knowing better and to do… My concern is that as Achebe (2009) puts it; Africans have some of the clients would bring reached the crossroad of not only listening forth such issues and/or similar to others but also ought to speak as well, so issues as our cultural belief that others would listen. Therefore, the may often reflect such issues… pedagogies of teaching and learning psychology within Nigerian Universities The last extract argues that though they are ought to challenge the hegemony of Western in their final year of study no African theory mainstream psychology. The proposal is not has yet being taught: to replace Western Psychology but to Surprisingly, as a final year integrate African Psychology (Nigeria) into counselling psychology student what is taught and learnt. This may include there is no module or course exploring all that have been said above designated to teaching African regarding what African psychology is and theories… so far we have not its epistemologies and the possibility of been taught any African theory selective inclusion. In this way the best of and I am wondering if there is what is thought and perceive within African any theory focusing on African and Western Psychology would compliment each other.

34 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa (4:1)

Prospects and precepts of inclusion of curriculum and course content of what African Psychology into viable teaching higher education offers to its recipients, so curriculum that they in turn would be able to engage Although the concept of African psychology culture-centered therapy in their provision of might appear young if not indefinable but service and as well hand over such there are ample evidence of scholarly knowledge to the future generation they engagements that have explored and would encounter in the process of teaching continue to explore what is Afrocentric and learning in kindergarten, primary, Psychology and its epistemology. Concisely, secondary and tertiary institutions. No they are emerging theorists such Nwoye’s doubt, the future of African psychology is (2007) Remapping the Fabric of the African bright portraying fertile grounds for cutting Self: A Synoptic theory; Nwoye’s (2006) edge research that will inspire greatness, as Theory and method of marriage therapy in well as fill the gap for lack of documented Africa; Nwoye’s (2005) Memory healing knowledge and body of literature. processes and community intervention in In this context, research on African grief in Africa; Mhikzie’s African indigenous knowledge system is a platform Communitarian Self, and a number of for methodological and clinical therapeutic techniques including Ubuntu investigation, leading to publication and on- therapy (Nefale& van Dyk, 2003; Louw & going study, facilitating the consolidation of Madu, 2004), the Meseron therapy African psychology as an inclusive (Awaritefe, 1995, 1997, 2004; Ofovwe, curriculum for teaching/learning and 2005), the Harmony Restoration therapy practice. Globally, such a development will (Ebigbo et al., 1995) and the Culture- foster greater frontiers for African Centered Psychotherapy (CCP) (Madu, psychology as a specialized area of study. 2013). These theories and therapeutic techniques indicate that African Conclusion psychologists are steadily engaging with The main concern of this paper has been that African worldviews; therefore, nothing the achievement of culture-centered therapy ought to prevent the inclusion of African largely depends on successful integration of oriented curriculum into higher education African (Nigerian) worldview into higher scheme of work (and if possible envision education curriculum. The engagement has further development for awarding diplomas, been to surface ways such exclusion has degrees, Masters and Ph.Ds in the near happened based on NUC benchmark course future). content alongside students’ narratives. Some Hence, it can be argued that many of the risk factors sustaining such exclusion African Psychologists (including Nigerians) include the colonial experiences of the past have researched and published Africa’s in which Africa in spite of gaining political viewpoints and granted that much more independence still remains to some extent research is still needed but what is published dependent. But beyond this limitation, the so far is rich enough. Therefore, what is paper maintains that African scholars have paramount at the moment is an urgent made tremendous contributions in inclusion of available Africa’s worldviews developing African-centered psychological (Nigerian) into what is taught and learnt in theories/therapy though more contributions higher education. Now is the time to are needed to install African perspective as integrate Nigeria’s viewpoints into the an integral part of teaching curriculum in

Eze, C. (2019) The Challenges and Compromises of Culture-Centered Therapy: Nigerian Evidence, 35 International Journal for Psychotherapy in Africa 4(1):25-36

Africa’s higher education. In this way, https://books.google.com/books? psychology as taught in African higher isbn=1463492146 education will be relevant to trainees, Eze, C. (2015). The future of psychology as enabling them to nurture culture-centered pathway for human development. therapy. Hence, the paper argues that Paper presented at The Psychological African centered-curriculum for teaching Society of Kenya 2nd East African psychology ought to be planned and mapped Regional Conference Nairobi, Kenya, out in order to ensure that Africa’s cultural November 15th -18th. identity is not relegated to the background. Eze, C. (2018a). Social-cultural dimensions It is only in this way will psychology taught of education in Africa: Integration of in Africa’s higher education be reoriented to African indigenous knowledge nurture itself towards achievement of system. A paper accepted for culture-centered therapy. presentation at 7th Aftra teaching and learning in Africa References conference and 9th roundtable Adésíná, J. O. (2001). NEPAD and the May14-19, 2018. challenge of Africa’s development: Eze, C. (2018b). The Missing gap: Future of Towards the political economy of a African psychology in the pathway of discourse. AJIA, 4: 1 & 2, pp. 1-33. human development. In. Njoku, Z. C Achebe, C. (2009). The education of a U., Nzewi, M., & Nnaka, C.V. (Eds.). British-protected child. New York: Science and Technology Education in Random House Nigeria (pp. 44-55). Amogbo, Achebe, C. (1958). Things fall apart. Nsukka: Great AP Express Publishers London: Heinemann. Ltd. Awaritefe, A. (1995). Meseron therapy. A Eze, C., & Emen, U. (2018). Integrating paper presented at the national Nigerian viewpoints into higher conference on the practice of education curriculum: A pathway for psychotherapy in Nigeria held at the sustainable educational development. Nigerian Institute for International Paper presented at the Department of Affairs, Victoria Island, Lagos, 6th -9th Arts Education International November. Conference, University of Jos, 14th – Awaritefe, A. (1997). Meseron therapy in 16th March. the treatment of depression. A paper Ebigbo, P. O., Oluka, J., Ezenwa, M., presented at the national Obidigbo, G., & Okwaraji, F. (eds.) conference/workshop of the Nigerian (1995). The practice of psychotherapy Society for Psychotherapy, University in Africa. Lagos: International of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Federation for Psychotherapy, Calabar, Nigeria Nigeria. Awaritefe, A. (2004). Meseron therapy in Jamison, J. B. (2008). Educators in a strange the management of anorexia nervosa. land: The experience of traditional Nigeria Journal of Clinical and educators when immersed into the , 10 (1), 29-36. virtual environment of second Life. Bailey, J. A. (2005). Echoes of ancient Pro Quest Dissertation African values.

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