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Walking with the Unicorn Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient

Jonathan Mark KenoyerAccess Felicitation Volume Open

Edited by Dennys Frenez, Gregg M. Jamison, Randall W. Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard H. Meadow

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Archaeopress Archaeology

© Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com

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© ISMEO - Associazione Internazionale di Studi sul Mediterraneo e l'Oriente, Archaeopress and the authors 2018

Front cover: SEM microphotograph of Indus unicorn seal H95-2491 from (photograph by J. Mark Kenoyer © Harappa Archaeological Research Project). Access Back cover, background: Pot from the levels of Harappa with a hoard of beads and decorative objects (photograph by Toshihiko Kakima © Prof. Hideo Kondo and NHK promotions). Back cover, box: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer excavating a unicorn seal found at Harappa (© Harappa Archaeological Research Project). Open

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© Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Contents

Jonathan Mark Kenoyer and ISMEO – Occasions in Continuum...... v Adriano V. Rossi Jonathan Mark Kenoyer – The Tale of Sikander and the Unicorn...... ix Dennys Frenez, Gregg Jamison, Randall Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard H. Meadow Jonathan Mark Kenoyer – Bibliography...... xi Fish Exploitation during the Harappan Period at Bagasra in Gujarat, India. An Ichthyoarchaeological Approach...... 1 Abhayan G. S., P. P. Joglekar, P. Ajithprasad, K. Krishnan, K. K. Bhan and S. V. Rajesh The Sincerest Form of Flattery? Terracotta Seals as Evidence of Imitation and Agency in Bronze Age Middle Asia...... 19 Marta Ameri Reflections on Fantastic Beasts of the Harappan World. A View from the West ...... 26 Joan Aruz Fish Symbolism and Fish Remains in Ancient South Asia...... 33 William R. Belcher Some Important Aspects of Technology and Craft Production in the IndusAccess Civilization with Specific Reference to Gujarat...... 48 Kuldeep K. Bhan Chert Mines and Chert Miners. The Material Culture and Social Organization of the Indus Chipped Stone Workers, Artisans and Traders in the Indus Valley (, )...... 68 Paolo Biagi, Elisabetta Starnini and Ryszard Michniak Open Ceramic Analysis and the Indus Civilization. A Review...... 90 Alessandro Ceccarelli and Cameron A. Petrie Family Matters in Harappan Gujarat...... 104 Brad Chase Revisiting the Ornament Styles of the Indus Figurines: Evidence from Harappa, Pakistan...... 120 Sharri R. Clark The Harappan ‘Veneer’ and the Forging of Urban Identity...... 150 Mary A. Davis Private Person or Public ArchaeopressPersona? Use and Significance of Standard Indus Seals as Markers of Formal Socio-Economic Identities...... 166 Dennys Frenez Lithic Blade Implements and their Role in the Harappan Chalcolithic Cultural Development in Gujarat....194 Charusmita Gadekar and P. Ajithprasad Who Were the ‘Massacre Victims’ at Mohenjo-daro? A Craniometric Investigation...... 210 Brian E. Hemphill Indus Copper and Bronze: Traditional Perspectives and New Interpretations...... 251 Brett C. Hoffman A Short Note on Strontium Isotope Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains from the Site of Sarai Khola...... 265 Asma Ibrahim The Organization of Indus Unicorn Seal Production. A Multi-faceted Investigation of Technology, Skill, and Style...... 272 Gregg M. Jamison

i © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. The Size of Indus Seals and its Significance...... 292 Ayumu Konasukawa and Manabu Koiso The Art and Technology of Reserving a Slip. A Complex Side of Indus Ceramic Tradition...... 318 K. Krishnan and Sneh Pravinkumar Patel The Art of the Harappan Microbead – Revisited...... 327 Randall W. Law The North Gujarat Archaeological Project – NoGAP. A Multi-Proxy and Multi-Scale Study of Long- Term Socio-Ecological Dynamics...... 343 Marco Madella, P. Ajithprasad, Carla Lancelotti, J. J. García-Granero, F. C. Conesa, C. Gadekar and S. V. Rajesh Toponyms, Directions and Tribal Names in the Indus Script...... 359 Iravatham Mahadevan and M. V. Bhaskar Ganweriwala – A New Perspective...... 377 Farzand Masih Personal Reflections on some Contributions of Jonathan Mark Kenoyer to the Archaeology of Northwestern South Asia...... 384 Richard H. Meadow Invisible Value or Tactile Value? Steatite in the Faience Complexes of the Indus Valley Tradition...... 389 Heather M.-L. Miller and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer What Makes a Pot Harappan?...... 395 Heidi J. Miller Access Dilmun-Meluhhan Relations Revisited in Light of Observations on Early Dilmun Seal Production during the City IIa-c Period (c. 2050-1800 BC)...... 406 Eric Olijdam and Hélène David-Cuny Unicorn Bull and Victory Parade ...... Open 433 Asko Parpola Analytical Study of Harappan Copper Artifacts from Gujarat with Special Reference to Bagasra...... 443 Ambika Patel and P. Ajithprasad Looking beneath the Veneer. Thoughts about Environmental and Cultural Diversity in the Indus Civilization...... 453 Cameron A. Petrie, Danika Parikh, Adam S. Green and Jennifer Bates Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat)...... 475 V. N. Prabhakar Artifact Reuse and MixedArchaeopress Archaeological Contexts at Chatrikhera, Rajasthan...... 486 Teresa P. Raczek, Namita S. Sugandhi, Prabodh Shirvalkar and Lalit Pandey Pre-Prabhas Assemblage in Gujarat. An Assessment based on the Material Culture from Somnath, Datrana and Janan...... 495 Rajesh S. V., Charusmita Gadekar, P. Ajithprasad, G. S. Abhayan, K. Krishnan and Marco Madella The Indus Script and Economics. A Role for Indus Seals and Tablets in Rationing and Administration of Labor...... 518 Rajesh P. N. Rao Beads of Possible Indus Origin with Sumerian Royal Inscriptions...... 526 Julian E. Reade and Jonathan Taylor The Role of Archaeology in National Identity: Muslim Archaeology in Pakistan...... 530 Shakirullah The Smallest Scale of Stone. Pebbles as a Diminutive Form of Nature...... 536 Monica L. Smith Five Thousand Years of Shell Exploitation at Bandar Jissah, Sultanate of Oman...... 547 Christopher P. Thornton, Charlotte M. Cable, David Bosch and Leslie Bosch

ii © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Indus Stone Beads in the Ghaggar Plain with a Focus on the Evidence from and ...... 568 Akinori Uesugi, Manmohan Kumar and Vivek Dangi Locard’s Exchange Principle and the Bead-Making Industries of the 3rd Millennium BC...... 592 Massimo Vidale, Giuseppe Guida, Gianfranco Priori and Anna Siviero Inscription Carving Technology of Early Historic South Asia. Results of Experimental Archaeology and Assessment of Minor Rock Edicts in Karnataka...... 605 Heather Walder The Volumetric System of Harappa...... 623 Bryan K. Wells An Harappan History of US Researchers in Pakistan. In Celebration of Jonathan Mark Kenoyer...... 628 Rita P. Wright Editors ...... 636 Authors Contacts...... 637

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iii © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Access

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© Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. The Role of Archaeology in National Identity: Muslim Archaeology in Pakistan

Shakirullah

A presentation on the same title was made in South Asia Conference at Wisconsin, Madison in October 2014 by the author. In the free conference focused on the Shared Archaeological Heritage of Pakistan and India project sponsored by the US state department. Now an attempt is made to present the archaeological profile of Pakistan, highlighting the landmarks of cultural development and its role in evolving national identity. The story of Muslim archaeology in Pakistan opens with b. Qasim’s conquest of sind in the 7th century AD. But the major push came in the early 11th century when the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna brought North-western part and Panjab under his control. This gives us a complete sequence starting from Arabs and Ghaznavid to the Mughals with a short interval of the Suri dynasty.

Keywords: River Soan, Sanghao, Quartz, , Achaemenian.

Everywhere, archaeology has a key role in fixing the place around 4500-3000 BC. The establishment of this real identity of a nation, era, region and especially of culture is known from various sites in the Tochi valley a human society. Without archaeological investigation like Sheri Khan Tarakai (Khan et al. 1986: 13–34; 1987- and analysis it is not possible to project things or places 9: 241–47, 1992: 156–74, 2010: 41–66), Lewan (Khan in a proper context to which they belong. The national 1986a: 183–95, 1986b: 172–189; Morris 2002: 94–100), identity of Pakistan known as an independent Muslim Chawki, AccessDre-Ghundari and Kot , and State on the world map is, as shown by archaeological Jandi Babar-I (Rahman 1997: 44–51; Ali, et al. 2001: investigations, more than a million years old (Figure 173–217) in the Gomal valley. These sites have yielded 1). The earliest attempts at creating a distinct culture a variety of cultural material such as tools in the shape in Pakistan took place in the valley of the river Soan ofOpen blades, burins, microliths and hafted tools made of (Qazi 1998: 9; Smith 1988: 22–23; Qureshi 1992: 30) chert. Along with this they introduced bone tools in the near , the present seat of the Government shape of blades, burins and points. The most significant of Pakistan. This cultural activity took expression in feature of this era is the introduction of culture the shaping of stone tools, the earliest of which called in the shape of bowls, pitchers plates and storage jars Chopper – chopping tools, consist of crude flakes struck etc. They applied painted designs in black on these pots from large pebbles of quartzite and are often difficult showing a variety of flora and fauna and geometrical to distinguish from the works of nature. This happened designs. In this period, figurines, both of human and in the hoary past some 200 to 400 thousand years ago. animal were manufactured on a large scale. Alongside the flake chopper industry of the Soan region is found another class of tools of a radically different In the middle of the 4th millennium BC, however, type. In this type the implement is shaped on the core a radical change took place. Now we find ourselves itself and not a derivativeArchaeopress flake. This pear-shaped in the midst of busy towns and fortified cities, as at core-tool is called hand-axe and is known to have Rahman Dheri ( 1981: 22–33, 1988: 1–232, 1989: subsequently spread to the rest of south Asia. 191–207, 1999: 61–107) near , with much accelerated cultural activity around us not only As the story unfolds age after age towards in arts and crafts but also in spiritual matters. In this sophistication, the next landmark we find at Sangao stage of civilization different cultural activities were (Dani 1964: 1–50; Qazi 1998: 8) in the district of originated and developed. From the archaeological province, where for the first time sites in the Gomal valley (Dani 1970-71: 1–35) have been in Pakistan, about 40 thousand years ago, implements found not only nicely made stone tools of much refined were given a variety of shapes and were much reduced and smaller size but also bone tools of great varieties. in size to make them more effective. But the use of Painted pottery in polychrome was used on a very stone dominated every walk of life. This Middle Stone large scale and new pots like dish-on-stand, perforated Age culture yielded new and more refined quality of ware introduced. Potter marks or symbols on pots implements in the shape of scrapers, burins, points also appear. The human and animal figurines were etc., than the Early Stone Age. The material used is used perhaps as toys. Bullock cart served as a means locally available quartz. After the closing of Middle of transportation. Objects of decoration consisted of Stone Age and Mesolithic culture, a new era of the beads in stone, terracotta, gold, shell, ivory, paste etc, Stone Age culture with more developed industry took with finger, ear rings and bangles. They also introduced

530 © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Shakirullah: The Role of Archaeology in National Identity

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Figure 1. Map of Pakistan showing cites and famous archaeological sites (image modified by the author from www.mapsoftheworld.com). steatite seals showing a variety of designs and most declining Indus Civilization. The Aryans nevertheless important the pictographic seals of Mature Phase of the brought a literary tradition which continues even Indus Civilization (Allchin et al. 1982: 89–92; Kenoyer today. With the discovery of grave culture in Gandhara 2005: 43–56; Jamison 2012: 8; Wheeler 1968: 24–26;). The at Timurgarha () (Dani 1967: 4–207), Zarif Koruna most important feature of the Indus Civilization is the in the plain and Loe Banr in Swat, a new town planning; the cities Archaeopresswere normally divided into chapter of culture was added to the . two parts. The citadel had administrative and public In the ceramic industry Gandhara Grave culture people buildings while residential areas had houses of different added the grey ware (Dani 1967: 197–202) culture classes. The cities were planned on an iron-grid and introduced new metal i.e. Iron. Burial practices pattern, in which streets cut each other at right angles. consisted of extended and fractional burials along with The houses were provided with baths and stairs made cremation. This culture is dated 800 to 1500 BC. in burnt bricks. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, the popular sites of Bronze Age culture are Rahman Dheri, When the Achaemenian (Qureshi 1992: 83; Smith 1988: Hasam Dheri and Gandi Umar Khan Mound. An overall 22–35, 73–103) ruler Darius-I conquered the present-day picture of the whole spectrum of Bronze Age Culture Pakistan, particularly Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province shows great artistic closing of the 6th century BC, this part became one of achievements in decorative objects. the important provinces of the Achaemenian Empire. It became the 21st province of the Persian Empire. The The next important landmark is represented by Aryans Achaemenian introduced here a network of roads which (Smith 1988: 33–37; Wheeler 1992: 32–34), whose arrival facilitated the flow of trade and commerce and also the in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, although much movement of armies. They collected taxes in the form of debated, would seem to have taken considerable time as gold. They brought a new administrative system in the they trickled down the hills in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa form of regular army and a satrapal system (provincial province and played a role in diluting the already system) and different departments such as intelligence.

531 © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Walking with the Unicorn – Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume

The main cities of this period are Bala Hisar mound which is known as the golden age of this area (Pakistan). at (Ali et al. 1997–98: 1-34; Wheeler 1962: Gold became the main metal for minting coins. The 5–298), in the Peshawar plain and perhaps Central Asian culture further developed under them. Akra near Bannu in the valley of the Tochi river. Some In the art of construction, they developed proper of the Achaemenian art tradition as frontality of images architecture, which can be clearly observed all and lustrous polish along with court etiquettes became over Gandhara region. Most of the Kushan emperors the hallmark of the Mauryan period. patronized which brought about basic changes in the religious as well as philosophical beliefs In 327-326 BC, Alexander of Macedonia invaded of the people. Buddhism itself underwent a process of the valley of the (Qureshi 1992: 90–91; development and overflowed into . Smith 1988: 91–92). The Greeks opened up the conquered territories to western cultural influences The Kushans were followed by another Central Asian which subsequently brought about great changes in people called White Huns (Smith 1988: 177–178) who cultural patterns. Several new decorative forms were ruled this area from AD 460 to 7th century AD. They introduced. Some of these motifs such as acanthus leaf were barbarian and continued to strike the coins on the are still in use. The Greeks could not continue for long pattern of the Kushans and the Sasanians. The White and were succeeded by the Murayans (Qureshi 1992: Huns were great horse riders and have left their traces 99–103; Smith 1988: 117–121), who took the control in on numerous rocks where horses can be seen in various 306 BC. King Asoka, grandson of Chandragupta, was the forms. famous ruler of this dynasty. The Murayans ruled there till 232 BC. They used a local writing called Kharoshti for From about the 9th to 10th Century AD, there were a variety of purposes including royal proclamations. We no foreign invasions. This was a period of respite still have two sets of these at (Mardan) which provided local cultural traditions a significant and at in Hazara at this time. Buddhism opportunity to Accessexpress themselves more vigorously. As reached here and flourished in the area. In the field of a result, numerous temples came up at various places. religious construction, the Buddhists introduced Some of these are still intact near Dera Ismail Khan and monasteries. They also introduced punch mark (Rahman 1979: 305). A new writing called Sarada was coins (square type) and gave them a uniform shape developed and remained in use till it was displaced by throughout the sub-continent. ArabicOpen (Rahman 1979: 219).

Mauryans were succeeded by Bactrian Greeks (Qureshi Muslim archaeology 1992: 119–21; Smith 1988: 144 –46), who occupied Gandhara in 190 BC and ruled up to 57 BC. They The early references to Islamisation of today’s introduced the culture of regular coinage of western Pakistan as given in the works of Arab geographers style, developed Greek writing, started Greek Art and historians still needs to be explained through tradition and mythology. They built cities like Sirkap intensive archaeological investigations of the entire in (Qureshi 1992: 57; Wheeler 1997: 36–37) and reign. It is mentioned that in the 7th century AD, Shaikhan Dheri (Charsadda) in the Peshawar plain Muhallab bin Abu Safra, an Arab general, entered from (Dani 1965-66: 17–113). Afghan-Sistan and reached Qallat where he met with Archaeopress eighteen Turkish horsemen (Elliot, el at. 1966: 115-116; Foreign invasions continued even in the 1st century Latif 1982). Later on, the Arabs invaded Sind early in BC. On the crest of this wave of invaders were a Central the 8th century AD under Muhammad b. Qasim, while Asian people known to history as Scythians. They were the , conquered the North-west and Panjab followed by the Parthians who ruled this region till AD (Rahman 1981: 15). For the sack of study, we divide the 70. They introduced Central Asian Art and culture into Muslim archaeology of today’s Pakistan into three main Gandhara in the form of crown, dresses and foot wear periods. etc. Arab period In the centuries subsequent to the Christian era, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was perhaps the most prosperous place Pakistan in the sense of an independent Muslim state in the region. The Kushans (Qureshi 1992: 124; Smith of the subcontinent is much older than 1947, when the 1988: 151–156) had introduced huge numbers of gold partition of sub-continent took place. The seed was coins which brought remarkable improvement and first sown in the 8th century during the Arab invasion sophistication in cultural activities including writing of Sind. Muhammad bin Qasim (711-712) introduced of which numerous specimens have survived. This an entirely new concept of architecture by erecting resulted in the creation of Gandhara art now famous mosques at every place he conquered and at Deybul almost all over the world. The Kushans ruled for a very created the first ever mosque. Later his son Amr came long period of three hundred years, from AD 50 to 360, to Sind and founded a new city called Al-Mansurah

532 © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Shakirullah: The Role of Archaeology in National Identity within an island, near the present town of Shahdadpur period in (Panjab) and Dera Ismail Khan and (Khan 1997: 11–12). The city of Al-Mansurah was Mansehra (KP). expanded and fortified by the Habbari ruler ‘Umar bin Abd ul Azia, who also built the dar al Imara along with In AD 1526, the founder of Mughal dynasty Zahir ad- other buildings within the fortifications (Khan 1997: Din Babar occupied India and opened a new chapter of 12). The mosque and other buildings including the great intellectual and artistic activities in the Indian fortification with its majestic semi-circular bastions history. This dynasty ruled India till 1857 (Brown 1942: were built of stone, while the structures at Al-Mansurah 95–120; Koch 1991: 32–131), with a short interval of the were of baked bricks. The mosque here was provided Suri dynasty and contributed in art and architecture with formal Mihrab in the shape of an arched recess of their own style and taste, while the Suri dynasty in the western wall of the aiwan (Khan 1991: 21-24). contribute on their own (Brown 1942: 90–94). We Islamic coins glazed pottery, copper and glassware were have several sites and monuments of both the Mughal uncovered during excavations in both the places. Some and the Suri periods such as Aba Khal Dehria, Gara Arabic inscriptions are also found. Guldad and Chaudhwan sites in Dera Ismail Khan (Ali 2005: 1–54) and Nawab Saeed Khan tomb at Peshawar Ghaznavid period (Rahman 1988: 555; Shakirullah 2012a: 34–35), Mahabat Khan Mosque at Peshawar (Khan 1991: 117–119), Qutb During the later decades of the tenth and early years ad-Din tomb at Dilazak, Peshawar (Rahman 1984: 107; of the 11th centuries AD (Rahman 1981: 15) Mahmud Shakirullah 2012b: 164–165) and Sultan Mahmud Khurd of Ghazna conquered the Hindu Shahi territory of tomb at Mansehra (Shakirullah 2012c: 143–145). The Gandhara and established there his own administration. Suri period is represented by the famous The Ghaznavids ruled till AD 1186. Mostly, buildings near Dina (Jehlam district). and sites of this period have been washed away with the passage of time. The Ghaznavids introduced Persian Discussion Access for the first time here. They minted their coins from , introduced naked brick architecture of Central The topic under discussion is elaborated with the help Asia by building substantial monuments. Mahmud is of the study of archaeological investigation conducted said to have erected a tower of victory in the Lahore and published in the near past by different departments, Fort and a mosque within the old city. His governor missionsOpen and individuals one way or the other. Without of Lahore, Ayaz, repaired and rehabilitated the city the study of archaeology it is not possible to properly afresh. But only the mosque at Udigram at Swat (Khan place any nation or region in its actual context. The 1991: 29-34) and tomb of Saif ad-Dawla Mahmud at role of archaeology in highlighting national identity is Parachinar (Rahman 1989: 391–398; Shakirullah 2013: very significant. Pakistan became an independent state 353–356), the tomb of Muhammad b. Harun at Bela in 1947, but the study of archaeology shows that the (Balochistan) (Khan 1990: 73) have surviving in a region comprising it had all the essential features of a dilapidated condition. separate state. The earliest Pakistan was marked out by the territories covered by the Indus Civilization. Sultanate period Acknowledgement With the decline of the Ghaznavids,Archaeopress Qutb ad-Din Aibek established himself in AD 1206 at Lahore. After this I must acknowledge the financial support of the US Lahore, , Multan, Dipalpur, Uchchh, Pakpattan State Department for the study and investigation of etc became prominent centres of religio-cultural Shared Heritage project of Pakistan, India and Oman. activities during this period (Khan 1980: 21). My thanks are also due to Prof. (Dr) Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, leader of the project, for his guidance and Persian served as official and the elite language, Sanskrit support. I am thankful to my teacher Prof. (Dr) Abdur and other languages were spoken and patronized. Rahman for valuable suggestions and necessary Muslim scholars also started taking interest in the corrections in the text. study of Sanskrit language and literature and translated several Sanskrit works on Philosophy and Astronomy Bibliography into Arabic and Persian. Their works are rightly regarded as mines of information on Hindu religion and Ali, I. and Rahim, G. 2001. Jandi Babar. A Neolithic site philosophy. About this time, a new language started in the Gomal Plain, Pakistan. Ancient Pakistan 14: taking definite shape. It was called – an amalgam 173–217. of many foreign and local languages and dialects. Ali, I. and Jan, Z. 2005. Archaeological Explorations in the Gomal Valley, Pakistan 2003. Frontier Archaeology The Tughlaqs (AD 1320-1414) had strong hold in Sindh 3: 1–45. and . We have some important buildings of this

533 © Archaeopress and the authors, 2018. Walking with the Unicorn – Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume

Ali, T., Coningham, R. A. E., Durrani, M. A. and Rahim, Khan, F., Knox, J. R., Thomas, K. D., Petrie, C. A., Morris, G. 1998. Preliminary report of the first two seasons J. C., Cartwright, C. R. and Joyner, L. 2010. Sheri of archaeological investigations at the Bala Hisar of Khan Tarakai and Early Village Life in the Borderlands Charsadda. Ancient Pakistan 12: 1–34. of North-West Pakistan: Bannu Archaeological Project Allchin, B. and Allchin, F. R. 1982. The Rise of Civilization in Surveys and Excavations 1985-2001 (BAP Monographs, India and Pakistan. Cambridge, Cambridge University Vol. 1): 41–66. Oxford, Oxbow Books. Press: 89–92. Khan, N. A. 1980. Uchchh. History and Architecture. Brown, P. 1942. Indian Architecture (Islamic Period). Islamabad, National Institute of Historical and Bombay, Taraporevala: 90–94. Cultural Research, Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i- Dani, A. H. 1964. Sangao Cave Excavation. Ancient Azam University. Pakistan 1: 1–50. Koch, E. 1991. Mughal Architecture. An Outline of Its Dani, A. H. 1965-66. Shaikhan Dheri Excavation (1963 History and Development, 1526-1858. Munich, Prestel and 1964 Seasons). Ancient Pakistan 2: 17–117. Publishing. Dani, A. H. 1967. Gandhara Grave Culture. Ancient Latif, S. M. 1982. Lahore. Its History, Architectural Remains Pakistan 3: 4–207. and Antiquities, Lahore. Dani, A. H. 1970-71. Excavations in the Gomal Valley. Morris, J. C. and Thomas, K. D. 2002. Excavations at Ancient Pakistan 5: 1–35. the Later Prehistoric Site of Lewan, North West Durrani, F. A. 1981. Rahman Dheri and the birth of Frontier Province, Pakistan. Bulletin of the Institute of Civilization in Pakistan. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 13: 94-100. Archaeology 18: 22-33. Qazi, M. N. 1998. Prehistoric . An Durrani, F. A. 1988. Excavations in the Gomal Valley. Introduction. The Glory that was Pakistan – 50 years of Excavations Report, Vol. 1. Ancient archaeological research in Pakistan. Peshawar, National Pakistan 6: 1–232. Heritage Foundation and Dept. of Archaeology, Durrani, F. A., Ali, I and Erodosy, G. 1999. Further University ofAccess Peshawar. Excavation at Rehman Dheri. Ancient Pakistan 7: Qureshi, I. H. 1992. A short History of Pakistan. , 61–107. University of Karachi. Elliot, H. M. and Dowson, J. 1966. The , Rahman, A. 1979. The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis. as told by its own historians. Vol. 1, The Muhammadan An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and period. New York, AMS Press. Openpalaeography . Islamabad, Centre for the Study of the Jamison, G. M. 2012. Experimental Studies of Harappan Civilizations of Central Asia. Steatite. Carving and Firing Techniques. Pakistan Rahman, A. 1981. of Pakistan. An Heritage 4: 1–20. Introduction. Peshawar, Dept. of Archaeology, Kenoyer, J. M. 2005. Steatite and Faience University of Peshawar. Manufacturing at Harappa: New Evidence from Rahman, A. 1984. Shaikh Qutb-ad-Din’s Tomb at Dilazak. Mound E Excavations 2000-2001. Museum Journal. Central Asia 14: 107. National Museum of Pakistan 3-4: 43–56. Rahman, A. 1988. Nawab Said Khan and His Tomb. In A. Khan, N. A. 1990. Islamic Architecture of Pakistan. An Rahman (ed.), The Proceedings of the Hijra Celebration analytical exposition. Karachi, Elite Publishers. Symposium on Islamic Art, Calligraphy. Architecture Khan, N. A. 1991. Development of Mosque Architecture in and Archaeology, Vol. 2 (Memoirs of the Department Pakistan. Islamabad, LokArchaeopress Virsa Publishing House. of Archaeology, University of Peshawar, no. 2): Khan, N. A. 1997. Studies in Islamic Archaeology of Pakistan. 555. Peshawar, Dept. of Archaeology, University of Lahore, Sang-e-Meel Publications. Peshawar. Khan, F. 1986a. Archaeological sites in the Bannu basin. Rahman, A. 1989. Saif ad-Daula Mahmud and His Tomb In F. R. Allchin (ed.), Lewan and the Bannu Basin. in Zairan. Journal of Central Asia 12(1): 391–398. Excavation and survey of sites and environments in North Rahman, A. 1997. The Discovery of a new cultural West Pakistan (BAR International series, 310): 183– horizon at Jhandi Babar near Dera Ismail Khan. 195. Oxford. Punjab Journal of Archaeology and History 1: 44–51. Khan, F., Knox, J. R. and Thomas, K. D. 1986b. Sheri Shakirullah 2012a. Tomb Architecture in the Khyber Khan Tarakai. A new site in the North-west Frontier Pakhtunkhwa province (Pakistan): An Analytical Study. Province of Pakistan. Journal of Central Asia 9: 172–189 Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Peshawar. Khan, F., Knox, J. R. and Thomas, K. D. 1987-9. The Bannu Shakirullah 2012b. Tomb Buildings in Khyber Archaeological Project. Investigations at Sheri Khan Pakhtunkhwa Datable approximately to the time Tarakai. South Asian Studies 6: 241–247. of the Mughal Emperor Jalal ad-Din Akbar. Ancient Khan, F., Knox, J. R. and Thomas, K. D. 1992. Tradition, Pakistan 23: 164–165. identity and individuality. Exploring the cultural Shakirullah 2012c. Two Rare Monuments in District relationships of Sheri Khan Tarakai. Pakistan Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Archaeology 26: 156–174. Heritage 4: 143–145.

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Shakirullah 2013. The Earliest Muslim Tomb in the Wheeler, R. E. M. 1962. Charsada. A metropolis of the north- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. PUTAJ – west frontier. Being a report on the excavations of 1958. Humanities and Social Sciences 20: 353–56. London, University Press. Smith, V. A. 1988. The Oxford History of India. Karachi, Wheeler, R. E. M. 1968. The Indus Civilization. Cambridge, Oxford University Press. Cambridge University Press.

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