CHAPTER - I INDO-ARAB RELATIONS WESTERN COAST
I. EARLY INDO-ARAB RELATIONS II.A. THE ADVENT OF ARABIC IN INDIA B. THE INTRODUCTION OF ARABIC IN INDIA AS A LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATION C. THE HISTORY OF CULTURAL EXCHANGES. I - EARLY INDO-ARAB RELATIONS
The relations of India with West Asia are rooted into antiquity and are possibly as old as the people themselves. There are legends which take the relations as far back as the creation of humanity. The first creation of God, according to the Semitic belief, was Adam who, being the first human is called Abu'1 Bashar, "The Father of Mankind". It is said that this Biblical Adam, when driven from Paradise, found refuge on the Island of Sarandib (Sinhata- dwip: Ceylon), where he is deemed to have stayed for 200 years separated from his wife 'Eve', doing penance and repenting for his disobedience. There is on the island a mountain called by Portugese 'Picode Adam' where, according to the legend, the imprints of Adam's feet, 70
cubits long, are seen on the rock . The Adam's bridge , the name given possibly to a route leading to the island of Lanka, still survives and reminds one of the Indo-Semitic relations of the antiquated period. These traditions have not only become part of the Islamic religious literature but they are also recounted by many Arab historians and geographers in their works e.g. Ibn Qutayba (d.276/889), Maqdisi (d.375/985) and Ya'qut al-Hamavi (d.626/1228) and others. Ibn-al-Faqih-al-Hamadani says in his Kitab 2 ul-Buldan :
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^ >e t »JLJ
• -*^ ' J
"It is said that Adam descended at Mount Sarandib India, Eve at Jeddah, Satan at Missan, the place of Dajjal's appearance, where the lands are fertile, water is sweet, climate is good, winds are low and we find many kinds of grains similar to other places.
Allah knows better and He is the wisest." In a couple of traditions it is mentioned that Adam
is believed to have died in Ceylon and that the stories
connected with his sons, Habil and Qabil are said to have taken place in Indi.a 3. The west Asian tradition of linking
up India with their version of the beginning of creation is itself an illuminating piece of evidence of the immemorial and very ancient affinities and connections between the regions. Even the word 'Adam' reminds one of the Adi-Manushya of Sanskrit (The initial man, the first man)
the two terms both in sound and content are so similar. The river valley civilization of ancient India, Iraq and Egypt
» • • ^ had many things in common. Even their epics, the Book of the Dead of Egypt, Gilgamesh of Iraq and Mahabharata and Ramayana of India have much that speak of a dumberative cultural and social characteristics within the regions. The story of flood, destroying the civilized world is recounted by the Semites of Syria and Arabia, the Sumerians of Mesopotamia and the Aryans of India. The relationship, one can safely reiterate have been as old as the people themselves. Apart from the legendry relations, India's commercial and trade relations with west Asia and north Africa have known to have existed since the third millenium B.C. Even in the times of Harappa and Mohinjodaro the close commercial and cultural contacts have existed between the two river civilizations of Tagris-Euphrates and Indo-Ganges. Piggot points out: "Cotton cloth is likely to have been an important article of commerce for the Harappan civilization, and it is probable that some of the trade 4 with Mesopotamia at least was in cotton goods" . This view is also supported by the imprint preserved on the back of 5 one seal (used on bales of goods) . Indian cotton came to be known in Iraq and the vicinity with the passage of time
as 'Sindhu' and the word has even passed into Greek as
'Sindou'.
. ..4 Evidence of commercial contact between India and the ancient civilization of Tigris-Euphrates region is provided by Lothal Seals, etched cornelian beads, lapis lazuli and amazonite found in Sumerian sites. In several digging sites, Indian pottery has also been found . The principal articles of commerce from India to Sumer, Akkad and their successors, however, was mainly textiles. South India too had its share in this exchange of culture and commodities.
According to Nilkantha Sh^stri "the suggestion of a possible trade and cultural contact between Mesopotamia and south India gets support from the striking parallels noticed in the religious practices of early Mesopotamia and southern India. The amazonite beads found in the rivers of the west have come from the Nilgiri Hills of south India" . "Even before the discovery of Mohanjodaro", observes R.C. Majumdar, "there were trade relations between India and western world from times immemorial. On the basis of recent archaeological evidence, one can, with confidence, assert that the beginning of the intercourse between India and West Asia can be pushed back to a date earlier than the 9th 8 century B.C." The commercial activities in the Arabian Sea from early times upto the 3rd century A.D. were dominated by the
Greeks and Romans. From the ancient times, the Arab merchants were the main ware-carriers and commercial agents
• • • 3 5
for the trade between India and Egypt. The items supplied to Egypt were precious stones, spices and the incense. Incence was mainly used at the altars of the ancient Egyptian gods. Export of cotton cloth finds mention in the most of the ancient Indian texts and Prof. A.H. Sayer believes that it was exported by sea to the countries on
the Persian Gulf in the 4th millenium B.C. and it also 9 found its market early in Egypt . The recent excavations in Nubia, Sudan also clearly show the Indo-Egyptian contacts. The Indian Muslin and Indigo were found in Egyptian tombs dating back to 1700 B.C. This lucrative trade with Egypt, India and the East was long monopolized by the Yemenite Arabs and the wealth it fetched enabled them to build a magnificent civilization with political and cultural centre
at Sabaea . In the words of Agatharchides (113 B.C.) there was "no nation upon earth so wealthy as the Gerrhaeans and Sabaeans, because of their situation in the centre of all the commerce which passed between Asia and Europe 12 . The
south Arabia was the Arabia Felix of Heradotus. The testimony of India's close contact with Western Asia can also be discerned in the names of Kassite Kings
(18th century B.C.); most of them are the names of the Indian deities, Suryas, Marutas, etc.
... 6 Later evidences of continuous commercial contacts between India and western Asia tells us of trade by sea between Phoenicians of the Levant and western India. In or around 800 B.C. Hiram, King of Tyre, it is said, at the instance of King Solomon used to send a navy of Tarshish to India once in three years and the naval expedition used to bring back "gold and silver, ivory, apes, peacocks and plenty of Almug wood and precious stones" 13 from the port called 'Ophir*. R.C. Majumdar says that this port in all probability was in India and may be identified with modern 'Sopara', the 'Sophala' of the later Arabs. Besides, the use of Indian names for the merchandise carried in these maritime enterprises, speaks of the importance the Arabs 14 attached to their trade with India . (The Arab travellers and geographers of the later ages mention Sopara as Sufala, Sufara, Subara etc.). The fact that the words of Sanskrit
and Tamil origin (e.g. "Valgu", "Chandana" - Sanskrit 'Thuki-im' and Tamil 'Tokei' for peacocks, the word 'Sindhu' used for Indian cotton and the Hebrew Karpas, derived from Sanskrit 'Karpasa') are used for the goods carried in these expeditions shows that the port of origin lay somewhere in the Peninsular India and this again supports that the biblical 'Ophir' was Sopara.
...7 7
Arab merchants, passed along the Coromondal coast on their way to China, where the monuments of pre-Islamic Arabs are still found at Canton. Agatharchides, a geographer who flourished in the 2nd century B.C. says that in his own time, the Indian trade was in the hands of the Sabeans of Yemen . Warmington observes that the Sabaeans of al-Yemen had built up a prosperous and undisturbed trade with India and that they had grown immensely wealthy
The period between 31 B.C. and 96 A.D. is regarded as the "Golden Period" of trade between India and Graeco- Roman Empire 17 . There are plenty of references of these
contacts in the works of Greek historians and geographers;
e.g. Herodatus Strabo, Pliny etc. The possibility of discovering a direct sea route leading from Europe to India has always played an important role in human history. There were two important routes by which trade was carried on between India and the West in ancient times. The first route ran from the mouth of the Indus and up the Euphrates. This was an important route
during the days of Babylonian Empire but fell into oblivion
after its fall. The second route, more important than the
first lay from the Indian coast to that of Yemen and
Hadramawt and from there passing along the Red Sea coast to
Syria and thence to Europe; either directly from the Syrian
coast or via Egypt and Alexandria. This was an important
... 8 8
and highly beneficial commercial route for the prosperity of south-west Arabia in ancient times. However, it lost its importance when Ptolemies established an overland route 18 from India to Alexandria It appears that the Greeks did not capture the
Indian trade entirely. Artemidorus, who lived a hundred years before Christ says "the Sabaites buy commodities from the people around them and pass them on to the neighbouring lands. The goods ultimately find their way to Syria 19 . The Arabs had managed to carry on trade with India side by side 20 with the Greeks The important ports for Egyptian trade with India were Myes-Hormus and Berenice. The main ports and market towns along the coast of India during this period were Barbaricum (Karachi) and Barygaza (Broach) to the north; Muziris (Cranganore) and Nelcynda (Kottayam) to the south-west; Camera, Poduca and Sopatma to the south-east; and Ganges on the delta of Ganges. This was apparently the terminus of Roman trade 21 In the 3rd century A.D. there was a decline in
Greeco-Roman trade with India due to the rise of Sassanian
dynasty in Iran and closing down of the available land
routes. Himyarite Kingdom of south Arabia in Yemen was
invaded and conquered by Persia in 579 A.D. mainly for
commercial reasons and controlling of trades. With the ...9 ensuing political changes and the growing interest of Sassanians in the navigation of the Arabian Sea, the age old trade traffic between Byzantium, Egypt and India was greatly affected. The trade from now on was largely 22 controlled by the Persians . Thus a century before the rise of Islam, the Persians were supreme in commercial activities in the Arabian Sea. The most important ports of India during this period were Sindhu, Orrhotha, Calliana
and Sibor 23 Though political relations between India and
Arabia had existed in some form or the other, they became
more proximate from the 7th century A.D. Trade relations, however, between these two nations existed even from 24 . . pre-historxc times . The historical evidence for these relatioship is plentiful from the 7th century B.C. The whole Arab region was on the trade route between India and the Hellenistic-Roman world. Both the Indians and the Arabs for thousands of years were exposed to mutual influences. The Indian steel and the Indian sword had earned its renown with the Arabs and they called it 'Muhannad'. The swords from India had the reputations of being very supple and sharp. Indian swords of many varieties were imported into
Arabia and they were known as 'Saif al-Hind', Hindi, ' Saif 25 Muhannadi' and so on . Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry has many
...10 10
references to these and they also speak of other goods imported from India . It was commerce which was responsible for establishing a lasting link between the river civilizations of Indus and Ganges and Nile and Euphrates. Even before the dawn of history, Arab merchants used to visit Indian ports and carry the goods to Egypt and Syria/ from where they were taken to the European markets. Goods from Europe were also brought to India by these merchants. These Arab merchants travelled partly by land and partly by sea setting out from the cities of Egypt and Syria, they travelled along the Red Sea coast and passing
through Hejaz they arrived in Yemen. There some embarked on sailing boats bound fot Abyssinia and southern Africa. Others continued their journey by land along the sea coast and passing through Hadarmawt, Oman, Iraq and Bahrain finally reached the Persian Gulf. Thence they sailed for the port of Tez in Baluchistan, or proceeding still further disembarked at the port of Debal (Karachi) in Sindh. Thence sailing along the coast of Gujarat, they touched the port of Thana (Bombay). Then they proceeded further and keeping close to the coast reached Calicut and Cape Camorin. Sometimes they pushed further and passing round Ceylon and touching the Coramandal coast and some ports of Bengal,
they travelled through Burma and Siam to China which seemed
...11 u
to be their final destination. Of course they returned to Arabia by the same route. Arab merchants were a familiar sight in Indian coastal towns, long before recorded history began 27 The sea routes used by the Arabs for trade with
India are described by Sulayman the merchant (Sulayman
Tajir) who lived in the 3rd century Hijra. Describing the sea route from Muscat to Konkan and then to Arabian Sea, he says:
4>.-l~.« ^,_U -*S>S (jJ J f^^ ' J '-^^^^ ' (j-1* _^*»^ o-^ -^^ t-f-J ' >> <—« ^
ijJ 1 ^^^^ LiO i^^ j>,^ U 6««». .1 I o-» ^,/^ 0-» J r*^-» ^-J-J ' *u-"'w^ I ' v>>
"Ships leave Muscat for India in the direction of
Konkan Malli. The ships take one month to reSch Konkan Malli depending upon the winds which should be moderate. There are wells of sweet water in Konkan Malli. The Chinese ships arrive at the port to collect sweet water. Chinese are charged one thousand Dirhams but from other nations, one to ten Dinars are taken. The voyage between Muscat, Konkan Malli and Bay of Bengal takes about one month. From Konkan Malli the ships collect sweet water and turn towards
the Bay of Bengal"^^ ...12 12
similarly Ibnul-Faqih al-Hamadani describes the journey from Muscat to Travancore in his book 'Kitab-al- Buldan'. He also anumerates the abundant natural bounties the country of Sindh and Hind is endowed with like minerals, animals, birds and the variety of agricultural produce. He says:
"Almighty Allah has especially bestowed 'Sindh and Hind' with different kinds of incense, precious stones like Yakut and Almas and animals such as the rhinoceroses, elephants, peacocks. Aromatics, scents, spices, beetle leaf, coconut, ambergis, sandlewood, black pepper and so many other strange goods are produced here" 29
Al-Masudi, the Islamic fourth century Arab historian
and geographer (d.956 A.D.) describes the seasons suitable
for sailing to India. He mentions the periods of the year
when the sea is calm or stormy. On the basis of this he
recommends the months which are suitable and safe for
...13 13
sailing to India. "Seasons in India" he says, "do not correspond closely with seasons in our country (Baghdad). When it is hot here, it is cool in India and people often go over to India to escape the heat here. In the month of June (Tir Mah) ships do not sail to India, except those which are easily manoeuvrable and carry very light cargo. 30 These are popularly known as Tir Mahi ships (June ships)"
What Abu Zayd Sayrafi (c.916 A.D.) says about the matter is also very interesting. He says: "The ships remain idle in the rainy season. At this time the Indians are engaged in the cultivation of crops or in some craft. They depend on the rainfall for their livelihood. It is the time for sowing the paddy crop. Rice is their staple food" 31
Ibn Khurdazabih who flourished towards the end of the eighth century, has listed the following goods which were exported from India to Iraq and Arabia - "Different kinds of sweet smelling woods, sandalwood, camphor, cloves, nutmegs, coconuts, flaxen and cotton fabrics and ivory, pepper, lead, kutla drug, bamboo and cane. All kinds of precious stones, pearls, diamonds were exported from Ceylon. Cotton cloth from Thana, sandals of Cambay and pearls from Sopara (Bombay) were other commercial items exported to the Arab world. Among animals, elephants, horns of rhinocerous and peacock were exported. Indian ivory
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goods were much in demand and were exported from very 32 ancient times" Among the goods imported by India were horses, ivory tusks, gold, pearls, dates and other finished goods. On the basis of the accounts of the Arab travellers and geographers, the payment were usually made in 'gold*. Also the exports exceeded the imports and the goods exported from India fetched a lucrative amount than the
goods imported by Indi.a 33 The period between the rise of Islam in the 7th century A.D. and the 10th century A.D. is regarded by some historians as the "Golden Age" of trade relations between India and the Arab world. The most important factor contributing to the Indo-Arab was the rise and spread of Islam from Hijaz. It engulfed vast territories between the Canary Islands, off the west coast of Africa in the west and the borders of China in the east and between the Caucasus in the north and the shores of the Arabian Sea in the south. The arrival of Arabs in Sind enhanced the
overland trade with India. However, sea trade between India
'' and Arabia reached its zenith when Baghdad became the capital of the Arab Empire. At this period for the first time Baghdad was directly linked with the Arabian Sea
through the water systems of the Tigris and the Euphrates,
which jointly flowed into Persian Gulf. Later Basra, which
...15 15
was an ancient port, was further developed and served as an important entrepot where the imports and exports of the east and the west were stocked and exchanged. Trading vessels from India, China and Abyssinia anchored at this port. It continued to flourish inspite of political upheavals. After the Arab occupation of Sind, the travellers mostly embarked for India from this port.
From the historical records of the first century Hijra, we find that the important ports of the Arab Sea trade were Daybul (in Sind), Cambay, Broach, Thana, Sopara and Quilon on the west and south-west coast and Ballin, Kanja (Kanchipuram) and Samundar on the east coast. Ibn Hawqal, who lived in the 4th century Hijra, 10th century A.D. writes about Daybul, "This is a big mart and the scene of varied commerical activities."
II: A. THE ADVENT OF ARABIC IN INDIA
As a result of commercial intercourse between the two regions, a number of Arabic words were introduced in the Indian languages of the maritime regions in western and southern India. These words have come directly from Arabic and not through Persian via northern India. Similarly, many Indian words were introduced into the Arabic language. As mentioned earlier the merchandise imported from India to Arabia consisted of perfumes, spices, cloth etc. Arabs naturally borrowed words for these articles from Indian
...16 16
languages. Thus words such as Sandal (Chandan-alloe wood), misk (musk), Kafur (camphor), qaranful (cloves), filfil (pepper), hal (cardamom), zanjabil (ginger), jaifal (nutmeg), narjil (coconut), mawz (banana), limun (lemon), tanbul (betel) etc. are Arabicised forms of the Indian words. The Arabs were so fascinated with the word 'Hind' that they often chose it as a name for their women. This word was also added to the Arabic words e.g. ' u'd Hindi', 'qust Hindi', 'Tamr Hindi' etc. to denote the Indian products. Similarly Arab navigation to the Indian coast inducted several words of Indian origin into Arabic travels and geographical works, e.g. the word 'barigah' (plural bawarij) meaning pirates, is the Arabicised form of the
Indian word 'bera' and the word 'Dawnij' meaning 'small
boat' owes its origin to the Indian word ' Dongi'3 4 . Jurji
Zaydan the well known Egyptian Scholar and historian thinks
that the words 'Subh' (dawn), 'daw' (light) and 'baha' (Light) seem to be of Sanskrit origin, as these words are not found in the other semitic languages 35
Though the commercial relations that existed between
the two countries resulted in mutual cultural influences to some extent, the direct and more important influences began
as we have said earlier, after a century of the rise of
Islam in Arabia and with the foundation of the Abbasid Empire in the middle of the 8th century A.D. This period
...17 17
marks the beginning of a long history of close cultural contact which lasted for several centuries. According to Aziz Ahmed "Muslims arrived in India in three distinct movements; first as traders and missionaries to India's southern coast; then in the expanding wave of the Umayyad coquests which carried them to the Rhone, the Syr Darya and the Indus; and finally like the Greeks, the Sakas and the Huns, in a more organized conquest cum immigration movement of the central Asian Turks and Afghans
The first phase of the contact of the trading Islam with India begins towards the end of the 7th century A.D. when Arab traders started settling down on the eastern and western coast of the Peninsula. The first Arab expedition to India was undertaken in the year 15 A.H./636 A.D. Uthman b. Abu' 1-Ash*ath al-Thaqafi, who was the Governor of Oman under 'Umar al-Faruq the second Caliph, sent an expedition to Thana (Bombay) on his own initiative, without seeking permission from the Caliph. But the latter when informed of the expedition expressed his displeasure and disallowed further action. Shyakh 'Abdu'l Hayy says that the expedition was undertaken under the leadership of Al-Hakam, the brother of 'Uthman'. This statement is important in as much as 'al-Hakam' like his brother 'Uthman' was a companion of the Holy Prophet. This means
...18 IB
that al-Hakam was the first companion of the Prophet to have set foot on the Indian soil. Subsequent writers have simply followed Shaykh 'Abdul Hayy. 'Abdul Hayy seems to have derived his information from al-Baladhuri, who is our principal and perhaps the only authority for this account, but we find that al-Baladhuri merely states:
"Al-Thaqafi sent his brother al-Hakara to Bahrain and went himself to "Uthman" and sent an army across to
Thana" 37
Al-Baladhuri's statement, however, does not say as to who was the leader of the expedition. The expedition proved successful, however, the Arabs returned home possibly because of the absence of logistic support and limited naval build-up. Besides, the report submitted by Hakim bin Jabilla, the Head of the expedition, was not encouraging and therefore the scheme of conquest was dropped. Possibly expansion and monopolisation of the trade was the main reaon for undertaking these expeditions. The
fourth Caliph 'Ali appointed an Arab Officer, Muhallab, to
. ..19 19
persue the mission. According to Rowlandson, the first Arab settlement on the coast of Malabar was established at the end of the 7th century A.D. Eliot refers to the Arab settlement of Malabar as one of the facts contributing to 38 the conquest of Sind B. THE INTRODUCTIOIN OF ARABIC IN INDIA AS A LANGUAGE OF
COMMUNICATION
The history of the Arab movement in South India is interesting from the sociological point of view. It was promoted by peaceful means, unaided or backed by any political power such as the Muslims enjoyed in the north in subsequent stages of Indian history. The Muslim Arabs conducted themselves in such a way among the foreign people that the natives became friendly with them and treated them with tolerance. The confidence gained by such relations with local Hindus gave them the opportunity to carry on the trade between south India and the west. Sharaf-bin-Malik, Malik-bin-Dinar and Malik-bin- Habib came to Malabar along with their families and established an Arab colony there during the reign of Raja Zamorin of Calicut. They and their descendents constructed as many as nine mosques in the important towns of Malabar.
. . .20 These Arab settlements were visited by renowned travellers like Sulayman Tajir, Buzurg bin-Shariyar, Al-Masudi, Ibn-Battuta, Vasco de Gama and others who found them in prosperous conditions. The Arab settlements had considerably increased when Ibn-Battuta visited these ports. There were more than ten Arab settlements in Malabar, from Goa to Colum, and a few on the Coromandal coast. Ibn-Battuta records that all the inhabitants of Hanawar (modern Honawar in Kanara district of the then Bombay Presidency) were followers of Shiafi'i' School of Law, and that the ruler of Hanawar was also an Arab called Jamaluddin Muhammad, son of the famous sailor Hassan, who had erected a great mosque in Sandabur. In Hanawar, Ibn- Battuta happened to meet a Qadi, Nuruddin, a Khatib and a Jurist Isma'il and a Sufi Saint Shaykh Muhammad al-Nagori who ivited Ibn-Battuta to his dervish-convent. Ibn-Battuta found Arab settlements in other places on his way from Sandabur to Colum. In Fakhnore, he met a Qadi and Husayn al-Sallat, the chief of the Arab community who had built a Jami' mosque for Friday prayers. According to him, the Raja of Fakhnore possessed 30 war-ships, whose admiral was a Muslim and there were 4000 Muslim (Arabs) in the army of Raja of Mangalore. At Calicut Ibn-Battuta met a scholar- cum-merchant prince, Ibrahim Shah Bandar, a native of
...21 21
Bahrain, a Qadi Fakhru'ddin Uthman and Shahab'uddin al- Khwarizmi, the Shaykh of the dervish-convent. The legend of conversion of a Cheruman Perumal Raja
to Islam shows th^4 they were allowed to propagate the
tenets of their faith 39 . It also shows that they belonged to the elite stratas and possibly because of trade activities were economically in privileged positions. The
Hindu Rajas treated them with honour and the leaders among the Arab settlers were raised to the position of ministers, admirals, ambassadors and farmers of revenue. The discendents of these Arab settlers are known as 'Ravuthans' and 'Labbes', By the 10th century A.D. large communities of Arab merchants had settled down along the coastal regions of India. According to al-Masu'di (d. 956 A.D.) thousands of Arabs had settled in 'Chaul' and other towns of Konkan region of Maharashtra which was governed by Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, whom the earlier Arab merchants generally refer as 'Balhara', possibly the arabicized form of Vallabh Ray meaning the beloved king. These rulers had trade relations especially with the Arabs. The Arab historians of this period are full of praise for these rulers who had shown lot of interest in the Arab merchants. These merchants had formed small communities and groups of their own and some
• • • ^ 4^ 22
of them had acquired the rights of managing their own affairs. They were allowed to appoint their own Qadis to settle their disputes and build their mosques. They lived as peaceful citizens and married the local people. The children of such marriages were known among the Arabs as 'Baya Sira' and 'Nawa-i\' (Naw it = Nav ayad i.e. the new settlers). C. THE HISTORY OF CULTURAL EXCHANGES The Arab influence spread further and became more established when Bind was conquered in 712 A.D. during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph, Walid b.'Abd Al-Malik. Whatever may be the causes of the Arab invasion of Sind and its occcupation, it went a long way in strengthening the cultural relations between the two peoples. There was, however, a vital difference in the way in which Islam spread from these two bases, i.e. Malabar and Sind. The spread of Islam in south, as mentioned earlier, was due to the peaceful and friendly manner in which the Arab traders conducted themselves whereas its spread in Sind and norhtern India was due to the expansion of the political power. The history of cultural exchanges between the Arabs and the people of India may be divided into two periods i.e. (a) Ummayyad period and (b) 'Abbasid period.
...23 23
(a) During Ummayyad Caliphate, the Arabs were slowly getting aquainted with Indian literary treasures but as the capital Damascus was situated close to the west, they were largely influenced by Greek, Roman and Hebrew thought and literature. (b) When Abbasid Empire was founded in the middle of 8th century, direct and closer cultural relations were established between Indians and the Arabs. Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became the capital of the Caliphate and witnessed an unprecedented activity in all branches of knowledge.
The reign of Caliph al-Mansur (754-775 A.D.) opened a new chapter in the cultural reltaions of the two countries. Caliph Mansur's zeal for learning attracted many Indian pandits to the Abbasid court. The memorable deputation of the intellectuals of Sind to the court of the Caliph in 771 A.D. may be regarded as the first intellectual contact between India and the Arabs. Thus during the latter half of the 8th and the first half of the 9th century many Indian scientists, physicians and philosophers visited Baghdad, the seat of the Abbasid caliphate, and came in contact with Arab scholars and scientists.
...24 24
When the Barmicide family attained the high position of premiership at Baghdad they strengthened the interchange of thought and culture between the two peoples. Yahya, the Barmicide prime minister of Al-Mansur, invited many Indian scientists and scholars to Baghdad and gave them all facilities to work. They were also elevated to high positions. The Barmicides were of a Buddhist descent and the term 'barmak' is the Arabicized form of the Sanskrit word 'Pramukh', meaning the presiding officer of the Buddhist Vihara and thence their interest of the Indian sciences was quite genuine and real. Consequently many
Indian scholars came into close contact with the Arab world 40 . These scholars and scientists composed for the Caliph several treatises on mathematics, astronomy, astrology, medicine, literature and ethics. The following in brief were Indian contributions in different sciences for the Arabs: ASTRONOMY It was one of the first Indian sciences to be introduced at the court of Caliph Al-Mansur. One of the members of the deputation from Sind, who was known for his knowledge of astronomy and mathematics presented a copy of Surya Siddhanta. It was translated into Arabic by
Ibrahim-alFazari, the court mathematician of Caliph
al-Mansur. The Arabic version layed before the Arab
...25 2 b
scientists its valuable store of knowledge on astronomy and mathematics and impressed them of the intellectual qualities of the Indian. The work came to be known in 41 Arabic as 'Sindhind' Other important Indian works on astronomy introduced were Brahmagupta's (b.598 A.D.) 'Khandakhadyaka' and 'Aryabhatiya' (Ar:Arjabhad or Arjabhar) by Aryabhat of Kusumpura (Ujjain). The Arabic translations were called 'al-Arkand' and 'Arjabhad' or 'Arjabhar' respectively. Even before the translation of Ptolemy's 'Almegest' in Arabic, these Indian works on astronomy were rendered into Arabic.
The above scientific works gave fillip to the astronomical studies in Baghdad. Many Arab astronomers studied the Indian works and added their own contributions to the subject. One of them was Ibrahim bin Habib al-Fazari (d.796 A.D.) who wrote 'Kitab al-Zij' on the basis of 'Siddhanta'. On the basis of al-Fazari's work, Muhammad b. Musa al-Khwarizmi (d.847 A.D.) prepared the astronomical tables (al-Zij). He also made another contribution 'al-Sindhind al-Saghir' (the small Sindhind) 42 . Another
treatise 'al-Sindhind' based on the Siddhanta was compiled by other astronomer Habash b. 'Abdu'llah al-Marwazi 43 . The
Arab astronomers continued to take interest in Indian works with the result that India came to be held in high esteem
... 26 2B
among Arabs. There were continuous Arabo-Indian contacts in the scientific and cultural fields. Al-Biruni who visited India during he 11th century studied the subject and translated several Sanskrit works on astronomy into Arabic. Al-Biruni states that the science of astronomy was popular among Indians because "the affairs of "their religion are in various ways connected with it. If a man wants to gain the title of an astronomer he must not only know scientific or mathematical astronomy but also astrology" 44 MATHEMATICS This science was also introduced to the Arabs towards the end of the 8th century and left a more lasting impression on the Arab sciences. Among the Indian pandits who came to the court of Caliph al-Mansur was one Mankan or
Kankan. Ibn Nadim calls him Manka al-Hindi 45 . Most probably this pandit presented to the court the mathematical works Brahmasphut-asiddhanta by Brahmagupta. It was translated into Arabic by the order of the Caliph both by al-Fazari and Ya^qub b. Tariq. In the reign of al-Mamun (813-833
A.D.), the mathematician al-Khwarizmi (780-840 A.D.)
adapted Indian numerals to Arabic orthography. Hitti states
that Arab scientists were slow in the beginning to adopt
this ingenious invention of Indians for as late as 11th
century a scientist like Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Karaji
...27 27
(1019-1029 A.D.) wrote the numbers in words in his al-Kafi fil Hisab . However, Ahrnad al-Nasawi (980-1040 A.D.) in 47 his work al-Muqni fi'l Hisab-al-Hmd and several Arab
scientists had started using the Indian numerals. Several
other books were written on the subject. Ibn-Nadim under
the heading 'Sindi script' has set down these numerals and
has described the method of writing numbers upto thousand.
Mathematical and astronomical terms were borrowed into
Arabic from Sanskrit e.g. 'Kardaja' derived from Sanskrit
word 'Karmajia' was earlier used. Later the Arabic
equivalent 'Witr mustawi' was coined. Again words like
'jib' (Sanskrit Jaiva), 'budhmasa' (Sanskrit Adhmaas) and
'Auj' (Hindi awch) have been inducted into Arabic language.
Though Arabs were dazzled by Greek learnig, Indian
mathematics left more lasting impression on them.
MEDICINE
The Arabs are also indebted to India for the medical
sciences. Al-Kindi's (d.873 A.D.) account of India was
partly based on the report of the envoy sent by Yahya
al-Barraaki to India to procure Indian medicines and to 48 study the Indian religion and customs . It is reported
that even during the time of the Prophet, an Arab physician
by the name of al-Harith had visited India and learnt the
medical lore and was practicing at the Persian academy of 49 Jundishapur . An Arab physician Ibn Tanukhi visited India
... 2 8 28
in the 9 th century to study medicine. The Caliph Harun al-Rashid during one of his illness could not be cured by the Arab physicians of Baghdad and it was reported that an Indian Physician cured him. This induced the Caliph to patronize more Indian medicines and to encourage the translations of Sanskrit medical books into Arabic. The Indian physician was later appointed as Superintendent to their hospital. He translated several Sanskrit books into Arabic or Persian. Another Indian physician Ibn-Dahn was called to Baghdad by Yahya b. Khalid Barmaki and was appointed as the director of hospital. Among other Indian physicians of Baghdad was Salih, the son or descendent of the famous physician Bhela. He treated and cured Ibrahim, a cousine of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, when the former was declared dead by the royal physician, who was an expert in Greek medicines. Such incidences added to the popularity of the Indian medicines in the early 'Abbasid' period. It is interesting to note that Indian medicines and herbs were known to the Arabs from very early times. The Arab traders handled the drug and spice trade with India and Persia.
A few medical books had been translated in Arabic from Greek and Syriac during the Umayyad reign. However, durincf the Abbasid period this ativity got an impetus and many Sanskrit medical books were translated into Arabic. A few of them were Charaka, Susrud, Astankar, Nidan,
...29 23
Sindhastaq or Sindhasthan and Kitab al-Sumum (the book of poisons). Ibn al-Nadim records the names of a few Indian physicians Kanka (Kanakyana), Susrud (Shishru), Shanaq 50 (Chanakya) and Jaudhar (Yashodhara) , who translated
Sanskrit wdtks into Arabic. Some of their important works
are as follows:
Susrud, in his work 'Kitab-e-Susrud' consisting of
ten chapters gives a full account of the symptoms of the
diseases, their treatment and the medicines to be
prescribed in each disease. The work of Charaka known as
'Kitab-e-Charaka' was first translated into Persian and
later into Araljic by Abdullah b. 'Ali. Yaqubi mentions a
book 'Nidan' or 'Nidana' which discusses the problems and
methods of giving correct diagnosis of each of the four
hundred and four diseases but does not mention the
treatment. Another Indian book translated by Ibn Dahn is
entitled 'Astanqahrdaya' by Ibn Nadim. A work on
gynaecology ' Kitab-e-Rusa fi A'lajat Un Nisa' by an Indian
woman physician by name 'Rusa' was also rendered into
Arabic. Many other translations dealing on topics of snakes
and their treatment, drugs, intoxicants, medicinal herbs,
methods of identifying medicinal substances, causes and 51 treatment of various diseases were rendered into Arabic
Thus by the middle of the 9th century, most of the
important Greek and Indian medical works were available to
. . .30 30
the Arabs. But the Arabs were also influenced by Greek medical system. It also succeeded in influencing the 52 Persian medical works m India in later centuries . Ibn 'Abi Usaybia in his 'Uyun al-Anba-fi-Tabaqat al-Atibba gives detailed information about the Indian doctors of the
Abbasid courts and their influences on the Arab medical practitioner. . s 53 OTHER WORKS : LITERATURE (FICTION AND RELIGION) From the account available regarding the Sanskrit literature, it seems that the Arabs were less interested in it compared to India's scientific literature. In the opinion of Maqbul Ahmed the reason probably was that the Arabic literature had advanced considerably both in prose and poetry and had acquired a definite form and style of its own. Greek literature also did not attract much
attention except work of Aristotle on theory and concept of literar1-4- y critis•4-- m 54 A few Indian literary works also got currancy into
the Arab world through their translations. 'Panchatantra' was translated from old Persian version into Arabic by
Ibn-al-Maqaffa and it is known by the title of Kalila wa
Dimna, the two main characters of Panchatantra. Few books could have attained so- great a success as Panchtantra has done. It has been translated into so many languages. Even
.. .31 31
in later times it was translated both in Persian (Anwar-i- Suhaili) and in Turkish (Humayun Nama). The stories of Panchatantra have been translated in almost every European language including Icelandic Another book mentioned by al-Mas'udi is entitled 'Kitab-al-Sindbad' or the tale of 'Seven Ministers, the Master, a Youth and a Rani'. This tale of Sindbad is usually incorporated into the famous 'Arabian Nights'.
Among the Hindu religious epics, parts of Mahabharata were rendered into Arabic by Abu Salih b. Shuayb and later by Abul Hasan Ali Jabali (c.l026 A.D.) Al-Mas'udi mentions "Kitab al-ara wa'1 Adyan Madhahib al-Hind", which seems to have been the earliest study of Indian society . Similarly, the works on the life and teachings of Buddha mentioned by Ibn Nadim were translated from Pahlevi into Arabic. Books like Kitab al-Budd, Kitab Budhasaf Mufrad and Kitab Balawhat wa Budhasaf were current at that time. Among other Sanskrit works translated into Arabic were the ethical writings of Canakya (Shanaq) and the Hitopadesa and the works ranging form logic to magic 5 8 and these have been catalogued by Ibn Nadim in his Fehrist.
The interest of the Arabs in India was not merely
restricted to translations of their sciences and
literature. They wanted to learn and know about India first
hand and hence there were many a travellers who visited
• • • -.3 ^ 32
India and have left very useful informations in their travellogaes about the conditions - social and cultural in Indian continent. They have given their impressions about several regions of India. A few of them may be briefly noted here: Sulayman (851 A.D.) The Merchant
Sulayman Tajir was one of the first known Arab travellers to visit India about 851 A.D. His diary of travel "Silsilatut-Tawarikh" was published in Paris in 1845. In this book, Sulayman has described the Indian ocean which he refers to as 'the sea of Hirgund' and the islands in this sea. He has also given a brief account of the Indian kings who ruled the coastal regions of west and south India.He says that the Rajas of this land have a great regard for the Arabs and that their country is called Kamkam (Konkan). He also wrote about the laws and customs of the land. He says that the deads are cremated and their wives are burnt alive with them. He also describes the food habit of the people. He says "there are many kinds of fruit trees but not the date palm. There is also a fruit which is not known in Arabic". He also praises Indian proficiency in . . . 59 medicines, astronomy and philosophy Abu Zayd Hasan al-Sayrafi (c.916 A.D.) He is one of the other Arab travellers who visited India and China on business. "I am the first man", he • • • O s3 33
claims, "who has discovered that the sea which washes the coast of India and China, curving on its upper side allows a route to the Mediterranean Sea". Abu Zayd, like Sulayman Tajir gives the description of the Rajas of India and their customs. He showed interest in Buddhist monks and their movements from town to town. He also informs us how Buddhism spread from India to China Al-Mas'udi (d,956 A.D.)
Abu'1 Hasan al-Mas'udi was a historian, geographer and voluminous writer. Among his works two historical books are extent. They are 'Kitab'ut-Tanbih wal Ashraf' and 'al-Muruj' al-Dhahab wa^-Ma'adin a'1-Jauhar'. He wrote about the rivers of India in miute detail. He also wrote about the Muslim history and history of the other people. He wrote about his travels in his book 'Mjiruju al-Dhahab' which was published along with its^French translation in nine volumes in Paris, (by Babier de Meynard in 1861). The book gives important information about different regions of India, mainly the western and central India. He noted distances between Indian towns he visited and gave proper locations and sites of the places. Al-Istakhri and Ibn-Hawqal
Al-Istakhri and Ibn Hawqal were Arab geographers who visited India during the 10th century. Al-Istakhri wrote
. ..34 34 two books on geography entitled 'Kitabul Aqalim' and 'Masalik-ul-Mamalik'.
Ibn-Hawqal was the first Arab geographer who tried to give a correct idea of the length and breadth of the sub-continent. He made maps of many countries including that of Sind. His information about the towns of Mansura and Multan ruled by the Muslim kings is very interesting. It shows how the different sections of the society lived peacefully and amicably. Al-Biruni
Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (d.442/1050) was the famous philosopher and mathematician of Khwarazam who visited India in the early decades of the 11th century A.D. Before coming to India, he had attained profound knowledge of Greek, Roman and ancient Indian sciences. His curiosity to adquire knowledge of the sciences and culture of other nations and especially Indian culture, which was so different from his own, drove him to India. Al-Biruni's approach to the study of Indian science and culture was comparative with Greek sciences. He studied and learnt the Sanskrit language and then outlined in detail the basis and the main principles of Indian sciences . He observes that
the Hindus have not succeeded in rationalizing their sciences to bring them to perfection as the Greeks have
• • • o o 3 b
done. He comments on the Hindu religion and regards it as a form of monotheism . He was critical of the caste system amongst Hindus. Al-Biruni's greatest achievement was his role as an academic interpreter between the Hindus and the Arab scholars. In the words of Sachau, "His work as a translator was a double one. He translated from Sanskrit into Arabic and from Arabic into Sanskrit. He wants to give Muslims an opportunity of studying the sciences of India and on the other hand, he feels called upon to spread Arabic learning among Hindus . He thus presented India's ancient cultural and scientific works to the Arab world in the form of his monumental work entitled "Tahqiq mali'1-Hind". He was the first to translate 'Patanjali' and 'Sankhya' into Arabic. He wrote on the Sanskrit language and Indian dialects and the multiplicity of their vocabulary. Sachau enumerates as many as twenty-two works of al-Biruni on Indian subjects like astronomy, medicine, mathematics etc. Some of the important works are al-Qanun, ^1-Masu'di and al-Athar al-Baqiyah. The language used by al-Biruni is more akin to Sindhi than to any other language of India. The above work was composed during the period of Mahmud of Ghazna and his son Mas'ud.
... 36 36
The north-western thrust into India after the invasion of Mahmud of Gazna was Turkish and Mongol. It was the central Asian hordes coming into India again. The boiling cauldron of central Asian humanity has poured into India several times throughout the Indian history. The Turkish, Afghan and Mongols were the latest. However, these brought in influences that were entirely different from Arabs. Their relationship to Arab and Arabic was merely peripheral. Theirs was only religious link. They were more^ at home with Turkish and Persian which was the cultural language of the then central Asian region. The north under these influences has a little different story from the south which did not experience the political turmoil and strife of the north. The south retained its serenity and openness even after the north coming under the Turko-Afghan domination. It is seen that from the eleventh century onwards a large number of Arab merchants, traders and Arabic scholars visited south India. This too brought its influences in the field of Shari'a, education, language and literature of the region.
The 18th century was marked by a general social and cultural decline both in India and the Arab world. It was during this period that the Indo-Arab trade too suffered a
...37 3 1- 1
great set back because of the emergence of Portugal as a sea power in Indian ocean. During the 19th century both India and the Arab world were more or less faced with the challenge of political aggression and enslavement by the west on one hand and the social and intellectual backwardness of their people. The leaders of both the Arab world and India were conscious of the causes of the backwardness of the people and we see some of the greatest socio-religious reformist movements launched during this period.
The first half of the present century was marked by the massive struggle for independence. The main aim of the Indians and the Arabs during this period was complete political independence.
A new phase of India's relations with the Arab world began with the dawn of independence. And today there is closer collaboration between India and the Arab world in cultural, educational and technical fields.