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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Main Concepts
1. Heroism
1.1. The word for Hero
To understand the concept of heroism in Indonesia one first needs to understand the meaning of the word itself. This section begins with an explanation of words for heroes in English, Indonesian, and the Javanese language, as the concept of hero can be difficult to understand, and the usage of heroes varies greatly. This will be shown in the next chapters, as a steady foundation for understanding the concepts of hero and heroism requires an understanding of similarities between the terms for hero in languages that are used for this research. There are different sources, with more or less the same meaning of the word hero in the English language. From one source etymology of the word is from the late 14th century . Th man of superhuman strength or physical courage. Greek: heros ( demi-god (a variant singular of which was heroe), but the word comes
in English from Latin heros, hero. Originally defender, protector, from Proto Indo-
European root word ser- which has a meaning to watch over, protect (can be compared to
Latin word servare - to save, deliver, preserve, protect). Second meaning man who exhibits
great bravery in any course of action is from 1660s. In the other sense as of chief male
character in a play, story, etc it was first recorded in the 1690s. (Skeat, 2005)
Oxford Dictionary of English (2010) defines the word in two aspects. Second one is
definition of hero sandwich (alternative American name for submarine sandwich). So, here there will be mentioned only the meaning of the first entry: 1) hero, noun (Plural heroes): a
person, typically a man, who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or
noble qualities, example is: a war hero. 2) chief male character in a book, play, or film,
who is typically identified with good qualities, and with whom the reader is expected to
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sympathize, example: the hero of story. 3) Hero in mythology and folklore is a
person of superhuman qualities and often semi-divine origin, in particular one whose
exploits were the subject of ancient Greek myths.
Words derived from hero are: heroism, the drug heroin (because of its euphoric
feeling that the drug provides, but link between hero and heroine is blurry), anti-hero, and
here we will examine a more female version and hero-worshiping. Female version of hero is heroine. This form started to be used in the 1650s. It comes from Latin heroine, heroina (plural heroinae) - a female hero, a for example Medea. It is originally from Ancient Greek heroine, female version of heros. In context as principal female character in drama or poem the word exist from 1715. Lately, because of frequent miss- spelling and confusion with the word heroin, in usage is female hero or interesting blend form from and shero which is used more in urban dictionary (vernacular). Hero worshiping is first recorded around the year of 1774 and it is defined as: excessive admiration for someone. In ancient Greece there was a practise of the worshiping of superhuman heroes. (Oxford Dictionary of English, 2010) Indonesian word Pahlawan also has interesting connotations. The most important Indonesian dictionary Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Great Indonesian Dictionary) defines the word in its 2005 edition: Pahlawan (Sanskerta: phala-wan yang berarti orang yang dari dirinya menghasilkan buah (phala) yang berkualitas bagi bangsa, negara, dan agama)
adalah orang yang menonjol karena keberaniannya dan pengorbanannya dalam membela kebenaran, atau pejuang yang gagah beran. [Which can be translated into English: Pahlawan (Indonesian word for hero comes from Sanskrit phala- phala) which
has quality for his nation, country, and religion) is person who stands out because of his bravery and sacrifice for the right cause or who achieved glorious victory.] (KBBI, 20081)
For the main character in artwork in Indonesian language tokoh utama is used.
Female version of pahlawan is pahlawan wanita and hero-worshiping would be pahlawan terpuji. Kepahlawanan is word for heroism and patriotism. Other words used for hero in
1 KBBI stands for Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa, Great Dictionary of the Indonesian th Language of the Language Center, 4 edition with 90,000 entries was accessed online from http://bahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/kbbi/ retrieved in December 2013
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Indonesian language are: wira, wirawan, (from Javanese mentioned below), tokoh utama
yang berani dan hormat (for character in art work who has attributes of bravery and respect
mentioned above) also pelaku utama, pemeran utama, bahadur (knight) and hero itself.
Words unrelated to heroism, derived from pahlawan are pahlawan bakiak a term for a
husband who is very afraid of his wife and pahlawan kesiangan people who want to work
hard after the hard times are over and often want credits for their work.2 In Javanese language there are several words for expressing the concept of hero. Wira, wirawan (and its slightly nobler form wirya) is more an alus (refined) word for manly, brave, and courageous. It is frequently used as an element in compound names: there are Javanese (Indonesian) male names such are Wira or Wirapandya. The word sura has a similar meaning and is likewise more commonly found in the five-syllable names of males, not just in literature, but in general name giving as well. Example of given male names with this root are Sura and Surapati. Satria does not mean hero exactly, but more a warrior or a member of the refined, aristocratic classes. These words derive mostly from Sanskrit which has greatly enriched the Javanese lexicon for well over a thousand years. Pahlawan of Persian origins is the most common word for hero in Indonesian and is also used in Javanese (Mangusuwito, 2002).
1.2. Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia
Indonesian language does not use the same expression for the main character in
artwork (thus in culture) and to address great men in history and national heroes, thus
researches of heroism within this common point are scarce in Indonesia. Nevertheless,
Lombard, D. and Pelras, C. (1993) in Asian Mythologies defines cultural heroes in Insular
South-East Asia (which corresponds to Indonesia and The Philippines) in four distinctive categories: 1) Heroes of Oral Myth, 2) Heroes of Written Accounts, 3) Heroes Linked to
Successive Acculturation (India, China, Islam) and 4) Modern Heroes3
Cultural heroes represent ideal figures that humans follow and respect. Examples
given to in encyclopaedia are legends of creation of world in oral traditions. How the world
2 Ibid 3 Lombard, D. and Pelras C. 1993. Cultural Heroes of Insular Southeast Asia, Page 167-173 in Yves Bonnefoy (edt.) Asian Mythologies, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
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was created in different cultures around Archipelago. Legendary prince Panji and his
adventures is an example of a hero of the written legends. Cultural heroes can be re-born
and re-shaped with acculturation, adapt to new circumstances. There are numerous
examples; one is a traditional Javanese story of Wali Sanggo - they were nine saint men 4 who brought Islam to Java.
The last type of a cultural hero, which is mentioned in this book, is perhaps not as far removed from the preceding heroes as one may think: these are national heroes that the independent states of insular Southeast Asia have chosen to symbolize the birth of the new society Rizal and Aguinaldo for the Philippines, and Hasanuddin, Kartini, and Imam Bonjol for Indonesia. Although they are historical, each of these figures has myth- simplified official biographies, widely disseminated, particularly through schools his commemorative ritual, his stereotyped iconography, etc. The frequency with which they are mentioned shows how much modern societies, from that point of view, have trails in common with so-called primitive societies.5
The cult of national heroes in Indonesia was introduced by its first president Sukarno. Principal initiative was to remake Indonesian memory around a revolutionary theme. In a set of decrees between 1957 and 1963 he laid down the procedure for declaring as national heroes people who had resisted colonialism or served the cause of the independence. Remuneration was arranged for the descendents of those, so the names
(creating a small industry of lobbyists) and the manner of commemorating them through
monuments, anniversaries, school texts and street names was prescribed (Reid, 2005).
The second Indonesian president, Suharto, was not all that interested in celebrating
revolution, but he did take the theme of anti-Dutch struggle. The fact that many of those
already declared heroes had died fighting the Dutch made it a small step to portray armed
struggle as the leitmotif of national history, and the national army as its natural
contemporary upholder. By 1992, twenty-three military officers had been added to the
pantheon of national heroes, more than a third of the total declared under Suharto. (Reid, 2005)
4 Ibid 5 Ibid
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The National Hero of Indonesia (Indonesian: Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia)
is the highest-level title awarded in Indonesia. It is posthumously given by the Government
of Indonesia for actions which are deemed to be heroic defined as actual deeds which can
be remembered and exemplified for all time by other citizens or extraordinary service
furthering the interests of the state and people.
The Ministry of Social Affairs6 gives seven criteria which an individual must fulfil, as follows: 1. An Indonesian citizen who is deceased and, during his or her lifetime, led an armed struggle or produced a concept or product useful to the state; 2. Have continued the struggle throughout his or her life and performed above and beyond the call of duty; 3. Have had a wide-reaching impact through his or her actions; 4. Have shown a high degree of nationalism; 5. Have been of good moral standing and respectable character; 6. Never surrendered to his or her enemies; and 7. Never made an act which taints his or her legacy. Nominations undergo a four-step process and must be approved at each level. A proposal is made by the general populace in a city or regency to the mayor or regent, who must then make a request to the province's governor. The governor then makes a
recommendation to the Ministry of Social Affairs, which forwards it to the President,
represented by the Board of Titles (Dewan Gelar); this board consists of two academics,
two persons of a military background, and three persons who have previously received the
award or title. Those selected by the President, as represented by the Board, are awarded
the title at a ceremony in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Since 2000, the ceremony has been occurring in early November coinciding with Indonesia's Heroes' Day (Hari
Pahlawan)7.
The legal framework for the title, initially styled National Independence Hero
(Pahlawan Kemerdekaan Nasional), was established with the release of Presidential Decree
6 Data for this section were retrieved from official page of The Ministry of Social Affairs http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan in December 2013 7 Ibid
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No. 241 of 1958. The title was first awarded on August 30th, 1959 to the politician turned
writer Abdul Muis, who had died the previous month. This title was used for the rest
of Sukarno Suharto rose to power in the mid-1960s, the title was given its
current name. Special titles at the level of National Hero have also been awarded. Hero of
the Revolution (Pahlawan Revolusi) was given in 1965 to ten victims of the
failed 30 September Movement coup, while Sukarno and former vice-president Mohammad Hatta were given the title Proclamation Heroes (Pahlawan Proklamasi) in 1988 for their role in reading the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and in 2012 they also became National Heroes. 8 A total of 147 men and 12 women have been deemed national heroes, most recently Rajiman Wediodiningrat, Lambertus Nicodemus Palar and Tahi Bonar Simatupang in 2013. Indonesia is perhaps the only country with ever-
all parts of the Indonesian archipelago, from Aceh in the west to Papua in the east. They represent numerous ethnicities, including native Indonesians, ethnic Chinese, and Eurasians. They include prime ministers, guerrillas, government ministers, soldiers, royalty, journalists, and a bishop. The procedure may have started from Sukarno, but only with the New Order has it got its relatively well-established procedure. Abdullah (2009) uses picturesque comparison to explain this procedure:
Since then [New Order] it becomes obvious that state recognition of national heroes
sacrifices they have made to the nation and tanah air, the homeland. It is understandable that every province would look deep into its respective history to see whether there was someone in the past who had sacrificed and given his or her life to
the glory of the nation and tanah air. (Abdullah, 2009:442)
8 Ibid
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1.3. Pangeran Diponegoro9 - The National Symbol
Diponegoro has the same symbolic value as Vasil Levski10 for Bulgarian
nationhood and the idea of a national hero. He is Javanese. He was born in heartland of
Javanese high culture Yogyakarta. He was a son of a newly established Javanese royalty
(after tearing Surakarta keraton in two branches one in Yogyakarta and one in Surakarta who somehow continued the line of previous rulers). He did not become the heir of throne, rather he was devoted to his piece of land and peasants who were living and working for him. He saw injustices and intrigues of the Dutch. He stood against it. He led a five years exhausting war/revolution. Java was changing dramatically in his time, becoming closer to the West. He saw himself also as a religious leader. He was tricked, captured and he died in exile in South Celebes far from his native land. His presence is still notable in Indonesia. UNESCO list of World Memory bear two documents from Indonesia and one first autobiography in Javanese literature. He was an inspiration for controversial Indonesian Communist Party, but also to army after whom Central-Javanese Region was named. The same goes for some big ships that Indonesian Military Navy possesses. Central-Javanese capital Semarang is the home to the biggest University in the city which was named after him. Main streets in almost every big city in Indonesia (or at least in Java) are named after him. Diponegoro is a
sign of Indonesia. He is one of the few figures that are so closely connected with the idea of
Indonesia. Sometimes they can look like opposites (Communist Party vs. Army, secular
these opposites make Indonesia.
Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro
renounced the succession to the throne in favor of his younger half
9 Peter Carey is British historian who wrote extensively about Pangeran Diponegoro, and he is using English- Javanese coin for him - Prince Dipanegara. In this study Indonesian version of his name Pangeran Diponegoro will be used, and together will all given names it would not be put in Italic font style, unlike other
Indonesian words. 10 Vasil Levski is national hero of Bulgaria and topic of research of Maria Todorova (2009) which is mentioned in introduction and later on in literature review
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brother, Hamengkubuwono IV who was supported by the Dutch. Being a devout Muslim,
Diponegoro was alarmed by the loosening of religious observance at his half brother's
court, as well as by the court's pro-Dutch policy (Carey, 2007).
In 1821, famine and plague spread around Java. His half brother Hamengkubuwono
IV (r. 1814-1821) who had succeeded to the throne after their father had died. He left only
an infant son as heir, Hamengkubuwono V. When the young ruler was appointed as a new sultan, there was a dispute over his guardianship. Diponegoro was again renounced, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of natural disasters and political upheaval finally erupted into a full scale rebellion (Carey, 2007). Dutch colonial rule was becoming unpopular by the local farmers because of tax rises, crop failures and by Javanese nobles because the Dutch colonial authorities deprived them of their right to lease land. Because the local farmers and many nobles were ready to support Diponegoro and because he believed that he had been chosen by divine powers to lead a rebellion against the Christian colonials, he started a holy war against the Dutch. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Joyoboyo (Carey, 2007). The beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoro's guerrilla warfare. Ambushes
were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops. The Dutch finally
committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of
troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgencies. De Kock developed a
strategy of fortified camps (benteng) and mobile forces. Heavily-fortified and well-
defended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoro's troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitely
lost the initiative and he was put in a defensive position. Many troops and leaders were
defeated or deserted (Carey, 2007).
In 1830 Diponegoro's military seemed near defeat and negotiations were started.
Diponegoro demanded to have a free state under a sultan and he wanted to become the
Muslim leader (caliph) for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate
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under a flag of truce. He accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of
truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he
had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to take other measures. The
Dutch exiled him to Makassar (Carey, 2007).
2. Indonesian Painting
Representational art in Indonesia has a long tradition. There are numerous sites all over the archipelago that indicate the presence of visual arts from early ages there are caves that are painted as well as ceramics, jewellery, and other decorative objects that date back to pre-history. Classical Indonesian art is one that is addressed to flourishing Javanese and Balinese kingdoms and art that was made under important rulers to show their power. Beautiful temples are scattered all over Java and Bali. When Islam was introduced to the archipelago, it brought classical elements of Islamic art, including architecture in first place one concerning building and decorating mosques. In the 19th century, with emerging colonialism, painting as a new form of art emerges in the island of Java and Bali especially. Balinese art had different periods and schools and hereby we will focus more on the development of painting in Java because it influenced development of art in the whole nation, but also due to the fact that it follows main ideological and national ideas that will shape Indonesia. Mooi Indie or Hindia Jelita
(Beautiful Indies) was a period of Indonesian painting at the beginning of the 20th century.
It shows ideological Indonesia with hard-working people working in beautiful rice fields,
scenes of every day easy and nice lives, landscapes with lavish mountains, beautiful,
modest, but yet seductive Indonesian girls. Painters were both Indonesians and Westerners
who were living in Indonesia at that time. In 1938 Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia) was created as a response to the previous movement, where artists considered
that their role was more engaging and they needed to show more real life of people, with
their struggles and sufferings. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990)
With the World War II and the Japanese occupation paintings served as propaganda
for achieving the national goal a united and free Indonesia. There were numerous art
groups created between 1942 until 1950. In 1950 Indonesia was de facto independent from
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the Netherlands and those first years of Independence were marked by major turbulences.
That dynamic was illustrated in groups of artists that were created, all with different
political or religious agendas.
More important for Indonesian art was the creation and establishment of art
academies in Java and artist organizations connected with these centres. From their
inception, three schools have dominated the Indonesian art scene: IKJ (Insitut Kesenian Jakarta) Art Institute in Jakarta, ITB (Institut Teknologi Bandung) Technology Institute in Bandung, and ISI (Institut Seni Indonesia, created as ASRI Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia Fine Art Academy of Indonesia back in days, now Insitute of Indonesian Art) Yogyakarta. In 1970s Indonesian art started also to have strong Post-Modernistic discourse following world trends. Not long after Indonesian art entered in the world art arena and after 1990s Indonesian art has had its ups and downs but until today continues to surprise and intrigue art lovers from all over globe. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990) With this short review of art we can see that Indonesian art is connected with its modern history. In classical times artists were merely craftsmen and somehow moderators between divine forces, rulers and the common people. Beginning in the 19th century painters and Indonesian intellectuals start to shape the future of the Indonesian nation. Once, Indonesia was independent they continue to work together with politicians in shaping the national ideology. For thirty years, Indonesia was under one regime that did not allow
free artistic thinking, so the influence of art quitted down out at first, but then together with
1999, Indonesia has again been questioning its position in the wider world, and in this
process of re-positioning and re-shaping the identity artists do play an active role.
B. Theoretical Basis
1. Postcolonial Theory
There is a theoretical field in cultural studies that can be named
the nexus between the operations of difference in language and culture and those of socio-
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historical difference, especially in respect of gender and sexuality, nationality, race and
there are also critical points of deep and significant
difference which constitute t we really are ; or rather since history has intervened
t we have
In this research, questions concerning the national identity will be examined, primarily those concerning creating and sustaining ideas of nationalism and theories that are put together under one term post-colonial theory. One of the greatest resources for studying nationalism in South- (1996). He argues how culture, in the first place language primarily printed one (via books, press)
and he gives tools to demonstrate how diverse this process is. For this research the most important findings are the ones from South-East Asia.
Anderson conducted his most important research in South-East Asia. Indonesia, as it is understood today, never actually existed. It is a product of the Dutch colonization; the settlers referred to their territory as -pseudo-Hellenic name suggests, its stretch does not even remotely correspond to any pre-colonial domain; on the
1996) Nevertheless, that was enough for the newly formed Indonesian intelligentsia to
-
western Sumatra had more connections with the people on the Malay peninsula than those
in Ambon. Yet one of the biggest reasons the Indonesia project succeed where others failed
(i.e. United Indochina) was the fact that the Dutch tolerated the Indonesian language as Around the turn of the century, Indonesia's lingua franca
will become a powerful tool in the nation-building process.
A national culture is not folklore, nor an abstract populism that believes it can discover the people's true nature. A national culture is the whole body of efforts
made by a people in the sphere of thought to describe, justify and praise the action through which that people has created itself and keeps itself in existence. A national culture in underdeveloped countries should therefore take its place
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at the very heart of the struggle for freedom which these countries are carrying on (Fanon, 1963).
than three-quarters of the people living today have had their lives shaped by the experience
of colonialism (Barke
rid of colonial powers writers and theoreticians start to write and discuss about post- colonialism. Postcolonial theory explores postcolonial discourses and their subject positions in relation to the themes of race, nation, subjectivity, power, subalterns, hybridity and creolization (Barker, 2005). There are numerous approaches and definitions of Postcolonial theory, for this research one useful is mentioned under. Seeks to speak to the vast and horrific social and psychological suffering, exploitation, violence and enslavement done to the powerless victims of colonization around the world. It challenges the superiority of the dominant Western perspective and seeks to re-position and empower the marginalized and subordinated Other. It pushes back to resist paternalistic and patriarchal foreign practices that dismiss local thought, culture and practice as uniformed, barbarian and irrational. It identifies the complicated process of establishing an identity that is both different from, yet influenced by, the colonist
It is still questionable where domains of postcolonial theory are. Some argue that even the American culture can be put into post-colonial frame. Here we would address to
the findings and ideas of those theoreticians whose work is relevant to this research.
Edward Said in his book Orientalism argues how French and British colonist who in the
Middle East started to construct Orient or East as a contrast to West which authors will later
call this Occident and Occidentalism. He argued that this construction was built a binary
opposition model in which Western values can be described as: progressive, liberal,
secular, educated, democratic, open, and so on. Eastern ideals would conversely be
described as: conservative, closed, religious -
major component in European culture is precisely ... the idea of European identity as a superior one in comparison with all the non-
Orientalism is also possible inside the West. Maria Todorova is a Bulgarian born
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concept of Orientalism in European region of Balkan in her book Imagining Balkans
(2009). She analysed what the term Balkans meant within a cultural frame. She explained
the origin of the name, and how from the 19th century and with the falling of the Ottoman
Empire and rise of national states in it, Europe (West) started to become interested in this
region. It shows further how Europe was always between accepting it in its own cultural
(and with that economical, political and every other way) circle and rejecting it with great passion and discussion over its monstrosity, brutality, and primitivism. Postcolonial theory grows from literature theory and its first authors were ones of Indian origins, Homi Bhabha is one of the most famous critical theorist and Postcolonial theory contributor. One of his central ideas is that of hybridization, which, taking up from Edward Said's work, describes the emergence of new cultural forms from multiculturalism. Instead of seeing colonialism as something locked in the past, Bhabha shows how its histories and cultures constantly intrude on the present, demanding that we transform our understanding of cross-cultural relations. His work transformed the study of colonialism by applying post-structuralist methodologies to colonial texts. Feminism is cultural theory where Postcolonial theory can also be implemented. Chandra Talpade Mohanty is an Indian postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist. In her essay Under the Western Eyes - Feminist Scholarship and Feminist Discourse (1998) she argued that there is still colonisation when Western authors write about East. They do
prejudices that they exploit and with that process they are reproducing these stereotypes.
often violent
y potential and political
Perhaps this quote can be used when we talk about Postcolonial theory we say too
much and we say too little. Milica Bakic Hayden developed her idea of nesting East and
Balkan in Europe (1995) where eastern and south-eastern European countries did not have
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historical experience of being colonies, but experience of being occupied or being part of
greater, more powerful Empires gave people from this regions similar historical experience
and search for justice and identity in similar way how ex-colonial nations did. The ideas of
Postcolonial theory are very diverse, in this paper we will be researching the one dealing
with identity. Primary with theories concerned with creating Other, with notions such are
West and Rest, Orientalism, Nesting Orientalism and others. Secondly, the theories of cultural hybridity to be an integral and dynamic part of Indonesian art. Nevertheless, from the 19th century until today Indonesian artists are trying to prove that they can be the East and the West at the same time. It may look that in globalized world these notions are outdated; actually they are still present, just in different shapes and forms.
2. Visual Semiotics
All art is signs and symbols. Representational art is symbol for objects, places, or people being represented. Abstract art can be symbol of an idea or feeling in the artist viewer. Sign is everything that can be taken as significantly substituting for something else. nherited set of conventions,
academic field in observing and interpreting meaning convey in art. Generally speaking it is
new academic field; it was first developed and interpreted in studies of languages.
Notes from lectures of the Swiss author Ferdinand de Saussure are foundations of
modern semiotics. Saussure divides a sign into two components the signifier (the sound,
image, or word) and the signified, which is the concept the signifier represent, or meaning.
If we look at his ideas from art point of view we can say that everything that we identify in work of art is signifier. In first place in painting those signs are present in colours and
lines. Shortest definition of semiotics is that is the study of signs.
Signs themselves cannot be understood alone, so we need to interpret them within a
sign system. It is a combination of sign relationship relationship with one sign to another
(in paintings this is sometimes cal
text whose content is a multileveled discourse
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you can and will say with yo
post-modernistic approach to paintings (art and culture in general) that the meaning is also
conveyed in relationship where painting is uttered, in whose company, by whom and for
what purpose, etc.
Charles S. Pierce was an American philosopher who developed similar ideas to those of Saussure. In art studies it is important to mention his three kinds of signs; we would call them in art studies representational signs: Index where signifier is not arbitrary, rather it has direct connection to signified. In paintings examples of this is smoke which represents fire, dark clouds storm and bad weather, or sometimes there are even figure pointing (indexing) at something which have obvious indexical value. Icon where signifier resembles signified. In paintings those are self-portraits, portraits, cartoons, and caricatures. Symbol signifier does not look at all as signified. Its value is arbitrary and it is pure matter of conventions. It needs to be learnt, otherwise it does not have any value. Examples of these in paintings are: national flags, sculls in still-life paintings, animals like symbols of some human characteristics etc. They can also be verbal as writings in painting, books, quotes, etc. (Hirsh, 2011)
images on the Internet, so big that theoretician argue are we living in verbal or visual
society. Dillon (1999) asks three questions: How language-like are images? How do images
and words work when they are both present? How do scenes of people gazing and posing
convey visual meaning? These questions can be placed as central questions of visual
communication and visual semiotics.
components that make language langue the system of language that is internalized by
given speech community; and parole individual act of speech. Art is understood as
primitive language that combined visual signs and linguistic principles. Structural approach
to art is that art is like a sentence, whose meaning is conveyed by its compositional
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elements and conventions of art, rather than form and subject matter. In visual art,
semiotics interprets messages based on their signs and symbolism. So we can argue that art
is language. There are also some who will argue that images are mute. Natural meaning of
represented objects does not exist, before we provide them meaning. There is no syntax that
articulates their part and binds them together.
One of the critics of language-painting homology is Dufrenne (1966)11 he gives two objections to this: the first one is a structural one (Painting is not system with two articulations ents it and betrays it in its painting does not have strength to signify, but to show. Zems (1967)12 agrees that painting is not language, but he says that there are many pictorial languages, represented in every painting style. Marin (1971)13 describes three phases in reading painting the primary level is where we identify the signs, the second level is when we put them in a relationship with other (visible and invisible (absent) signs), and then we en
beyond spatiotemporal interpretations, the meaning of visual syntax becomes fluid, indeterminate, and more subject to
picture and we do not
understand the complex sign relationship that picture will be mute for us. Therefore most
of the times, images are followed by words expressed in titles, labels, placards, guides,
he text constitutes a parasitic message
examples for this are the words of Rene Magritte:
My painting is visible images which conceal nothing: they evoke mystery and,
indeed, when one sees one of my pictures, one asks oneself this simple question
11 From Nöth, W. 1995. Handbook of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid.
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Relationships between text and images are delivered by explication (where text is
is exploited by advertising industries and famous interpretation of this is given by French
semiotician Roland B
advertisement for Panzani pasta. There are three classes of messages within the image: 1) The linguistic message text, 2) The symbolic (coded iconic) message connoted image and 3) The literal (non- coded iconic) message denoted image. Text connected with image has two functions to be anchorage to enrich meaning of words with meaning of image; and to be relay like in comic strips to convey meaning. Denoted image is hard to grasp, Barthes is saying about
image is one with rhetoric. In this example it says about product: freshness, Italianicity, idea of total culinary service, still life-like-advertisement and so on. A meaning is derived from a lexicon (idiolect) which is body of knowledge within the viewer. The third question in visual semiotics sign producing and conveying meaning is a relationship between the one who is looking and the one who is being looked at. Theory of gaze was developed by French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan. This complex
theory can be implemented to how we understand art and visual semiotic. Example for this
is analyses of female gazes in Renaissance painting in Europe (around the XV century)
male were always depicted as dominant with sharp and controlling gaze toward the women
and/or viewer, on the other hand females were depicted as subordinate, shy, turning their
heads, looking themselves in mirrors, etc. In art theory we recognize four gazes:
1) Gaze of artist: how the artist look at the subject
2) Gaze of viewer: point of view, predetermined by the artist, or self-determined by
the viewer 3) Gaze of the figure depicted in the art out to the viewer
4) Gaze of one depicted figure to another or to an object or area within or outside
of the work (Hirsh, 2011)
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postcolonial
discourse where mighty (European, Western) ruler is looking dominantly to his
subordinate one. Theory of gaze is present topic in film studies, or in interpreting the
advertisements (both still photographed one and action video one) but as one form of
visual communication it was important to be mentioned here as well.
u
Every time when we articulate a word we also have visual representation of it. Connection between verbal and visual language is undeniable. Therefore, in this study, visual semiotics approach, together with postcolonial theory will be implemented in understanding and interpreting Indonesian paintings where Pangeran Diponegoro is the main motif.
C. Relevant Researches
1. Researches about Heroism
Most recent study about heroism is one made by Scot T. Allison and George R. Goethals. This study is published in three books. The first one (2010) is Heroes What They Do and Why We Need Them. This study offers a combination of psychological
research with examples from real life, various kinds of fiction, and of many different kinds of heroes. This is the first from three volumes about the heroism. The second one (2013) is
entitled Heroic leadership an Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals14 -
review of the relationship between leadership and heroism, showing how most cherished
heroes are also most transforming leaders. There is also a description of taxonomy, or
conceptual framework, for differentiating among the many varieties of heroism (Trending
Heroes, Transitory Heroes, Transparent Heroes, Transitional Heroes, Tragic Heroes,
Transposed Heroes, Traditional Heroes, Transforming Heroes, and Transcendent Heroes).
14 retrieved from http://reelheroes.net/about-our-book/
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The third book Reel Heroes, Volume 1: Two Hero Experts Critique the Movies (2014)15
explores heroes in the movies and offers a categorization scheme for understanding
different types of heroes. These books give good answers to questions why do we need
heroes, what is consider a heroic act, how do we look at heroic acts and heroes, but overall
a concept of heroism is not clear and firmly defined. (Allison and Goethals, 2014)
The same problem arose several times while consulting primarily American authors and their writing about heroes. Sidney Hook (1955) in his The Hero in History A Study in Limitation and Possibility also gives taxonomy of heroes. One is The Heroes of Thought where heroes are divided in following categories in: 1) Literature, Music, and Painting; 2) Philosophy and Science; 3) Religion; and 4) The Historical Hero. In every chapter after some theoretical explanation, a list of great names in each category is given. Nevertheless, this book gives explanation of circumstances around heroism and influences around them social determinism, influences of monarchies, heroes in Soviet Union, heroes in democracy, etc. (Hook, 1955). One of the oldest studies entitled On Heroes, Hero Worshiping and The Heroic in History written by Thomas Carlyle (1840) puts together Odin, Scandinavian Pagan god, Muhammad, prophet in Islam, and Napoleon together. In
Gr 16 These studies gave a good general knowledge of how heroes are preserved and maintained in West, through history, literature, other forms of art, and
most recently popular culture. Yet, they are too broad and in small scale related for this
research.
Connections with national ideology, heroism and art are found in these three
researches: National heroes are political symbols for US-Bulgarian native historian Maria
Todorova. In her book Bones of contention - The living archive of Vasil Levski and the (2009) she discusses more about this topic. In this book
she is talking about, contradictions in making a national hero by co-operation of the
Communist party of Bulgaria and Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Vasil Levski was a
nationalistic leader of Bulgaria who established revolutionary organizations to fight for
15 Ibid. 16 Retrieved from http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/excerpts/Carlyle_excerpt.pdf
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freedom of Bulgaria, which was in his time autonomous under Ottoman rule. That was mid
19th century and Levski was hanged for his idea and he did not live to see independent
Bulgaria. In his early ages he was an Orthodox priest, later he became prominent patriotic
national hero par excellence
(Todorova, 2009) State identity and nationalism are main topics of Linas Eriksonas, Lithuanian historian and philosopher. In his book (derived from his PhD thesis) National Heroes and National Identities (2004) he is examining the heroism and connection with state and national identity and ideology in three different European states: Scotland, Norway, and Lithuania. While he is giving historical perspectives on the national heroes in these countries he is also putting them in modern framework and is arguing how important presence of national heroes is in lives of people. He illustrates this by giving examples of fests that are commemorating lives and glorious past of heroes, how they are used in daily politics, erection of new monuments, etc. He does not define national heroes, but from his writing and examples, those are great people from history of these nations (Eriksonas, 2004) The Politics of Symbol in Serbia is a collection of essays in political anthropology written by Iv background of
Serbian nationalism and role of political and national symbols in breaking up of Yugoslavia
are main topics in this book. War crimes committed in Yugoslavian war were the most
brutal after the World War II in Europe. Many of these war crimes were committed by
Serbian chauvinistic war criminals. Serbian nationalism is shaped by political and ethno-
centric symbols. These symbols were important for Serbian narrative and they also include stories about national heroes (Colovic, 2002)
-East Asia, but gives more references and examples of
practice of nation-building in this region. He quotes Thomas L. Friedman who called
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mainly driven by nation and human culture (published books, newspapers, language) Day is
more concerned with the state and its apparatus how kinship shapes society and the state,
what was role of gender in this process, how Southeast Asian states are constructed as
cosmologies like a respond to the Western teleology, etc. He also uses broad range of
in Day, 2002) Idea of Javanisation of Indonesia and how Javanese elites continue colonial practice Official History in Modern Indonesia: New Order Perspectives and Counterviews (2005). This was significant in New Order era which is timeframe from his book. He argues that Indonesians explain to themselves (and world beyond) that they did not just inherit the Dutch East India, how ideas of Indonesia are older. To illustrate this point re-interpretation of glory past is used. Ancient empires of Sriwijaya and Majapahit were the Golden Age of (proto) Indonesia. Unrests, rebellions of people all around the Archipelago are seen as fights to liberate Indonesia. That is why they are national heroes now. (Wood, 2005)
1.1. Researches about Pangeran Diponegoro
Peter Carey (born 1948) is a British historian and author whose focuses of
studies include East Timor, Java and Burma. He was the Laithwaite fellow of Modern
History at Trinity College, Oxford. His major early work has concentrated on the history
of Diponegoro, the British in Java and the Java War. He is currently completing an Oral
History of the Indonesian Occupation of East Timor, 1975 99. In Trinity College he had
taught courses Taught: Europe and the wider world, 1818-1914 (in the Modern History Faculty) and Imperialism and nationalism, Southeast Asia 1830-199817. This research
consulted two researches of Carey. The first one is the book entitled The Power of
Prophecy: Prince Dipanegara and the end of an old order in Java, 1785 185518. It is one
17 From Oxford University Web page http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/staff/isa/pcarey.html - accessed 20.12.2013. 18 This book is published by KITL Press Leiden in 2007 (2008, second edition). Indonesian version is translated by Hashim Djojohadikusmo and Yayasan Arsari Djojohadikusumo and it is published by
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of the most complete chronicles about life of Diponegoro and British interregnum in Java.
It is a history book, but with interesting points about personal histories, also it is richly
illustrated. With numerous illustrations from Javanese chronicles from that time, the first
portraits of Diponegoro, and also famous Pienemaan - Mas Saleh painting discussions it
was crucial for understanding evolution of visual representation of Pangeran Diponegoro.
The second one is an omnibus-book entitled Asal-usul perang Jawa - Pemberontakan Sepoy dan Lukisan Raden Saleh19 artwork are given. Narratives in Indonesian about Pangeran Diponegoro in form of national hero are used in school textbooks and popular books that were available in biggest bookstore in Indonesia Gramedia. Sagimun, M. D. (1960) Pahlawan Dipanegara berdjuang Bara 1960 - due to its old Indonesian spelling it was hard to understand and read this book, but overall impression was that book is full of hot nationalism. It was published a year after first national heroes were proclaimed and in era -building and with that it was interesting input for understanding and witnessing one time in modern Indonesian history.
2. Researches about Indonesian Painting
Indonesian painting is researched more by Westerners than Indonesians. Indonesian
art is often understood and read from art catalogues, curatorial notes, art critic writings
Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG) in 2012 as three parts book under the name Kuasa Ramalan: Pangeran Diponegoro dan Akhir Tatanan Lama di Jawa, 1785-1855
19 Actually, this book is three papers written by Peter Carey that Indonesian publisher (Pustaka Azet, Jakarta - 1986) merged in one book. For this research first and third paper were used: The origins of the Java War
(1825-30) (originally published in English Historical review, 1976) and Raden Saleh, Dipanegara and the painting of the capture of Dipanegara at Magelang (Published in Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the
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es of
Indonesian art. First, she gives a short history of Indonesian art. On the basis of Indonesian
art she quotes artist and critic Jim Supangkat that Indonesian art grew out of Western art
grows with blend of European modernity and Asian influences. She continues her
discussion with illustrations of how in the past 20 years Indonesian artist were engaged in commenting political issues and human right issues. The formula for expression in Indonesian art is again similar to one from the 19th century Indonesian art adopted ideas such as installation and protest from Western art, merely Indonesianising Later, she examined work of three Indonesian artists to illustrate her point. Armhaniani is the first artist she is mentioning and explaining her artwork. In 1996 she produced an installation and performance called Nation for Sale where she addressed issues of nationalism, globalisation, and position of common people in this (dis)order. In 1999 her work Burning Body-Burning Country was addressed to un-rests in Indonesia in that year, and violence towards women. Moelyono is the second artist that she comments. His work deals with controversies in Indonesian society such as Communist party and lives of Chinese people in Java. The last one is Dadang Christanto and he deals with problems of a suicide of becak driver when this sort of transportation was
forbidden in Bandung; land inquisition from farmers for building golf courses. He himself
esian artist of the past 20
(Turner, 2005) Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good and Byron J. Good (2008) in Indonesia Sakit
Indonesian Disorders and the Subjective Experience and Interpretive Politics of
Contemporary Indonesian Artists
edited by Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good, Sandra Teresa Hyde, Sarah Pinto, Byron J. Good).
Previous research ends with questions and doubts where Indonesian art will go in new,
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This New Disorder in contemporary Indonesian art is a topic of research of Good
and Good (2008). They also interpret works of three contemporary Indonesian artists. Alex
Luthfi is the first author interviewed and his painting Kado Reformasi (Gift of
Reformation) was interpreted. In this painting - national emblem of Garuda was painted in black, with pig head, and a tie. It is a criticism of new era with old habits corruption, nepotism, and big social differences are problems that the author points out here. Agus Yuliantara painted Indonesia Sakit (Indonesian disorders, sick Indonesia, Indonesia in pain) which served as title of whole research. He points out the same problems as Pak Luthi, but
the Indonesian archipelago, there are also two naked figures and a shadow-like figure from which a pigeon is emerging. This complex painting is full of the symbols, present time is not safe and nice, but overall artist has optimistic point of view towards future. The third artist is Entang Wiharso who painted nation Run Amok where he is aware of responsibility that state has toward its citizens, but he is dare to address problems within the people. His main issue is surprising violent behaviour of Indonesians. (Good and Good, 2008) We can conclude that violence is still one of the present topics of contemporary
is fighting his battles in the world of Indonesian paintings from the 19th century until
today. These two recent researches helped by building methodology. For this research five
paintings with Pangeran Diponegoro were chosen and analyzed thoroughly, while other
paintings, sketches, illustrations were there just to maintain ideas mentioned.
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D. Framework of the research
Concept of Heroism
Postcolonial Theory National Heroes in Indonesia
The 19th century
Pangeran
Diponegoro
As
A The 20th century Painting Main
Motif Painting 1 In The 20th/21st Painting 2 Paintings century
Interpretation of
Artwork
Visual
Semiotics
Figure 1 Framework of the research
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Main idea of this research is to analyze presence of Pangeran Diponegoro in
paintings from different time period. Five paintings have been chosen from three different
time period:
19th century and period after the Java War (1825-1830) whose leader was
Pangeran Diponegoro. First painting (from 1830) is by a Dutch author Nicolaas
Pieneman and second one (from 1857) by Javanese Raden Saleh. Their meanings are different, while style and genre in which they are painted look almost same. Second half of the 20th century is time when Indonesia got its independence from the Dutch. This period was a time of turbulent history and intensive process of nation-building which can be seen in painting of Diponegoro by S. Sudjojono from 1979. End of the 20th century was a time when Indonesia stepped toward democracy after 30 years of dictatorship. Questions about national identity were again actual, and some reflections of these are present in a painting of Agung Kurniawan (painted in dusk of New Order regime 1994). It did not address any specific ideology nor any special territorial unit (Indonesian country, or Javanese land) it is somehow a global critique. On the other side, the painting of Heri Dono is an obvious caricature of Indonesian politics. That is why these artworks are under .
Pangeran Diponegoro was mentioned in this research as a (national) hero. In
Indonesia this term is strict and it is defined by state. In some other cultures this term is
subject of perception of historians, anthropologists, sociologists, and others. In the 19th
century when the first two painting were painted, Indonesia was not a nation.
-
Diponegoro entered the list in 1967. Today this list is enormous (159 people) and is ever-
growing. Therefore in this research there will be a word about this title as well as process of
declaring one national hero. Questions about national building, ideology, and identity
(which are symbolized in this title) are looked through Postcolonial Theory.
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understanding and appreciating one piece of art observing composition, perspective,
usage of colours, lines, other figures, and so on. Visual semiotics is used to de-code
symbols in it. In the first place the task is to find and interpret symbols of (national) hero
Pangeran Diponegoro as main object of research, but with him also others. One sign is
rarely understood alone, sign enters into a relationship with other signs to build net or systems of signs. Together they make meaning. Meaning and value of these paintings are main objectives of this research
E. Hypothesis
Pangeran Diponegoro is a powerful motif in Indonesian paintings and culture in general. His representation is following social and historical changes that occured around his native Java. Nevertheless, narrative around him is ever-actual and it will be re-shaped and re-told for years to come.
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