“The Sons of Neptune and of Mars”: Organisational Identity and Mission in the Royal Marines, 1827-1927 John D. Bolt 753191 The thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Portsmouth. September 2020 Declaration Whilst registered as a candidate for the above degree, I have not been registered for any other research award. The results and conclusions embodied in this thesis are the work of the named candidate and have not been submitted for any other academic award. Word Count: 71850 words (introductory and substantive chapters with headings, excluding footnotes, bibliography and ancillary material). 1 Table of Contents Declaration 1 Table of Contents 2 Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 4 Notes on Terms 5 List of Images 6 Glossary 7 Introduction 8 Chapter 1 12 Chapter 2 32 Chapter 3 64 Chapter 4 92 Chapter 5 119 Chapter 6 142 Conclusion 174 Bibliography 177 2 Acknowledgements Firstly, I am incredibly grateful for my outstanding supervisors, Professor Brad Beaven, Dr Karl Bell, and Dr Robert James who laboured hard to help me get to the finish. I am also grateful to the support and advice from Dr Tom Rogers, Dr Mike Esbester, Dr Mathias Seiter, Dr Melanie Bassett, and Dr Matthew Heaslip, who actively listened and encouraged me in my progress. In my research, I was aided by many and I am especially grateful to Amy Adams and Alison Firth of the National Museum of the Royal Navy, formerly of the Royal Marines Museum. I am also grateful to the numerous librarians and clerks at The National Archives, The Portsmouth City Library, The Plymouth and West Devon Archives, The British Library, The Caird Library at The National Maritime Museum at Greenwich, and The Churchill College Archives. I must here also acknowledge the very generous aid of the Society for Nautical Research who assisted me with a generous bursary to make many visits to these archives possible. Along the way, I was supported and encouraged by a number of fellow researchers and renowned historians who directly aided my research or in other cases came to my aid at various phases. First and foremost were my former student colleagues, now Dr Elizabeth Libero and Dr Eilis Phillips. I was also assisted by Dr Brad Coleman, Dr Liz Covart, Dr Mary Conley, Dr Jerome Devitt, Dr Duncan Redford, Dr Anthony King, Simon Harley, Lee- Jane Giles, Carolyn Hughes, and James Sladden. Special thanks are due to my friend, historian, and fellow US Marine LtCol Donald Bittner, USMCR, PhD, whose own prolific works and research on the subject of the Royal Marine Corps have been the topic of many of our conversations and shared correspondence. Special thanks also to my former Virginia Military Institute tutor, mentor, and fellow US Marine, Col Turk McCleskey, USMCR, who provided the endorsement and encouragement to pursue graduate studies. My research on a living institution was aided by the insights and vast knowledge of present and former members of the Royal Marines. I am especially grateful to Brigadier Michael Tanner, OBE, for his insights on the Royal Marines. Thanks goes also to LtCol Jamie Jamieson and LtCol Simon Dinsmore who devoted their time to explain the development of the Future Commando Force. Thanks also goes to Major Huw Williams, former Director of Music Training at HM Royal Marines Band School, Portsmouth. I am also grateful to my many friends and colleagues of the Royal Marines Historical Society, whose cheerful encouragement, keen interest, and moral support have been instrumental in the success of this thesis. Especially to John Rawlinson, Paul Whitehead, Andy Jackson, John Ambler, LtCol Ian Grant, David Abrutat, Col Brian Carter, and Col Michael Reece, OBE. Over the past few years, they have all lent a kind ear to my research and offered their support to my efforts. Finally I am most especially grateful to my family for the support along the way, especially to Sacha my wife and our four children, and to my parents Richard and Olga who reviewed most all of the drafts of my chapters along the way with their own experienced eyes. 3 Abstract “The Sons of Neptune and of Mars”: Organisational Identity and Mission in the Royal Marines, 1827-1927 Existing historiography on the Royal Marines emphasises the institution’s early roles in the Age of Sail or more recent history as Commandos. While historically the Marines were formed from early army regiments, in 1755 the Marines were permanently established under the Admiralty, retaining much of its organisational structure and traditions from the army. Honoured as a Royal Regiment in 1802, they were left largely free to develop an independent organisational identity in line with established duties at sea and on shore. The Royal Marines, however, did not share an equal footing with their peer services. As a sub-organisation of the Royal Navy, Marines were sensitive to their inferior relative status with the army and navy and a common lament of Marines was a lack of public recognition. This was especially true for Marine officers who struggled to fit in to a rigid hierarchical military social structure. By the mid-nineteenth century, changes in warfare and technology eroded once established roles and missions of the Royal Marines. Royal Marine identity became increasingly in conflict with the Royal Navy and impeded a clear solution for a new operational mission and purpose. Absorption by the army, outright elimination, or forced restructuring of their organisation threatened the extinction of the Royal Marines. As the nineteenth century progressed, the Marines wrestled over concerns of redundancy and their officers as superfluous aboard ship. These portrayals contrasted with an often-blameless record of service and reputed bravery and efficiency. Opportunities to reorganise and reform at the conclusion of the First World War were mismanaged, necessitating a complete transformation in the mid-twentieth century. Challenging recent historiography on the organisational history and identity of the Royal Marines, this thesis demonstrates how the existential struggle of the Royal Marines was rooted in a series of crises and events between 1827 and 1927. 4 Note on Terms Throughout this thesis, the Royal Marines will be frequently referred to as ‘The Corps of Marines’ and ‘Marine Corps’. These were terms of contemporary usage for the British Marines of this period and remain in frequent application today. I have therefore used these terms throughout my thesis to refer to the British Marines exclusively. In cases where foreign services are mentioned which are also marine forces, these will be further described using the name or abbreviated initials before their service (i.e. US Marine Corps). As for capitalisation and lower case, I have always capitalised Corps or Division in keeping with the organisational practices of the Royal Marines, unless it is directly inappropriate to the content or discussion. Marines are to be capitalised when I am referring to them as the institution or the term becomes descriptive (i.e. the Marines or Marine officers). When the discussion changes to individuals or collective persons, it is noted as ‘marine’ or ‘marines' in the lower case. Finally, in the matter or direct quotations from primary sources which includes published works, I have maintained in all cases the original authors’ capitalisation and emphasis (i.e., underscores, punctuation, etc.) practices for all direct quotes. These, where cited, are further described with details as to the original author’s purpose and emphasis. For any other defects in the text, I am the sole responsibility. 5 List of Images All images were taken by the author in public spaces and not subject to copyright Image 1 – Royal Marines Memorial, St James’ Park, London Image 2 – detail, Royal Marines Memorial, St James’ Park, London 6 Glossary of commonly used terms and abbreviations ADM Admiralty Archives CAB Cabinet Papers CCA Churchill College Archives CHAR The Chartwell Papers HC House of Commons LtCol Lieutenant Colonel NMM The National Maritime Museum RC Royal Commission RM Royal Marines RMA Royal Marines Artillery RMLI Royal Marines Light Infantry RMM Royal Marines Museum RN Royal Navy TNA The National Archives USMC United States Marine Corps WO War Office 7 Introduction Claiming over 350 years of service, Britain’s Corps of ‘Sea Soldiers’, the Royal Marines has experienced dramatic rises and falls to its fortunes. While the earliest formations of maritime regiments were with the British army, the Marines became indelibly linked to the Royal Navy in 1755. At the start of the nineteenth century, the Corps was designated a Royal Regiment in 1802, but as the nineteenth century progressed and the Royal Navy adapted to changes in technology and warfare, the future of the Corps was increasingly in doubt. In addition, Royal Marine Officers also struggled with perceptions of social inferiority in the hierarchy of the British military forces, by both the other military services and the general British public. Some of these perceptions were very real, based on institutional practices in the War Department and Admiralty, while others were fabrications derived from social mores of the period. What were the obstacles which challenged the continued relevance and existence of the Royal Marines? This thesis is an examination of the unique military identity and the organisational development of the Royal Marines from 1827 to 1927. In current popular imagination, the Royal Marines clad in their iconic green