ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW 45 a certain cutoff point in grade point average. Early Upcraft, M. Lee, ed. 1984. Orienting Students to warning systems can be incorporated into FIGs or College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. academic advising relationships. Upcraft, M. Lee, and Gardner, John, N. 1989. The Freshman Year Experience: Helping Students See also: College Student Retention; Student Survive and Succeed in College. San Francisco: Orientation Programs. Jossey-Bass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Patrick Love Chickering, Arthur W., and Schlossberg, Nancy K. 1995. Getting the Most out of College. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ADMINISTRATION, Erickson, Bette L., and Strommer, Diane W. EDUCATIONAL 1991. Teaching College Freshmen. San Francisco: See: American Association of School Jossey-Bass. Administrators; Educational Leadership; Evans, Nancy J., and D’Augelli, Anthony R. National Association of Elementary 1996. ‘‘Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexual People School Principals; National Association in College.’’ In The Lives of Lesbians, Gays, and of School Administrators; National Bisexuals: Children to Adults, ed. Ritch C. Savin- Association of Secondary School Williams and Kenneth M. Cohen. Fort Worth, Principals; Principal, School; School TX: Harcourt Brace. Board Relations, subentry on Relation of School Board to the Superintendent; Levey, Marc; Blanco, Michael; and Jones, W. Superintendent of Large-City School Terrell. 1998. How to Succeed on a Majority Systems; Superintendent of Schools. Campus: A Guide for Minority Students. Bel- mont, CA: Wadsworth. Love, Patrick G., and Goodsell Love, Anne. ADMISSIONS, COLLEGE 1995. Enhancing Student Learning: Intellectual, See: College Admissions. Social, and Emotional Integration. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report Series 4. Washington, DC: George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development. ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE Pascarella, Ernest T., and Terenzini, Patrick T. 1991. How College Affects Students. San Fran- OVERVIEW cisco: Jossey-Bass. Helen Vrailas Bateman GANGS Paul, Elizabeth L., and Brier, Sigal. 2001. Dewey G. Cornell ‘‘Friendsickness in the Transition to College: Daniel C. Murrie Precollege Predictors and College Adjustment PARENTS’ ROLE Correlations.’’ Journal of Counseling and Devel- Helen Vrailas Bateman opment 79:77–89. Sandler, Bernice R. 1996. ‘‘The Chilly Classroom OVERVIEW Climate: A Guide to Improve the Education of The view that peers play a central role in adolescence Women.’’ AWIS Magazine 25(5):10–11. is widely accepted as fact. In the popular image of Schwitzer, Alan M.; Griffin, Oris T.; Ancis, adolescence, however, adolescent peer groups often Julie R.; and Thomas, Celeste R. 1999. ‘‘Social play a negative role in adolescent development. Tra- Adjustment Experiences of African American ditionally, the adolescent peer culture of modern so- College Students.’’ Journal of Counseling and ciety has been perceived as a primarily negative Development 77(2):89–197. influence, separate from that of adults and often Tinto, Vincent. 1993. Leaving College: Rethinking leading to problem behaviors. Alcohol abuse, drug the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition, 2nd use, truancy, and premarital pregnancy are attribut- edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ed to a separate youth culture. There are, however,

46 ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW an increasing number of researchers who object to peers than with younger children or adults. The pat- this negative image of adolescent culture and who tern of age segregation in American society did not argue for a more positive image of adolescent culture become the norm until the onset of the industrial- in modern society, its unique and important contri- ized society. Changes in the workplace separated butions, and its robust relationship with and similar- children from adults, with adults working and chil- ities to adult culture. In the following section, these dren attending school. The dramatic increase of disparate points of view and the evidence for them mothers in the workplace has further contributed to are briefly examined. the reduction in the amount of time adolescents spend with adults. School reform efforts during the What Is Meant by Peer Culture? nineteenth century, which resulted in age-segregated schools and grades, have reduced the amount of The term peer culture, as introduced in 1988 by Wil- time adolescents spend with younger children. Fi- liam Corsaro, was derived through Corsaro’s study nally, the changes in population are considered a of children in nursery settings and contains the fol- factor that may have contributed to the emergence lowing aspects of social interaction: of adolescent peer culture. From 1955 to 1975, the 1. Children in these settings appear to adhere to proportion of the population that was adolescent and behave according to a set of ‘‘social (between the ages of fifteen and nineteen) increased rules’’ and behavioral routines. If such rules dramatically, from 11 percent to 20.9 percent. This and routines are breached, then comments increase in the number of adolescents might be a and negotiations between children follow. contributing factor to the increase in adolescent peer 2. Children in these settings share a mutual culture both in terms of growth in size as well as in understanding of actions and norms for terms of its impact on society’s other cultures procedures. This shared framework of (adults, younger children). understanding enables children to Research supports the view that adolescents systematically interpret novel situations. spend a great deal of time with their peers. In 1977 3. Children in these settings engage in activities Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Reed Larson, and Suzanne that focus on themes that are repeated and Prescott examined adolescent’s daily activities and that all members of the peer group recognize. found that they spend more time talking to their Corsaro also examined the relationship between the friends than engaging in any other activity. In a typi- social systems shared by children and the culture of cal week, high school students will spend twice as adults (namely, teachers and parents). Corsaro sug- much time with their peers as with adults. This grad- gested that there was a dynamic interchange of ele- ual withdrawal from adults begins in early adoles- ments between the two cultures, with elements that cence. In sixth grade, adults (excluding parents) appeared in one culture reappearing in the other. In account for only 25 percent of adolescent social net- 1994 Corsaro and Donna Elder discussed how this works. Another important characteristic of adoles- interchange between cultures is particularly interest- cent peer culture is its increasingly autonomous ing in adolescence, during which the adolescent peer function. While childhood peer groups are conduct- culture, while maintaining its own unique social sys- ed under the close supervision of parents, adolescent tem, introduces rules and systems that facilitate be- peer groups typically make an effort to escape adult longing in the adult society. Other researchers have supervision and usually succeed in doing so. (Note, shared this view of a distinct adolescent peer culture importantly, that this is in reference to informal peer with its own structure. Support for this view of ado- groups.) lescent peer culture comes from a variety of sources. Adolescent peer culture also differs from that of younger-age children in the patterns of relationships Societal Factors Contributing to Adolescent Peer between peers. Adolescence is characterized by the Culture emergence of crowds as an important social context While contact between adolescents and their peers of development. This is a departure from the peer is a universal characteristic of all cultures, there is a culture of younger children, which is defined by great deal of variability in the nature and the degree dyadic (two-person) and small-group relationships. of such contact. In American contemporary society, Another unique characteristic of adolescent peer adolescents spend significantly more time with their culture is the increasing contact with peers of the op-

ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW 47 posite sex. Unlike younger children, who adhere to mulated knowledge to their children, and hence they sex-segregated groups, adolescents steadily increase have fewer opportunities for direct influence over their levels of association with members of the oppo- their children’s development. Education takes place site sex. Adolescence is marked by the increased need in school settings, for longer periods, further reduc- and ability for intimate relationships both in the ing the influence that family-centered learning has form of friendships and in the form of romantic re- on adolescents. The period of schooling required in lationships such as dating. modern societies is becoming lengthier, and even within schools, children are segregated according to Are Peer Relations Necessary for Development? age in separate grades. These age-segregation pat- terns, according to Coleman, precipitate the creation The question of the role that peer culture plays in of a separate adolescent culture in which adolescents adolescent development has to start with the issue of speak a ‘‘language’’ increasingly different from that the necessity of peer relations in human develop- of adults. Modern industrialized societies encourage ment. Research using monkeys that were reared this ‘‘separate adolescent culture’’ by creating spe- without peer monkeys showed that growing up peer- cialized marketing that cultivates and targets the ad- less resulted in monkeys that were socially disadvan- olescents’ unique taste in music, clothes, and taged and depressed. Studies with humans suggest entertainment. that lack of harmonious peer relations during ado- lescence is related to poor mental health later in life. Such isolation from adults, Coleman claimed, Evidence from follow-back studies of adults consis- results in the creation of adolescent societal stan- tently supports the view that psychological and edu- dards and behavioral norms that are far removed cational maladjustment in adulthood is associated from those of adult society. Adolescents look to their with histories of problematic childhood peer rela- peers rather than to their parents and teachers for tionships. Longitudinal prospective studies also in- guidance and approval, thereby diminishing the dicate that children who were identified as socially ability of adults to influence adolescents’ develop- rejected by their peers in fifth grade were twice as ment. Coleman suggested that because of the afore- likely to be delinquent as adolescents. Researchers mentioned conditions, examining adolescent culture found that children who had poor peer relationships within the schools, its compositions and characteris- at the age of nine were more likely to develop into tics, is the only way in industrialized societies to un- adolescents who engaged in higher levels of sub- derstand and influence contemporary adolescents stance abuse, had more conduct problems such as and their development. aggression and attentional problems, and commit- Coleman’s influential study examined adoles- ted more delinquent offenses. In 1995 Virginia cents and their parents in ten schools. Coleman Burks, Kenneth Dodge, and Joseph Price reported found that on the average high school students are that children who were rejected by their peers in not very interested in academic goals but rather tend middle childhood had higher rates of depression and to focus more on social and athletic goals. This lack loneliness six year later. A large body of research of focus on academic achievement, coupled with the therefore indicates that peer relationships are a very decreased influence that parents and teachers have important factor in human development. on adolescents’ decision-making processes, led Cole- man to declare that the existing school climate and The Nature of Adolescent Peer Culture culture was inadequate in addressing adolescent James Coleman’s work on adolescent peer culture needs in industrialized societies. Coleman suggested was extremely influential in shaping views on mod- that changes in the school culture should include a ern adolescent culture. In 1961 Coleman suggested schoolwide emphasis on scholastic achievement as that an adolescent subculture had emerged in indus- being the most desired outcome for students (rather trialized societies that was distinct from that of more than the present emphasis and glorification of ath- agrarian cultures (such as the Amish culture). Ac- letic accomplishments) as well as an educational sys- cording to Coleman, social and economic forces that tem that enables adolescents to become ‘‘active’’ encourage age segregation shape the socialization of rather than ‘‘passive’’ learners. Coleman argued that adolescents in industrialized societies. In a rapidly by becoming active participants in their learning changing society, parents’ skills easily become obso- processes, adolescents can assume roles of responsi- lete. Parents therefore cannot transmit their accu- bility and leadership that are more appropriate to

48 ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW their developmental needs and are therefore more adults, and more time interacting with opposite-sex likely to result in higher levels of engagement in aca- peers. Adolescents also seem to gravitate more to- demics and adherence to school norms. High school ward group and crowd membership. Research sup- teachers should encourage creative, hands-on learn- ports the view of an adolescent culture comprising ing activities in high schools and engage in teaching very different groups and cliques, each with a unique practices that focus on intrinsic rather than on ex- blend of behavioral norms and beliefs. In 1975 Leo trinsic motivation. Rigsby and Edward McDill proposed categorizing Subsequent research, for the most part, has sup- the various crowds along two orthogonal dimen- ported Coleman’s findings of the central role that sions: the degree to which they are committed to the peer culture plays in adolescent development. Some formal (adult-controlled) reward system of school critics, however, object to the ‘‘oversimplification’’ and the degree to which they are committed to the of peer culture that is depicted by Coleman’s work, informal (peer-controlled) status system. In 1998 calling into question his unidimensional description Margaret Stone and Bradford Brown further devel- of adolescent culture. Instead, these critics argue that oped this categorization axis and found that all ado- research supports the view that there are multiple lescent groups could be categorized across the two adolescent cultures that can be very different from orthogonal axes of academic engagement and peer each other. For example, a 1968 study of Canadian status. Within these axes various groups were adolescents conducted by David Friesen contradict- formed (the ‘‘rebels,’’ the ‘‘jocks,’’ the ‘‘populars,’’ ed Coleman’s work by finding that most students the ‘‘normals,’’ the ‘‘brains,’’ the ‘‘black crowd,’’ and preferred to be remembered as outstanding scholars the ‘‘wannabe black crowd’’). The broad range of rather than as outstanding athletes or as popular stu- crowds had well-differentiated norms, beliefs, and dents. Other studies suggest that there are significant goals and lent support to an image of adolescent cul- differences in the importance adolescents place on ture that is far from monolithic and static. Stone and grades, athletic ability, and appearance based on ad- Brown also cautioned against generalizing their olescents’ gender and grade level. Critics also suggest findings across all settings. Cultural and socioeco- that the nature of adolescent peer culture also nomic conditions can alter the type of groups that changes over time, reflecting social, economical, and comprise a given adolescent culture. historical changes in society. Subsequent examina- Reasons for such changes in peer relationships tion of the proposed lack of influence of parents on can be attributed to multiple aspects of adolescent adolescent culture has also yielded mixed findings, development. The need to establish a unique and au- with some studies suggesting that parental values re- tonomous identity different from that of one’s par- main very influential in shaping adolescent behavior ents is one of the driving forces behind adolescents’ such as the patterns of friendships adolescents have need to reduce their psychological dependency on with their peers. their parents as well as on other adults. An addition- al benefit to belonging in various crowds and cliques Adolescent Peer Crowds and Cliques is the opportunity to explore different value systems In 1990 Bradford Brown suggested that, rather than and lifestyles in the process of forming one’s identi- having a monolithic approach to adolescent culture ty. Adolescents’ social-cognitive maturation enables that depicts it as primarily ‘‘deviant,’’ it is more ap- them to seek groups that can meet their emerging propriate to examine and understand the multiplici- social and cognitive needs as well as their emerging ty of adolescent peer cultures and the factors that values and beliefs. influence such variability in values and aspirations. Biological changes also play an important role When examining peer groups, a distinction in adolescents’ need to form relationships with the should be made between cliques (small, highly inter- opposite sex—both friendships and dating relation- active groups) and crowds (large groups with more ships. Finding the ‘‘right’’ clique to belong to can emphasis on reputation than on interaction). As provide adolescents with a very much needed emo- noted earlier, peer groups and peer group member- tional and social support that can help them success- ship change from childhood to adolescence. Some of fully navigate the demands of adolescence. Finding the changes already mentioned are that adolescents the ‘‘wrong’’ clique, on the other hand, can lead to spend more time interacting with their peers than maladaptive consequences that can include deviant younger children do, less time interacting with behavioral patterns. The question of the direction of

ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW 49 peer group influence on adolescents, however, is not by the end of high school. In 1994 Brown, Mory, and a simple one. The traditional way of thinking about David Kinney presented evidence that outlines the peer influence is that it is unidirectional and direct; developmental trajectory of adolescent crowds. In that is, the peer group exerts a direct and overt influ- middle school, the crowd system consists of only two ence on the adolescent’s behavior. Research indi- crowds—the ‘‘trendies’’ (students who have high cates, however, that the influence is interactional. status) and the ‘‘dweebs’’ (lower-status students). Adolescents tend to choose peer groups that share The ‘‘dweebs’’ comprise the majority of the student their own beliefs and norms. Conversely, peer body. The boundaries of these two middle school groups tend to approach like-minded adolescents to crowds are fairly rigid. As adolescents transition to join their group. While peer culture tends to influ- high school a more elaborate social structure that is ence adolescent behavior, it has become clear that comprised of many different groups appears, thus peer culture accounts for only part of the variation enabling the majority of students (who had previ- in adolescent behavior. For example, adolescents’ ously been classified as ‘‘dweebs’’) to seek member- smoking and alcohol drinking patterns are attribut- ship in groups such as the ‘‘normals’’ or the ed to peer pressure only 10 to 40 percent of the time. ‘‘punkers.’’ Status differences between the groups It is also important to note that peer culture influ- are fairly salient during the early years of high ences are not limited to deviant behavior. As dis- school. By the end of high school, however, the cussed above, many peer groups have positive boundaries between some of these groups seem to influences on adolescents regarding academic disappear, and status differences seem to diminish. achievement. When adolescents were asked to de- This study illustrates very well the dynamic and scribe the degree and direction of peer pressure from changing nature of peer groups and peer culture their friends, the most commonly mentioned and during adolescence. strongest pressure adolescents reported was to stay in school and to finish high school. An interesting Adolescent Peer Culture and School aspect of this bidirectional influence between cliques and individuals is the issue of the similarity between Peer acceptance and membership in a clique is an participants of adolescent cliques. Research indicates important aspect of becoming an adolescent. Peer that cliques typically comprise adolescents who are crowds and cliques can have a profound influence similar in multiple dimensions, such as age, socio- on how adolescents adjust to a school setting. As economic status, and race. Moreover, some research noted earlier, adolescents in school settings can be- indicates that adolescents can be members of multi- come members of various cliques each with unique ple groups and that there are similarities across norms and beliefs. Laurence Steinberg, in his 1996 group boundaries, reinforcing the image of adoles- book Beyond the Classroom, reported the alarming cent culture—even within a homogeneous group of results of studies that suggest that in today’s schools, adolescents—as a complex system of multiplicity of less than 5 percent of all students are members of a styles and relationships not unlike adult society. high-achieving crowd that sets high academic stan- dards. Even more alarming is that in most schools there appears to be a great deal of pressure from the Changes in Peer Culture during Adolescence ‘‘prevailing’’ peer culture to underachieve in school. During adolescence, important changes take place in Steinberg reported that one out of six students delib- the structure of the groups and cliques that adoles- erately hides her intelligence and interest in doing cents belong to. In early adolescence, adolescents well in class out of the desire to be accepted by her tend to form cliques with same-sex individuals. The peers. When adolescents were asked which group same-sex cliques evolve into mixed-sex cliques dur- they would like to belong to, five times as many stu- ing middle adolescence. Finally, in late adolescence dents selected the ‘‘populars’’ or the ‘‘jocks’’ as se- and early adulthood, these cliques gradually give way lected the ‘‘brains.’’ Moreover, an additional to dyadic dating relationships. This development indication that high-achieving students with aspira- parallels the increasing ability and need for intimacy tions to academic excellence are not popular in that develops during adolescence. Even the nature schools today came from the fact that, when asked, and boundaries of the groups and cliques change the ‘‘brains’’ were least happy with the group they during adolescence, with the groups becoming less belonged to (nearly half wished they could be in a important to adolescents’ self-image and less insular different crowd). Longitudinal data confirms the

50 ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: OVERVIEW fact that initial membership in a peer group that is BIBLIOGRAPHY academically oriented is correlated with higher Bateman, Helen Vrailas. 2002. ‘‘Sense of Com- grades, more time spent on homework, and more munity in the School: Listening to Students’ involvement in extracurricular activities. Beyond Voices.’’ In Psychological Sense of Community: significantly lower academic achievement, adoles- Research, Applications, and Implications, ed. cents whose friends in school were members of a Adrian T. Fisher, Chris C. Sonn, and Bryant J. ‘‘delinquent’’ crowd were more likely to exhibit Bishop. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum more negative behaviors inside and outside the Publishers. classroom (including conduct problems and drug 1990. ‘‘Peer Groups and Peer and alcohol use). Brown, B. Bradford. Cultures.’’ In At the Threshold: The Developing The strong relationship between a positive and Adolescent, ed. Shirley S. Feldman and Glen R. supportive peer culture in school and classroom set- Elliott. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University tings and students’ academic, emotional, and social Press. adjustment is also evident in research that examines students’ sense of belonging and sense of communi- Brown, B. Bradford; Mory, Margaret S.; and ty in a school setting and their academic, social, and Kinney, David A. 1994. ‘‘Casting Adolescent emotional adjustment. In 2002 Helen Bateman Crowds in a Relational Perspective: Caricature, found that students define a supportive peer com- Channel, and Context.’’ In Personal Relation- munity as one that: ships during Adolescence, ed. Raymond Monte- mayor, Gerald R. Adams, and Thomas P. 1. Shares their values and educational goals. Gullotta. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2. Actively supports their learning needs. Burks, Virginia S.; Dodge, Kenneth A.; and 3. Provides a safe and pro-social environment in Price, Joseph M. 1995. ‘‘Models of Internaliz- which adolescents can learn. ing Outcomes of Early Rejection.’’ Development 4. Values their contributions. and Psychopathology 7:683–696. Students with a higher sense of community in the Coleman, John S. 1961. The Adolescent Society. New school and classroom have higher grades and higher York: Free Press of Glencoe. academic self-esteem. Students with a higher sense of community also display higher levels of learning Corsaro, William A. 1988. ‘‘Routines in the Peer orientation and greater interest in complex prob- Culture of American and Italian Nursery School lem-solving tasks. Finally, students with high sense Children.’’ Sociology of Education 61(1):1–14. of community also display higher levels of social Corsaro, William A., and Elder, Donna. 1990. skills and pro-social behavior. ‘‘Children’s Peer Cultures.’’ Annual Review of Sociology 16:197–220. Conclusion Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly; Larson, Reed; and It is clear that convergent evidence from many dif- Prescott, Suzanne. 1977. ‘‘The Ecology of Ad- ferent areas of research suggest that peer culture has olescent Activity and Experience.’’ Journal of a very strong influence on students’ adjustment to Youth and Adolescence 6:281–294. school during adolescence. Given the sensitivity of adolescents to peers, the effects of this informal so- Friesen, David. 1968. ‘‘Academic-Athletic-Pop- cial organization of the school community in crowds ularity Syndrome in the Canadian High School and cliques can surpass and counteract the effects of Society.’’ Adolescence 3:39–52. any formal school norms (such as regular atten- Rigsby, Leo C., and McDill, Edward L. 1975. dance, the importance of academic achievement, ‘‘Value Orientations of High School Students.’’ and proper conduct). The issue of adolescents be- In The Sociology of Education: A Sourcebook, ed. longing to ‘‘positive’’ peer communities that encour- Holger R. Stub. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. age academic engagement and pro-social behavior Steinberg, Laurence. 1996. Beyond the Classroom: should therefore become a central point of concern Why School Reform Has Failed and What Parents for parents and educators during the period of ado- Need to Do. New York: Touchstone. lescence. Stone, Margaret R., and Brown, B. Bradford. See also: Peer Relations and Learning. 1998. ‘‘In the Eyes of the Beholder: Adolescents’

ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: GANGS 51

Perceptions of Peer Crowd Stereotypes.’’ In Ad- Bowery Boys, the Dead Rabbits, and the Plug Uglies, olescent Behavior and Society: A Book of Read- who marched brazenly through the streets in distinc- ings, ed. Rolf E. Muuss and Harriet D. Porton. tive dress and confronted one another in armed Boston: McGraw-Hill. combat. Mexican youth formed gangs when their U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1996. Statistical Ab- families migrated to the southwestern United States stract of the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. in the early 1800s. More youth gangs followed waves Bureau of the Census. of immigration to major industrial centers during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Many gangs were on Helen Vrailas Bateman the payroll of politicians and union leaders—or worked as junior confederates to organized crime. Frederic Thrasher’s classic 1929 study of youth gangs GANGS in Chicago focused on the effects of poverty, immi- gration status, poor parental supervision, and lack of Gangs pose a serious problem for many schools. Stu- recreational opportunities among ethnic minorities, dents at schools with gangs are more than twice as including Polish, Italian, Irish, Jewish, and other im- likely to be victims of violent crimes than students migrant groups. Thrasher identified more than at schools without gangs, they report greater access 1,300 youth gangs, although his definition empha- to illegal drugs, and they are four times more likely sized allegiance among members and did not require to report seeing a student with a gun in school. criminal activity. Gangs generate an atmosphere of fear and intimida- tion that pervades the school environment. Schools According to a national law enforcement survey, with gangs are much more likely to employ security there were approximately 28,700 gangs and 780,200 measures such as guards, metal detectors, and locker gang members active in the United States in 1998. checks. Gangs are reported by nearly 40 percent of Gangs increased rapidly during the 1980s and early students in U.S. public schools, including 25 percent 1990s. There is considerable research and debate on of students in rural areas and more than 50 percent reasons for the increase in youth gangs; among the of students in communities with more than 50,000 most likely factors are the emergence of the crack co- residents. Nearly two-thirds of Hispanic students, al- caine market, an influx of Asian and Latin American most one-half of African-American students, and immigrants who had few employment opportuni- one-third of white students report gangs in their ties, the proliferation of gang federations and alli- schools. ances, and a sustained, national surge of single- What is a gang? Definitions vary widely, but parent households. Gangs are most prevalent in the usually refer to a self-formed group of individuals western United States and least prevalent in the who identify themselves by a name and engage in re- Northeast. Youth gangs are most common in large current criminal activity. Gangs typically have recog- cities, especially Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, nized leaders, membership requirements and Detroit, and Houston. Ninety-four percent of U.S. initiation rituals, and an identified territory. Youth cities with populations of more than 100,000 report gangs contain adolescents, but often also include youth gangs, though gangs are also present in smal- young adults (persons age eighteen or older). This ler communities. Half of all suburban counties, one- definition distinguishes youth gangs from other third of all small cities, and one-fifth of rural coun- types of groups, such as ideological groups, motor- ties report active youth gangs. Although gang cycle gangs, and organized crime groups, that are membership declined nationwide from 1996 to primarily adult organizations. 1998, the number of gang members in rural counties increased by 43 percent. Gangs are not new to the United States, and they have long been associated with unfavorable social and economic conditions experienced by immi- Gang Characteristics grants in urban neighborhoods. Most historians In his studies of Detroit gang activity in the 1980s, agree that the economic difficulties and sociocultur- Carl Taylor distinguished three types of gangs. Scav- al stresses experienced by immigrant groups of many enger gangs are informal groups that come together ethnic backgrounds have generated gang activity. periodically and commit opportunistic, impulsive Following a wave of Irish immigration in the 1820s, crimes. They are not well organized, leadership is New York City was plagued by gangs such as the variable, and the existence of the gang may be short-

52 ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: GANGS lived. In contrast, territorial gangs have many of the not in gangs, but fewer crimes than boy gang mem- features commonly associated with gangs: a well- bers. defined territory or turf that they defend from out- siders, membership requirements and initiation rit- Gangs and Crime uals, leadership by an individual or core group of members, distinctive dress, and use of symbols or Gang membership substantially increases a youth’s hand signs for covert communication. Taylor used involvement in criminal activities, even though the term corporate gang to characterize highly orga- youths who join gangs tend to be predisposed to de- nized and profit-oriented gangs engaged in exten- linquency and often have previous arrest records. sive, well-defined criminal enterprises, such as drug Youths who join gangs engage in more crime than dealing and extortion. Such gangs display a corpo- youths with similar backgrounds, even if those rate-like structure in the differentiated assignment of youths do associate with delinquent peers. Associa- roles and responsibilities to members, who may be tion with gang members is linked to greater involve- involved in marketing, sales, or distribution, or in ment in delinquent activity than association with more specifically criminal activities such as enforce- delinquent nongang peers. ment. Gang members commit a disproportionate Although media accounts sometimes refer to share of juvenile crime, especially serious crime. In ‘‘gang migration’’ from larger to smaller cities, re- some studies, gang members were found to commit search suggests that organized migration is rare. crimes at twice the rate of other arrested youths. When it does occur, it is generally the result of fami- Gang crimes vary over time and across gangs, but lies moving from one city to the next for mundane most frequently involve weapons offenses, drug reasons. In some cases, a youth who moves to a new sales, assault, and auto theft. Shootings, particularly city may claim membership in a well-known home- drive-by shootings, are strongly associated with gang town gang in order to bolster his or her status in the conflicts. Violent gang crime is more common in new community. Most small-town and rural gangs large cities, while gang involvement in breaking and are homegrown independent groups, and some may entering and other property crimes is relatively more take on the name of nationally known gangs in an common in rural and suburban areas. effort to gain prestige and status. Many gangs are Although many youths join gangs for protec- poorly organized and short-lived, and such a gang’s tion, studies show that gang membership greatly in- reputation may generate unwarranted public fear creases the risk of violent injury or death. Gang and concern. members are more likely than other youths to carry Although gangs are often referred to as youth concealed weapons, and gang rivalries often lead to gangs, law enforcement estimates in 1998 suggested violent feuds and turf battles. Informal codes of that 60 percent of gang members were adults (over honor in many gangs demand that members re- age seventeen). Youth gangs have often been ethni- spond aggressively to perceived acts of disrespect so cally or racially homogeneous, although during the as to protect and bolster their reputation. Acts of ag- 1990s more than one-third of gangs were reported gression often stimulate vengeful counter-attacks, to have a racially mixed membership. Nationally, in followed by further retaliation in an escalating pat- 1998, 46 percent of gang members were Hispanic, 34 tern. percent were African American, 12 percent were Drug trafficking is commonly associated with white, and 6 percent were Asian. gangs, and economic rivalries over drug markets, as Most studies report that fewer than 10 percent well as disputes over drug deals and sales, can lead of gang members are girls, although some studies to violence. Many authorities believe that the devel- have found rates as high as 30 percent, perhaps sug- opment of lucrative crack cocaine markets in the gesting a trend toward greater female involvement 1980s stimulated the growth of gangs and led to a in gangs. Early studies suggested girls formed auxil- dramatic increase in violent crimes, particularly fire- iary groups to male gangs, but in the 1990s many arm-related homicides in large cities. Law enforce- gangs had mixed gender membership, and 1 to 2 ment surveys indicate that approximately one-third percent of gangs had more than 50 percent female of youth gangs are specifically organized for drug membership. Gender studies indicate that girl gang trafficking, although members of other gangs fre- members commit more crimes than girls who are quently participate in drug sales in a less systematic

ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: GANGS 53 manner. Gang involvement in drug sales is common affiliation, which is a compelling concern during the in rural and suburban areas as well as major cities. teenage years. On a more practical level, gang in- Nevertheless, the role of drug sales in homicides has volvement may provide financial opportunities proven to be smaller than expected, with substantial through drug dealing and other criminal endeavors. numbers of gang-related homicides associated with In many neighborhoods gang membership offers interpersonal conflicts and gang disputes over status protection from bullying or assault, and some and territory. youths may feel pressured to join a gang simply be- cause they reside within the gang’s territory. Why Do Young People Join Gangs? Though it may be tempting to speculate about Historically, sociologists have contended that gang the psychological profile of a gang member, there is involvement is associated with membership in an no simple explanation. Gangs offer a variety of roles underclass—that youths who join gangs tend to be and opportunities: one youth may aspire to lead oth- members of racial or ethnic minorities from eco- ers or serve as protector to his or her neighborhood; nomically deprived and socially disadvantaged areas. another may seek financial gain through crime, Indeed, young gang members are often poor, minor- while still another may be drawn into the pattern of ity youth from disorganized neighborhoods. How- violence and neighborhood warfare that character- ever, membership in the underclass is not a izes some gangs. sufficient explanation for gang involvement, since Family factors such as parental absence or inad- the majority of such youths do not join gangs. Like- equate supervision play a role in some cases, but in wise, youths from less disadvantaged backgrounds other cases parents may encourage gang involve- also join gangs. ment because of their own history of criminal activi- Ask a young gang member why he joined a gang, ty or gang membership. Some large, well-established and the most frequent answer will be that his friends gangs claim generations of gang members within are in the gang. Friendship patterns are powerful in- families. Popular culture may also encourage gang fluences on gang membership, as is the excitement membership by promoting positive images of of involvement in delinquent activity. Gangs grow gangs—such as the Jets and Sharks of the Broadway and spread largely through individual contacts be- musical West Side Story or movies that glamorize tween gang members and prospective members. The gang feuds similar to that between the Crips and appeal of belonging to a powerful, seemingly presti- Bloods, gangs that originated in Los Angeles. Many gious group is strong in adolescence, and young celebrities in music and professional sports proudly teens may aspire for acceptance into a group led by display their gang affiliation through tattoos, dress, older teens and young adults. Many young teens are and gestures. characterized as gang ‘‘wannabes,’’ and researchers recognize a continuum of gang membership ranging Prevention and Intervention from nonmembers to hardcore members. Although some gangs report lifelong membership, even devot- The risk factors for gang membership are generally ed gang members usually cease active involvement the same as for delinquency, and gang members are in their gangs during their twenties. Longitudinal usually delinquent before they join gangs, suggesting studies have found that more than 50 percent of that prevention efforts aimed at delinquency are rel- gang members drop out of their gangs within a year evant to preventing gang involvement as well. Al- of joining. though several strategies have been found to prevent or reduce general delinquency, programs aimed spe- Gangs are appealing because they offer a sense cifically at gangs have not met with much success. of identity and social recognition to adolescents who On an individual level, parental supervision and an feel marginalized in society and regard their future emphasis on keeping youths from associating with as bleak or uncertain. Conventional opportunities delinquent peers is critically important. through education and employment may seem re- mote or unattainable to minority youth living in im- One of the oldest gang prevention strategies at- poverished communities. Gangs offer opportunities tempts to alter the socioenvironmental factors pre- for excitement, feelings of power and status, and de- sumed to produce gangs through community fiance of conventional authority. Gangs also provide interventions such as increased recreational activi- a well-defined, reliable peer group for recreation and ties, neighborhood improvement campaigns, and

54 ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: PARENTS’ ROLE direct assistance to gang members in seeking em- September 2000. Washington DC: Office of Ju- ployment, vocational training, health care, and other venile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. services. Despite the best of intentions, however, Esbensen, Finn-Aage, and Osgood, D. Wayne. such programs have not demonstrated evidence of 1997. National Evaluation of GREAT. Washing- reducing gang activity. On the contrary, some critics ton DC: National Institute of Justice. have reported that such programs tend to increase Howell, James C. 1998. ‘‘Youth Gangs: An Over- gang cohesiveness. view.’’ Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency In 1991 the Phoenix Police Department intro- Prevention Bulletin August, 1998. Washington duced the school-based Gang Resistance Education DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency and Training (GREAT) program, modeled on the Prevention. Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program Howell, James C., and Lynch, James P. 2000. and subsequently supported by the U.S. Bureau of ‘‘Youth Gangs in Schools.’’ Office of Juvenile Jus- Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. The GREAT curric- tice and Delinquency Prevention Bulletin August ulum consists of nine weekly lessons taught to mid- 2000. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice dle school students by law enforcement officers. The and Delinquency Prevention. GREAT curriculum is used in schools in all fifty Huff, C. Ronald, ed. 1996. Gangs in America, 2nd states, but has not been extensively evaluated. Two edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. studies suggest that the program has modest short- Miller, Walter B. 2001. The Growth of Youth Gang term effects in improving student attitudes and re- Problems in the United States: 1970–1998. Wash- ducing self-reported delinquency, but long-term, ington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- rigorously controlled outcome studies are needed. quency Prevention. Some demonstrable success in the war against Moore, Joan, and Hagedorn, John. 2001. ‘‘Female gangs has come through law enforcement efforts Gangs: A Focus on Research.’’ Office of Juvenile leading to the long-term incarceration of gang lead- Justice and Delinquency Prevention Bulletin ers. Gang intelligence, intensive investigation, and March 2001. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile well-planned prosecution have disrupted, and in Justice and Delinquency Prevention. some cases eliminated, gangs. However, high- National Youth Gang Center. 2000. 1998 Youth profile, intensive policing efforts to suppress gang Gang Survey. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile activity by saturating a neighborhood with law en- Justice and Delinquency Prevention. forcement officers and generating numerous arrests Spergel, Irving A. 1995. The Youth Gang Problem: on minor charges have not been successful. A Community Approach. New York: Oxford See also: Juvenile Justice System. University Press. Taylor, Carl S. 1989. Dangerous Society. East Lan- sing: Michigan State University Press. BIBLIOGRAPHY Thornberry, Terence P. 1998. ‘‘Membership in Battin-Pearson, Sara R.; Thornberry, Terence Youth Gangs and Involvement in Serious and P.; Hawkins, David, J.; and Krohn, Marvin Violent Offending.’’ In Serious and Violent Juve- D. 1998. ‘‘Gang Membership, Delinquent Peers, nile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Inter- and Delinquent Behavior.’’ Juvenile Justice and ventions, ed. Rolf Loeber and David P. Delinquency Prevention Bulletin October 1998. Farrington. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Thrasher, Frederic M. 1929. The Gang: A Study Delinquency Prevention. of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University Chandler, Kathryn A.; Chapman, Christopher of Chicago Press. D.; Rand, Michael R.; and Taylor, Bruce M. Dewey G. Cornell 1998. Students’ Reports of School Crime: 1989 Daniel C. Murrie and 1995. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Esbensen, Finn-Aage. 2000. ‘‘Preventing Adoles- PARENTS’ ROLE cent Gang Involvement.’’ Office of Juvenile Jus- The pivotal role that parents play in a child’s devel- tice and Delinquency Prevention Bulletin opment is undisputed. Researchers have shown that

ADOLESCENT PEER CULTURE: PARENTS’ ROLE 55 differences in parenting practices can have profound style seems to be most beneficial. Children of per- and lasting effects on all aspects of development— missive parents tend to become adolescents that are cognitive, social, physical, and emotional. Differ- lacking in maturity, self-discipline, leadership skills, ences in parenting styles translate to differences in and in the ability to stand up to bad peer influences. a myriad of outcomes, such as academic achieve- Finally, children of rejecting-neglecting parents ment, self-esteem, deviant behavior, autonomy, seem to suffer the most serious problems—namely, emotional maturity, and leadership ability, to name poor academic skills, more deviant behavior (in- just a few. It would be safe to say that while poor par- cluding drug and alcohol abuse), and an inability to enting practices can lead to adolescents who are ex- control impulsive behavior. periencing multiple problems, good parenting Differences in parenting styles translate to dif- practices can lead to well-adjusted and successful ad- ferent family environments with different family dy- olescents. But what are the mechanisms through namics. Families in which there is an ongoing which parents can positively impact adolescent de- dialogue, good conflict-resolution practices, mutual velopment? And what is the degree to which parents respect, and flexibility are families in which adoles- can remain influential in the face of the increasing cents seem to have more positive outcomes. Beyond influence of peers in adolescence? parenting styles, the modeling of parental behavior inside and outside the family and the type of rela- Different Types of Parenting Styles tionship between the parents is another factor that Due to the well-documented importance of parent- can influence adolescent development. ing practices on children’s development, much re- search has been conducted in the area. In 1978 Diana Peer Influence and Parents Baumrind introduced one of the most influential During adolescence, peers become increasingly im- theories of parenting styles. Baumrind suggested portant—adolescents spend more time with their that parenting styles can be classified under four peers then with any other group. Given the impor- general patterns that differ along two dimensions: tant role that peer culture plays in adolescents’ lives parental responsiveness and parental demandingness. (primarily in the form of groups and cliques), the Parental responsiveness entails the ability to respond degree to which parents can remain influential dur- to a child’s evolving needs in a warm and flexible ing this period is, and has been, an issue of scientific manner. Parental demandingness entails the ability inquiry and debate. to set rules and standards that a child has to respect and follow. Parents who are both demanding and re- Patricia Noller suggests that adolescents who are sponsive are characterized as authoritative. Parents able to talk to their parents about issues that are im- who are demanding and directive but not responsive portant to them and who get emotional support are characterized as authoritarian. Parents who are from their parents are less likely to rely on peers for responsive but not demanding are characterized as advice on important issues. They are less likely to permissive. Finally, parents who are neither respon- succumb to peer pressure as it relates to using alco- sive nor demanding are characterized as rejecting- hol and drugs as means of coping with the pressure neglecting. of adolescence. This leads to the conclusion that ad- olescents who already have, and can maintain, an The relationship between parenting styles and open, positive, honest, flexible, and emotionally sup- developmental outcomes has been well documented portive relationship with their parents are more like- by Baumrind and many other researchers. Overall, ly to take their parents’ advice under serious adolescents whose parents are authoritative have the consideration, and to better withstand pressure to most positive outcomes—namely, higher levels of participate in undesirable behaviors. On the other autonomy, confidence, maturity, social skills, and hand, adolescents that already have problematic re- academic achievement. They are also more able to lationships with their parents—characterized by lack successfully adapt to life’s challenges. Children of of communication—are likely to become more de- authoritarian parents tend to become more timid, pendent on their peers for advice and for emotional less socially competent, and more dependent as they support. grow up. However, under certain circumstances, such as those of African-American families living in Bradford Brown and colleagues suggest that poor, high-crime areas, the authoritarian parenting rather than assuming that parental influence will be

56 ADOPTION reduced during adolescence due to the increasing in- BIBLIOGRAPHY fluence of peer groups and cliques, the specific envi- Baumrind, Diana. 1978. ‘‘Parental Disciplinary ronmental conditions that might facilitate and/or Patterns and Social Competence in Children.’’ hamper parental influence should be examined. Youth and Society 9:239–276. They report that specific parenting practices are sig- Baumrind, Diana. 1991. ‘‘The Influence of Parent- nificantly related to specific adolescent behaviors, ing Style on Adolescent Competence and Sub- and that they are also associated with specific pat- stance Abuse.’’ Journal of Early Adolescence terns of group or clique membership. However, this 11:56–95. relationship is mediated (in most cases) by adoles- cent behavior. Brown and colleagues suggest that it Brown, B. Bradford, and Huang, Bih-Hui. 1995. is unlikely that peer groups and cliques are going to ‘‘Examining Parenting Practices in Different counteract parental norms. Adolescents tend to se- Peer Contexts: Implications for Adolescent Tra- lect peer groups that have goals, behavioral patterns, jectories.’’ In Pathways through Adolescence, ed. and value norms that are similar to their own (and Lisa J. Crockett and Ann C. Crouter. Mahwah, which parental behavior has helped shape). Parents NJ: Erlbaum. directly influence adolescents’ behaviors and value Brown, B. Bradford; Mounts, Nina; Lamborn, systems, and thus are able to exercise a significant Susie D.; and Steinberg, Lawrence D. 1993. but indirect effect on peer group and clique influ- ‘‘Parenting Practices and Peer Group Affiliation ence and membership. in Adolescence.’’ Child Development 64:467– 482. The selection of an appropriate environment (schools and neighborhood) is another way that par- Noller, Patricia. 1994. ‘‘Relationships with Par- ents can exert an indirect influence on adolescents’ ents in Adolescence: Process and Outcome.’’ In peer affiliations. The composition of cliques and Personal Relationships during Adolescence, ed. groups, as well as their relative influence, can vary Raymond Montemayor, Gerald R. Adams, and greatly from school to school and from neighbor- Thomas P. Gullotta. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. hood to neighborhood. In some high schools, stu- Steinberg, Lawrence D. 1996. Beyond the Class- dents who aspire academic excellence are ridiculed room: Why School Reform has Failed and What and isolated from the predominant peer culture in Parents Need to Do. New York: Touchstone. the school, which may value truancy, alcohol and drug use, early sexual activity, and a lack of academic Helen Vrailas Bateman engagement. Conversely, there are schools in which academic excellence is valued by the peer culture. ADOPTION Parents should try to place their children in See: Family Composition and schools in which positive peer groups and cliques are Circumstance, subentry on Adoption. influential in the community culture of the school, while avoiding schools in which negative peer groups that advocate deviant behaviors are predomi- ADULT EDUCATION nant. The degree to which an adolescent will contin- See: ue to be influenced by parents is directly related to Corporate Colleges; Continuing the type of group or clique he or she belongs to. If Professional Education; Distance the adolescent is a member of groups in which par- Learning in Higher Education; Life ents and their advice are considered valuable re- Experience for College Credit; Lifelong sources, then a parent will continue to be very Learning; Nontraditional Students in influential during adolescence. If, however, the ado- Higher Education. lescent becomes a member of a group that promotes deviant behavior, then the ability of the parents to exert influence on the adolescent’s behavior is great- ADVANCED PLACEMENT ly diminished. COURSES/EXAMS

See also: Parental Involvement in Education; Development of the Advanced Placement program Parenting. came about because of a perceived need to provide