(current era) to 1450 CE]. The PSMG evolved from a temporary indoor gar- den display presented at “Scenes and Seasons: The Medieval Landscape,” a conference held at the University Park campus of Penn State in April 1999. The Teaching conference brought together members of the academic community, profession- al gardeners and other individuals inter- ested in medieval landscapes and . Methods A portion of the conference, to which the public was invited, was dedicated to the display of different aspects of medi- eval crafts, life and skills. This included y using alternative teaching longbow and crossbow demonstrations, The Pennsylvania environments outside of the bread baking, preparation of household Btraditional classroom, educa- potions, tool making and pottery throw- State University tors can offer students a variety of ing. One result of this public interaction learning experiences that engage and with the exhibitors and displays was the Medieval Garden: challenge. It has been determined that tremendous interest from the general Using a Specialized activity-based curricula that include public in many aspects of medieval life hands-on experiences help students related to horticulture. Many visitors Garden as an retain new knowledge and acquire requested information on medieval gar- new skills (McCormick et al., 1989). dens, the different uses of plants, and Alternative Teaching Horticulture provides an excellent op- where to acquire them. Development portunity for such hands-on learning of a permanent medieval garden dis- and Learning (Skelly and Zajaicek, 1998) and the play was viewed as an avenue to address role of agriculture in development of this need and provide a simultaneous, Environment the human race can be integrated into multi-faceted learning environment for these programs. It has been suggested undergraduates. Although an outdoor that an interdisciplinary approach, garden of this type had been desired 1 Martin R. McGann and focusing on multiculturalism, allows by individuals and groups within the Robert D. Berghage2 for integration of horticulture across university for some time, the funding, several disciplines (Eames-Sheavly, the land, and methods of installation 1994). These disciplines can include had not been available. After this con- ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. hands-on history, medicine, art, science, and ference, a coordinated effort between teaching, medieval herbals, medieval language arts. One of the most versa- the Department of Horticulture and the plants, period illustration tile environments for these multicultural Center for Medieval Studies was made to SUMMARY. The Pennsylvania State and multidisciplinary programs is the obtain funds, and a grant was received University Medieval Garden (PSMG) garden (Skelly and Zajaicek, 1998). from AT&T (Bedminster, N.J.). The showcases varieties of medieval plants Specialized gardens can be employed 150 × 50-ft (45.7 × 15.2-m) garden used as ornamentals, food crops, me- as a teaching platform to introduce new was constructed on land provided by the dicinal ingredients, and for household concepts into existing curricula and also Department of Horticulture, and labor purposes in a stylized setting repre- as a cooperative learning environment came from students in the department’s senting a medieval garden. Since its for students and their peers, teachers, Landscape Contracting Program. installation, various colleges within The objective of the project was to the university as well as community volunteers, and parents. Integration of groups have used the garden as an this interdisciplinary multicultural ap- provide a representative collection alternative classroom for learning proach to horticulture has been used and to provide interpretive information activities, educational demonstrations, in the PSMG on the main campus of to visitors, students and educators. The and events related to the medieval pe- the Pennsylvania State University (Penn garden was designed to meet educa- riod. This article focuses on the initial State) at University Park where devel- tional, research and aesthetic needs of development of the garden design and opment of a program for exceptional students and faculty in the Department how the installation and continued high school students uses this specialized of Horticulture, the Center for Medieval use as a classroom has contributed to garden as an outdoor classroom. Studies, other colleges and departments meeting educational goals for students within the university, regional public in the landscape contracting program Garden development and schools (both elementary and second- at the Pennsylvania State University and the Pennsylvania Governor’s interpretation ary), outreach education programs School for Agricultural Sciences. The PSMG was developed to high- outside of the region and lastly, as an light different aspects of the medieval inventory platform for heirloom plant 1Associate professor of landscape contracting, De- partment of Horticulture, The Pennsylvania State garden and landscape. The medieval varieties. A secondary benefi t has been University. period is generally considered to lie the number of tourists and visitors 2Associate professor of horticulture, Department of between the fall of classical antiquity who seek the garden during a visit to Horticulture, The Pennsylvania State University. and the start of the Renaissance [476 CE campus.

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The PSMG is representative of prepare papers on alternative medicines. sonings, fragrances, sauces, dyes and a garden of northwestern Europe Subsequent uses of the garden include other household and culinary pur- during the latter Middle Ages. The classes in herbaceous plant identifi ca- poses (Landsberg, 1996). The variety selection of this time period permits tion, plant propagation, landscape of uses for some plants is surprising. use of the broadest range of period construction, fi ne arts: introduction to For example mugwort, (Artemesia vul- texts for plant research, teaching and drawing, painting, photography, early garis), a common weed in the modern garden illustrations. Although many German literature, medieval studies and landscape, was used to fl avor pork and period texts describe plants and their art history. drink, as a moth repellent, to protect the uses, information on specifi c medieval A preliminary design plan was traveler from fatigue and sunstroke and garden design, materials used and plant prepared for a three-part garden a protection against evil spirits. Plants in culture is minimal. Published garden in- representing the formal, social, and the kitchen garden are located in raised formation discusses the variety of period utilitarian aspects of a medieval garden. beds surrounded by a wattle fence, a garden styles and designs but specifi cs The three main areas include a formal structure created by weaving limber on when certain styles were introduced, garden, kitchen garden, and pleasure saplings between upright posts. They regional variations in design, plant avail- ground (Fig. 1). Each section displays are very quick, easy and inexpensive to ability or management of the garden different aspects of medieval gardens construct. Typically white willow (Salix are very limited. It was therefore neces- and plants. alba) or european hazel (Corylus avel- sary to adopt a stylized representative The formal garden is an enclosed lana) was used in their construction garden design using elements adapted garden and has an herbaceous border (Landsberg, 1996) since these were from a variety of different period and with plants important in romance and abundant natural resources. For this modern illustrations and texts. In con- religion. Some of these plants include garden, red maple (Acer rubrum) sap- cept, the garden provides a setting that those with three leaves [e.g., strawberry lings were used since they were readily functions as a background to display (Fragaria vesca)] representing the Holy available. A simulated well is located in medieval plants used as ornamentals, Trinity, fruit trees representing the Tree the center of this garden where it would food crops, medicinal ingredients and of Life or Tree of Knowledge, white have typically provided water for garden other household purposes. In addition, fl owers that stand for the Virgin Mary, and household uses. the garden was also designed to serve red fl owers that stand for the Blood The pleasure ground has a more as an outdoor classroom for students of the Martyrs and other plants that informal aspect with an enclosing hedge with such varied interests as horticulture represent important personages or and sapling fence. In medieval times and plant science, use of plants in the events in the bible. This garden also these fences and hedges acted as physi- medieval period, medicine, fi ne arts and has a raised turf bench, or exedra, that cal and symbolic barriers between the plant illustration. One of the fi rst uses of is often depicted in period illustrations ordered world of the garden and the the garden after its initial installation was (Harvey, 1981). chaos of the outside world (Pearsall, by the Penn State School of Nursing; The kitchen garden contains plants 1986). Ornamental plants are located students were required to use plants to as important sources of medicines, sea- around the perimeter in planting beds

Fig. 1. Conceptual plan of the Penn- sylvania State University Medieval Garden. The kitchen garden is located in the center with the formal or con- templation garden to the left and the pleasure ground to the right.

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TM1 156 11/6/03, 12:55:18 PM Table 1. Partial list of plants suitable for medieval gardens. the formal garden. Except for the initial Common name Scientifi c name ground clearing, students prepared gar- den details for construction, surveyed Alecost Tanacetum balsamita and laid out the improvements, and Alkanet Alkanna tinctoria were responsible for general excava- Ambrosia Chenopodium botrys tion, spreading walk materials, work- Bean, broad Vicia faba ing with reinforcement bars, pouring Bishop’s weed Ammi majus concrete, and digging and setting posts. Borage Borago offi cinalis The initial construction of the garden Celandine Chelidonium majus was accomplished in 27 h of class time Chaste tree Vitex agnus-castus using 22 students during spring semes- Cornfl owers Centaurea cyanus ter 2000. A similar period of time was Deadly nightshade Atropa belladonna required during spring semester 2001 Dittany of crete Origanum dictamnus using 12 students for the subsequent Dyers greenweed Gentista tinctoria installation. Student participation and Elecampane Inula helenium the quality of the work were evaluated Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum during the entire length of the project Feverfew Chrysanthemum parthenium by their professors. Individual participa- Fumitory Fumaria offi cinalis tion counted towards the student’s fi nal Gentain Gentiana lutea grade as did the quality of the fi nished Good king henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus product in terms of on-time completion, Herb robert Geranium robertianium adherence to the construction plans, Hollyhocks Althaea rosea quality of the work and site clean-up. Iris, yellow fl ag Iris pseudacorus To enhance the effect of the PSMG set- Ladies bedstraw Galium verum ting, period structures and features have Lentil Lens culinaris been used whenever possible, including Liquorice Glycyrrhiza glabra the wattle enclosure, a diamond pattern Lungwort Pulminaria offi cinalis sapling fence installation, building an Madder root Rubia tinctorum arbor from saplings, construction of Mandrake Mandragora offi cinarum benches from rough lumber, and build- Masterwort ostruthium ing a masonry wellhead. Monkshood Aconitum napellus Oregano Origanum vulgare Pennsylvania Governor’s , garden Pastinacea domestica School for Agricultural Pimpernel Anagallis arvensis Poppy Papaver somniferum Sciences Rocket Eruca vesicaria sativa The PSMG was an ideal resource Rose, rosa mundi Rosa gallica versicolor for experiential and hands-on teaching Saffron Crocus sativus for the Pennsylvania Governor’s School Soapwort Saponaria offi cinalis for Agricultural Sciences (PGSAS). The St. john’s wort Hypericum perforatum PGSAS is a summer course of study for Tansy Tanacetum vulgare academically talented sophomore and Thistle, blessed Cnicus benedictus junior high school students who have Valerian Valeriana offi cinalis expressed a strong interest in agricul- Wallfl ower Cheiranthus cheiri tural issues. Students are selected based Woad Isatis tinctoria on their academic performance, leader- Wormwood Artemisia absinthium ship abilities, and interest in pursuing science and related issues beyond the and are also planted in the turf. Several interior and exterior, with planting beds classroom. Each year up to 64 applicants fruit trees are located within this gar- arranged so that plant material is readily are selected to be student scholars for den for fl owers, fruit and shade. The available to study or harvest. the PGSAS and are required to pursue pleasure ground was a space used for The PSMG is situated within the an Independent Study Project (ISP) recreation and could vary in size from grounds of the Penn Sate Horticultural in addition to core program of courses <1 acre (0.4 ha) to several hundred Trial Gardens, close to campus and adja- offered. The medieval plants ISP, de- acres (Van Buren, 1986). Enjoyments cent to a major arterial roadway making signed for PGSAS in 2000, incorporated found in these gardens included mu- it visually prominent and very accessible. the use of the PSMG and exposed the sicians, lawn games, archery, chess, Garden construction was accomplished student scholars to medieval arts and reading, and romantic liaisons. Space by two successive senior level classes of technologies, while requiring them to on one side of the garden has been left students in the Landscape Contracting perform literature research and illustra- for fi eld crop plots while on another program in the Department of Horticul- tion. The literature research included end a small orchard of period fruit trees ture. The fi rst class was responsible for investigating the historical and contem- has been planned. The entire garden is construction of the kitchen and pleasure porary uses of plants within the context accessed by gravel paths, both on the garden. The second class constructed of the latter medieval period, folklore

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Fig. 2. Sample data sheet used to display information on medieval plants grown in the Pennsylvania State University Medi- eval Garden.

Date Entered: July 18, 2000—Britta Strong Common Name: Chives Genus: Allium Species: schoenoprasum Family: Liliaceae AKA: none

Historical uses: Culinary, medicinal Description: 1) Culinary: chives have been used to accompany food for about 5000 years; John Gerard, and early English herbalist, called chives a “good sawce and pot-herb.” 2) Medicinal: chives were said to aid digestion. Contemporary uses: Culinary, medicinal, household Description: 1) Culinary: the mild onion fl avor of fresh chives is used in potato and fi sh dishes, along with many others, and can be used in fl avoring vinegar and as a garnish. 2) Medicinal: chives are a good source of Vitamin C; used as a digestive and appetizer; and though to be good of anemia, although not commonly used as a treatment. 3) Household: chive tea sprayed on gooseberries prevents mildew; grown next to roses, chives fi ght black spot; next to , they prevent fl y; near fruit trees, chives prevent fruit scab; chive oil has antibacterial uses.

Origin: Europe, Asia Plant type: perennial Form: upright, spreading clump Height: up to 10 inches Flower color: pinkish-mauve Soil type: rich soil with a fair amount of water pH: 6–8 Flowering Period: June–July Physical description: Chives appear to be small rushes and are grass-like in appearance; the leaves are hollow, the fl owering stems are not. Sun requirements: full sun or partial shade. Propagation: by seed, or more commonly, by splitting an older clump and replanting.

Lore: Romanian gypsies used chives in fortune-telling; clumps were hung from ceilings and bedposts to ward off disease and evil spirits. Cautions: Although chives must be cut low to the ground to prevent the production of tough stems, take care not to cut them too close or else the growth centers may be damaged – otherwise, they may be cut year-round. Miscellaneous: Chive fl owers attract honeybees and butterfl ies; there is also a variety of chives called garlic chives or chinese chives, which are used in many oriental dishes.

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TM1 158 11/6/03, 12:55:19 PM related to the plant, astrological lore, at the high school level. General themes for mass publication. Copperplates, and cultural notations including habitat, related to political, social and cultural a later duplication technique, were soils, sunlight and other growth factors. changes were covered with more de- able to provide additional details of The ISP culminated in the preparation tailed discussion on development of the plants due to fi ner etching tools of a hand-bound herbal that included all early botanical and horticultural knowl- used. To supplement the basic core of the students’ work. Currently there are edge, garden themes, plant use, and information provided by the instructors, between 100 and 120 different period development of herbals as instruments medieval reenactors were also used to plants in the PSMG for students to select of plant knowledge. Key personalities present different aspects of the uses of for their research project, out of a total related to plant science such as Theo- plants. These demonstrations covered of 508 researched plants appropriate to phrastus, Dioscorides, Ibn Sina, Peter household and medicinal uses, plants the period (Table 1). Schoffer, Gerard, Clusius, and Dodens as symbols, and their use in art and Students were initially introduced were reviewed, along with a discussion literature. As part of these sessions, to the medieval period by a combina- of the differences between science and PGSAS students harvested specific tion of lectures and video presentations folklore that appear in these works. plant parts from lavender and comfrey that established the backdrop for future Slides and PowerPoint (Microsoft to create lotions and salves; they also discussions and activities. These lectures Corp., Redmond, Wash.) presentations poured their own fl oral-themed pilgrim and presentations brought all students were especially useful in demonstrating medallions using hot tin and precarved to the same level of understanding re- differences between hand-drawn, wood slate molds. garding this particular historical period. cuts, and copperplate illustrations. Many The PGSAS scholars also made From discussions with the students, early hand-drawn illustrations prepared maximum use of the PSMG since it initial differences in basic knowledge for individual folios provide detail not served as their alternative classroom, were attributable to differences in included in later woodcuts that were observation and demonstration area. courses taught and teaching methods often hastily prepared copies used Students were responsible for re- Table 2. Title and synopsis of selected references on medieval plants and gardens. Author, year Synopsis Bayard, 1997 Although related specifi cally to the medieval gardens at the Cloisters (Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fort Tryon Park, New York) this work provides a concise introduction to gardening and uses of herbs in the Middle Ages. Each of the gardens at the Cloisters is discussed in detail and a plant list is provided for each. A companion work to Freeman (1997). Blunt and Raphael, 1979 This book explores illustrated manuscripts and herbals from the Middle Ages and early Renaissance and provides an insight into the development of botanical and medical knowledge and the evolution of botanical illustration. Freeman, 1997 This book provides information on the uses of medieval plants for cooking, healing, poisoning pests, and fragrance. Each plant listed is accompanied by a description of its medieval function or value and most are also shown in period illustrations. A brief introduction provides an interesting overview of period works related to medicine, cookery and the general use of plants. A companion work to Bayard (1997). Gerard, 1975 This is a reprint edition of the complete 1633 edition as revised and enlarged by Thomas Johnson. The work contains descriptions of 2850 plants and has 2700 original illustrations. The text is Elizabethan English that may take some adjustment by the reader however it provides a wonderful example of the information available at this period in history. Due to the date of publication some plants from the new world are included however it is an excellent source of information on medieval plants. Harvey, 1981 This is a scholarly work by an author that has produced many articles on period gardens and plants. This book concentrates on examining British gardens of the Middle Ages however much of the information presented has a much broader application to other medieval gardens. Besides historical development, the author includes much information about plants used for medicine, food, and decorations. The many illustrations make it easier to understand the development and use of the gardens and their components. Innes and Perry, 1997 This book explores the symbolism and signifi cance of ornamental plants during the Middle Ages. Besides their obvious aesthetic value, many plants also had deeply religious or romantic symbolism that is examined in this text. The author also provides information on rituals and festivals in which fl owers played a part during different seasons of the medieval year. Detailed color photographs and specifi c information on the medical, cosmetic and herbal uses of 78 plants are also included. Landsberg, 1996 An excellent work on medieval gardens that provides information on historical background, period design and appropriate plant materials. The author has designed several re-created medieval gardens that are used as case studies complete with color photographs and hand-drawn illustrations. Different gardens and garden components are discussed that include orchards, monastic gardens, fl owery meads, vineyards, kitchen gardens, seats, plants and fountains. Talbot and Whiteman, 1997 Based on the series about a 12th century monk, this book recreates Brother Cadfael’s world centered on the monastic gardens at Shrewsbury. The book makes heavy use of references to the Cadfael series but provides an excellent index of medieval plants and herbs complete with astrological, medicinal, culinary and miscellaneous uses.

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drawn illustrations to accom- student creativity, self-expression and pany their research work (Fig. interest (Byers, 1999). Future plans for 3). These individual research this garden include expansion of the col- works were then compiled lections to include less common plants, into an herbal representing increased use of collection plants for the culmination of the ISP. teaching purposes and development The completed work on of additional programs for education each plant developed by all outreach. students was reproduced on The attraction of this garden as a a parchment-like paper. Each multicultural teaching environment is scholar was then instructed that it offers a unique glimpse into a on how to stitch and bind different age and presents plants on a the folios together to make distinctive historical platform. This aids the body of the herbal. Il- in an understanding of how plants had lustrated faceplates were an integral and pervasive role in the provided as well as an index lives of civilizations during the Middle of plants. Instruction was also Ages and how that has evolved to the provided on how to prepare present day. a hard fabric cover for the herbal. Literature cited Students were also re- Bayard, T. 1997. Sweet herbs and sundry quired to prepare and give fl owers. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New a presentation to the other York. ISP participants that demon- Blunt W. and S. Raphael 1979. The illustrated strated their familiarity with herbal. Thames and Hudson, New York. at least one of the plants Byers, R.D. 1999. Reaching out: A university they selected. The presenta- botanical garden builds long-distance rela- tion included a talk on the tionships. HortTechnology 9(4):573–576. origin, history and medieval Eames-Sheavly, M. 1994. Exploring horticul- uses of the plant along with ture in human culture: An interdisciplinary period documentation, con- approach to youth education. HortTechnol- temporary photos and their ogy 4(1):77–80. hand drawn illustration. Freeman, M. 1997. Herbs for the medieval The students also prepared household. Metropolitan Museum of Art, a physical demonstration New York. on one particular aspect of Gerard, J. 1975. The herbal or general history how the plant was prepared of plants. Dover Publications, New York. and used. Harvey, J.H. 1981. Mediaeval gardens. Tim- Individual plant research ber Press, Beaverton, Ore. data sheets prepared by the Fig. 3. Sample plant illustration scholars are currently being used as a Innes, M. and C. Perry 1997. Medieval fl ow- ers. Kyle Cathie, London. prepared as part of the Pennsylvania revolving series of informational sheets Governor’s School for Agricultural located in the PSMG. These sheets are Landsberg, S. 1996. The medieval garden. Sciences herbal project. mounted on movable plaques and ex- Thames and Hudson, New York. plain historic and current uses of the McCormick, F.G., D.E. Cox, and G.M. searching and compiling information plants as well as associated folklore and Miller. 1989. Experiential needs of students on plants selected from the list of period physical attributes. They are changed in agricultural programs. Agr. Educ. Mag. 62(4):10–11, 23. plants being grown in the garden. This on a regular basis to highlight different was generally between fi ve and eight plants during the growing season. Pearsall, D. 1986. Gardens as symbol and set- plants per student. The students were ting in late medieval poetry, Medieval gardens. Conclusion Dumbarton Oaks Res. Library Collection, responsible for compiling information Wash., D.C. on these plants including historical uses, The PSMG offers many unique contemporary uses, horticultural data educational and outreach programs. Skelly, S.M. and J.M. Zajicek. 1998. The effect of an interdisciplinary garden program on the and folklore (Fig. 2). A literature re- Besides its use as an outdoor classroom for horticulture, the PSMG has served environmental attitudes of elementary school view was carried out using standardized students. HortTechnology 8(4):579–583. methods expected for any similar schol- as a site for on-campus educational Talbot, R. and R. Whiteman. 1997. Brother arly work. References available to the courses, a location of hands-on expe- riential education for pre-school and Cadfael’s herb garden. Little Brown, New students included contemporary works York. and also reprinted and original period elementary classes, and a classroom for other colleges in the university. Van Buren, A. 1986. Reality and romance works (Table 2). Besides research on in the Park of Hesdin, Medieval gardens. individual plants, PGSAS scholars also The continued use of this space for extra-classroom activities yields many Dumbarton Oaks Res. Library Collection, observed their particular plants within Wash., D.C. the medieval garden and prepared hand- benefi ts for the users including increased

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