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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses Hidden agendas : testing models of the social and political organisation of the Indus Valley tradition Manuel, Mark James How to cite: Manuel, Mark James (2008) Hidden agendas : testing models of the social and political organisation of the Indus Valley tradition, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1899/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Hidden Agendas: testing models of the social and political organisation of the Indus Valley Tradition Volume One The copyright of this thesis rests with the author or the university to which it was submitted. No quotation from it, or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author or university, and any information derived from it should be acknowledged. Mark James Manuel Department of Archaeology, Durham University Thesis submitted for degree of Ph.D May 2008 Two Volumes 01 SEP2008 TD Abstract This thesis tests existing models of the social and political organisation of the Indus Valley Tradition against an analysis of site distribution and function within Gujarat and Cholistan. It uses data form published survey undertaken in both regions, and from the Gujarat Environs Survey -a systematic archaeological survey of a 50 square kilometre block between the known sites of Bagasra and Kuntasi. A closer examination of the distribution and function of sites within Gujarat and Cholistan suggests that none of the existing models is congruous with the archaeological evidence. Instead, the models appear to be a greater reflection of archaeologist's own social and political backgrounds. Such ethnocentrism is evident throughout Indus studies, yet many of the models have been left unchallenged, and has entered into mainstream 'textbook' archaeology. The Gujarat Environ Survey has challenged these models, in particular Dhavalikar's model of Cultural Imperialism, and has identified that a series of contemporary settlement hierarchies may have been functioning in Gujarat at the same. Small non-urban sites, identified through the use of systematic survey methodologies, were engaged in similar activities to larger urban sites. This thesis argues that small sites were not subordinated to larger sites, and that normative views of social and political hierarchies are unfounded. Instead multiple hierarchies or heterarchies may have been in place across the same landscape. Finally, it argues that in order to develop our understanding of the social and political organisation of the Indus Valley Tradition, we need to dispense with top-down global models, and develop bottom-up models from systematically collected archaeological data Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank the staff and students at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, in particular Dr. K. Krishnan for his hospitality and support during my research in India, for their help in undertaking the Gujarat Environs Survey. I would also like to thank Professor Kuldeep Bhan for graciously allowing me to use the facilities at the university and for supporting my research. I would also like to give a big thank you to my supervisor Robin Coningham for his guidance and support during the last four years. Also to my supervisory teams -Chris Knusel and Tim Taylor from the University of Bradford and Rob Witcher from Durham University for their input and comments over the last four years. I would also like to the Arts and Humanities Research Council for generously funding this research. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the support of my friends and family for their moral support throughout my thesis. Especially my parents, for their moral and financial support throughout my postgraduate and undergraduate years, and for supporting my decision to pursue a Ph.D. I would also like to thank my friends for providing me with numerous distractions over the years and for keepingme sane. Table of Contents Volume One Chapter One Introduction 1 - ............................................................................. 1.1 Introduction 1 ........................................................................................... 1.2 Looking For Elites 2 ................................................................................. 1.3 Aims Objectives 3 and ............................................................................. 1.4 From the "Harappan Civilisation" to the "Indus Valley Tradition"............ 4 1.5 Chapter Breakdown 6 .............................................................................. Chapter Two Palaeoenvironment 9 - ................................................................ 2.1 Introduction 9 ........................................................................................... Indus Valley Tradition 10 2.2 Extent and geography of the ............................ 2.2.1 Modern 10 climate ............................................................................. 2.2.2 Modern 11 agricultural systems ......................................................... 2.2.3 Gujarat 12 ......................................................................................... 2.2.3.1 Modern 12 geography and climate .............................................. 2.2.3.2 Modern 14 subsistence ............................................................... 2.2.4 Cholistan 15 ...................................................................................... 2.2.4.1 Modern 15 geography and climate .............................................. 2.2.4.2 Subsistence 16 ........................................................................... 2.2.5 Summary 16 ...................................................................................... 2.3 Palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental research into the Indus Valley Tradition 17 .................................................................................................... 2.3.1 Palaeoclimate 17 ............................................................................... 2.3.1.1 The Thar Desert 18 ..................................................................... 2.3.1.2 The Arabian Sea 21 .................................................................... 2.3.1.3 The Himalayas 22 ....................................................................... 2.3.1.4 Summary 23 ............................................................................... 2.3.2 Hydrological 8000 BCE 25 changes within and since ........................ 2.3.2.1 Flam's hypothesis 26 .................................................................. 2.3.2.2 Upper Indus River 27 .................................................................. 2.3.2.3 Punjab Rivers 28 ......................................................................... 2.3.2.4 Lower Indus River 29 .................................................................. 2.3.2.5 Ghaggar-Hakra River 30 ............................................................. 2.3.2.6 Gujarat 33 ................................................................................... 2.3.2.7 Summary 34 ............................................................................... 2.4 Archaeozoological and archaeobotanical data from the Indus Valley, Gujarat Cholistan 36 and ....... ........................................................................ 2.4.1 The Indus Valley Tradition 36 ............................................................ 2.4.2 Gujarat 37 ......................................................................................... 2.4.3 Cholistan 39 ...................................................................................... 2.4.4 Summary 39 ..................................................................................... 2.5 Chapter 40 summary ............................................................................... Chapter Three - Indus Valley Chronoloav and Models of Political and Social Organisation 43 ................................................................................................. 3.1 Introduction 43 ......................................................................................... 3.2 Chronology 44 ......................................................................................... 3.2.1 Shaffer's Indus Valley Tradition 45 .................................................... 3.2.2 Early Food-Producing Era (c.6500 BCE 46 onwards) ........................ 3.2.3 Regionalisation Era (c. BCE) 47 «4000-2500/2300 ............................ 3.2.3.1 Balakot Phase (4000-3200 BCE) 48 ........................................... 3.2.3.2 Amri Phase (3600-3000 BCE) 49 ................................................ 3.2.3.3 Hakra Phase (3300-2700 BCE) 49 .............................................. 3.2.3.4 Ravi Phase (3300-2800 BCE) 50 ...............................................
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