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Home , Ordination hall, Prang (architecture), Wat Phra Kaew

KING 'S Buddhist sect, Thammayut, is characterised as rational, intellectual, and POLITICAL AND humanistic. Such religious reform was RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGIES integrated with scientific knowledge, THROUGH which he had learned during his contact ARCIDTECTURE AT PHRA with Christian missionaries as a monk and later as king. NAKHON KIRI1 Introduction Somphong Amnuay-ngerntra 2 King Mongkut, through his long Abstract association with Christian rmss10naries while in the monkhood and on the throne, and the Siamese elite were aware of the This research investigates King Mongkut 's increasing threat of European colonisation vision of modernity as expressed through in Southeast , particularly after the the medium of Phra Nakhon Kiri in British defeated the Burmese in 1837, and Phetchaburi. King Mongkut used when western firearms were used to settle hierarchically traditional architecture as the Opium War in China in 1842 (Batson, a means of bolstering national pride and 1984: 4). In response to global political legitimising claims to the right ofkingship . circumstances, the Siamese elite Simultaneously, a political position of introduced the concept of modernity and Siam as a modern state was manifested W esternisation to Siam by incorporating through European-Sino-Siamese hybrid Western ideas of governance and architectural styles in the mid-nineteenth administration, changing the economy to a century. In addition, the bell-shaped market, cash economy (Keyes, 1989: 45). style within the site complex Notably, these Siamese elite, who had reflected his religious reform directed at foreseen the potential benefits from the upgrading monastic practices and trade treaty, welcomed the British purifying the canon. His reformed demands and later signed commercial treaties with European countries beginning 1 This essay is a revised version of the paper with Britain in 1855. Subsequently, these presented at the Third Asia-Pacific CHRIE Western treaties, led by the · Bowring (APacCHRIE) Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Treaty, removed all trade barriers and Malaysia, 26-28 May 2005. The author would established extraterritoriality for European like to express his grateful appreciation to subjects in Siam. Inevitably, the mass ·Professor Ross King, Faculty of Architecture arrival of Europeans had major socio• Building and Planning, University of cultural influences on people of Siam, Melbourne, for his insightful and especially in term of modern scientific comprehensive comments. knowledge, health, and travel. This be~ 2 Assistant Professor, Travel Industry Management Division, Mahidol University witli the ruling elite who learned Western International College, Mahidol University scientific knowledge such as mechanical

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engineering, medical science, navigation, while leading a monastic life, the princely and astronomy from their close contact monk made trips to many with foreigners. provinces and beca,me well acquainted with the living conditions of his subjects. According to a record in the Thus, when King Mongkut ascended the Thiphakornwong chronicle of 1861 (cited throne, he realised that visiting the in Koompong, 2003: 146), the modem provinces was essential · to good notion of physical retreat travel was also governance. Secondly, steamboats came initiated by Westerners, who submitted a into existence during his reign, therefore petition to the king for an open air plot to making travel much faster· than before. ride carriages or horses for pleasure and to Consequently, the king built seven country recuperat~. Similarly, visiting new places residences both close to and far from was also believed to be beneficial to health . Those to the north included and longevity. Subsequently, the first three Bang Pa-In Palace and Chankasem Palace roads in Bangkok: Charoen Krung (New in Ayutthaya and Narai Ratchanivej Road), Bamrung Muang, and Fuang Palace in Lop~uri; and to the south, Phra Nakhon, were constructed, was followed Nakhon Kiri, in Phetchaburi. by the use of horse-drawn carriages introduced during the reign of King Unlike Phra Aphinaowaniwet in Bangkok Mongkut. This also coincided with the which was demolished during the reign of move from water-based transportation to King , Phra Nakhon Kiri is land-based transportation. still in existence and is . the largest and most outstanding country palace erected According to the ancient system of divine during King IV's reign. It kingship, Siamese monarchs and their significantly reflects the influence of royal families usually resided only in the western notions of science, health, and . This was regarded as a travel. This site complex has a unique sacred place and the administrative center geographical setting and attractive (Sarakadee, 2003). Royal travel was landscape and also contains a number of usually resricted to day-trips to the buildings in European-Sino-Siamese provinces near 'Bangkok, due to security hybrid architectural styles manifesting concerns and undeveloped infrastructure. King Mongkut's personal identity, in The kings would rarely make a long trip terms of his vision of modernity and away from the residence, unless they were religious beliefs. In addition, Phra Nakhon required to travel on important missions Kiri is currently one of 's most such as witnessing the search for white visited national museums and the leading elephants, enshrining . sacred Buddha symbolic landmark in Phetchaburi. In images, and commanding troops during spite of such heritage values, it is wartime (Benjawan, 2000). However, surprising that so little empirical research ac.cording to Naengnoi and Freeman has actually been conducted to analyse (1996), this changed during the reign of King Mongkut's intelligent thoughts and King Mongkut for two reasons. Firstly, symbolic meanings embedded in · the

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content and patterns of the cultural Compositional Architecture at Phra artifacts, especially the architecture at Phra Nakhon Kiri Nakhon Kiri. Phra Nakhon Kiri, commonly known As architectural buildings significantly among local residents as Khao Wang (the reflect the priorities and values of the celestial city on the mountain), is a 95- makers and users through their designs, meter high rural palace erected in 1859 forms, styles, and characteristics of under the royal aspiration of King cultural materials, this study therefore Mongkut. The Hilltop Palace creates a attempts to investigate and analyse the spectacular cultural landscape where the abstract meaning of King Mongkut' s European-Sino-Siamese hybrid ideology of modernisation, religious architectural styles of the edifices blend beliefs and personality through the into the natural surroundings comprising medium of static buildings at Phra Nakhon woods, rocks, and caverns. His vision of Kiri that now have no 'life'. Indeed, the modernity was revealed through the study also attempts to 'seek' rather than to architectural style embedded in the palace 'ascertain' the meanings of his intelligent complex that included throne halls, thoughts. In conducting this enquiry, it is religious edifices notably the royal chapel not the source of the insight which and chedi (a domed or bell-shaped validates the claim; instead it is the pagoda), and other buildings including the explicit nature of the reasoning which pavilion and citadels. Also present were sustains it and the means by which the some Neo-Classic Western styles, as well available data can be brought into as Chinese workmanship as seen in the relationship with it (Renfrew, 1994). To roof structures, and in the roof layouts. infer about architectural history in Siam, The result is an interesting hybrid of and determine to what extent political · architectural styles particular to this place. visions are embedded in the architectural Furthermore, it is the first palace that has forms of Phra Nakhon Kiri, and the reason three prominent peaks erected on the same why, a thorough investigation was first mountain: the West, the Middle, and the required to understand the socio-political East peaks. phenomena and the background of the king. As the site complex consists of a The West Peak is the setting of a complex large number of residential and religious of the royal structures known as the buildings, the following section discusses Phetphum Phairot Throne Hall, which the political and cultural values of the currently serves as a museum featuring stylistic architecture at the royal palace, royal belongings and utensils of both King and that ofthe royal . Mongkut and his son, King Chulalongkorn (reigned 1868-1910). Some cultural artifacts in this hall include furniture, bronze sculptures, porcelain and glasses in European, Chinese, and Japanese styles. Originally, Phetphum Phairot was the hall

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in which the king gave an audience to his The two-storey cylindrical tower courtiers during his stay at Phra Nakhon has massive walls with semi• Kiri. In 1910, the hall was converted to circular openings surrounded by a accommodation for visiting dignitaries dome made of curved steel including the Duke Johan Alberkt and his members and ring beams, the consort Princess Elizabeth Stolberk from interstices covered with pieces of Brunswick in Germany. To make the gla5s that are curved to the building suitable for this purpose, the contour of the dome. The four, interior was renovated accordingly. octagonal towers of the Phra Thinang Wechayan Wichien One of the more interesting halls Prasat are built in the same style reflecting King Mongkut's personality is but are smaller and lower with the Pramot Mahaisawan Hall, a royal openings of Gothic style. residential hall consisting of three rooms: a living room, a bedroom and a dressing The great chedi enshrining the relic, called room. For security purposes, the small Phra That Chomphet, is situated on the bedroom was hidden and connected to Middle Peak, whereas the Eastern Peak narrow stairways, which also revealed his houses a royal temple called Phra simple and humble personality, very likely Kaew Noi built in the same style as the deriving from his rigorous and disciplined Grand Palace, in Bangkok. The temple life as a Buddhist priest. contains numerous Buddhist edifices such as the ubosod (), the bell• On the contrary, the West Peak houses a shaped called Phra Sutthasela Chedi, large number of buildings such as the Phra Daeng (a Khmer-influenced Wechayan Wichien Prasat (King tower in brick and stone), the belfry, and Mongkut's statue hall), a ceremonial hall, some small pavilions. These buildings are an observatory called the Chatchawan situated on a multi-layered base. Most · Wiengchai, for the king to observe stars notably, the elements of this monastery are and constellations, a large residential area arranged in a manner consonant to the for state guests, and a theatre for masked Ayutthaya period (1350-1767) as the dance drama performances. The ordination hall was made the most observatory clearly strongly reflects the prominent, with the chedi to the rear, and king's great interest in Western knowledge the belfry placed lower to the front. of astronomy. The palatial complex possesses scientific values of modern In accordance with the ancient divine technology, using steel for constructing kingship system, royal palaces were the high observatory and the four towers traditionally built in relation to the on the comer of the W echaya Wichien of Traiphum. The Prasat. Naengnoi and Freeman (1996: 34) palace was divided into three main areas: described the modem architectural style of the outer, the middle, and the inner courts. these towers as: The outermost court consisted of official buildings. The middle court contained

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three main mahaprasat (tall sacred Phra Nakhon Kiri. As the site has symbolic buildings for the kings), each limitations due to . its setting, the palace with a palatial spiral roof, used as royal may be divided into two or three courts residences and for royal ceremonies depending on how the individual scholar including granting audience to foreign views the architectural design of the site. dignitaries. The inner court of the palace was the private quarters of the king and Apinan Poshyananda (1992: 5) called the ladies ofthe court. ' these European-Sino-Siam hybrid buildings an eclectic combination of In An Architectural Design Study of Phra 'Doric columns, Ionic capitals, Nakhon Kiri, Benjawan Thatsanaleelaporn balustrades, ·and brickwork, in places (2000: 231) notes that the three courts are mixed with glazed ceramics designed in not orderly placed. In particular, the inner the Chinese style'. Whereas Koompong (ladies) court consisting of Santhakarn Noobanjong (2003) stated that several Sathan Hall and other structures within the buildings at the western peak share several Nari Prawet Gate were not located behind characteristics that make the entire the royal residence and the Audience Hall, compound look 'Western' - heavy as is in the traditional Grand Palace in masonry and white-washed stucco walls, Bangkok. Instead, Santhakarn Sathan Hall arches and arcades, as well as simplified is on the right on the way to the Audience classical ornaments such as the Ionic Hall, Phetphum Phairot. In contrast, at order. Interestingly, Pensupa Sukanya least three studies (Naengnoi and (2000: 15) suggested that the palatial Freeman, 1996; Fine Arts Department, complex was an ·early European 1999: 76-77; and Somchart interviewed on architectural structure built in the 7 September, 2006) claim that the Hilltop countryside. Thus, officials and craftsmen Paiace contains only two courtS: the outer probably relied on pictorial references like and the inner .courts. This was very likely prints, photographs, postcards, calendars because the palatial complex was and posters from American and French geographically constrained by its location. missionaries as their architectural sources. These two courts are connected by paths It should be noted that the plan, design, and stairways leading up the slope. At the scale, space and architectural elements intersections, there are guard posts to have been distorted and adapted to meet maintain security. These are called the the requirements of Siamese builders Front , the Middle Sala, and the Rear (Apinan, 1992). However, the importance Sala. There are outer and inner gates, and of architectural hybridity reflects a five strategically located forts. It can be transitional period in Siamese aesthetics said that the architecture of .the Hilltop between traditional eclecticism and Palace is in the traditional Thai style aspiring modernism. where the inner part is at the highest spot, while the outer part is located below. In essence, there is no 'precise' knowledge with respect to the number of courts at

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Political Legitimacy through One of the most outstanding features of Wechayan Wichien Prasat Wechayan Wichien Prasat is its five spires. The main spire, signifying Mount According to the ancient political system Meru (a residence of the god ), is of divine kingship, the monarch was not surrounded by four minor spires only considered a ruler but also a symbolising the four continents supremely holy person, an incamatioR of (residences of human beings and other the Hindu god or Indra, the god animals) in relation to the traditional who protects . As a result, cosmology of Traiphum (Naengnoi and palaces of the God-King had to reflect the Freeman, 1996). The superstructure is ethos of heavenly architecture. The style decorated with Thai-style ornaments. The of such buildings and the elements with towers on the four corners of the upper tier which they were decorated are of a special are in the Western style with domed glass type reserved only for use in palaces and roofs, which makes the small prasat more . These elements include multi• prominent, especially at night. Apparently, storeyed roofs, gables depicting gods, for Wechayan Wichien Prasat, which was instance Vishnu mounted on a mythical built to honour King Mongkut, as was the bird, or Indra mounted on a three• custom, stands higher than any other headed elephant, Airavanta, gilding and architectural hybrid building on the west other decorative detail. King Mongkut and peak, and perhaps is the most dominant the other ruling elite were aware of the structure erected by the king as a new West's influence and simultaneously they means of presenting his political also safeguarded the identity of their own legitimacy to the outside world. moral culture. Significantly, the king refined and strengthened the traditional It is interesting to note that although King Siamese values, notably the political Mongkut criticised the supernaturalism of legitimacy in which he grew up, to counter indigenous Siamese religious forms, he the spread of Christianity. His vision of did not fully accept the empiricism of the traditional values of hegemony was Western science. The king was wise to embodied in the architectural style of support the traditional metaphysical Wechayan Wichien Prasat, a Khmer of Buddhism with its belief in heavens and cruciform-shaped building used as a hells populated by a diverse range of throne-hall or religious edifice, and supernatural entities. In his writing, reserved for the monarch only. Notably, Somboon Suksarnran ( 1993: 109) the prasat is crowned by a tall spire commented that 'Buddhism not only (prang), a high sanctuary or monument on provided the state with the ideological a square plan, with a corncob-shaped top. basis and political legitimacy but it could In Hindu mythology, the prang represents also be used to facilitate the government the thirty-three levels of heaven, with the and to maximise the legitimacy of summit occupied by the god Indra. traditional government'. This can be interpreted that the ruling elite in Siam strove to maintain their legitimacy since it

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permitted them to achieve their goals and the center of the monument symbolising maintain their power without resorting to the mythical . coercion. Undoubtedly, such power can be reserved for possible major crises in the In short, understanding political future. Also, Jackson (1989: 45-46) argued ·legitimacy and Moi.mt Meru in the that due to his religious reforms, King Traiphum cosmology will help answer two Mongk:ut did not radically, reject important questions regarding the Traiphum, a Buddhist cosmology of geographical setting: why did King 'Three Worlds' comprising Heaven, Earth, Mongkut have his palatial complex and Hell, with punishments meted out in erected on the hill? Moreover, what is the accordance with sins conunitted. Instead, symbolic meaning of W echayan Wichien King Mongk:ut tried to supplant local Prasat standing on top of the west peak? religious traditions with his own semi• rational royal ideology. Hence, it can be After analysis of King Mongk:ut's political asserted that the Brahmanical or Hindu vision of modernity through architectural deities were still worshipped by him. discourse at the royal palace, the following Additionally, Traiphum would constitute section will discuss the prominent an invaluable means of maximising his ·characteristics of his religious reform, the legitimacy, enabling him and the political Thammayut sect as embedded in the regime to be accepted as rulers. stylistic architecture at Wat Phra K.aew Noi within the site complex. Significantly, the concept of political legitimacy through Traiphum cosmology The Revival of the Bell-Shaped will greatly enhance an understanding of Stupa of the Ayutthaya Period the geographical setting of the palatial complex. According to Ringis (1990: 7), As Phra Nakhon Kiri contains two bell• the symbolism of Traiphum cosmology shaped : Phra That Chomphet on the was expressed in the evolution of religious Middle Peak and Phra Sutthasela Chedi on architecture, decoration, and mural the East Peak, it is interesting to examine painting. Pensupa Sukata (2000: 14) why these religious structures were pointed out the legendary Mount Meru in erected in the form of bell-shaped Traiphum, the 33-tiered mythical architecture. What is the symbolic mountain at the center of the universe and meaning of this bell-shaped architectural home to the gods, notably Indra, style? To what degree does this remarkably influenced King Mongkut's architectural pattern relate . to the decision on geographical setting. The king characteristics of the Thammayut sect? attempted to dominate his palatial complex, especially Wechayan Wichien Prasat, which is a replica of the universe The world's oldest Buddhist edifice, the and represents an earthly model of the bell-shaped stupa, regarded as the pure cosmic world. The top tower rises from original canon, was used as a cultural medium in promoting the Thammayut sect

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and traditional identity. The close contact with a ring of elephant sculptures between King Mongkut and the Mons and encircling the base at Wat Chang Lorn in Ceylonese Buddhist monks resulted in an Sri Satchanalai, Sukhothai. exchange of Buddhist knowledge and artistic practice. While in the monkhood, It has been noted that the bell-shaped King Mongkut cultivated a relationship stupa is symbolic of the Buddha's death or with Ceylonese monks who came to visit . This symbol was originally Siamese temples and shrines in 1840. "He derived from the ancient mounds of India also sent a group of his disciples to Ceylon that enshrined the Buddha's -remains after twice in order to borrow 72 volumes of the cremation. In Siam, the bell-shaped stupa oldest surviving Buddhist scriptures so ( chedi) was favoured during the Sukhothai that Siamese collections could be revised period (13th century) and subsequently and expanded (Vella, 1957: 40-41; adapted in various ways during the Griswold, 1961: 19). During his reign, Ayutthaya period, according to the King Mongkut wisely used the aesthetics of the time. The bell-shaped architectural forms to symbolise his stupa was extensively used in Ayutthaya religious ideology in accordance with the but it was given a new elegance, notably Thammayut sect, which focused on the the most well-knoWn triple stupa with the pure original canon. entrance porches at . The base of the bell was capped by a As the Thammayut sect was initially colonnaded hamika porch and crowned by directed at upgrading monastic practices a slim spire that imparted an airiness not and restoring the faith to a pure original previously seen (Van Beck and Tettoni, canon, the king also used the bell-shaped 1991: 145). Ayutthaya architects played stupa originally from Ceylon, to manifest with this style, squaring its shoulders and the characteristics of his Thammayut sect. elongating it to create one of Siamese To the king, Ceylon was considered the architecture's most graceful expressions of fountainhead of the purest doctrines in the soaring weightlessness. However, in the 14th and 15th centuries, when there had mid 19th century, the bell-shaped stupa been numero.us cultural exchanges was again seen. King Mongkut revived it between Ceylon and Siam. Notably, the as he found the architectural form doctrines of Buddhism particularly fascinating. originated from the oldest surviving text which was written in the language in It is interesting to investigate why most Ceylon, in the first century (BC), known Buddhist monasteries during the reign of as the Pali canon. Some Siamese monks in King Mongkut were modelled on the Sukhothai (Thailand's first kingdom) went temples of the Ayutthaya period and not there to study the and later on those of the Sukhothai period. This can _returned home to preach and promote possibly be explained by the fact that the Ceylonese artistic practices, notably mural king used a particular expression of what painting, sculpture and architecture. This Williams called 'selective tradition'. can be seen through a bell-shaped stupa According to Williams (1977: 115), such a

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tradition is perceived of as 'an control which Siam was subsequently able intentionally selective version of a shaping to dispel, and establish a new empire past and a pre-shaped present, which is called Sukhothai. King Mongkut believed then powerfully operative in the process of that the other track came with King social and cultural definition and Uthong, the founder of Ayutthaya, whose identification'. It was a model of the past clan descended from Chiang Rai, settled in which the king applied to a contemporary Ayutthaya and subsequently moved to situation for the sake of promoting his Bangkok. Hence, Ayutthaya was clearly kingship in relation to the idea of associated with his clan, in terms of continuity with a glorious past. historical background. Apparently, he revived the physical, traditional identity, and cultural splendors Politically, most temples erected during of Ayutthaya, which was the kingdom's the reign of king Rama ill were influenced capital for the longest duration . in Thai by Chinese art, primarily due to the history. Also, Ayutthaya was the origin of increase of sea trade with China. King ancient court ceremonies derived from Rama ill, who noticed the deterioration and the Brahman and the fire hazard of the wooden concept of divine kingship. Similarly, the structures, ordered the carved wooden Buddhist monk turned king applied the structures replaced with decorations in 'selective' tradition model to promote and brick and stucco. Unlike King Rama ill support an image of his as 'the who had opposed the unequal trading Great' by introducing his royal regalia the treaties with Western countries, King Victorious Crown in his palaces, religious Mongkut was aware of increasing edifices and other cultural materials. With 'Western' domination in the world respect to his global views on the economy and politics, notably during the 'selective' tradition, King Mongkut Opium War in 1842. If Siam still had established Thailand's first museum to many Chinese influenced architectural house a collection of cultural artifacts buildings, this would threaten his intended to promote his civilised kingdom sovereignty because the Western powers in the eyes of foreigners, as noted in his might have perceived Siam as a barbarian personal correspondence with the heads of vassal state to China (Somkid, 2004: 206). the colonial powers (Cary, 2000: 131 ). Therefore, King Mongkut did not give much significance to Chinese influenced Ayutthaya was related to the origin of architecture, but instead revived the King Mongkut's ancestry. Unlike King traditional architectural forms of the Rarna ill whose mother was a commoner, Ayutthaya period. It can be emphasised King Mongkut took pride in his royal that most bell-shaped stupa monasteries family . Likewise, he was keen on today are associated with the king, in the historical background of his clan. In Bangkok and upcountry such as Phra his royal writings, King Mongkut wrote Prathom Chedi in Nakhon Prathom, the that there were two original tracks of Golden Mount at , Wat Phra Siam. The former track was under Khmer Kaew in the Grand Palace, Wat

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Bavonivet, Wat Pratum Wanaram, Wat Humanistic Concept of Thammayut Makut Kasat, Wat Sommanat, and Wat through CulturalMaterials Phra Kaew Noi in Phetchaburi (see an analysis of religious architecture in the In an attempt to understand the hwnanistic reign of King Mongkut in Somkid, 2004). concept of Thammayut, the author has applied a logical analogy to this study by Unlike during the time of Ayutthaya, a arguing that if the styles, designs, and nwnber of religious buildings in the reign characteristics of cultural materials at Phra of King Mongkut were built in the chedi Nakhon Kiri looked the same as other architectural forin instead ofprang. This is buildings erected by King Mongkut in the likely because the prang was regarded as a historic literature, then meaning is likely Khmer-influenced Hindu tower thought to to be the same. be incompatible with Buddhism. According to characteristics of the It has been suggested in the preceding Tharnmayut sect, the king firmly discussion that many of the Siamese ruling attempted to purify Buddhist teachings elite struggled to maintain political and rejected traditional beliefs and independence from the colonial powers. practices concerning magic, superstitions However, they nevertheless appeared to be and spirit-mediwn cults in . colonised intellectually and culturally Hence, the number of prang architectural (Thongchai, 2000). This can be explained buildings declined or had no significant in the concept of humanism, one of the religious meanings during his reign, in remarkable characteristics of the particular the Prang Daeng at Phra Thammayut sect, seen in the religious Nakhon Kiri. This Khmer style tower, at architecture and other cultural materials at Noi within the palatial Wat Phra Kaew Noi. An innovative complex, possesses distinctive monarch, King Mongkut made a clear characteristics in that there is only a single distinction between Buddhism and red tower with less detailed decorations Brahmanism. He revised the Brahmin around the comers of the building. Unlike ceremony slightly, and introduced the traditional Kluner prangs built in the Buddhist elements into it, and added a , Sukhothai, and Ayutthaya hwnan touch to reinforce Buddhism. His periods, which are heavy and with an open modernity and W esternisation are also entrance at the base, Prang Daeng is reflected through his cultural materials, relatively thinner and lighter. It appears notably photographs, sculpture, more like a prasat than a prang as in architecture, mural painting, art, and former reigns, and, the interior is hollow clothes. These subjects were significantly from top to base (Naengnoi and Freeman, manifested in the effort to promote 1996). Furth~rmore, more space on the top Siamese modernity. _of the prang for the light and segmental . pediments also reflected Western The first attempts to change traditional architecture influence (Somchart, 2001: art1st1c presentations and pictorial 119). elements occurred during the reign of

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King Mongkut. Royal portraiture was one words, his correspondence with these of the multi-cultural imports from Europe prominent Europeans was not only a that were localised in Siam. According to courtesy or an exchange of information, the ancient custom inherited from the but also an intellectual battle in the Khmer courts, memories ofdeparted kings campaign to maintain Siamese sovereignty were kept alive in the form of Buddha fn the face of European colonial images that were dedicated posthumously, imperatives (Cary, 2000: 124). and it was a strict taboo to make royal portraits and visual representations of the Given that there were no modem cameras sovereign's body for public display prior during his reign, the procedure involved 1n to the mid-nineteenth century (Apinan, photographing King Mongkut was 1990 cited in Peleggi, 2004: 136). King elaborate and rigorous. This could be Mongkut's predecessors showed little explained by the fact that technological interest in sculptures and photographs, advancement during his reign was still at purportedly due to a suspicion that a the early stages resulting from the photograph was to invite death (Cary, in 1855, which brought 2000: 125). However, this did not concern Siam into the world economic trade. the scholarly monarch. From his Western Notably, the characteristics of humanism scientific knowledge introduced by Bishop c·an be manifested through his sculpture Palagoix, King Mongkut was aware of the placed at Wechayan Wichien Prasat, use of royal portraits in the West as which is consistent with the notion that he symbolic statements about a souvereign's made a distinction between Buddhism and power and vehicles of diplomatic change. Brahmanism by adding the human touch. Instead, the king agreed to have his portrait done by artists and photographers. In architecture, through his far-sighted Incidentally, people in Europe became diplomacy, King Mongkut was the first aware of his appearance before his own Siamese monarch to apply western subjects. symbolism to promote his modernity. The king introduced his royal insignia, the King Mongkut used his own sculptures Victorious Crown, as architectural and photographs for political purposes, innovations on pediments, doors, and introducing himself as the Siamese window panels of · the palaces and monarch to other heads of Western religious structures associated with him countries, and to promote Siamese (Somkid, 2004: 28). The most important of modernity in which he rejected magical all was the motif moulded in stucco on the practices, spirit-medium cults, and other pediment of Wat Phra Kaew Noi, one of superstitious forms. The Siamese envoys the masterpieces found in Phetchaburi. dispatched to the courts of Queen Victoria Until now, other royal members of the in 1857, and Napoleon ill and Pope Pius have also inherited IX in 1861 presented them with Mongkut's innovations of symbolism daguerreotypes of his royal family (Sakda, portraying their royal insignia on buildings 1992 cited in Peleggi, 2004: 136). In other and other cultural materials.

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Traditional characteristics of Siamese material evidence of past socio-political mural paintings were associated with the situations, and then from that deduce his life and former lives of the Buddha, and visions. However, th.e study of political scenes from Traiphum, which were vision is relatively abstract, and is difficult crowded with beings and divine attendants to interpret validly and reliably. This is in traditional appearance and dress set in a because of the incomplete and imprecise familiar landscape (Ringis, 1990: 90 and nature of available information, a strong Chatri, 2003). King Mongkut's religious reliance on inference, and the difficulties reforms, incorporating Western scientific in applying a truly sd.entific method. knowledge, had ·a great influence on the Thus, how is one to impute intentions, characteristics of Siamese mural paintings, values, and personalities from in terms of humanism, rationalism, and architectural buildings that now have no realism. The rationalistic ideal replaced 'life'? How does one validate the research the traditional theme of Buddhist results? cosmology. Krua In Khong, the most renowned court painter to King Mongkut, The study encompasses a wide range of revealed the exotic world of the West in a sub-disciplines and attempts to foster an three-dimensional 'realistic' style of mural understanding of King Mongkut's vision painting of Wat Bovonnivet, where King of modernity. To understand the complex Mongkut became an abbot prior to interplay between the king and his palace, ascending the throne in 1851. Krua In it is important to have a holistic Khong's visions of Western life were knowledge of other disciplines, especially deriv.ed from the increasing number of the politico-religious history and missionaries in Bangkok. His Western architectural . So how figures with scenery, topography, and is one to bridge the gaps between the human activities were realistic and up to realpolitik, religious beliefs, personalities, date in their authentic nineteenth century and architectural expressions? fashion. The introduction of these Western perspectives sparked a movement . away There is an · underlying epistemological from traditional Siamese painting ·and problem: the way of seeing how the world opened the door to new forms. changed steadily over a period of 17 years (1851-1868). There were gradual shifts in Conclusion the way that Siamese knowledge and modernity were being variously This empirical rese~ch yields major constructed in accordance with and in insights into methodological and reaction to Western influences. epistemological problems. However, there Simultaneously, understanding King is . a methodological problem as it is Mongkut's intelligent thoughts as well as impossible to ask King Mongkut directly Thammayut characteristics through about his thoughts or make mute buildings architectural expressions will significantly speak on their own behalf. Instead, one contribute to a better insight into the must investigate and document the

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abstract mearungs of other heritage A.D:]. Master's thesis, buildings associated with him. Chulalongkorn University.

References Fine Arts Department. 1999. Phra Nakhon Kiri Historical Park. Bangkok: Sri Apinan Poshyananda. 1992. Modern Art in Muang Print. Thailand: Nineteenth and • Twentieth Centuries. Singapore: Griswold, A.B. 1961. King Mongkut of Oxford University Press. Siam. New York: The Asia Society. Batson, Benjamin. A. 1984. The End of the Absolute Monarchy in Siam. Jackson, Peter A. 1989. Buddhism, Asian Studies Association of Legitimation, and Conflict. Australia: Oxford University Singapore: Institute of Southeast Press. Asia Studies.

Benjawan Thatsanaleelaporn. 2000. Karn Keyes, Charles F. 1989. Thailand: Ook Bap Phra Nakhon Kiri Buddhist Kingdom as Nation• Changwat Phetchaburi [An State. Bangkok: Duang Kamol. Architectural Design Study of Phra Nakhon Kiri: City of Koompong Noobanjong. 2003. Power, Phetchaburi]. Master's thesis, Identity, and The Rise ofModern Silpakom University. Architecture: From Siam to Thailand. Doctoral dissertation, Cary, Caverlee. 2000. In the Image of the University of Colorado at Denver. King: Two Photographs from Nineteenth-Century Siam. In Naengnoi Suksri and Freeman, Michael. Studies in Southeast Asian: Essays 1996. Palaces ofBangkok: Royal in Honor ofStanley J. 0 'Connor, Residences of the Chakri Dynasty. ed. by Nora A. Taylor. Ithaca, Bangkok: Asia Books. New York: Program Publication. Peleggi, Maurizio. 2004. Siam/Looking Back-Thailand/Looking Forward: Chatri Prakitnonthakarn. 2003. Jak Siam King Chulalongkom in Thai Kao Soo Siam Mai: Khaom Maiy Collective Memory. In King Thang Sangkom Lae Karn Muang Chulalongkorn: Siam-Southeast Nai Ngan Sa Tha Pat Ta Ya Kram Asia - Jambudvipa, ed. by [From Old- Siam to New-Thai: Charnvit Kasetsiri and Onanong Social and Political Meanings in Thipimol. Bangkok: Toyota Architecture During 1892-1957 Thailand Foundation.

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Pensupa Sukata. 2000. Yearn Ruan Yeaun [The Pattern ofMain Chapel and Ardeet [Architecture and the Viharn in the Reign ofKing Past]. Bangkok: Pa Ktas. Mongkut]. Bangkok: Muang Boran. Renfrew, Colin. 1994. Towards a Cognitive Archaeology. In The Thongchai Winichakul. 2000. The Quest Ancient Mind: Elements of for 'Siwilai': A Geographical Cognitive Archaeology, ed. by Discourse of Civilisational Colin Renfrew and Ezra Zubrow. Thinking in the Late Nineteenth Cambridge: Cambridge University and Early Twentieth-Century Press. · Siam. Journal ofAsian Studies, 59: 528-549. Ringis, Rita. 1990. Thai Temples and Temple Murals. Singapore: Van Beck, Steve and Luca Invernizzi Oxford University Press. Tettoni. 1991. The Arts of Thailand. Bangkok: Asia Books. Sarakadee. 2003. Phet Cha Bu Ri [Phetchaburzl Bangkok: Vella, Walter F. 1957. Siam under Rama Sarakadee Press. III. New York: The Association for Asian Studies. Somboon Suksarnran. 1993. Buddhism, Political Authority, and Williams, Raymond. 1977. Marxism and Legitimacy in Thailand and Literature. London: Oxford . In Buddhist Trends in University Press. Southeast Asia, ed. by Trevor Ling. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

Somchart Chungsiri-arak. Personal Communication on 7 September, 2006.

Somchart Chungsiri-arak. 2001. Modem Architectural Works of Phra Phrom Phichit. Muang Boran 27.1: 113-121.

Somkid Jirathutsanakul. 2004. Roob Bab Phra Ubosoth Lae Phra Viharn Nai Samai Phra Bat Som Dej Phra Chom Kloa Choa Yu Hua

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Illustrations

The European~Sino-Siamese hybrid architectural styles of Ratchathammasaoha Building, towards W echayan Wichien • Prasat in the background of the West Peak ofPhra Nakhon Kiri, Phetchaburi. Chatchawan Wiengchai observatory reflecting King Mongkut's enthusiasm for Western scientific knowledge.

Wat Phra Kaew Noi, a Buddhist monastery, was arranged in Ayutthaya A sculpture of King Mongkut, one of the period style, within the palatial complex. diplomatic tools, was used in promoting Siamese modernity.

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The design of the bell-shaped chedi piercing the sky with multi-tiered conical A modern architectural style of Prang spires at Phra That Chomphet situated at Daeng at Wat Phra Kaew Noi, i>hra the Middle Peak of Phra Nakhon K.iri. Nakhon Kiri.

The innovative architecture with the Victorious Crown Insignia portrayed on pediment ofWat Phra Kaew Noi.

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...... -- -...... ·-•_.__...... -.. -...... _- -·---~ ------~-...... ,.~..,.,- -~...,...... -. -•..-. a ._.,- . -...... _

t..:ili.\1 nntl..,.,.,nM" M"1t1Mnf ,., ULUV~.,. ,...... n \""'of ~---

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Map of Phra Nakhon Kiri portraying King Mongkut's residence and religious structures. (Photograph: Courtesy ofPhra Nakhon Kiri National Museum)

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