BSW-042 Tribal Society Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Work

Block 1 INTRODUCTION TO TRIBAL SOCIETY AND CULTURE UNIT 1 Tribal Social Systems 5 UNIT 2 Tribals and Religion 25 UNIT 3 Rites of Passage 36 UNIT 4 Tribal Languages, Art and Culture 49 EXPERT COMMITTEE

Prof. Ramdayal Munda Dr. Bipin Jojo Dr. Sanghmitra S.Acharya Former Vice-Chancellor, Centre for Social Justice Centre for Social Medicine Ranchi University and Governance and Community Health Jharkhand-834008 School of Social Work Jawaharlal Nehru University TISS, Deonar, Mumbai-400088 New Delhi-110068

Prof. Virginius Xaxa Dr. Shweta Singh Dr. Marianus Kujur Department of Sociology Lady Shri Ram College Indian Social Institute Delhi School of Economics Delhi University Lodhi Road Delhi University New Delhi-110003 Delhi-110007

Prof. Tiplut Nongbri Dr. Bodhi Ranee Dr. Grace Donnemching Centre for the Study of Centre for Social Justice School of Extension and Social Systems and Governance Development Studies School of Social Sciences School of Social Work IGNOU, New Delhi-110068 Jawaharlal Nehru University TISS, Deonar New Delhi-110067 Mumbai-400088

Dr. George Plathottam Prof. Anjali Gandhi Dr. Rose Nembiakkim CBCI Centre Jamia Millia Islamia Director New Delhi-110001 New Delhi-110025 School of Social Work IGNOU, New Delhi-110068 Prof. Sanjay Bhatt Prof. Gracious Thomas Department of Social Work Faculty Delhi University School of Social Work Delhi-110007 IGNOU, New Delhi-110068 COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block Preparation Team Programme Coordinator Unit 1 Dr. C. Devendiran Dr. Rose Nembiakkim Unit 2&3 Dr. Grace Donnemching Director, School of Social Work Unit 4 Dr. Mercy Vungthianmuang IGNOU, New Delhi-110068

PRINT PRODUCTION Mr. Kulwant Singh Assistant Registrar (P) IGNOU, New Delhi

August, 2018  Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2018 ISBN : 978-93-87237-650 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information about the Indira Gandhi National Open University’s courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068. Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School of Social Work, IGNOU, New Delhi. Laser Typeset by : Rajshree Computers, V-166A, Bhagwati Vihar, Uttam Nagar (Near Sector-2, Dwarka), New Delhi-110059 COURSE INTRODUCTION

Certificate in Tribals Studies (CTRBS) is a unique programme started by the School of Social Work, IGNOU. In this course BSW-042 ‘Tribal Society’ apart from learning about the Tribal society in India you shall also be learning about the question of their identity as well as the tribal society in transition. There are four blocks in this course comprising of 16 units which have been prepared by experts on the subjects. Block I deals with ‘Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture’. The block has attempted to highlight the tribal religions and social systems as well as their rites of passage which is distinctive of every tribal group. The language, art and culture of the tribes are also discussed in the block. Block 2 is on ‘Tribal Society in Transition’. It provides information about how the tribal societies in India have been in transition from the governance to the economy to the shift in the gender and class within the tribal society. It also points out the intersection between gender, class and caste in relation to Tribes. Block 3 and Block 4 are about the ‘Tribal Identity and Ethnicity I and II’. The two blocks highlights the concept of difference and inequality among the tribes as well as the tribal identity in the modern world. The block also touches the issue of alienation and migration, which is prevalent among the tribal groups of different regions and also talks about the employment trends of the tribals among other issues. Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture BLOCK INTRODUCTION

The block titled ‘Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture’ consists of four units. Efforts have been to provide accurate information about the various tribal cultures that we see prevalent in India, ranging from the social systems to the religious practices as well as their art forms. Unit 1 is about the ‘Tribal Social Systems’. This unit introduces the geographical divisions of tribes in India while at the same time highlights the social system, organization and social structure of tribal community. This unit will help us to understand the various tribal social systems. Unit 2 ‘Tribals and Religion’ provides information about the early tribal religion and the different tribes of India and their form of religion. It also describes the religious practices of Shamanism and Bongaism while discussing Hinduism as well as Christianity among the Tribals. Unit 3 is about ‘Rites of Passage’. It talks about the practice of pregnancy, Child Birth Rites among the different tribal group of India. It also provides information in regards to the practice followed during the puberty and initiation Rites. Marriage and death which is a common phenomenon the world over has also been described in this unit but with particular reference to the marriage and funeral rites among the tribal population. Unit 4 is about the ‘Tribals Languages, Art and Culture’. Language, art and culture cuts across all groups. This unit deals with the particular tribal language, art and culture prevalent among the tribal population of India. Hence, it traces the origin of the tribes’ in India while understanding the different tribal languages. It also provides an insight to the tribal culture that has been a part of the Indian society and traces the growth and development of tribal art.

4 Tribal Social Systems UNIT 1 TRIBAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Social System, Structure and Organization of Tribals

1.3 Units of Tribal Social Systems

1.4 Patterns of Tribal Social Systems

1.5 Let Us Sum Up

1.6 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

Tribal Social Systems is one of the important areas to understand the institutions of tribal systems of the tribal people. This unit concentrates on understanding the tribes, their characteristics, and tribal social systems like a group of tribes, sub-tribe moiety, phratry, clan, local group of village community, lineage, and family.

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the social organization and social structure of tribal community;

 to know the geographical division of tribe in India; and

 understand the various tribal social systems.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Tribal people constitute an important segment of India. It is having the largest tribal population in the world next to Africa. It constitutes 8.6 percent of total population (2011 Census). There are 705 tribal communities (MSW-001) who speak over 150 languages and 225 subsidiary languages. The tribal groups of India belong to various racial, linguistic, cultural and ethnic categories. Each and every tribe has its unique culture, tradition, values, mores and folkways. In India the diversity of the tribes is very rich in nature from the length and breadth of its region. It is quite interesting to know the social systems because every society or group has a system without which no unit can operate. Each social system has sub-systems such as educational system, economic system, religious system and political system. In the same way, the tribal system speak about its traditional pattern of living as well as its unique features like a group of tribe, tribe, sub-tribe clan, lineage, family and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the various tribal social systems of our country and related concepts of tribal social systems such as tribe, sub- tribe moiety, phratry, and clan, local group of village community, lineage, and family. We will discuss in detail the above aspects later in this chapter. 5 Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture 1.2 SOCIAL SYSTEM, STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF TRIBALS

The core of the human life depends on the social life of a person. The social life develops through social interaction and building relationships among the human beings. There are some common characteristics found among the Indian tribes in terms of social life. But, there are some local differences found as well. There are five factors which form the prevailing conditions of social life among the tribes. They are 1) natural environment, 2) population, 3) human being, 4) material technology and 5) social environment. Among these components, the natural environment is basic for all societies. They depend on it for basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, fuel etc. The population provides a raw material for well organized society without which social life cannot exist. The human being is another factor that is responsible for the patterns and ways of the social life. All individuals are supposed to meet the requirements of the group by collective means. Material technology is an indivisible part of social life because it helps in getting natural resources, erecting a shelter, making tools and preparing food. The social environment plays a vital role for social life. A systematic social life occurs in consonance to the surroundings of uncountable other social environments such as social organization, social interaction, social order, its design, co-operation, the economic construction etc. Therefore, the social life is a combination of whole or a web of varied social organizations. Piddington (1952) cited that the tribal social life is specific in nature as the tribal people have their own ways of life. He mentioned ten factors of primitive structure and organizations of tribes. They are sex difference, age, kinship, locality, social status, political power, profession, religion and magic, totemism and volunteer associations. Among these, religion, magic and totemism are special features of tribal life. On the other hand, these people have all interlinked organization mainly socio-economic, socio-political and religio-economic. Let, us understand in detail the social organization and social structure based on view of various authors. Lowie (1950) stated that the study of social organization deals primarily with the significant grouping of individuals. Man cannot live alone and he has to meet his basic needs like food and shelter and social need such as companionship, recreation, religious activities and play. He thus forms a group or association with the help of other men and creates institutions and satisfies his needs. Firth (1961) opines that all community life involves methods of grouping and grading people for an effective carrying out of the various types of activities demanded by the common existence. According to Redfield (1955) “a social structure is a system”. The elements of social structure do not exist independently of one another. Firth (1961) considers that “it must be concerned with the ordered relations of parts to a whole, with the arrangement in which the elements of the social life are linked together. These relations must be regarded as built up one upon another-they are a series of varying orders of complexity”. Evans Pritchard (1940) restricts social structure to the interrelations of groups explicitly excluding inter-personal relations. Nadel (1957) describes social structure in these words: “structure indicates an ordered arrangement of parts, which can be treated as 6 transposable, being relatively invariant, while the parts themselves are variable”. Moreover, Redfield (1955) finds among the Chankoms three kinds of kinship Tribal Social Systems relationship in the village –consanguine, affinal and ritual-forming a recognizable system. According to Firth (1961) while dealing with the Tikopian social structure talks about their division into two, based on geographical districts, their clan and kinship division, authority in clan-head and wealth division which are the basic elements in their structure. Like the Tikopian the tribal social structure of India also has some basic structural elements. Social structure cannot be seen as an isolated web or structure in the social life of a group or community. It embodies some concept of a functional kind such as exogamy. The exogamy is associated with a clan structure and requiring a clan member shall not marry anyone who is a member of the same clan is said to be one of the distinctive features of structural unit clan. Hence, structural analysis alone cannot interpret social life. The organizational aspect of social life is also very important among the tribal social system. According to Firth (1961) social organization is the synonym for social structure. However, generally the idea of organization is that of people getting things done by planned action. It is the way things get done over a period of time in the community. The social structure is an important system of elements which lasts and which everybody takes account of. The social structure offers a number of courses of action. Thus, social structure is a definable morphological element, the social anatomy; it is maintained and given its ultimate form by organisational decision.

Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Explain the social organisation and social structure of tribals based on the view of various authors......

1.3 UNITS OF TRIBAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

After discussing the social structure of the tribals, it is important to explain different constituent social units with the characteristics of the concerned structural unit. An important basis for the existence of a tribe as a social system is a combination of different social systems. The social systems (units) are a number of group of tribes designated by a common name, tribe, sub- tribe, moiety or dual organization, phratry or territorial groups, clan or local group or village community, sub-clan or sub-local group, lineage, family, marriage and youth dormitory. 7 Introduction to Tribal Group of Tribes Designated by Common Name Society and Culture Sometimes tribes are known by their neighbouring people and outsiders by a common name. This common name is used in a broad sense to include many other types of tribal communities inhabiting a common territory. For instance, the communities living on the hills might be geographically grouped and known by a common term by the plain dwellers. The different tribes of the group have their own linguistic and cultural traditions. They share many cultural and social customs with their cohorts. At the same time due to the same geographical habitat of today they develop some common cultural traditions.

The pehenomenon of grouping of tribes designated by a common name is a common feature in the north-eastern Himalayan region. The expression “Naga” is a common term to denote Nagaland people. The group of the Nagas includes in itself tribes like the Angami; Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khienmungan, Konyak, Ihota, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam, Sema, Yimchung and Zeliang. Ellwin cited that the tribal groups of Nagaland are forming new affiliations and using new names like the Chkhesangs-a combination of Chakru, Khezha (both southern Angami) and Sangtam groups with two Rengma villages and Zeliangs- mixed group of Zemis, Liangmais.

In the south, the Manipur Valley roughly marks the point of contact between the Naga tribes and much more closely interrelated groups of the Kuki tribes. Manipur is inhabited by a large number of Kuki tribes which have been split into two broad divisions, namely Old Kukis and New kukis. The Old kukis include such tribes as the Aimol, Anai, Chothe or Chawte Chiru, Kolhan, Kom, Lamgang, Purum, Tikhup, Vaishei and Mhar of Manipur and Hrankhol (or Rangkhol) and Biete (or Bete) of Cachar. The New Kukis are composed of a single tribe called the thadous who are scattered in Cachar (Assam), Naga Hills (Nagaland) and Manipur. Almost allied to them, at least linguistically are the Paite of Manipur and Ralte of Manipur and Lushai hills (Mizoram).

In Arunachal Pradesh, the people living in the Abor hills are known by the name of Abor. This includes tribes like the Pais, Minyong, Pangi, Padam, etc.

In the middle India, the hillmen of Rajmahal hills are popularly known as Paharias (hillmen) because they live on the hills. This generic term Paharia includes three different types of people namely Sauria Paharias or malers, Mal or Manr Pharias and Kumarbhag Paharias. The plains dwellers know them by the famous term, Paharia, for all those living on the hills.

In western India the Sahyadri group of tribes includes in itself tribes like Koli Mahadeo,Varli, Kokna, Thakur, Kathodi, Koli Malhar, Koli Dhor, Dubla and Dholia who inhabit Nasik, Ahmnednagar, Pune (Poona), Satara, Sholapur and Aurangabad districts of Maharashtra. The Bhils of western and middle India also include a number of tribes like, Bhil mina, Bhil Garasia, Dholi Bhil, Dungri Bhil, Dungri Garasia, Nawasi Bhil, Rawal Bhil, Bhagawalia, Bhilala, Pawara, Vasava, Barela, Patelia, etc.

8 Tribe: The Little Community Tribal Social Systems

Generally, tribe itself is the basic social unit for the community. According to George Peter Murdock (1949) tribe is a social group in which there are many clans, nomadic band villages or other such groups, which usually have a definite geographical area, a separate language, a singular and distinct culture and either common political organization or common political organization or at least a feeling of common determination against strangers. Majumdar (1961) opines that a tribe is a collection or group of families. He further says that a tribe is ordinarily an endogamous unit, the members of which confine their marriages within the tribe. Several clans constitute a tribe and each clan claims kinship among its members belonging to it, based either on totemic division, territorial congruity or common residence. Official Definition of Tribe The official definition of Scheduled Tribe keeps in its view the country’s historical experience and tribe-caste relations. Article 366 (25) of the constitution of India has defined Scheduled Tribes as “such tribes or tribal communities or parts or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purpose of this constitution”. By the Scheduled Tribes order, 1950, issued by the President in exercise of the powers conferred by Clause (1) of Article 232 of the Constitution of the India, 312 tribes have been declared to be Scheduled Tribes. Later, by an Act of Parliament, some other groups were also included in the schedule. (Jain, 2001). Characteristic of a Tribe Some of the important characteristics of tribal community mentioned by Jain (2000) are: Tribal people live within a definite topography. They possess a sense of unity in a particular area. They are endogamous in nature. They have common dialect to speak. They are tied with blood relationship which is a powerful bond among them. They have a common system of offering prayers to God. They always need protection from intrusion and infiltration. Every tribe has its own distinct political organization. They have common culture to produce a sense of homogeneity among themselves The tribe itself is the basic social system. The small community like a tribe is a very predominant form of human living. According to Robert Redfield (1955) the development of systematic investigation of human life in the small community has come to provide a commonly recognized unit of subject-matter. He puts forward four qualities for the small community. They are distinctiveness, smallness, homogeneity and self-sufficiency. The distinctiveness is apparent to the observer and is expressed in the consciousness of the people of the community. The smallness is a compact community with a small population which provides in some part of it a unit of personal observation fully representative of the whole. The homogeneity refers to the activities and states of mind are much like for all persons, and the career of one generation repeats that of the preceeding and finally its characteristics exists. The self sufficiency denotes that where the community is self sufficient and provides for all or most of the activities and needs of its people. All these characteristics are realized to a great extent in particular groups and villages of rural and tribal India. 9 Introduction to Tribal Sub-tribe Society and Culture A tribe is divided into a few groups depending on the economy, ecology and isolation. Initially, people of the group are of the same cultural traditions. They eke out their livelihood that separates them from the others even today. The geographically isolated habitation also leads to a sub-group in the real unity of the tribe. Vidyarthi and B.K.Rai (1976) stated that in the Himalayan region, the Rengmas of Nagaland are divided into two groups based on their geographical isolation namely Eastern Rengmas and Western Rengmas. The Jaunsaris of Dehra Doon in central Himalaya have divided themselves into different castes like Brahman, Rajputs, Koltas etc., based on the status as well as the economy. In Central India, the birhors have two sub-groups namely Janghi and Ulthu based on their habitation pattern. The former leads a somewhat settled life whereas the latter leads a nomadic life. The ecology and economy keep them moving. The Kharias of Chotanagpur are divided into three sub-tribes namely Hill Kharia, Dudh Kharia and Dhelki Kharia. The division in their case is based on their habitation. Bose (1929) opined that the Korwas of Palamau have two sections namely Hill korwas and Plain Korwas. These separations are due to the geographical isolation. Even the Bhuiyas are divided into two sub-tribes – Pauri (hill) Bhuiyas and Desh (plain) Bhuiyas. The Khonds of Orissa have a number of sub tribe like Kutia khonds, Dongaria Khonds, Desaya Khonds, Tikiria Khonds, Yenity khonds, etc, which are an example of territorial division. The Koyas have sub-tribe like Rajahor Rashakoyas, Lingadhari Koyas, Kotty Koyas,etc. The Savaras include the Kapu Savara, Maliya Savara or Khutto Savara. The juangs of Orissa have two sub-divisions the Thaniya, those who dwell in their original home and the Bhagudiya are those who left their original home. From these classification we come to know that some division of sub tribes in India exists. Moiety Moieties are called half tribes. When a tribe is socially divided into only two groups based on its social activities, each group is called moiety. This organization is known as a dual organization. The main activities of these two groups of the community regulate the social behaviour and acts of the people. Lowie (1950) describes a number of attributes of a moiety. Moiety may be exogamous, agamous or more rarely endogamous. Agamy may mean that once exogamous dual organization has relaxed the rule on prevention of marriage within the group. However, it may also mean that for some reason the same kinship has never been extended, nor fully extended to the moiety. The exogamous dual organization varies from a multiple clan system. When the group is divided into two parts in terms of the rule of descent, the moiety affiliation of all its relation can be reduced. But there are more than two clans or exogamous clan-like groups the relative affiliations are not traceable or are only partly determined. Any dichotomy in the two halves of the tribe may prove a practical complete division of the tribe. They occupy two different parts of the village one in the south toal and the other in the north. These two groups of the tribe will clearly reflect their political and mutual behaviour. They wear different clothes and one of the moieties socially ranks higher than the other. 10 The dual organization is frequently asymmetrical in division. Ehrenfels (1950) Tribal Social Systems expressed that “such reciprocal groups usually look upon each other in a mixture of aggressive pride and dependent comradeship at the same time, thus producing a marked sense of rivalry. The stressed reciprocity of all these groupings seems to have rooted in the idea of magic fertility, since warfare between the two marriages-classes play a similar role as human sacrifice or head-hunting in the lunar mythological fertility rites. One of the two parties in a genuine dual system is often found to be either more skilled, powerful numerous or somehow superior.” According to Lowie (1950) “exogamy readily disappears and readily develops”. Further, he says that agamy naturally develops as a sequel to exogamy in a dual organization. Firstly, a prosperous moiety grows so large that its members lose a sense of kinship or find it greatly weakened. Secondly, the usual difficulty of finding mates also leads to agomy. It was observed that the moieties, exogamous or otherwise, commonly comprise lesser clans. It is also possible that multiple clans may combine into two large groups, or some may die out leaving only two. Such local names of the moieties meaning thereby four-clans and three-clans indicate in themselves an alliance of the clans. We find all established moieties among the Ao Nagas, Rengama Nagas and Angami Nagas in the north-eastern Himalayan region. It shows that the moieties are not fixed in such system. The Aos are divided into two main divisions namely Mongsen and Chungli. These two divisions have different pattern and design of clothes in order to differentiate themselves. Chungles eat all kinds of food whereas Mongsens refrain customarily from polluted food. They do not eat the stomach of a pig. The hair styles of these two divisions also differ. According to Mills (1951) the Rengma Nagas have divided themselves into two territorial division namely Eastern Rengmas and Western Rengmas. The Western Rengmas have two groups of clans whereas the Eastern Rengmas have no such clan. Lowie (1950) viewed that among the Angami Nagas there are two divisions of clans namely, Pezoma and Pepfuma. These two divisions once intermarrying moieties but for some time the taboos has been observed only within the lesser sub-division. For instance, the inhabitants of Kohima are all Pepfuma but they freely intermarry unless of the same clan. According Srinivas (1953) in the Central Himalayan region, the Tharus seem to have evolved a dichotomous organization of their own community into two sections namely higher and the lower. The higher section has within itself a number of endogamous kuries. Those kuries are Batha, Birtia, Dahait, Badvait and Mahtum. These five kuries form a new endogamous group and call themselves Rana Thakur. The lower moiety which is in a minority has certainly welcomed the name of Thakur for their group of seven sections. They place themselves a little lower than the Ran Thakursin the social orders. There are two branches of Mundas in Middle India as older and younger Mundas. They are Mahli Mundako or Patar and Kampat Mundako. These two are endogamous in nature and the Mahli Mundako is inferior to the Kampat Mundako socially. The Saoras of Ganjam in Orissa are divided into two moieties namely aristocrats and Ryats. Sarora aristocrats have their secular head Gamangs assisted by Dol-Behara as well as mandal and the religious head Bayya. They are endogamous groups. 11 Introduction to Tribal The Gonds of Madhya Pradesh have a type of dual organization among its Society and Culture member tribes that is hill Marias. Each Moiety is composed of a number of clans. There are 90 clans in one moiety whereas in the other there are 69 clans. The Andhs of Andhra Pradesh, moieties of South India are divided into two divisions namely, Vartati (pure) and Khaltati (illegitimate). The Vartati division considered more superior than the Khaltati. They do not intermarry within themselves (they follow exogamous marriage practice within themselves). The Todas of Nilgiri in Tamil Nadu give a classic example of moiety. They have two primary divisions of Tharthazoll and Thevelioll. These divisions are endogamous in nature and each is again sub-divided into a number of exogamous clans. The Tharthazoll moiety shares as many as 10 clans namely Inikithi, Karsh, Kerheir, Kerrodr, Medr, Melgarsh, Nedhi, Norsh, Pirgotl and Tharadr among the existing clans. The Thevelioll division has only six clans namely, Amgarh, Koite, Konigore, Marthikedr, Pett and Pirgott II. Phratry A tribe or sub-tribe is divided into number of clans that are further grouped into three or more groups or cluster of clans in order to maintain their individuality on a higher order to form a phratry. In other words, a few clans unite to form a group called phratry. According to Lowie (1950) Morgan who conveniently applied the phratry to a group of two or more clans united for certain common objective. Further, he pointed out that phratry is evidently nothing but a convenient term for a kin linkage. According to Majumdar and Madan (1956) when a group of clans merge together for some reasons or the other the emergent grouping is called phratry. Phratry is more common in tribal India among the north eastern Himalayan tribes and a few tribes of Middle India. In the north-western and central Himalayas and in middle India social class and territorial grouping of the tribe as its sub-division are common. The Kukis and Hmars have two sections of phratry namely, Rangkhols and Bietas. The Rabhas of Assam have bars as their clan. Two or more bars might unite to form a phratry-Hur. Among the Ao Nagas the Chungli moiety has a number of phratries namely, Pngen, Lungkan, Chami etc. The western Rengma Nagas are divided into six exogamous groups each containing a number of clans. In Middle India the Raj Gonds have four phratries such as Yerwen, Saga, Sarwen, Saga Siwen Saga and Nalwen Saga. These phratries are exogamous groups. Local Group of Village Community The local group is a distinct social system or unit. It comprises of number of families who are living in a common settlement, tola or village. They perform certain ceremonies, functions for their common welfare. Moreover, this local group proves to be a bigger unit than the family itself. They are helping hands for one another. In the tribal communities, the tribal village serves as an economic, social and religious unit. On all the occasions the whole settlement is formed of one or more than one clan or lineage. However, the whole settlement is bound by a common link of co-villagers. Among the tribals the thought of village exogamy is the outcome of a brotherhood feeling. Over all atmosphere of the village community is democratic in nature and all the members practice quality in working. 12 The local group is a permanent unit for those who live in settled villages. Tribal Social Systems While it is a temporary unit for the wanderers like the Birhors. They play a vital role in the social and economic life. On the other hand, there is a high degree of social and economic co-operation within the group. The cooperation of the people is more mutual. The villagers in their economic life help each other such as preparing a cultivable field and construction of house. In these activities Malers of Bihar or the Ao Nagas of Nagaland show much cooperation and unity. There is definite system of rights and obligation followed among the tribes in the villages or settlement level especially in religious ceremonies. Clan Tribal group is divided into clans. The clan is an important part of tribal social system. Majumdar and Madan (1956) have considered the sibs as clans and according to them, it is often the combination of a few lineages and descent. It is ultimately traced to a mythical ancestor who may be human, human like, animal, plant or even inanimate. According to Vidyarti (1976) clan can be defined as an exogamous division of a tribe, the members of which are held to be related to one another by some common ties, may be belief in descent from common ancestor, possession of a common totem or habitation of a common territory. A clan is constituted by including all the relatives of either her mother’s or the father’s lineage and all the off springs of ancestors in such a lineage. In such a manner, many lineages constitute a clan. We may categorise the clan into some common empirical combinations based on the study of clan organization of the tribes of India and the construction of typology of clans. Primarily, among the Indian tribes clan, organization, it is found that in almost all the tribal groups and the majority of the groups are based on its totemic principle. As regards to totemic principle the totem occurs in wide areas of the tribal society. Secondarily, we have a clan like the gotra of the Hindu society and the people claim their ancestry in some rishis. Tertiarily, group of tribals who have no clan organization take the help of territorial or distant descendants and relatives or local groups in marital alliances. Therefore, based on these three classifications most of the Indian tribe clan organizations are classified into three groups namely totemic clan; clan based on rishis or saints and local groups based on generation or territory. The totemic clan is associated with a definite group of individuals set in certain relation to an animal, a plant, an object, animate or inanimate. After that, they are named and in connection the view prevails that the members of this group cannot establish marital ties among them and the object after which the group is named must be respected. This type of clan organization are found in tribe like Santal Bhil, Gond, Oraon, Munda or small as the Birhor and Chenchu. Another form of clan which exist is reported from many tribes named after rishis or saints. For instance, the Gonds have named their clans after mythological saints namely, Bashitha, Kashyao and Dadhichi. They have divided themselves into social clans and trace their ancestry from any rishi of the Hindu society. There are few exceptions of clan organization on tribal India level. They are Malers of Rajmahal, in Santhal Pargana, the Kadars of Cochin and Andamanese of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These groups function almost like clan groups. So these are functionally established clans or local 13 Introduction to Tribal groups. But they regulate their marital ties on generational or territorial grouping Society and Culture by forming a local group. In all-India level another classification of clan made on the basis of their combination and sub-division. They are in monometric, diametric, triadic or more and sub-clan forms of structure. They are modeled as follows: a) Tribe divided into numerous clans which may be called monometric in structure. b) Clans grouped mainly into two groups which may be called diametric in structure or conventionally called ‘moiety’ c) Clans of a tribe grouped into three or more groups which may be called triadic phratry. d) Clan itself is divided into a number of sub-clans. Firstly, among many tribes the monometric structure of a clan is found in India. It is found in Munda tribe wherein 64 clans are present. Secondly, the diametric structure of clan is called moiety conventionally or combination of clans into two groups found in many tribes. It is found in Toda of Nilgiri tribe. They have two endogamous groups such as Tharthazoll and Thevelioll. They consist of 12 and 6 clans respectively. Thirdly, the phratry structure is composed of three or more groups formed by combining a number of clans. The Raj Gonds of Satpura have divided themselves into four groups and further divided into many clans. The clans of the Hos and the Killis are divided into sub- clans. For instance, the Purty clan is divided into seven clans. These split-up of clans may or may not allow marriages between one section and another. This splitting up of clans into sub clans is either due to their migration or adoption of new cultural traits. Further, the clan can be observed on the basis of their extension and expansion. It can be enumerated as conical clan, dispersed clan, territorial clan, and local cognatic descent groups which function as clan. The conical clan presents a conical form of descent group. The descendants claim themselves to come from a common-real, mythical or imaginary ancestor. In matrilineal communities the common tie lies in the female ancestor whereas common male ancestor exists in the patrilineal communities. The third type of conical clan is bilineal based on double descent. Therefore, the three types of conical clan are matrilineal conical clan, patrilineal conical clan and Bilineal conical clan. The Matrilineal conical clan is scattered among the tribes like the Jaintiya where all members of a Kur (clan) always claim descent from a common ancestress. The patrilineal conical clan existed among many middle India tribes and the descent calculated from the father’s line. The Dimasa Kacharis have the Bilineal conical clan in which the male child gets the clanship of the father and the female child gets from the mother’s clan. The conical clan has the matrix of unilateral grouping which in due course combines itself with a few lineages to form a clan namely a number of lineages in the Bhunjias of Orissa from Baraj (clan). In almost all the tribes the dispersed clan is found as the most famous and extensive form of clan. In this type also, the clan members claim a common ancestor and a common link on either matrilineal or patrilineal line of which they are really dispersed. 14 They lose their visible or traceable coordination. This type of clans are scattered Tribal Social Systems over vast areas and in different locales and sometimes they give rise to another type of clan based on territory. Gonds are such case and they are distributed in vast areas and in due course borne the territorial names like Chhattisgarhi and Chhindwara.

The territorial clan claims and defends a definite territory within which most of the clan –man of the group reside and make up the core. The Nagas of Nagaland have clans with their typical local groups, Khals which are territorial in nature. The Kamars of Chhatisgarh have territorial groups, such as Mahandia, Jaunpira, Surgujia and Bastarha. This kind of clan is also found in the Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh and Adiyan of Kerala tribes.

The local cognatic descent groups are usually internally grouped and ranked by the number of generations. They are neither exogamous nor endogamous. Each descent group forms a network of their kinsmen. This local group consists of the descendants of a given ancestral pair.

Lineage

Lineage is a group of families having a common ancestor. According to Evan Pritchard (1940) lineage is a group of agnates, descended from the founder of a particular line. Logically it includes dead persons descended from the founder in order to know their genealogical position and to identify the living. He further suggests four stages of lineage segmentation based on their size, position in the segmentary system and functions. They are maximal lineage, major lineage, minor lineage and minimal lineage. The minimal lineage is the smallest unit and has a time depth of three to five generations. Majumdar (1962) discusses the lineage system as an extension of the joint family system in its wide scope. He further extended Evans-Pritchard’s four stage lineage in to six. They are Inter-village, Village, Lineage Group, Lineage, Sub-lineage and family respectively.

According to Lowie (1950), “the lineage is made up exclusively of provable blood relatives which denote all members who are demonstrably descended from a common ancestor or ancestress”. Firth (1956) cited that “a lineage, meaning primarily a line of descent, is now taken also to mean a unilineal descent group, all members of which trace their genealogical relationship back to founding ancestor. If the lineage system is patrilineal (organitic), the members consist of men, their children and their sisters and they (the members) trace their descent through male, normally to an original male ancestor. If the system is matrilineal, the members consist of women, their children, and their brothers, tracing descent through female, normally to an original ancestress”.

He further says that groups of lineage type usually tend to form sub-groups by division, in what has been called segmentation, fission, ramification or branching. In regard to this branching process, lineage groups have been termed as ramages, a name linked with the metaphor which some of these systems use that “grow-like-branches-of-a-tree”. In Sanskrit the term “Vansh- Vriksha” is equal to lineage tree, which itself explains that its grown like a tree. 15 Introduction to Tribal According to Karve (1953) there are two terms namely Kula and Vansh. “A Society and Culture kula was a localized great family’. It was supposed to be necessary for a man to be able to name his father, mother and kula and one who could name his kula was a Kulina which has come to mean “well born”. She again describes that Vansa is a line of patrilineal descent; kula is a pratri-kin based on locality. The Vansa and kula were patronymic derived from the name of some famous ancestors among whom a new hero arose and gave his name to his own descendants. Moreover, Nath (1960) says the Bhils of western India are from few villages. The population consists of a single lineage group with a depth and extension of up to five or six generations. Among the Mundas and the Oraons of Bihar the people are of a number of lineages (khunt) like the pahan Munda khunt or Mahto khunt who live together. Roy (1915) views that the original settlers (Bhuinhars) of an Oraon village split into two or three khunts. The khunt is the sacerdotal head (pahan) and the temporal headman or headmen (munda or Mahto or both). He further states that the lineage groups are again classified into two types based on the phase of settling of their members in a village namely, the lineages of original settlers (the dominant lineage) and the lineages of later comers or tenants (the subordinate lineage. In the villages of the Mundas, Oraons and Bhils one finds a dominant lineage group, claiming descent from the original founders of the village and, therefore, the ownership of the entire village. On the other hand, the lineage groups in the village are the descendants of those people who, in the distant past were permitted or invited to settle in the village by the elders of the dominant lineage. The original founders possess the most fertile bits of land in big holdings. They have some reserved pastures for their cattle. The dominant lineage is mostly concentrated and exercised as the authority in the villages. Family Family is the primary social group. It has its own functions and forms in different communities. According to Radcliffe-Brown (1941) family includes a husband and wife with their child or children. Lowie (1950) defines family as a trait that at once distinguishes it from lineages and kins. The death of husband/wife destroys the family; the marriage of a son or daughter alters its constitution. Everywhere, human beings live in households. Most of the tribes live in ideal household in which two or more married couples and their children live together. Men and women take collective responsibility in order to take care of their offspring as well as take collective responsibility in the physical proximity of their living arrangements. Therefore, a household is the residential form of family. The distribution of household types across different tribes will give forms to the family. According to George Peter Murdock (1949) the “family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both genders, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted of the sexually inhabiting adults”. As regards, the importance of family, the ethnographer visits a family in its physical or residential form that is the household and stated that “the family 16 is an ethno scientifically derived construct and can be mapped on to the Tribal Social Systems criteria of descent, affinity and consanguinity (Buchler & Selby, 1968). Further stated that the family is the minimum social unit such as co-operates in production and distribution ; is so age graded as to allocate responsibility for the education and safety of children to the senior age-grades and is engaged in exchange of women with other like units. The term household should be carefully understood in the context of family whose shape is derived culturally. The important characteristics of family are that, a family is the fundamental instrumental foundation of the larger social design; some version of family as a type of social organisation exists everywhere; participation in family activities by all the individual members is its quality; everyone (member of family) is duty bound to assume a direct role or responsibility in family; family acts as a source of force on an individual to adjust to work or with the need; family is a functional unit for all such purposes as reproduction, socialisation, social control, social order, economy and so on. Let us discuss some of the family forms in regional basis. In north-western Himalaya, the families of Gujjars who are mostly Muslims, of the Gaddis who are Hindus, and of the Pangwals of Jammu Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are Patrilineal. The Khasas of Uttar Pradesh practice polyandry and are of the partilineal type. In north-eastern Himalaya, the Garos and the Khasis are matrilineal people. They get the motherhood and claim descent from a common ancestress or mother. Among the Mikirs, children belong to the father’s Kur (clan) and the sons inherit the property. They are generally monogamous but persons in power can adopt. The Mizos are patriarchal in nature and according to their customary law the youngest son inherits the property. The Dasama Kacharis practice the rule of double descent that is son descends on the father line and the daughter on the mother line. The major tribes like the Santal, Munda, Oraon, Ho, Gond, Bhil, Kol, Kharia and Bhumiji are all partilocal, patrilineal, patriarchal and partinymic. They are also monogamous in general with nuclear family. At the same time, joint and extended families are prevalent among them. The minor tribes like the Birhor, Korwa and Parahiya also follow the same as the major tribes structure. In Orissa the major tribes like the Khond and Savara believe in patriarchal type of family. The tribal families in western India are also patriarchal in nature. The Bhils, the most famous tribe, practice more or less complete Hindu law of inheritance and succession with father as the priest or the supreme. The family among the Minas, Mahadev Kolis, Varlis, koknes, Thakurs, Kotodis, Koli Malhars, Koli Dhors, Dublas, Gamits, are patriarchal in character. We can find both patriarchal and matriarchal family forms in South India tribes. The Kurichchian, Kundu Vadians and Malayaurs are Matrilineal. It is also found that many tribes have no clear rule of inheritance in terms of property. There are some tribes with inter-mixture of patriarchy and matriarchy. Kadars, Irulas, Puliayans are in the mixture of both the above mentioned category. However, the Nicobaris by rule are in patriarchy and after marriage the two parties reach a decision in this regard after considering the number of members in each family. If the girl’s family members are less in number and the boy decides with the consent of elders to reside with the girls and loses his share in his family property and acquires a full share in the girl’s family. 17 Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) What is the official definition of tribe? ......

1.4 PATTERNS OF TRIBAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

The social nature of the tribals are living together in a group and effectively carrying out the various activities for common existence by sharing in common activities under the bonds of relationship. Each tribe has their own structure and organization. They form a small community of their own, in particular territory their relations are direct and intimate. According to T.C. Das (1953) tribal organization in India reveals seven types. They are classified on the basis of the difference in the types of spheres or units. They are as follows: 1. Family-Local Group-Tribe 2. Families - Clans-Tribe 3. Families-Moities-Tribe 4. Families-Clans-Phratries-Tribe 5. Families-Clans-Phratries-Moieties-Tribe 6. Families-Clans-Subtribe-Tribe and 7. Families-Subclans-Orthogamous clans or selected clans-Tribe. But, Dubey (1971) opines that in India, tribal design consists of family then clan, phratry and finally tribe. The minimum sphere for an Indian tribal design will include in itself four spheres i.e. individual forming families, families forming clan or local group and clans forming the tribe. No attempt is made in order to know the tribal design in context to their specific social life in India. A broad typology of the tribal design from a single person “individual”, “family”, “clan or local group”, and “tribe” might be evolved in different forms in its ascending order. The smallest unit is the individual who forms the minimum or the smallest group like family or household. These smaller groups are combined into a larger one through several levels of incorporation. The total understanding might be drawn something like this: a number of individuals are joined in families or households, families in lineages, lineages in sub-clans or sub-local groups, sub-clans or village or local groups, clans in phratries or territorial groups, phratries in moieties, moieties in sub- tribes and finally sub-tribes making up the tribe. On the other hand, an arbitrary or generic term is used to denote a group of 18 tribes living in a certain territory. All the tribes occupying the same geographic region are called by outsiders by the same common term. The majority of the Tribal Social Systems tribes of India fall into these minimum categories i.e. “Individual-Families- Clans-Tribe”. The concentration of tribes found in four major geographical areas or zones. They are the north-north-eastern zone, the central zone, the western zone, the southern zone and the tribes of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. North-North-Eastern Zone This zone includes Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and the Himalayan belt of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh besides Darjeeling district of West Bengal. The tribes of this zone belong to the mongoloid race. The tribes like the Naga, the Garo, the Khasi, the Lapcha, the Bhutiya, the Lusheis are living in this zone. Traditionally, they are shift cultivators, especially Naga tribes. They weave their own cloth while they grow cotton along with rice and millet. They also trade in wool, salt, sugar and other merchandise in India and Tibet. Central Zone This zone includes the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, North and central Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa. The maximum concentrations of tribals found in these regions are the Khond, the Bumiji, the Bhuiya, the Munda, the Oraon, the Ho and Birhor and the Kol and the Bhil. Their main occupation is shift cultivation, hunting, and food gathering. Western Zone The western zone includes western Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Dadra and Nagar Hoveli and Goa, Daman & Diu. This zone has its own important tribes, which include the Dubla, the Bhil and the Varli, the Dhodia, the Bharia and the Mina. Except for the tribes like the Bhil and the Varli who live in isolation rest of them live in villages along with non-tribal population. Their main occupation is shift cultivation, hunting and weaving. Southern Zone The tribes in this zone belong to most primitive and backward among the tribes of India. Generally, the tribes live in this area are small. Tamil literature of Sangam period has a reference that they are the earliest inhabitants living in India. They have common characteristics in general and live in separate geographical areas. In this zone the tribes live in different geographical areas within southern zone. They are tribes of Erstwhile Travencore and Cochin states, tribes of Wynad, the tribes of South Kanara and Coorg Hills, the tribes of the Deccan Region of Andhra Pradesh, the tribes of the Agency of Andhra Pradesh and the tribes of the Nilgiris. Tribes of Erstwhile Travencore and Cochin States The tribes live in the forests and hill ranges of the Western Ghats. They are the most primitive tribes of India. The main tribes are the Kadar, the Kanikkar, the Malai Pandaram, the Muduvan, the Mannan and the Ulladan. They are mostly food gatherers, hunters and shift cultivators. Some of them also work as labourers in coffee and rubber estates. They are still depending upon forests for their survival. 19 Introduction to Tribal Tribes of Wynad Society and Culture The Wynad is a part of Nilgiris Plateau. The eastern half of the Wynad is spread to the Nilgiris and Coorg and is inhabitated by the Kanarese-speaking tribes. The Western half is inhabitated by the Malayalam speaking tribes. The Kurichcha is one of the most important tribes of this area. They have their own land and their main occupation is agriculture. They follow a very rigid matrilineal system. They divide their territory into several ‘nads’ and there is a headman for each nad. The headman of each nad along with council of elders settles community dispute. They are very orthodox in customs and traditions. For example they do not take food touched by other castes or tribes. The Kurumbas of this area are divided into two groups. They are the Mulla Kurumba and the Urali Kurumba. Their main occupation is agriculture. They practice both wet paddy cultivation and shifting cultivation on the hill slopes. The Urali Kurumba tribals are artisan and usually they are skilled blacksmiths, carpenters, potters and basket makers. The Tribes of South Kanara and Coorg Hills This area is located in Mysore state. The tribes of this area are the Yerava, the Koraga, the Sholaga, the Marati, the Kurumba, the Kuruman, the Kudiyaor Melakudi, the Palliyan and the Meda. Their main occupation is shifting cultivation along with hunting and food gathering. They speak a language of both Tulu and Kanarese. Most of them now are basket makers and agricultural labourers. The tribes of the Deccan Region of Andhra Pradesh These area tribes are the Andh, the Chenchu, the Gond, the Naipod and the Rajgond, the Kolam, the Paradhan, the Yerukula and the Sugali. These tribes inhabit the Nallamallai Hills across the Krishna River. They are food-gathering tribes. They are living in the hilly tracts of Nellore, Guntur, Krishna and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh. The tribes of the Agency Areas of Andhra Pradesh The forest and mountain ranges straits of the East Godavari and Vishakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh are declared as Scheduled Tribes Areas of the State. In this territory about 20 tribes are living. They speak Dravidian or Mundari dialects. These tribes have a better level of economic and technological development than other tribes of Indian peninsular. Some of the important tribes belonging to this areas are the Kondh, the Koya and the Konda Reddi. The Savara are found in Vishakhapatnam in the neighbouring areas of Orissa. They are good in cultivation of rice. The Gadaba tribe belongs to the Mundari branch. Their main occupation is agriculture and also supplements their food by hunting and fishing. The Gadaba woman devote to weaving and dyeing of cloth. The Kodh tribals are one of the largest Dravidian speaking tribes. They practiced human sacrifice for conducting agricultural and war rituals. Tribes of the Nilgiris The Badaga, the Kota and the Toda are the tribes belonging to this area. They are very less in number. This region has been attracted for research by social workers than most of the other tribes of India due to the rituals concerning sacredness, their sex, marriage regulations such as fraternal 20 polyandry. These are the factors attracted by the research scholars in that Tribal Social Systems area. Their main occupation is herd men, blacksmiths, carpenters and potters. They also act as a professional musician for the tribes of this area. The Badaga, on the other hand is a tribe engage in agricultural works. At present they are no more treated as Scheduled Tribes in Tamil Nadu because they have achieved a high level of development with the local population. The Tribes of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands Apart from the above-discussed tribes, a few other tribes are also found in Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. These tribes are Onge of the Little Andaman, the Jarawa of South Andaman and the Sentinelese of North Sentinal Island. They are considered among the most primitive tribes. There are more than five hundred and thirty (with many overlapping types in more than one State) as per notified Schedule under Article 342 of the Constitution of India in different States and Union Territories of the country with the largest number of 62 being in the State of Orissa.

Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) List the classification of tribals in India......

1.5 LET US SUM UP

To conclude, the tribal social system gives an idea of the people living in an organized society. They have a definite geographical area, a separate language or dialect and distinct culture and have at least a common feeling of determination against strangers. The social organization and structure of the tribe projects the whole picture of the tribes in India. Tribe is a group of people of the same race and the same customs, language, religion and living in a particular area and often led by chief. The sub-tribe is divided into a few groups depending on the economy, ecology and isolation. These divisions are due to geographical isolation. Moieties are known as half tribes and if a tribe is socially separated into only two groups based on the social activities and that each group is called moiety. This organization is also called dual organization. The moieties are endogamous in nature and each tribe is again sub-divided into a number of exogamous clans. A tribe or sub-tribe is divided into number of clan that are further grouped into three or more groups or cluster of clans in order to maintain their individuality on a higher order to form a phratry. It is more common in tribal India among the north eastern Himalayan tribes and a few tribes of middle India. 21 Introduction to Tribal The local group is a distinct system. It comprises of number of families who Society and Culture are living in a common settlement tola or village. It is a permanent unit of those who live in settled villages. They play a vital role in social and economic life. The clan is an important part of tribal social system. It is defined as an exogamous division of a tribe, the members of which are held to be related to one another by some common ties, may be belief in descent from common ancestor, possession of a common totem or habitation of a common territory. Clan can be observed on the basis of their extension and expansion. It can be calculated as conical clan, dispersed clan, territorial clan and local cognatic descent groups which functions as clan. Lineage is group of families having a common ancestor. It is enumerated in terms of matrilineal and patrilineal lineages decent groups. In some cases lineage groups are classified into two types based on the phase of settling of their members in a village namely the lineages of original settler (the dominant lineage) and the lineages of later comers or tenants (subordinate lineage). Family is the primary institution which has its own functions and forms in different communities. In tribal families, both men and women take collective responsibility in order to take care of their offspring as well as take collective responsibility in the physical proximity of their living arrangements. There are different forms of family but the forms can be categorized on three ways namely on its condition, on its marital ties and on its compositional types. Patterns of tribal social systems discusses about the seven types of tribes classified by Das. Further, it tells about the various zonal dimensions of tribe such as north-north eastern, central, western, southern and the tribes of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. Thus, we have discussed in detail the tribal social systems.

1.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES Bin ww, A, 2012, Indian Tribles: Problems and that Solution. Retired from www. the opinion-journal.com/up/and/gallocy/14452607851791332399.pdf Bose, N.K, 1929, Juanf Associations, Ian in India, Vol.IX. Buchler, Ira R & Henry, A. Selby, 1968, Kinship and Social Organisation, Mac Millian, New York, Buddhadeb C. 1992, Tribal Transformation in India- Education and Literacy Programmes, Vol.IV Inter-India Publications, New Delhi. Das, Tarachand, 1953, Social Organisation of Tribal People, “The Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol, 14, No.3. Devendra Thakur N., 1994. Tribal Life in India. Deep and Deep Publications, Delhi Dube,S.C. 1971, Manav aur Samskriti, Raj kamal, Delhi. Ehrenfels, R.Von, 1950, Quoted by Varrier Elwin in his Book, Bondo Highlander, OUP, Bombay. Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1940, The Nuer, OUP, London. Firth (1961), Elements of Social Organisation, Watts and Co. London. Firth,Raymond, 1956, Human Types, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, 22 Thomas Nelson & Sons, London. Government of India, Census Report-1991, New Delhi. GOI. Tribal Social Systems Government of India, Primary Census Abstract-2001, New Delhi. GOI. Hoebel,E.A, 1922, In Introduction of the Lhota Nagas of J.P.M.Mills, Macmillan & co, London. Jain Lal. G. 2000, Rural Economy and Society, Mangal Deep Publications. Jaipur. Jaya Kumar.G.S 1995, Tribals from Tradition to Transition. . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi Joshi, 1996, Development and Tribal Fertility, Shiva Publishers Distributors, Udaipur. Karve, Kravati, 1953, Kinship Organisation in India, Poona, the Deccan College Post graduate and Research Institute. Kothari, 1985. Tribal Social Change in India. Himalayan Publication. New Delhi. Lowie, Robert, H, 1950, Social Organisation, Routledge & Kegan Paul (1969 print), London. Mahapatra .D, 2001, Tribal Religion and Rituals, Dominant Publishers and Distributors. New Delhi Majumdar, D.N & Madan, T.N. 1956, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Asia Publishing House, Bombay Majumdar, D.N, 1958, The Eastern Anthropologist, Sep,-Nov, Majumdar, D.N, 1961, Races and Culture of India, Asia Publishing House, Bombay. Majumdar, D.N. & Madan, T.N, 1967, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Asia Publishing House. Bombay, Mandelbaum, David G, 1970, Society in India. University of California Press. California. Mills, 1937, The Rengma Nagas, London, Macmillan. Mills, J.P, 1926, The Ao Nagas, Macmillan, London. Mirnal, 1993, Continuing Change in Tribal Society, Indian Institute of Advanced Study Rastrpati Nivas Simla. New Delhi. Murdock, G.P, 1949, Social structure, Macmillan, New York. Nadel, S.F. (1957), The theory of Social Structure, Cohen and West Ltd. London. Nag, C.R.1993, The Mizo Society in Transition, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi. Nath,Y.U.S, 1960, Bhils Of Ratnamal, The M.S. University of Baroda, Baroda Pachamakshi P.R. 1996, Educational Change in India, Hai-Anand Publications, New Delhi. Parry, N.E. 1932, The Lakher, Macmillan & co, London. Patel M.L. 1998, Agrarian Transformation in Tribal India. M.D. Publication Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 23 Introduction to Tribal Piddington, R.C. 1952, An Introduction to bowl olpur and Boyd, London, Society and Culture Antheropology. Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. 1941, The study bof Kinship System, Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.No.71,(p.1-18) Redfield, Robert, 1955, The Little Community, Uppasala, Almquist and Wiksells Boktrycheri, A.B. Roy Burman, B.K.1971, Chetlat, Cesus of India, 1961, Village Survey Monograph.L.M & A .Islands, Manager of Publications, Delhi, Roy,S.C.1915,The Oraons of Chotoagpur, Ranchi, Man in India Office. Rudolf C Heredia, 2000, Tribal History Living word or Dead Letter? Economic and Political Weekly, 35 (18), 1522-1525. Sali Basu, 1994, Tribal Health in India, Manak Publication Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Shachi.A, 1998, Tribal Activism, Prem Rawat. Rawat Publication. Jaipur Sharma, R.K, 2004, Indian Society Institutions and Change, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. Singh K. S. 1982, Tribal Movement In India, Ramesh Jain Monohar Publicationjs, New Delhi. Singh K.S. 2002, The Tribal Situation in India, Indian Institute of Advanced Study Rashtrapati Nivas , Simla Singh Rana J.P. 1998, Marriage and Customs of Tribes of India, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Srinivas, M.N. 1953. Religion and Society among the Goorgs of South India The Clarendon Press, Oxford. London. Srinivas,M.N. 1962,Caste in Modern India, , Asia Publications, Bombay Srinivastava A.R.N. 1992, Changing values and Tribal Societies, Inter-India Publication New Delhi The World Book Encyclopedia (International) 1994.Vol.19 Vidyarthi, L.P & B.K. Rai, 1976, The Tribal Culture of India, Concept Publishing company, New Delhi. Virginius Xaxa, 1999, Transformation of Tribes in India, Economic and Political Weekly, 34(24), 1519 –1524. Virginius Xaxa, 1999, Tribes as Indigenous People of India, Economic and Political Weekly, 34 (51), 3589 –3595. Yadav C.P.2000. Encyclopedia of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 3 &4. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

24 Tribals and Religion UNIT 2 TRIBALS AND RELIGION

Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Early Tribal Religion 2.3 Tribes of India and Religion 2.4 Shamanism and Bongaism 2.5 Hinduism Among the Tribals 2.6 Pre-Christianity Tribals 2.7 Contribution of Christianity to Tribal Development 2.8 Let Us Sum Up 2.9 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you should be able to:  understand the definition of religion;  differentiate between the various forms of religion and  explain the different tribes and their religious beliefs. 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Religion serves a central and crucial function in society, supporting what has been variously called social integration, social solidarity and social cohesion. Religion is an all pervading supernatural phenomenon in man’s life. Johnstone (1975) defines religion as, “a system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people interprets and responds to what they feel is supernatural and sacred”. Religion is the human response to the apprehension of something, or power, which is supernatural and supersensory. It is the expression of the manner and type of adjustment effected by people with their conception of the supernatural. Religion had been regarded as a product of civilization. Religion is derived from the Latin word rel (l) igio, which itself is derived from either the root leg, which means ‘to gather, count or observe’, or from the root lig- which means ‘to bind’. All religions consist of a mental attitude regarding the supernatural. The most widespread manifestation of this attitude is in the shape of beliefs and rituals. All religions, primitive and modern, have this base of beliefs and rituals. Rituals consist in the observance, according to a prescribed manner, of certain actions designed to establish liaison between the performing individual and the supernatural 25 Introduction to Tribal power or powers. Beliefs are a charter for the rituals. These beliefs Society and Culture ensure that the rituals will be observed. According to functionalists, the function of religion is the contribution it makes to meeting functional requisites such as social solidarity. Durkheim, a functionalist defines religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden”. Malinowski, another functionalist sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress which threaten the stability of society. Marx on the other hand, sees religion as an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. In Marx’s words, ‘Religion is the sign of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people’. From a Marxian viewpoint, religion does not simply cushion the effects of oppression; it is also an instrument of that oppression. It acts as a mechanism of social control, maintaining the existing system of exploitation and reinforcing class relationships.

2.2 EARLY TRIBAL RELIGION

The earliest anthropological theory about primitive (tribal) religion, seeking to trace its origin and explain it, was given by Tylor. According to Tylor, primitive man had certain experiences; in his dreams he engaged in various types of activities even while he is sleeping; he met his dead ancestors in dreams and had hallucinatory experiences about them, and other beings while he was awake; he heard the echoes of his own voice; he saw his own reflection in ponds , pools and rivers ; and he failed to disentangle himself from his shadow .There must have been some unseen thing in him which must have escaped, unseen making him dead. It was thus that the belief in such an unseen thing, or power which kept people alive when it was in them, and made them dead when it left their bodies, emerged. Such a thing or power is called ‘soul’. Tylor says, primitive man must have thought there must be two souls in a human being; a free soul which could go out of him and have experiences, and a body soul which if it left the body resulted in its death. Primitive man must have come to the conclusion that when the body soul left the body permanently, the person concerned died; and his soul became a ghost or spirit. This belief in the soul is called Animism.

Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Define Animism. Explain it in your own words...... 26 Tribal religion, however, includes much more than animism. There is, for Tribals and Religion instance, the belief in a ‘High-God’. The High-God is a personal deity, separate from and altogether superior to, all other deities and spirits, the master and often maker of the universe and of men, the creator and guardian of the moral code, master over life and death, himself benevolent and immutable. In most tribal religions of India, the High-God is today regarded as an otiose deity, that is, he is invoked, but rarely worshipped. He has become a distant deity who leaves the world and men at the mercy of the minor deities, the spirits and demons. Any primitive tribes have special rites of veneration for their ancestors, on the occasion of a death, or on certain feasts. All primitive tribes are convinced of the survival of the human soul after death. They may believe even in a plurality of souls: the shadow, the life-spirit, the ego. Each soul has its own fate after death. The belief in the transmigration and re-incarnation of soul is fairly widespread. Many tribes assume that the future life is determined by the good or bad .The tribals have developed a largely magical world outlook. They believe that the whole world and every individual life are mainly governed and directed by superhuman powers, personal and impersonal. But they also maintain that these superhuman powers can effectively be influenced and controlled by means of magic and exorcism. In particular, the cure of diseases is in the hands of magicians who by their divination or while in trance indicate the nature of the disease, its natural and supernatural cause and means and rites by which a cure can be achieved. The tribals are well aware of the fact that some diseases have natural causes and can be cured by natural remedies of which they know quite a lot. But they suspect that many cases of sickness or accidents are caused by supernatural agencies. The tribals also believe in the existence of many evil spirits which have never been human beings. There are also spirits animating trees, rocks, rivers and springs, hills and mountains. They may harm a human being if they feel offended or if offerings due to them have not been fulfilled. If a person falls sick or has a misfortune, the tribals consult diviners, exorcists, and magicians to discover what deity or spirit has been offended and how to appease it. Black magic is frequently responsible for much sickness or misfortune among the villagers. Black magic can be counteracted, however, by white magic. 2.3 TRIBES OF INDIA AND RELIGION

Tribes of Western India The Bhil are one of the largest tribes of Western India, living in parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bhils and Maharashtra. Many Bhil are hinduised. There is a myth of descent from a tiger ancestor. The Jhabua Bhil and others believe in Bhagavan or Bholo Iswor, who is a personal supreme god. They also believe in minor deities who have shrines on hills or under trees. Worship of Bhagavan is at the settlement’s central sanctuary. There is a human-oriented cult of the dead, whose main ritual is called Nukto and is practised in front of the dead person’s house. Nukto purifies the spirit of the dead and unites it with Bhagavan. Gothriz Purvez is the collective ancestor. The concept of a spirit rider is important in Nukto and Gothriz. Purvez accompanies the spirit on part of its journey to the afterworld. 27 Introduction to Tribal Tribes of North-East India Society and Culture The hill people of the North East from the distant past up to the time of their conversion to Christianing had a certain concept of religion. They believed in some spirit or powerful being which had its natural objects like stone, river, tree, mountain peak etc. They believed that there were many spirits benevolent as well as evil which influenced the life of man. These spirits had to be kept happy by sacrifice. In every village, there were priests who were conversant with process of offering sacrifices. The hill men also worshipped a Supreme God who enjoyed the highest position. Next to God there were quite a large number of spirits and demons which deserved to be worshipped. These spirits are demigods and were thought to reside or haunt particular localities: village, river, stone, forest, mountain tops and so on and so forth. In one word, the tribal people may aptly be called animists. They also worshipped the ancestors and offered sacrifices to please the soul of the dead. Across the golden heights of Assam and NEFA (North-East Frontier Agency), most of the Eastern Indian tribal people have their own tribal god and goddesses and have deep respect for other faiths. Nearly, all the tribal people believe in the existence of spirits that move nature and guide human actions. They give different names to them and worship them in their own distinct way. The priests occupy a very important position in the tribal society. No ceremonies are performed without them. Annual sacrifices are popular with the people in the hills. According to their beliefs, gods have to be worshipped with their favorite animals. The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya believes in the Supreme Being, but their religious rites and ceremonies are directed more to the appeasement of the numerous spirits by which they are surrounded, and also to keep their ancestral spirits pleased by prayers and offerings. The spirits of the hills and rivers also receive their due share in the form of animal or bird sacrifices. The Khasis are supposed to be great believers in augury and divination by means of broken eggs or an examination of the entrails of birds and animals offered in sacrifice. With the spread of Christianity and of modern education, these customs have tended to disappear. It is interesting to note that the Khasis had priests (Lyngdoh) only for the performance of worship for communal welfare. The other rites were mostly conducted by elders who had the necessary knowledge. Such rites were connected with birth, marriage and death, and used to be strictly performed in earlier times. In every case, when a Khasi was faced by a crisis of one kind or another, he did not dare to depend on his own judgement, but sought the guidance of superior, unseen powers who spoke to him through the dumb language of omens and signs. One thing, however, should be very clearly borne in mind, and this is true not only of the Khasis but of the others as well and that the tribal people of India live in constant dread of evil spirits which inhabit the world around them. This view does not seem to be wholly true. If one observes carefully the life of these people, one realizes that there is enough joy left in their lives which the fear of spirits has never been able to quench. They resort to augury and magical practices only when they are hard pressed in life. And even then, they sometimes conform to established custom, not because they believe in it, but because this is what is done by everyone else under similar 28 circumstances. The Naga tribes live in the mountains of North-East India. They believe Tribals and Religion in an earthquake god who created the earth out of the waters by earthquakes. The sons of this god now watch over mankind and punish those who do wrong. Other deities without name or form live in the mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes, who need placating as they are hostile to men. Omens and dreams are generally believed in. Witchcraft is practiced and some men are thought to be able to turn into tigers. Head-hunting was an important practice, for fertile crops depended on a sprinkling of blood from a stranger over the fields. Reincarnation is believed by many Naga tribes, and the dead are buried in the direction from which their ancestors have come. The doctrine of genna (tabu) involves whole social groups - villages, clans, households, age groups, sex groups, in a series of rituals that may be regularly practiced or be the result of an emergency such as an earthquake. Tribes of Central India The present day Mundas of Midnapur believe that the Supernatural world is infested with many spirits of varied nature and potentialities. A few of these spirits are considered benevolent like those of deities and they are worshipped, appeased or propitiated for the welfare of the people. Besides, the Mundas believe that this world is full of prying witches and other malevolent spirits which are always seeking to do harm to human beings. Among the Mundas of this region, the influence of Daine or witch is widely prevalent. They rarely discuss freely and openly about a witch and most persons do not wish to speak or tell about her to an outsider. Like, the other groups of this region, they believe that a female can be a witch and that she can attack equally both males and females. The Mundas distinguish between the Daines or witches and the sorcerer’s or magicians, the Deonas. The witches are always malevolent trying to do harm to others. They believe that a witch attacks only those persons whom she dislikes. This is very important and significant. The belief in witchcraft is deeply rooted among the tribals. Among the Gonds of Alilabad they have experienced so many external interventions in diverse spheres of their social and cultural life that it would be surprising if their religious ideas and practices had remained unaltered .The very basis of their social order rests on an elaborate mythology which explains and sanctions the manner in which the different sections of Gond society function and interact. Each clan has a deity and the clan deities are thought to have acted as the protectors of the members of each clan throughout its long history, and the ability of the Gonds to hold their own in battles with various other ethnic groups which justifies their faith in the power and benevolence of these deities. Hence the Gonds had no incentive to seek the protection of alien gods and to divide their loyalties between different cults. According to the Santhal tribes who are mostly concentrated in Bihar and Orissa, the Supreme deity who ultimately controls the entire universe, is Thakurji. The weight of belief, however, falls on a court of spirits (bonga), who handle different aspects of the world and who must be placated with prayers and offerings in order to ward off evil influences. These spirits operate at the village, household, ancestor, and subclan level, along with evil spirits that cause disease, and can inhabit village boundaries, mountains, water, tigers, and the forest. A characteristic feature of the Santhal village is a sacred grove on the edge of the settlement where many spirits live and where a series of annual festivals take place. 29 Introduction to Tribal The most important spirit is Maran Buru (Great Mountain), who is invoked Society and Culture whenever offerings are made and who instructed the first Santhals in sex and brewing of rice beer. Maran Buru’s consort is the benevolent Jaher Era (Lady of the Grove).A yearly round of rituals connected with the agricultural cycle, along with life-cycle rituals for birth, marriage and burial at death, involves petitions to the spirits and offerings that include the sacrifice of animals, usually birds. Religious leaders are male specialists in medical cures who practice divination and witchcraft. Similar beliefs are common among other tribes of Northeast and Central India such as the Kharia, Munda and Oraon. Tribes of Southern India The Todas are a small pastoral community living on the Nilgiri Hills in South India. They believe in 1600 or 1800 superior godlike beings, the two most important being On and Teikirzi. One is the male god of Amnodr, the realm of the dead, and he created the Todas and their buffaloes. He was himself a dairyman. Teikirzi is a female deity and more important for the people, whom she once ruled when she lived in the Nilgiris and established Toda social and ceremonial laws. Most other deities are hill- gods, each associated with a particular hill. There are also two river- gods belonging to the two main rivers. Toda religion is based on the buffaloes and their milk. The temples are the dairies. Many tribes in India show considerable syncretism with Hinduism, such as the Kadugollas of Karnataka, who worship gods such as Junjappa, Yattappa, Patappa, and Cittappa, but in reality are more devoted to Siva, who dominates their festivals and religious observances. Local deities are still of importance, though, as with the Bedanayakas of Karnataka, who worship Papanayaka, a deity supposed to have lived 300-400 years ago as a holy man among them and who performed miracles.

Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Discuss the concept of tribes and religion in any one of the zones in your own words......

2.4 SHAMANISM AND BONGAISM

Among the Saoras tribe of Orissa, in every village there are always a number of shamans and shamanins, whose duty is to protect the living from the onslaught of the dead spirits and of malevolent deities. A man or woman does not become a shaman or shamanin by free choice. Generally, they are sought after by some spirits and if they refuse or 30 hesitate, they are stricken by grievous punishment, which comes in the shape of illness or accident. A shaman or shamanin has to lead a pure Tribals and Religion life, and remains completely dedicated to any call or service from his master or suffering neighbours, even if that is under a kind of ‘supernatural’ compulsion . Bongaism Among the Mundas and the Ho tribes in the Chota-Nagpur area there is a belief in a supernatural power which exists as a quality or attribute of objects. Such a religious complex of beliefs found among these tribes is called bonga. The bonga are vaguely understood as powers definite and impersonal, they do not seem to have any objective appearance or existence. The impersonal bonga use the medium of dreams to foretell, daydreams being used for warning about bad things. Bonga is the manifestation of a vague supernatural power, one that is the cause of all energy. Differences between individuals, differences of power, prestige and so on are regarded to be to the degree of the bonga power possessed by a person. Anything that is new requires a new adjustment, and anything that upsets the personality- environment adjustment is a bonga.

2.5 HINDUISM AMONG THE TRIBALS

Hinduism has not been a proselytizing religion. The indigenous population of India is supposed to have contributed in the past generally to the building up of what is known as Hinduism. The tribes retained the principal elements of their faith and practice though this was modified to a greater or less extent. In addition, they shared some of the Gods and Goddesses and even participated in the social festivals and ceremonies of their Brahmanical neighbours, without any effort on the part of the latter for conversion. That participation did not turn them into Hindus. One might indeed say that the tribes can be regarded as being fully absorbed in the Hindu fold of Brahmin priests who perform Brahmanical ceremonies for them during the three critical events of birth, marriage and death. If the latter are still celebrated by tribal rituals then the communities are still true to their own faith in spite of the fact that in the entire fringes of their culture, they participate in some of the ceremonies of the Hindu neighborhood.

2.6 PRE-CHRISTIANITY TRIBALS

The most common tribal traditional religion is generally known as animism. The traditional religion of tribals is more negative than positive. They do not have any fixed place to worship and never worship idols. Offerings and sacrifices are made at any place in the house, on the road, under the tree, upon a rock, by the river side, at the paddy field and other places where spirits are expected to have their abode or expected to visit. All the hill tribes of Manipur believe in the existence of a supreme –being or God. They all believe He is the creator and sustainer of the universe, and thus worship him so that ‘the soul may find its place in heaven’ ‘They also believe that those who live a good life in this world will have a good life in another world. They believe the Supreme Being is a judging God. It is a common practice among the tribals that whenever a critical case 31 Introduction to Tribal arises to be settled in the village court, the elders under the chairmanship Society and Culture of the Chief ask both the parties to swear in the name of the Supreme- Being, judgement upon the wrong-doer, which implies a fatal punishment from above within a certain period of time, is fixed before they act by swearing. The most important practices of swearing in the critical cases include biting the ‘Raihai Stone’ which is a small black round stone, the abode of a war deity, kept on a pile of stones or platform at the premise of the village chief’s house. The stone cannot be touched because if anyone touches it, he or she will face serious illness, even to the point of death or becoming mad. Second is eating ‘chicken’s intestine’ by sharing half with each of the parties. The third is eating a piece of ‘liver’ by sharing half with each of the parties. The fourth is, biting the ‘fresh soil’ of the disputed land, and the last is drinking the poisonous juice prepared from the plant of an ‘ai’ which is called ‘Aituidawn’. All of these are to be done while swearing in the name of the Supreme-being. After the ritual, if death occurs in one of the two families within the stipulated period of time, this is interpreted as revealing the wrongdoer and consequently the judgment of God upon his family. So, God is seen as a God of judgement. Sacrifices are offered to appease God for both individual and community prosperity and protection from any natural calamities. They have also faith in the existence of certain friendly and evil spirits. The abode of these spirits is stones, trees, rivers, streams, forests and mountains. Thus, there are ‘plenty of rooms for the embodiment of spirits in this thing, as found in the traditional religions of the hill tribes.

They also believe in the existence of individual house-hold deities who help the welfare of families, and individual paddy field deities who protest and bless the crops. They, therefore, offer sacrifices very often to these gods to appease them, especially during the time of sowing seeds, harvesting, and festival times. Illness is often conceived to be caused by the evil spirits. So, a physician, fortune-teller, or sorcerer is called in to placate the evil spirits. Among the Kuki Chin, the practice of a ‘sacrifice known as Gampi’ in the forest is done to appease the spirit so as to release the soul of a particular sick person. Thus the tribal traditional religion is centred on ‘fearfulness’. Ancestor worship was practiced among some tribes of Manipur, although some tribes only revere their ancestors. They also strictly observe taboos, gennas and ceremonies. Omens, divinations, and dream are interpreted on all important occasions. In traditional tribal religion the practice of sorcery, wizardry and necromancy were common and even today among the non-Christians the same practice is found.

In the Tribal religions the concept of Sin is very vague. The life of the tribal is remarkably free from lying and stealing as a general habit and adultery is a crime punished with a heavy fine according to the tribal custom and law. However, the punishment varies from tribe to tribe. While adultery among the tribals is regarded as a heinous crime, the practice of ‘promiscuous intercourse’ among the un-married youth is not only condoned but encouraged by the elders, among some tribes. So there is no clear concept of sin. Sin is an offence against tribal custom or taboo, and what is morally evil may be regarded as good if it does not transgress the tribal customs and law. All the tribals believe in the existence 32 of life after death. They believe that the soul of the deceased goes to the Tribals and Religion ‘Land of dead’; the Kuki-Chins call it ‘Misi khua’. It is believed that in the world of dead, there is an exact repetition of the life in this world. So the soul of the deceased goes to his or her own family in the land of dead. As a matter of fact, the Tangkhuals practice the presentation of gift to the dead when a relative dies, a present is brought to the deceased person telling him or her to give the gift to his family members who died before and are already in the ‘Land of Dead’. And all the friends and relatives give presents of any kind to the dead person so as to help him continue his life and journey to another world. They believe that the soul of a good man will go to heaven to live with the supreme god, but this concept is also very vague and hard to explain.

One of the universal features of tribal faiths in India is that all being are supposed to be endowed with a living spirit. Animals and plants, rivers and mountains are an exception to this rule. The dead who have apparently left us are still with us; and it is through remembrance and offerings that we have to renew our relationship with them on due occasions. The dead are reborn in the shape of offspring in the present generation. The span of man’s comradeship is thus extended to encompass all that he sees around him as well as those whom he loved and apparently lost.

What is significant in the tribal religion, or ‘animistic’ belief is that tribes like Mundas, the Oraons or the Santhals is that the whole world peopled by spirits is thus rendered holy. In the forests where some of the more isolated communities live, a few trees are never touched or cut, for they represent the primal grove. They are symbolic of the whole forests which men, under the pressure of needs, have had to cut down. The mountains are holy and there are rocks of extraordinary shape or colours which are taken as proofs of their sacredness. If the spirits dwells everywhere and if all are at peace with them, men enjoy freedom from illness and a long life. If anyone falls ill, the general belief is that some relationship has been violated; when, by means of particular magical ceremonies, men or women skilled in the art decide what should be done by the sufferers. And when this is done, health is once again believed to be restored.

Among the ‘animistic’ tribes of India, all places are holy as they are the seats of spirits. Some have accused the so –called animists of living in perpetual fear of ghosts and spirits. But there does not seem to be any particular justification for this. All men have their hopes and fears and to single out a few elements of tribal religion and say that the latter are born only of fear would be a grave injustice to them.

2.7 CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY TO TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT

Christianity provided an ideology that helped the tribal people maintain their identity in the face of serious erosion of their traditional religious, social and political institutions. In fact, there is hardly any custom that needs a metamorphosis. What is needed is to modify and make it suitable for the present times. For example, the dead could be buried in a common place and not within the house compound, or, stop or reduce rice beer 33 Introduction to Tribal brewing so as to save for the future, say for example, for the education Society and Culture of the children, or again folksongs that sound archaic could be turned to modern music. However, the change from the old to the new must be gradual so that both the old and new generation feels at home with the changes. Some churches have definitely contributed much towards the preservation of culture. Dances, folk-songs dresses and the like have been integrated for the sacramental worship and in church functions and at public functions as well. Today Christian institutions are doing their maximum for the preservation of the cultural identity of the people except in some places where there may be some who are still not aware of the importance of it and may impede its preservation. Pre-Christian social life consisted of hunting of wild animals, and elaborate celebrations after that. Eating and drinking continued for days. If there was a good harvest, feasts of merry making were made, often emptying the granary with all sorts of festivities. At present, the people get together in the churches to thank for the harvest. They also offer the best of products to the Church seeking God’s blessing.

In the past, the tribal people were considered primitive, ferocious and dangerous. By listening to the preaching’s of the missionaries, the tribals developed a new outlook. For the tribal to become a Christian was to become a man more refined and polished. The Christians missionaries taught the tribals how to read and write. The missionaries taught them to abstain from intoxicating drink. Abstaining from drinking especially led to decrease of social get together which led to spending of more time with families. They started wearing proper dress and understand the value of cleanliness. They realized the value of education. Personal cleanliness, cleanliness in the house and better ways of life were taught by the missionaries and the Evangelists which the tribals started to follow. If a person falls sick in the pre-Christian time the tribals believed that the sick person can be cured by sacrifices of birds and animals, this was a costly affair especially for the poor. When the tribals became Christians, all kinds of sacrifices became unnecessary. The new faith brought peace among the tribals. The tribals found in Christianity, a religion that met their needs which sets them free from the bondage of evil spirits. The work undertaken by the missionaries have led to a number of schools, colleges and other learning institutions being established which have led to a lot of the tribals becoming mobile in their sphere of occupations. They are no longer just farmers, cultivators, but many of them have gone on to become doctors, engineers, administrators, etc. The services which the churches rendered to the tribal people were indeed of a high order. Apart from spreading the message of the Gospels, great service was rendered by the missionaries in the economic distress to which people had been subjected for long time. The missionaries made enquiries about the oppression of land-lords and money –lenders and when the cases came up to court, helped the converts by their counsel and in every possible way. This included exercising their personal influence on officers of the Government. Help of this kind was sorely needed, and a large number of tribal folk were attracted towards the Church, which not only defended their rights but also treated them with a dignity which had never been accorded to them by other mainstream people. 34 Tribals and Religion Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Discuss in brief the changes brought about by Christianity to the tribal way of life......

2.8 LET US SUM UP

Religion serves the central and crucial function in society, supporting what has been variously called social integration, social solidarity and social cohesion. Religion is an all pervading supernatural phenomenon in man’s life. In this unit we discussed the meaning and definition of religion. Explanation has been given on the different forms of religion practiced by various tribes all over India. This unit also throws light on the changes brought about by Christianity among the tribes of India.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES Bailey, F.G (1961) Tribe and Caste in India in Contributions to Indian Sociology, ed. by Louis Dumont and D. Pocock, Morton and Company, No. V, October 1961, Paris. Beteille, Andre (1974) Tribe and Peasantry in Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Bose, Nirmal Kumar (1972) Some Indian Tribes, Delhi, National Book Trust. Chaudhui, B (ed.) (1982) Tribal Development in India, inter-India Publications, New Delhi. Hutton, J.H (1951) Caste in India, Cumberledge. Johnstone, Renold (1975) Religion and Society: The Society of religion. Englewood dros. N.J. Prentice-Hall. Majumdar,D.N and Madan, T.N.(1985) Social Anthropology, Delhi, Mayur Paperbacks. Mukhopadhyay, Lipi (2002) Tribal women in Development, New Delhi, Publications Division. Singh, A.K. and Jabbi M.K. (ed) (1996) Status of Tribals in India, Council for Social Development, New Delhi. Singh, B. (1985) Society in Tribal India, B.R. Publishing House, Delhi. Subba, T.B and Ghosh,G.C. (2003) The Anthropology of the North- East, New Delhi. Orient Longman. Vidyarti, L.P. and Rai, B.K. (1977) The Tribal Culture of India, Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi. 35 Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture UNIT 3 RITES OF PASSAGE Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pregnancy and Child Birth Rites 3.3 Puberty and Initiation Rites 3.4 Marriage Rites 3.5 Funeral Rites 3.6 Let Us Sum Up 3.7 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:  explain the meaning of rites of passage;  describe the various types of rites of passage; and  distinguish between rites of transition, separation and incorporation. 3.1 INTRODUCTION

Rite of passage is any of numerous ceremonial events, existing in all societies that mark the passage of an individual from one social or religious status to another. The term was coined by the French anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep in 1909. Many of the important rites are connected with the biological stages of life — birth, maturity, reproduction, and death. Other rites celebrate changes that are wholly cultural, such as initiation into special societies. In modern societies, graduation from school is a rite of passage. Scholars often interpret rites of passage as mechanisms by which society confronts and incorporates change without disrupting the equilibrium necessary to social order. In all societies, major events in the life cycle are subject to ritualized forms of recognition. Across the world, such events are celebrated in diverse and sometimes elaborate ways, with different cultures singling out different stages of life for attention. Where ancestry is important, as in China or many of the societies of Africa, death may be the subject of extended and intricate mortuary ceremonials, which act both to separate the living from the dead and to transform the dead from elder to ancestor. In others, death may be neglected and cultural salience given rather to marriage, to the installation of office holders, or to initiations into adulthood or into cult groupings. In these cultural processes, actual biological events are subsumed and transformed, even negated in the various schemas of culture. Despite the variety in the forms and meanings of such rituals, a 36 certain unity has been given to the category by the work of Arnold Van Gennep. Van Gennep envisioned life in society as a house with many Rites of Passage rooms, in which the individual has to be convened formally from one defined position to another. From this perspective, life is not a matter of gradual development and change but rather consists of a series of abrupt and ritualized transitions. Rites of passage are special rituals societies employ to assist their members at key times of biographical change. These life transitions follow a recognizable pattern of behaviour in many cultures; for example, babies are given a name and social identity, youths enter adulthood or marry, others retire, gain particular qualifications such as degrees or enter particular professions, or pass from the world of the living to the world of the dead. Changes of status can be related to changes in identity because the term identity embraces social and psychological aspects of life. The term status tends to refer to sociological values without reference to the personal feelings and self-evaluation of individuals. In this sense, the term status emphasizes the social dimension and identity of the psychological aspects of an individual’s life. The idea of status in passage rituals was first introduced by the anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep, who saw regeneration as the law of life and described rites of passage as a threefold process with phases of separation, segregation, and integration. For there to be a new self the old self must ritually die. Candidates for some rite would be separated from the status to be left behind, leaving familiar companions, surroundings and home, perhaps encountering actual or symbolic aggression in being wrenched away or carried off. Second, they enter a “between” period devoid of distinguishing marks of status and expressions of their old identity, such as names or clothing. In the case of passage to adulthood, adolescents may together undergo a degree of discipline and share a mutual sense of hardship, bonding them together. Their curtailed freedom begins a reorientation toward their future status and life obligations. This may involve learning the traditions of their society or the skills of some particular profession or trade. Only after this period of learning and endurance is complete do they undergo the third phase of reincorporation into society. However, they do so with their new status and identity, perhaps involving a new name or title, forms of dress or style of language and, almost certainly, new patterns of behavior with appropriate duties and responsibilities. Van Gennep likened society to a house with people moving over thresholds from room to room. The Latin word for threshold is limen, hence his three phases of rites of passage as preliminal, liminal, and postliminal. He also argued that, depending upon the final goal of a ritual, the preliminal, liminal, or postliminal phase would be stressed over and above the others. Rites of passage sometimes involve more than one type of status change. In a marriage, for example, it is not only the bride and groom that pass from being single or divorced to being married but their parents also become parents-in-law. Parents, siblings, and friends may all enter new relationships. Van Gennep’s scheme was constructed to describe patterns of life in those traditional societies often described as primitive or tribal societies. In such communities of relatively few people and high levels of face-to- face contact, many would acknowledge the change of status and identity of an individual during rites of initiation into manhood, womanhood, or 37 Introduction to Tribal motherhood. However, caution is required when the idea of rites of passage Society and Culture is applied to events in contemporary and large-scale societies where little recognition exists. Such understandings of ritual permit insight into the significance of funerary ritual, a rite of passage observed in a great majority of human societies. Numerous changes of identity are associated with funeral rites, affecting the statuses of the dead, surviving relatives, and members of the broader community. 3.2 PREGNANCY AND CHILD BIRTH RITES

The ceremonies of pregnancy and childbirth together generally constitute a whole. Often the first rites performed separate the pregnant woman from society, from her family group, and sometimes even from her sex. They are followed by rites pertaining to pregnancy itself, which is a transitional period. Finally comes the rites of childbirth intended to reintegrate the women into the groups to which she previously belonged, or to establish her new position in society as a mother, especially if she has given birth to her first child. At the onset of pregnancy, a woman is placed in a state of isolation, either because she is considered impure and dangerous or because her very pregnancy places her physiologically and socially in an abnormal condition. Among the Todas of South India, the order of pregnancy and childbirth rites are as follows: i) When a woman becomes pregnant, she is forbidden to enter the villages or the sacred places ii) In the fifth month, there is a ceremony called “village we leave.” At this time the woman must live in a special hut, and she is ritually separated from the dairy, the sacred industry which is the heart of Toda social life. iii) She invokes two deities, Pirn and Piri. iv) She burns each hand in two places. v) A ceremony marks the leaving of the hut; the woman drinks sacred milk. vi) She goes back to live in her home till the seventh month. vii) During the seventh month “the ceremony of the bow and arrow” establishes a social father for the unborn child as the Todas practice polyandry. viii) The woman returns to her home, performing the appropriate rites. (The last two ceremonies occur only during the first pregnancy, or if the woman has a new husband, or if she wants her future children to have a different father from the ones she has previously chosen). ix) The woman delivered in her house, in someone’s presence and without special ceremonies. x) Two or three days later, mother and child go to live in a special hut; the rites performed for the departure from the house, then the departure from the hut, and the return to the house are the same as 38 those marking the woman’s previous trip. xi) While in the hut, the woman, her husband, and the child are tainted Rites of Passage with impurity called ichchil. xii) Ceremonies are performed to protect them against the evil spirit keirt. They return to ordinary life by drinking sacred milk. Among the Oraon tribe, before a child is born as well as after birth, all the precautions are taken to protect the mother and child. As soon as the child is born, the Pahan is asked to make sacrifices to the principal deity. The period of impurity following the child birth is the most dangerous period, as it is during this period; the mother and child are more liable to its attacks than at any other time. The relatives always keep a watch on the room where they are secluded. Until the purificatiom ceremony is performed, the whole house is considered unclean. Commenting on birthing rites, Van Gennep cites at length W. H. R. Rivers’s 1906 ethnography of the Tonga tribe of India. Among these people, a series of pregnancy rites are performed, first to separate the pregnant woman from her village. After an extended period, a ceremony is held in which the woman drinks sacred milk to purify herself, her husband, and their child. Subsequently, the family is reintegrated into their social group. No longer a polluting woman, she is re-established in her village as a mother. Among the Gonds tribe many restrictions are placed on pregnant woman. A pregnant woman should not go for fishing and all kinds of ardous tasks are also tabooed. During the first pregnancy, she is sent to her parents’ house either in the seventh or the nineth month. A special medicine with boiled and dried ginger, pippali (long pepper) and garlic is prepared and given to the woman after delivery. It is believed that this medicine generates heat and keeps mother and child in good health. The child and mother are given ceremonial bath on 9th or 11th day. After this purificatory bath, it is believed that pollution period is over and she can attend to her routine domestic duties. Among the Kolam tribe of Andhra Pradesh, the women generally work and attend to normal domestic duties till delivery time. No food taboos or other restrictions are imposed on a pregnant woman. The only restriction imposed on such woman is that she should not see either solar or lunar eclipse else she may give birth to a blind child. In case of partial observation, the child will lose one eye. In case she observes the eclipse through the holes of roof of the house, the child will be born with cleaved lips. They believed that delivery within the house is very inauspicious. When an expectant mother reaches the advanced stage of pregnancy, a temporary hut is constructed at the corner of the village. This hut is known as Mala gudisa or Maila gudisa in their dialect. When a pregnant woman develops labour, she retires to the mala gudisa. When the pregnant woman is in labour in a separate house, some of the elderly women also stay inside the house but they do not touch her nor render any kind of assistance. The pregnant woman takes care of everything. The experienced women guide her what to do. The mother herself has to bury the placenta. As the woman who delivered a child is considered unclean and impure, she has to take bath and wash her clothes daily in the stream. She should not go to the stream through main path but from 39 Introduction to Tribal outskirts of the village. The food is cooked in the actual house and is Society and Culture daily sent to the delivered woman. She has to remain in solitary confinement till the umbilical cord has dried up and fallen off. The mother and child are given purificatory bath at home and community dinner is arranged. After this ceremony, a woman, can attend to her routine domestic duties. During pregnancy, rites of separation is most heighten as the pregnant woman is usually separated from her family, social circle, members of her society by going and living in a separate hut isolated from the rest of the society. From her delivery to till she is purified, the woman is in a transitional state, and when she is purified by taking bath, drinking milk and other rites of incorporation, she is accepted back in the society. In this section, you read about the meaning of rites of passage and rites of pregnancy, child birth.

Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) What do you understand by rites of passage? ...... 2) Illustrate with an example pregnancy and child birth rites......

3.3 PUBERTY AND INITIATION RITES

The physical puberty of girls is marked by a swelling of the breasts, an enlargement of the pelvis, the appearance of pubic hair, and above all the first menstrual flow. The physical puberty for boys are marked by change in the voice, enlargement of the testes and the lengthening of the penis, the skin over the scrotum begins to thin and redden and there is the beginning of a sparse amount of pubic hair at the base of the penis. There is an increased amount of pubic hair that is noticeably coarser and darker than before, boys also gain in muscle mass, the voice deepens, acne frequently becomes bothersome.

Initiation rites are usually performed when girls and boys attain physical puberty; these initiation rites are performed to initiate the boys and girls 40 into the world of adulthood. Among the Kolam tribe of Andhra Pradesh, at the time of first Rites of Passage menstruation, no specific rites and rituals are observed, but the girl is considered as unclean and impure. Soon after menstruation, the girl takes bath in a nearby stream. In case she menstruates outside the village, a temporary hut is constructed for her. If she menstruates inside her own house, she has to sit in a corner of the house. She should not touch others. She sleeps on the floor and eats in leaf plates. She should not even touch the house. If she touches the walls of the house, the parents think that some misfortune would happen to them and they rebuild the house. Even utensils and other household articles are sold and new articles bought. The menstruating woman is strictly prohibited from moving in the house and entering from the front door. The Kolams believe that if menstruating women do not follow strictly all these taboos, the members of the family may be eaten by the tiger when they go to the forest. She takes bath and washes her clothes in the nearby stream, when the menstruation stops, she is permitted to enter the house. After being cleaned, she performs her household duties.

Initiation ceremony is a unique and distinct social institution among the Kolams tribe. The initiation ceremony is solemnised in order to recognise socially a boy as an adult and to lift certain taboos imposed on them earlier. This ritual is usually observed in the month of Pola (July) prior to full moon day. Every male member who attains the age between 15 to 18 years has to undergo this ceremony before marriage; otherwise one is not eligible for marriage and he is also not eligible to accept sacred food offered at shrines of their deities during festivals or rituals. Before this ceremony, a boy is given the status of that of a girl and restrictions generally imposed on a girl with regard to eating of ceremonial food is imposed. All the Kolams of the settlement meet and decide the day for celebration of the ritual in consultation with the village priest. On this day, the boy, who has to be initiated, is dressed like a woman with sari and other ornaments. He is accompanied by his own brother-in-law and village priest and visits the village deity. They carry along with them bread made of jowar or wheat flour, roasted cakes made of black gram and a cock. The number of pairs of cakes should be equal to the number of divine spirits of his phratry. All these offerings are placed before the village deity and immediately the boy and brother-in-law turn back. The village priest worships the village deity and sacrifices the cock. After completion of the rituals and prayers, the boy and his brother-in-law turn towards the shrine and offer their prayers. Then the priest offers food to the boy and then they return to the village. After this ritual only, the boy is recognised as an adult member and he is eligible to accept sacred food offered to gods and goddesses. Eating of sacred food also makes him eligible to marry. Unless this initiation ceremony is observed, eating of sacred food or marriage celebrations are tabooed. It is significant to note that women folk are not at all eligible to eat the sacred food offered ritually to gods and goddesses till the stoppage of menopause. After this period, the women folk are entitled to eat sacred food offered to gods and goddesses.

41 Introduction to Tribal Among the Korwa tribe of Chotanagpur region in Bihar, girls who are Society and Culture menstruating must sit apart from the other persons at the time of eating. They should not jump, should not eat cold things or pickles. Menstruating women remain in isolation. They enter into the house or leave the house only by an outer room of every house which has one small door which opens to the backside of the house and never by the main entrance. If there is no other female member in the family, the husband cooks the food. They are also not to visit sacred places. After four days they go to the nearby stream to take bath for purification. They also wash their hair and clothes. Among the Cholanaickans tribe who can be found in the Nilamdar Valley in Malappuram of Nilgiri District in Tamil Nadu¸ rites of separation is performed for girls who are menstruating. The menstruating girls are secluded for 4 days in one corner of the cave. During this period, the woman is considered to be unclean.

3.4 MARRIAGE RITES

Marriage constitute an important transition from one social category to another, because for at least one of the spouses it involves a change of family, clan, village, or tribe and sometimes the newly married couple even establish residence in a new house. The change of residence is marked in the ceremonies by rites of separation, always primarily focussing on territorial passage, as the newly married woman almost all the time permanently shift from her own parental house to her husband’s house. Furthermore, because of the number and importance of groups affected by the social union of two of their members, it is natural that the period of transition should take on considerable importance. This is the period commonly called the “bethrothal”. Among a great number of people it consists of a special and autonomous part of the marriage ceremonies, including rites of separation and transition and terminating with rites which insure either a preliminary incorporation into the new environment or a separation from an autonomous transition period. Then come the rites of marriage, which consist chiefly of rites of permanent incorporation into the new environment. Among the Kabuis tribe of North-East India, wedding ceremony is solemnised at the residence of the bridegroom. In the early morning of the day, an omen taking ritual called Guak-Pai-Jaomei is performed in which a healthy pig on behalf of the bride is offered to the supreme God. This ritual is performed at the residence of the bride. The spleen of the victim is examined by the present elders in search of good indicators.Guak- pai-jaomei literally means observation of the pig’s spleen; (Guak = pig, Pai = spleen, Jaomei = to observe). The pig is roasted and cut into small pieces and then it is boiled. This boiled meat will be taken to the groom’s house. After morning food is over, the bride will take bath and put on traditional marriage dress and costume and she will be helped by her sister-in-laws of the family in dressing. Then, she along with her companions will start the journey for her final destination which symbolises that she is separated from her family and her village. 42 When the bride along with her companions arrives at the residence of the Rites of Passage groom, the bride is warmly received by her mother-in-law and a leaf cup of drink is offered which she drinks it (Jouduimei). Before she enters the house, she is purified by contacting the smoke of kham that brings her in as free as possible of the evil adhering to her. Then, she will enter the house by crossing the door with her right foot which symbolises that the bride is incorporated into the new environment. Finally, the marriage ceremony called Lang-daimhailak is performed in which a fowl, a ginger and a hoe are offered to the supreme God with singing of religious hymns. In this ceremony, the bride and bridegroom are made to sit on a big bed called Langdai. The groom is authorised to sit on the right side of the bride hanging their legs in that side. The right and left legs of the groom and bride are made to press on the iron hoe until the sacrificing cock breaths last. It is performed by one of the Nouthanpous who officiates as priest. In these rites, the initiate (i.e the person undergoing the rites) will be symbolically and in many cultures physically removed from the world to which they have belonged. Separation rites often involve symbolic actions as removing clothing or removing parts of the body. Among the Khond tribe of Southern India, when agreement between the families has been reached, the girl is dressed in a red blanket and carried to the groom’s village by her maternal uncle in the company of the young women of her village; the retinue carries gifts for the groom, who stands in the road, accompanied by young boys from his village armed with bamboo sticks. The women attack the young men, hitting them with sticks, stones, and clods of earth, and the boys defend themselves with their sticks. Bit by bit, they all approach the village, and when they reach it, the fighting stops. The groom’s uncle takes the bride and carries her into the groom’s house. “This fighting is by no means child’s play, and the men are sometimes seriously injured.” After the bride has reached the village, there is a communal meal at the groom’s expense. Among the Bhotiya, who inhabits Sikkim, the following ceremonies take place during marriage: i) Astrologers determine whether the projected marriage will be favourable ii) Uncles of the girl and the boy act as go –betweens and receive presents of money. They meet in the boy’s house and then go with gifts to the girl’s, to ask for her in marriage. iii) If the gifts they bought are accepted, the matter is concluded, and the amount of the dowry is decided upon. iv) The intermediaries are given a feast , and there are prayers to invoke blessings upon the bride and the groom. After the last two ceremonies, which are obviously rites of incorporation of the two families, the boy and the girl may see each other in complete freedom. v) A year later comes the nyen ceremony, it is a meal ( at the expense of the boy’s parents) attended by all relatives on both sides; the bride price is paid at this time. 43 Introduction to Tribal vi) A year after the nyen, the changthoong ceremony is held: a) An Society and Culture astrologer is called upon to determine a favourable date for the bride’s departure from her parents home and to decide in detail those arrangements which would be auspicious. b) A great celebration to which lamas are invited is organized .c) Two men, at that moment called “thieves”, force their way into the house, supposedly to steal the girl, and a fight is simulated; the “thieves” are beaten, and half- cooked meat is thrown into their mouths, although they may escape this treatment by giving money to the bride’s guardians. Two days later, the “thieves” are honoured and named “ the happy strategists”. d) Guests give presents to the bride and to her parents . e) A retinue departs with rejoicing. f) The boy’s mother and father go to meet the retinue and take them to their home; there are celebrations for two or three days. g) The girl and her relatives return home. h) A year later, the palokh ceremony is held; at this time the parents give the bride her dowry (which is double the amount that has been paid for her)’ and she is escorted to the boy’s home; this time she remains permanently. Thus the bethrothal and marriage ceremonies among the Bhotiya last at least three years. Rites of incorporation are the most prominent during marriage as the married girl enters a new household where she establishes new relations with her groom, her groom families and relatives.

3.5 FUNERAL RITES

Death separates the deceased from their statuses of living parent, spouse, or co-worker. The period of preparing the dead for burial or cremation moves them into a transitional phase when they are neither what they have been nor yet what they will become. Such moments of transition often involve uncertainty and potential danger. The ritual impurity of the corpse derives from its inability to respond to others, yet is still “present” in their everyday routines. Accordingly, people pay their respects to the dead, marking their former identity with them, express sorrow for the bereaved and, by so doing, reaffirm their continuing relationship with them. Robert Hertz argues that funeral rites involve a kind of parallel process in which the decay of the dead reflects the path of grief in the bereaved. Bereavement involves both the social change of status of people—from, say, being a wife to being a widow, from being a child to being an orphan, or from being a subordinate adult to becoming the head of the family. It also involves psychological changes of identity associated with such shifts. Human beings become dependent upon each other and, in a sense, each identity is made up of elements of other people’s influence. People become “part of” each other, and thus when one dies a portion of one’s self perishes as well. Some theories of grief discuss this in terms of attachment and interpret bereavement as the loss that follows when attachments are removed. The fear of ghosts or spirits, for example, can be related to both the 44 dimensions of status and identity. In terms of status, ghosts and spirits can be seen as the dead who have not been successfully moved from Rites of Passage their place in this world to that of the next. They are those who are caught in between the realm of an unintended state, potentially dangerous entities, or phenomena as they symbolize radical change that challenges the social life set up against such change. Sometimes funeral rites exist to try to get such spiritual forces finally to leave the world of the living and get on with their future destiny. At its most extreme, rites of exorcism serve to banish the dead or other supernatural entities and prevent them from influencing the living. In terms of identity, this time the identity of the living, ghosts and spirits, perhaps also include vivid dreams of the dead, all reflect the individual experience of a bereaved person who is still, psychologically speaking, caught up with the identity of the deceased person. Physical death has also been widely employed as an idiom to describe the leaving of an old status and the entry into a new one. In the case of death befalling on an Oraon family, the lineage members have some obligations. Gonds cremate or bury their dead. Children, unmarried persons, and individuals dying an inauspicious death (for instance, in an epidemic) are buried without much ceremony. Gonds believe humans have a life force and a spirit. On death, the life force is reincarnated into another earthly existence, but the spirit remains in the other world. Gonds perform death rituals to help the spirit move into the other world and to ease its acceptance by other clan spirits. This rite, known as karun , must be done to fulfill an obligation to the deceased. Memorial pillars honor the dead. Gonds believe ancestral spirits watch over the living, punish offenders, and guard Gond communities. Among the Majhwâr, Mânjhi, Mâjhia—a small mixed tribe who have apparently originated from the Gonds, Mundas and Kawars. When a man is at the point of death they place a little cooked rice and curds in his mouth so that he may not go hungry to the other world, in view of the fact that he has probably eaten very little during his illness. Some cotton and rice are also placed near the head of the corpse in the grave so that he may have food and clothing in the next world. Mourning is observed for five days, and at the end of this period the mourners should have their hair cut, but if they cannot get it done on this day, the rite may be performed on the same day in the following year. Among the Kol tribe of India,the funeral rites takes place in the following way: i) Immediately after death, the corpse is placed on the ground “so that the soul should more easily find its way to the home of the dead,” which is under the earth. ii) The corpse is washed and painted yellow to chase away evil spirits who would stop the soul on its journey. iii) For the same purpose the assembled relatives and neighbours utter pitiable cries. iv) The corpse is placed on a scaffold with the feet facing forward so that the soul should not find the way back to the hut and for the same reason the procession travels by detours. 45 Introduction to Tribal v) The cortege must not include either children or girls; the women cry; Society and Culture the men are silent. vi) Each man carries a piece of dry wood to throw on the pyre. vii) Rice and the tools of the deceased’s sex are placed there , and in the mouth of the corpse there are rice cakes and silver coins for the journey, since the soul retains a shadow of the body. viii) The women leave, and the pyre is lighted; the litter is also burned to prevent the deceased’s return. ix) The men gather the calcified bones, place them in a pot, and bring the pot back to the deceased’s house where it is hung from a post. x) Grains of rice are strewn along the route, and food is placed in front of the door so that the deceased, should he return in spite of all precautions, will have something to eat without harming anyone.

xi) All the deceased’s utensils are carried far away, because they have become impure and because the deceased may be hidden in them.

xii) The house is purified by a consecrated meal. xiii) After a certain time, the ceremony of “betrothal,” or “union of the deceased with the population of the lower world,” is the woman who carries the pot, leaps with joy. xiv) A marriage retinue with music, etc., goes to the village from which the deceased and his ancestors have originated. xv) The pot containing the bones of the deceased is deposited in a small ditch, above which a stone is erected. xvi) On their return, the participants must bathe. Among the Lushai tribe of North-East India, funeral rites takes place as follows: The deceased is dressed in his best clothes and tied in a sitting position on a scaffold of bamboo, while next to him are placed the tools and weapons of his sex. A pig, a goat, and a dog are killed, and all the relatives, friends and neighbours divide the meat; the deceased is also given food and drink. At nightfall, he is placed in a grave dug right next to the house. His nearest relative says goodbye and asks him to prepare everything for those who will come and join him. The soul, accompanied by those of the pig, the goat, and the dog, without whom it would not find its way to the land of mi-thi-khua, where life is hard and painful. But if the deceased has killed men or animals on the hunt, or if he has given feasts to the whole village, he goes to a pleasant country on the other side of the river, where he feasts continuously. Since women can neither fight nor hunt nor give feasts, they cannot go to this beautiful country unless their husbands take them there. After a certain time, the soul leaves one or the other of these regions and returns to earth in the form of a hornet. After another lapse of time, it is transformed into water and 46 evaporates in the form of dew, and, if dewdrops fall on a man, that man Rites of Passage will beget a child who will be a reincarnation of the deceased. Rites of separation are the most prominent in funeral rites as the deceased is separated physically from the other members of the society. In this section you read about of rites of marriage and funeral.

Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) What do you mean by betrothal? ......

2) Why is funeral rites call rites of separation? ......

3.6 LET US SUM UP

Rites of passage have three phases - separation, transition, and re- incorporation. In the first phase, people withdraw from their current status and prepare to move from one place or status to another. ‘The first phase (of separation) comprises symbolic behaviour signifying the detachment of the individual or group...from an earlier fixed point in the social structure’. There is often a detachment or ‘cutting away’ from the former self in this phase, which is signified in symbolic actions and rituals. For example, the cutting of the hair for a person who has just joined the army. He or she is ‘cutting away’ the former self - the civilian. The transition (liminal) phase, the second is the period between states, during which one has left one place or state but hasn’t yet entered or joined the next. ‘The attributes of liminality or of liminal personae (“threshhold people”) are necessarily anbiguous’. ‘In the third phase (reaggregation or reincorporation) the passage is consummated [by] the ritual subject’. Having completed the rite and assumed their ‘new’ identity, one re-enters society with one’s new status. Re-incorporation is characterized by elaborate rituals and ceremonies, like debutant balls and college graduation, and by new ties, thus ‘in rites of incorporation there is widespread use of the “sacred bond”, the “sacred cord”, the knot, and of analogous forms such as the belt, the ring, the bracelet and the crown’. 47 Introduction to Tribal Society and Culture 3.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Das, S.T., (1986), “Tribal life OF North-Eastern India”, Gian Publishing House, Delhi. Gennep, Arnold Van, (1960), “Rites of Passage”, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Rao, K.Mohan, (1990),“The Kolams, a primitive tribe in transition”, Booklinks Corporation, Hyderabad. Sandhwar, Abanindra Narayan,(1990), “The Korwa Tribe”, Amar Prakashan, Delhi.

48 Tribal Languages, UNIT 4 TRIBAL LANGUAGES, ART Art and Culture AND CULTURE

Structures

4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Tribes in India 4.3 Tribal Languages in India 4.4 Tribal Culture in India 4.5 Tribal Art 4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.7 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit gives a description about the language, art and culture of the tribes which are a part of India. Every tribal society in India is very rich in terms of their tribal language, culture as well as their art forms which are not only vibrant but also conventional. Tribal language, culture and art generally reflect the creative energy found in the tribal areas among the tribal people. This unit attempts to provide information about their origin, social and cultural characteristics and their present status with the object of developing an understanding in the learner about the distinct features of the tribal language, culture and art. After reading this unit you, should be able to:

 trace the origin of the tribes in India;

 understand the different tribal languages in India;

 feel the tribal culture that has been a part of the Indian society; and

 trace the growth and development of tribal art.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

India, as we know, is a land of multicultural diversities. Defining India has never been an easy task with respect to its cultural plurality and diversity. India encompasses millions of cultural and linguistically diverse languages and dialects. If one tends to define a particular culture or a part of India, it would still be incomplete in the sense that, it would still lack the knowledge of another scholar or researcher in that particular field. Hence, the task of defining and understanding India in one specific arena becomes a researcher’s plight.

49 Introduction to Tribal The primary objective for us, then remains, that it should concentrate on the Society and Culture objective factual findings and not subjective conclusions since terms such as ‘culture’ or ‘tribes’ has to be dealt carefully and with much contemplation. India, a country with 29 States and 7 Union Territories consists of people and traditions which vary from each other from one state to the other.

In this chapter we shall try and study the various tribes of India with special attention to their languages and cultures.

4.2 TRIBES IN INDIA

The word ‘Tribe’ according to sociology means, “A unit of sociopolitical organization consisting of a number of families, clans, or other groups who share a common ancestry and culture.” Hence, the term ‘Tribe ‘can be traced back to the 13th Century medieval English where ‘tribe’ was meant to be the biblical connation of “the twelve tribes of Israel”. The word is from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state : Ramnes (Ramnenses), Tities (Titienses), and Luceres.

In India, on the other hand, it seems ‘tribes’ has inhabited the Indian sub- continent for a very long period of time. The species known as Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of the northwestern Himalayas. The people of India belong to different anthropological stocks. According to Dr. B. S. Guha, the population of India is derived from six main ethnic groups:

1) Negritos: The Negritos or the brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the earliest people to inhabit India. They are survived in their original habitat in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. For example the Andamanis tribe in India.

2) Pro-Australoids or Austrics: After the Negritos, the Austrics came to inhabit India. They represent a race of people, with wavy and curly hair plentifully distributed over their brown bodies, long heads with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. Austrics tribes, which are spread over the whole of India, Myanmar and the islands of South East Asia, are believed to “form the bedrock of the people”. They were the main builders of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

3) Mongoloids: The Mongoloids are the people who have features that are common to those of the people of Mongolia, China and Tibet. These tribal groups are located in the Northeastern part of India in states like Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Meghalya and also in Ladakh and Sikkim.

4) Dravidian: The Dravidians spread all over India, surpassing the population of the first two peoples Negoritas and Austrics. It is believed that they are the group of people who formed the backbone of the Harappan and the Indus Valley civilisation. This group comprise of the whole of Mediterranian. This group constitutes the bulk of the scheduled castes in the North India. This group has a sub-type called Oriental group. 50 5) Western Brachycephals: There is not much information on this particular Tribal Languages, group. But it is believed that the Parsi population of India belongs to this Art and Culture group.

6) Nordics: Nordics or Indo-Aryans are the last immigrants into India. They comprise the group of Indo-Iranians. Their first home in India was western and northern Punjab, from where they spread to the Valley of the Ganga and beyond. Many of these tribes belong to the “upper castes”.

Apart from the origins of these tribes in the Indian Sub-continent, they are now, in present day, divided into several units of tribes having different cultures and languages. We shall now look into a list of tribal languages in India which constitutes much of the linguistical data in India. Indian languages have evolved from different sets of stocks and are closely related to the different ethnic groups in India. Broadly the Indian languages can be divided into six groups such as: 1. Indo-Aryan 2. Dravidian 3. Sino-Tibetan 4. Negroid 5. Austric 6. Others

4.3 TRIBAL LANGUAGES IN INDIA

Languages of India, like the culture and tribes of India are numerous. It is often believed that in one set of tribe, there is also another dialect spoken within the same tribal group. These tribal languages are initially considered to be folk languages spoken by a particular group of tribe. Indian tribal languages can be defined as essentially “folk” languages, spoken by people of ethnic groups who prefer to live in relatively isolated groups. Indian tribal languages can simply be defined as the traditional languages utilised by the tribal folk. ‘Folk’, in its simplest of definition means “group of people”, these languages emerge from the tribal languages spoken during time immemorial. Since the languages of the Indian tribes are complex and vary from one another they are preserved orally in the form of songs, folktales and legends. The tales of the folk mainly comprise of these languages and dialects. Some of the tribal languages prevalent in India are Abujmaria, Garo, Aaria and Tsangla, Saurashtri etc. The Garo Language is spoken by the tribal communities residing in and around Garo Hills, Meghalaya, Tripura, Western Assam and Nagaland. Several dialects of this language include Megam., Chisak, Atong etc. Another tribal language is Abujmaria which is spoken by the people of Abujmar hills in Bastar district. The Paite, Thadou, Hmar, and the Tangkhul languages are some of the tribal languages spoken in most of the north eastern parts of the Indian sub-continent. Some of the leading tribal language speaking groups comprise: Garo Tribes, Chakma Tribes, Naga Tribes, Gond Tribes, Mizo Tribes, Santhali Tribes, Khasia Tribes, Oraon Tribes and Manipuri tribesmen. 51 Introduction to Tribal Apart from these tribal languages, there are some other tribal languages namely, Society and Culture Gadaba spoken by the people of Koraput district of Orissa, Ariya spoken by the tribal communities of Madhya Pradesh, Tsangla which is spoken in some villages of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Tribal languages are extremely orderly and well organised, owing to a developed past and the enlightened educational interference. Garo and Chakma languages have a slight Chinese hint to their diction. There lies an elementary similarity between the Garo and Magh Languages, as both tribes belong to the same origin. Munda, Santhali, Kol, Khasia, Garo and Kurukh are interrelated languages. Munda and Karukh regarded as equivalent languages, due to the syntax and verbs of both are almost identical. Munda, Santhali and Kol languages are even more ancient than the Indo-Aryan languages. These tribal languages further belong to Austro-Asian, Indo-Chinese, and Chinese-Tibetan, Tibetan –Burman or Dravidian Families. As these tribal groups have mostly migrated from places mentioned, they have adapted their languages principally from those nations. Some of the popular languages spoken by the tribes of India are as follows: Bhatri, Bhilli, Bhunjia, Chakma, hhatisgarhi, Dhanki, Dhodia, hundhari, Gadiali, Gamit/Gavti, Garasia / Girasia, Gojri / Gujjari, Gujarati, Hajong, Halbi, Harauti, Hindi, Jaunsari, Kachchi, Konkani, Marathi,Mavchi, Mewnri, Nagpuri, Naikadi, Nimari, Oriya, Rathi, Sardohi, Shina, Tharu, Wagri, Warli among many others.

Check Your Progress I Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) List the different tribal languages prevalent in India......

The Indo-Aryan Tribal Languages From time to time, the number of the tribal languages varies. Indo-Aryan tribal language speakers are distributed and scattered over a huge geographical territory of the country. The speakers of this family of tribal language comprise over a total population of almost 491 million people. The northern, eastern, western and central portions of India are full with people who speak the Indo-Aryan languages. More than 574 mother tongues comprise of this family of tribal language in India (Ishtiaq, 1999). Some of the languages are supposed to have great literary traditions and activities. In the family of Indo-Aryan tribal languages there is actually no dearth of literature. Among the tribal languages spoken under the Indo-Aryan families the three 52 main languages are Bhili language, Khandeshi and Halabi. These three languages have been categorized as tribal languages. They are mainly spoken in Gujarat, Tribal Languages, Art and Culture Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Khandeshi group of language in the Indo Aryan family of tribal languages comprises almost five main mother tongues. This language is spoken by a total of almost 1.2 million people. Kawari and Katkari languages belonging to the Indo Aryan tribal language family are spoken by people of areas of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. It is spoken by the tribes of some parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Tribes of the state of Jammu and Kashmir speak Kishtwari, belonging to the Indo Aryan group of tribal languages. Koch is spoken by tribes of Tripura and Assam and in Cooch Behar district of the state of West Bengal. Konkani and Goanese are two very popular Indo Aryan tribal languages that are spoken in coastal areas of Maharashtra and Goa. Hence, looking at the number of states which speaks these tribal languages shows us that there can be no one specific area identified to a particular tribal language, which, on the other, brings us to understand that the people in the past had migrated and immigrated from time to time over centuries, hence proving an amalgamation of cultures. The third main language of this group of tribal language that is the Halbi or Halabi is spoken by over 5.25 Lakh people in the states of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh (Ishtiaq, 1999). Thus, 26 per cent of the total population of the country speaks these major tribal languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan family of languages. Hence, it is proved by the fact that the major regions where the Indo-Aryan tribal languages are spoken include states of eastern, central and western India. Tibeto-Burman Tribal Language This family of language is mainly spoken in the northern and north east regions of India. Since the languages spoken by this family of tribes is also similar to that of the language spoken in Myanmar (earlier Burma) hence the name, Tibeto-Burman. Nine languages of the Bodo sub-family of the Tibeto-Burman language family constitute the largest group of tribal languages in the country. These major nine languages of this sub-family are Bodo, Garo, Tripuri, Mikir, Rabha, Dimasa, Lalung, Deori and Koch. These languages are spoken by over half of the tribal population spread in the Brahmaputra valley, North Cachar Hills in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura. Languages that are belonging to other sub-groups of the Tibeto-Burman tribal language family are spoken by smaller number of populations. Like for instance, twenty four languages of Naga group forms 19 per cent in the states of Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and North Manipur Hills; twenty five languages of Kuki-Chin group forms 15 per cent in the states of Mizoram, Manipur and Tripura. Here the prominent languages are Lushai/Mizo, Thado and Paite. The Tibeto- Burman tribal language family has been divided into three separate branches and these are Tibeto Himalayan, Assam Burmese and North Assam. Further, Tibetan and Himalayan groups are two of the major groups of this family. Two other prominent tribal communities of the North-East, those belonging to the Naga group and to the Kuki-Chin group (Lushai/Mizo), have after a long- 53 Introduction to Tribal drawn agitation, succeeded in acquiring a degree of autonomy in the federal Society and Culture set up. But the most numerous tribe speaking Bodo, along with Mikir, and other allied languages like Rabha, Dimasa, Lalung, etc. in the same sub-family of the Tibeto-Burman tribal language family constitute only five to six per cent of the total population in the entire state of Assam.

Among the tribal communities that belong to the Bodo ancestry, Garo speakers form the majority in four districts of the state of Meghalaya and Tripuri speakers along with their allied communities (Reang, Noatia, Jamatia) are concentrated in Tripura itself. But with the continued emigration of the Bengali speaking population in these areas, the region has seen a tremendous decrease in the language spoken from 40 to 20 percent.

Many of the languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman tribal language family have been affected by the Indo Aryan languages and are restricted to the valleys only. However, Tibeto-Burman tribal languages are spoken by huge tribal population of the country extending from Ladakh to north eastern region of the country. This language is also a sub family of the Sino  Tibetan family of tribal languages

Examples: On the western, northern and the southern borders of the country, Garo tribal people speak either Bengali language or closely connected dialect of Assamese language. The influence of Bengali language is generally strong among the Gar tribal community of Bangladesh as in this country, the mode of all primary education is Bengali. The impact of Bengali as well as English language over Garo language generally comes with the borrowed words. Bodo language is written by using the Devanagari script. It also has a history of using Roman script. Bodo language shares some common salient features with the other languages belonging to the Bodo group.

Bodo language is one of the popular Indian tribal languages. This language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family, which is a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan language group. It is mostly spoken by the Bodo people residing in the north-eastern region of India and also by the people of the neighbouring country that is Nepal. Bodo language has got the status of one of the official languages of the state of Assam. Bodo language is closely associated with the Dimasa language of the state of Assam and with the Garo language of the state of Meghalaya. This particular language of this Tibeto-Burman family is due to Bodo struggle of the tribes of north eastern part of India. It has attained numerous recognition and it is now also used as one of the official languages in India. The language also has post graduate diploma courses in the state of Assam.

Garo language is one of the most popular languages of India. It is spoken by majority of the people residing in Garo Hills in the state of Meghalaya. Garo language is also popular in several districts of the state of Assam like Dhubri, Goalpara, Kamrup, and the Darrang. This popular tribal language is also spoken in the neighbouring country of Bangladesh. Garo language uses Latin alphabets. This language also has a close association with Bodo language, the language is spoken by the Bodo tribal community, which is one of the most prominent communities of the Indian state of Assam. Garo language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family. Garo tribal language does not 54 comprise any tones. Interestingly, the syllable structure of this language is very Tribal Languages, Art and Culture similar to that of other Asian tone languages. Syllable boundaries in Garo language are phonologically very sharp except in the borrowed words.

Check Your Progress II Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Describe in brief the distinction between Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman Tribal Language......

Dravidian Tribal Language This family of language spoken in the Indian sub-continent mainly comprises of the tribal languages spoken in the southern parts of the country. In the states of Chennai, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, etc. the group of Dravidian tribal languages is spoken by near about 158 million people. They account for a total of 24 per cent of the total population of the country. In the Dravidian language group there are basically four prominent literary languages and these are Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada and Tamil. Some of the initial languages in this family such as Kudu are not considered to belong to this family of languages since it has been merged with the Kanada language. A lot of the languages have been included as mother tongues and the most important among them are Kolami, Kui, Konda, Koya, Gondi, Oraon/Kurukh, Parji and more. Little information is available regarding the Dravidian tribal languages. Thus, it can be said that the Dravidian tribal languages are mainly Kaikadi that is another major Dravidian tribal language that is spoken by the Kaikadi tribes in several parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra. Another Dravidian tribal language is Kanikkaran that is spoken in Ernakulam, Thiruvananthapuram and Kozikhode districts of Kerala and Tirunelveli district of the state of Tamil Nadu. Konda-Dora is another Dravidian language and it is spoken in several areas of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Koraga is spoken in parts of Kerala. Kota is another hugely spoken Dravidian language. It is mainly spoken in parts of Tamil Nadu. Koya is spoken in several parts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Its main dialects are Podia, Malakanagiri Koya, Chintoor Koya, etc. Kamar is another tribal language belonging to the Dravidian family and spoken by the tribal communities in areas of Rewa district of the state of Madhya Pradesh and in Raipur district of the state of Chattisgarh. It is also spoken in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and Orissa. Austro-Asiatic Tribal Language Here are the details of a few of the Austro-Asiatic tribal Languages. These languages are spoken mainly in states of West Bengal, Jharkhand and in some parts of the north eastern states of India. Kharia language is an Indian tribal language that refers to a tribal or ‘adivasi‘ group of the country. This language belongs to the Austro-Asiatic language 55 Introduction to Tribal family and is mostly spoken by the tribal people living in the states of Jharkhand Society and Culture and Orissa. The other major Kharia speaking states are southern Bihar, northern Orissa, Assam, and eastern Madhya Pradesh. Santhali is an Indian tribal language that belongs to the Santhali sub-family of the Austro-Asiatic language family. This language is very closely associated with Ho and Mundari languages. It is also spoken in neighbouring countries of India like Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. In India, this language of the Austro-Asiatic language family is spoken in the states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Tripura. Santhali language is mainly spoken by the Santal tribal community. This tribal community is the largest tribal community of the country and the people of this tribal community are considered as quite backward. Most of the people of Santal tribal community work in coal mines or steel factories of Jamshedpur and Asansol. Santhali language is basically a dialect of Munda tribal language. It is generally believed that Santhali Language is much older than the Aryan language. Currently, the Santhali tribal language is not much in use anymore. The Santhali pundits use the language for literary works and religious documents. This Language is very famous for its numerical classifier which is alien to those of the Dravidian family of languages. Khasi language, a popular Indian tribal language, belongs to the Austro- Asiatic tribal language family and is spoken mainly by the tribal people of the state of Meghalaya. This language is a part of the Khasi-Khmuic group of languages. Khasi language is vaguely connected with the Munda branch of the Austro-Asiatic group of languages that is mainly found in east-central region of India. In India, most of the speakers of the Khasi language are found in the state of Meghalaya. However, this language is also spoken by huge number of people of the hill districts of the state of Assam. Quite a few speakers of Khasi language are found in the neighbouring country of Bangladesh. Khasi language is tremendously rich in legends and folk stories. Interestingly, this language had no script of its own in the past. To conclude, it can be said that the various dialects of Khasi language, namely standard Khasi, Langrin, Bhoi, Nongtung and Lyngngam show the extent of diversity found amongst them mainly from the word order point of view. Among the five varieties, standard Khasi, Langrin and Lyngngam are similar whereas Bhoi and Nongtung are very different. Lyngngam though is similar to the first, is quite different in various other aspects

Check Your Progress III Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Describe briefly the distinction between Dravidian and Austro Asiatic tribal language in your own words...... 56 Tribal Languages, 4.4 TRIBAL CULTURE IN INDIA Art and Culture

Having discussed the various families of languages in the Indian Sub- Continent, the cultures of India are as diverse as that of the languages. ‘Unity in diversity‘ is one of the most spectacular features amongst the population of India. Tribal culture of India, their traditions and practices interpenetrate almost all the aspects of Indian culture and civilisation. From the Aryan, Dravidian to the Indo-Tibetan languages, Indian tribal culture has also seen a tremendous merging of cultures within its own people. It is considered to be very important to live within the tribal cultures of India , in order to understand their ways of life. Some of the tribal communities share similarities and yet are diverse in their religious and traditional beliefs. Some are prominent worshippers of the Hindu deities while others follow the path of the Christian missionaries. Animism and all forms of pagan worship are still prevalent in these communities. The festivals in these communities are also much of a delight to see with its colourful and joyous celebrations; the tribes in India indeed form the very basis of incredible India! The societies by which these tribal communities survive are very patriarchal in their outlook although some tribal communities have gradually inherited the modern forms of society where each one is respected for his or her own set of views and beliefs. A lot of the tribal population in India is still backward. They lack education and literacy policies are yet to dawn in a few rural and tribal areas of the Indian –Sub-continent. There are tribes who still practice witchcrafts and tantric forms of religion. The different tribes in India if ever counted can move up to a mind boggling number, with all their ethnicities and impressions. In India a new dialect can be witnessed almost each new day; culture and diversification amongst the tribals can also be admired from any land direction. These various tribes still inhabit the different parts, especially the seven states of the North-eastern region and almost each and every nook of the country. The specialty of the Indian tribes lies in their customs, cultures, and beliefs and, in particular, the harmony in which they survive in unanimity with nature. Tribal living perfectly portrays a well-balanced environment, a procedure that in no way upsets the ecological balance. The tribal population of India is over 104 million according to 2011 Census. Each of the tribes is a distinctive community, either migrated from a different place or the original denizens of the land. All in all, the tribes of India encompasses the real and colourful traits of India that the whole world knows. Since it is from the tribes that some of the tribal languages developed to become official languages, we can be safe in saying that the cultures which are considered to be “developed’ also has their roots in the Indian tribal cultures. Tribal people generally firmly cling to their identity, despite external influences that had threatened tribal culture, especially after the post-independence chaotic period. However it is observed that Christianity has brought about a change that can be termed as a ‘total transformation’ in tribal lifestyle and outlook, particularly in the North-eastern states of India. In discussing a few tribal cultures of India, we shall try to cover the widely prominent cultures of north, east, west and southern tribes of India. Since it would be a remarkably tedious and an acutely impossible task to study all the 57 Introduction to Tribal tribes of India, we shall take one or two tribal cultures from each of the Society and Culture prominent four regions in India. Northern Regions The tribes of Himachal Pradesh have marked their own charts in the Indian sub- continent and are known for their distinct tribal cultures. Tribes of Himachal Pradesh are scattered in different parts of this state and have occupied a considerable percentage of India. Dancing, musical melodies, festivals, fairs etc. bore evidence to it. They are as such nomadic people and their physical appearances make them distinctly visible from each other. The tribes of Himachal Pradesh belong to the famous Indo-Aryan family group. As far as the physical appearances are concerned, these tribes of Himachal Pradesh also have got identifiable features of that of an Indo-Aryan or Mongoloid. The major tribes of this region include Kinnaura tribe, Lahaule tribe, Gaddi tribe, Gujjar tribe. As far as the occupations are concerned, these tribes of Himachal Pradesh have taken up the occupations including cattle rearing and also much of the tribal population works for raising of wool. Since it is situated in the cold northern region of the Indian subcontinent, raising of wool is considered to be one of the main occupations of the tribes. There are quite a handful of tribes of Himachal Pradesh who have adapted to occupations like cultivation and also horticulture. Dresses that these tribes of Himachal Pradesh wear also are quite exquisite to look at. The male dresses include long coat and woolen pyjama, and the women of Himachal Pradesh have a woolen saree, popularly known as Dhoru as their attires. Shoes that are made up of wool and goat hair protect their feet. It is also a known fact that the dresses are similar to those of the people in Jammu and Kashmir states of India, since these two states have a similar geographical existence. Although these tribes of Himachal Pradesh celebrate all the important festivals, these tribes of Himachal Pradesh also have added fervor to the festive season by incorporating their own traditional customs and beliefs. Since they are a number of tribes in the region, each tribe follows its own sets of beliefs. One of the major tribes in Himachal Pradesh is the Gujjar tribe. Gujjar tribal community has developed the practice of carrying on conversation in numerous languages namely, Urdu, Hindi. They have also adopted the religion of Islam. Since the existence of this tribe is dated back to the 6th century, these tribes have been a result of all cultural diversities from then on. Another tribal group, Kinnaura tribal community, is one of the Scheduled tribes of Himachal Pradesh state. Their language is called Kinnauri and it is considered to be one of the most beautiful dialects in the state. It has been assumed that the Kinnaura people belong to the Kinner group who got mentioned in Mahabharata. Their physical stature bears some similarities with the Aryans. The people of the Lahaule tribal community of Himachal Pradesh converse in the beautiful language of Pattani. They are the inhabitants of Lahaul and they are the amalgamation of Munda tribes and Tibetans. Their societal structure is divided into upper and low castes and this tribal group are followers of Buddhism. 58 The Gaddi tribes of Himachal Pradesh dwell in districts like Chamba, Tribal Languages, Art and Culture Kangra etc. the people of this tribal group are not nomadic in nature and they have their own villages where they reside in a cluster. The notable thing about the Gaddi tribe is their costumes. Most of the people of this community are shepherds hence, they wear a cloak like dress in order to keep them warm from cold however some are engaged in other occupations too. Major Tribes of Madhya Pradesh Bhaina tribe is one of the most ancient tribes which has resided mainly in the forest areas of Madhya Pradesh. These tribal groups are reckoned as scheduled tribes and are found in the Bilaspur District in the state, which is presently included in the state of Chhattisgarh. Gond tribe stands first in terms of population not only in the state but also among the other major tribes of India. Although, the tribal people inhabit almost entire area of Madhya Pradesh, yet, they are mainly found in Vindhya hills and Satpura mountain range. Bhil tribe is third largest tribe in India and second in Madhya Pradesh. The habitat of Bhil tribes is found mostly in Dhar district, Jhabua district and West Nimar district. This tribe follows the Hindu form of religion and mainly practice cultivation. Bharia tribe is found in the Patalkot valley and its adjoining areas in this state. The people of this tribal community are known for their usage of medicinal plants to treat different kinds of diseases. Binjhwar tribe, the costumes of this tribal community deserve appraisal and the people of this group are adept in making jewellery from cane, grass, or beads. Sometimes the tribes also use silver as a metal. Other major tribes in Madhya Pradesh are Boneya tribe, Damaria tribes, Dhanwar tribe who engage in all forms of Indian art and crafts. They form the Rajput families of Madhya Pradesh. They lead nomadic lives and rear cattle. This tribal group has developed its own cotton industry for its own betterment. The other known and important tribe in this state is the Kawar tribe and they are thought to have descended from the family line of the Kaurava rulers. The Kauravas were the religious characters in the book of Mahabharata who fought with the Pandavas. Another tribal group of this state is the Kharwar tribe. They fall into the Dravidian family group. It is believed that they are also in the family line of Suryavanshi Rajputs. A multitude of Kolam tribe, also identified as Kolamboli, Kulme and Kolmi, has settled down in every corner of the state of Madhya Pradesh. They were workers as Priests in the villages of Madhya Pradesh. Their main form of occupation was food collection through farming. Another tribe which constitutes the line of tribal families in Madhya Pradesh is the Majhi tribe, who make boats in order to sustain their livelihood. Their facial features and physical appearance is similar to the Mongoloid tribes and they practice the tantric religion. It is a form of witchcraft in the Hindu religion. 59 Introduction to Tribal The Majhwar tribe celebrates various colourful festivals throughout the year Society and Culture in the state of Madhya Pradesh. They also celebrate different festivals which enrich the whole of the state.

Another is the Mina tribe which has settled down in various places of the region and also has got an inheritance of festivals, fairs, dancing and also singing.

Other major tribes of Madhya Pradesh are the Pao tribes and the Saharia tribes who engage in the beliefs of Hinduism. Their main deity is Lord Vishnu. They celebrate all the Hindu festivities. Mouth-watering dishes, multihued festivals as well as variety of religious exercises are what comprise the rituals and culture of these Saharia tribes. The society of this tribe is divided in several sub groups.

Fairs and festivals of tribes of Madhya Pradesh

Mainly at the time of festivals and other joyful social occasions, the tribes of Madhya Pradesh deck up in quite colourful dresses. Ornaments worn by the tribal women also add to their glamour and beauty.

With the building up of tempo, spectators start to join spontaneously. Every year the tribal groups celebrate variety of festivals with lots of merry making, dancing and singing. Exquisite dresses both for males and females have become the style statement of these tribes.

Infact, fairs and festivals form the basis of the tribes of Madhya Pradesh. The fairs of the tribes of Madhya Pradesh display a colourful spectacle with celebration by the entire community. The fairs which in the Hindi language are called ‘Mela’ fill the whole of Madhya Pradesh with colour and joy during the festivities. Dancing and singing are not limited to a selected few. The government of Madhya Pradesh have launched many developmental programmes for their development. The tribes of Madhya Pradesh have thus maintained their unique characteristics and have preserved their traditions even if they have been or are being exposed to a great extent to the influences of other cultures. They have succeeded in preserving their own separate identity with time.

Tribes of Madhya Pradesh are the true representatives of the state. The culture of the tribes of Madhya Pradesh is distinguished by the composite remains of the Scythian and Dravidian culture. Very much similar to a number of tribal communities of the Indian subcontinent, the tribes of Madhya Pradesh are widely oriented towards religion and spiritualism. Their prevalent religion is Animism. Although much of the tribal population in Madhya Pradesh is influenced by the Hindu religion, some of the other prevalent religions are Jainism, Christianity and Islam. The tribal population of Madhya Pradesh has carried on the practice of farming and cultivation. In order to supplement their income, some of these tribal groups become labourers in factories, industries etc. No wonder, the enrichment of the culture of these tribes of Madhya Pradesh largely has been possible due to its efforts to preserve it. In Madhya Pradesh, it is a known fact that the tribal population inhabits at least 50% of the districts, although the number varies from place to place. 60 Western Region Tribal Languages, Art and Culture There are over 6 million Adivasis or tribal people in Gujarat. They mainly inhabit the terrain adjoining the Aravalis (LN, 1996). The Adivasis consist of numerous different tribal groups, the term ‘Adivasi‘ meaning the ‘original inhabitants’. Tribals such as the Siddhis, Rabari tribe, Padhar tribe, Mers and Bharwads live in the coastal Saurashtra districts of Junagadh, Jamnagar and Kutch. They work as casual labourers, cattle breeders and find employment in the ports. The Siddhis are known to have come to India from East Africa and they have a distinct feature similar to that of the negroids. The Australoid Adivasis (who have Australoid features) live in two different regions. One group lives in the river valleys of the Surar, Broach and Bulsar districts and are known as the Voknas, Varlis and Gambits. They have Konkan features. The other group lives in the hill tracts along the state’s eastern border and comprise of the Bhil Garasias, Dungri Bhils, Ratwas, Naikas, Dangi Bhils and others. In the plains of the Surat, Broach and Bulsar Districts, there are also other tribals, such as, the Dhodias, who might have migrated from the Dhulia region of Maharashtra. The festival of light, Diwali, has also been adopted by the Hindus, which was originally the festival of the aborigines. It is also believed that the Hindu religion borrowed the worship of Lord Shiva and Paravati from the Adivasis of Gujarat. The tribes of Gujarat are engaged in different occupations. In olden days, the Bhils depended on the slash-and-burn cultivation system under which they cleared thick forests by cutting trees or burning them and cultivated crops in this land for a few years until the natural fertility of the soil was exhausted. They then moved on to new forests, leaving the land fallow for it to recover its fertility. Their occupation was hunting, forest remains and fishing. Most of the Adivasis depend on agriculture either as landowners or as farm workers. The social set up of the tribes in Gujarat is quite different from that of a usual Hindu community. The women in these communities have more freedom than their Hindu counterparts in matters of marriage, divorce and remarriage. Besides this, the customs and lifestyle of the tribes vary as well. The colourful costumes of the tribal people of Gujarat add charm to the onlooker. The tribes of Gujarat also enjoy various festivals and celebrate fairs, festivals with much gaiety and joy. Eastern Region Tribals of Nagaland constitute a major percentage of the total population of the state. Angami tribe, Ao tribe, Chakhesang tribe, Chang tribe, Khiamniungan tribe, Kuki tribe, Konyak tribe, Lotha tribe, Phom tribe, Pochury tribe, Rengma tribe, Sumi tribe, Sangtam tribe, Yimchungru tribe and Zeliang tribe are the prominent tribes of Nagaland. Even the tribes like Angamis, Aos, Konyaks, Lothas, and Sumis are predominant. The tribal communities of Nagaland are scattered over a large portion of the state. One of the significant aspects of the culture of tribes of Nagaland is the distinctive character and identify of each tribe in terms of indigenous traditions, customs, language and dresses. The tribes of Nagaland have their own distinctive language. In Nagaland, the different tribes speak around 60 different dialects, which belong to the Sino- Tibetan language family. Traditional songs and dance forms are an integral part and parcel of the rich culture of the tribes of Nagaland. The costumes 61 Introduction to Tribal of tribes of Nagaland are very colourful. Interestingly, some of their dresses Society and Culture are designed as per the different occasions. Tribal dances are performed during the celebration of the festivals and marriage ceremonies. They also wear colourful jewellery. Nagaland is a land of festivals. All the tribes celebrate their distinct seasonal festivals with a pageantry of colour and a feast of music. They regard their festivals sacred and participation in these celebrations is compulsory. Most of these festivals revolve around agriculture, being the mainstay of the tribal society of Nagaland. Although some religious and spiritual sentiments are inter woven into secular rites and rituals, the pre- dominant theme of the festivals is offering prayers to the Supreme Being having different names in different Naga dialects. The tribal festivals are celebrated all over the state. Like for instance, Nazu festival is one of the most popular festivals of Pochury tribe of the state. This festival is celebrated for 10 continuous days in February. These festivals are celebrated with glitter and gaiety. Tribes of Manipur The Paite tribe, originally, belong to the Kuki-Chin-Mizo group. This group hails from the Tibeto-Burman family. In Manipur, the Paite tribes are considered to be one of the scheduled tribes, mainly located in Lamka Town of Churachandpur district.The Paite tribe, originally known as belonging to the KUKI family of tribes in Manipur gained their recognition of a separate tribe in the early 1950’s, hence, they are now recognised by the constitutions as Paite. From then on they were known by their present name. The word Paite also has got etymological significance. If one dissects Paite in to two terms, ‘pai’ stands for marching, while ‘te’ means people. As a whole, Paite means “a group of people marching.” Besides Manipur, the Paite tribes also inhabit Mizoram. The Paite tribes are pious and religious minded. Majority of Paite tribe are the followers of Christianity. Most of them were converted to this religion in the nineteenth century due to the intervention of British missionaries. They also worship their Gods, “Pathian”. Just like many of the Paite tribal communities, they were known to have originated from the mountain caves, known as Khul. Dance, songs, tales, all linked to every day chores of the life of these Paite tribe is one of the very interesting features of this particular tribe. Zangtalam is a popular dance style performed by this community. Both Paite males and females folks actively take part in it. These Paite tribe converse in a dialect, popularly known as Paite. By nature the Paite tribe are timid, recluse people who are truly committed to whatever they do. Although the Paite tribe are mainly agriculturists, many of them have achieved remarkable fetes. Apart from the Paite tribe in Manipur, the state has more than 20 tribes currently. Some of them are Thadou, Kuki, Simte, Zou, Hmar, Tangkhul Naga, Kom, Zeite and many more. The lifestyles and ways of living of these tribes are of no much difference to one another but due to the different tribal languages, they form different tribes and communities. Southern Region Tribes of Goa form an integral part of the rich cultural heritage of the state. 62 Tribal communities of Goa have managed to retain their ancient and indigenous ways of life and traditional practices, customs and way of living. The chief Tribal Languages, Art and Culture tribes of this smallest state of India are Gowdas tribe, Kunbi tribe, and Dhangars. Like some other states of India, Goa too was invaded by the Aryans. Some of the tribes of Goa are considered as the original settlers of Konkan region much before the invasion of the Dravidians. There are no concrete records regarding the origin or how they have migrated to Goa. Goa has the lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes that accounts for around 0.04 percent of the total population.

Gowdas tribe is the largest tribal group inhabiting the interior villages of this state. In their society, women enjoy a high status and rights. Further, they also play a prominent role in the economic matters. The major tribal communities of Goa live in isolated villages. Their indigenous lifestyles, traditions, ceremonies, customs, religious beliefs, practices and superstitions form a significant part of the culture of the state. The tribes of Goa differ from one another in terms of dress pattern, rituals and customs. The region of Goa being a very important aspect of colonisation, the tribes in Goa do share an element of the colonial powers. Besides the English form of protestant Christianity which was prevalent during the centuries of colonisation, the tribes in Goa had to adapt also to the different French, Portugese and Dutch colonial settlements. Since during those times there were a lot of inter culture marriages, the tribes in Goa can be considered to have one of the most diverse cultures in the Indian sub- continent.

Tribes of Tamil Nadu

Tribes of Tamil Nadu are mainly prevalent in the district of Nilgiris. Of all the distinct tribes, the Kotas, the Todas, the Irulas, the Kurumbas and the Badagas form the largest group, who mainly had a pastoral existence. The men from this family of the tribes are occupied in milking and grazing their large herds of buffaloes and pastoral farming. This tribe is distinguished by its traditional costume, thick white cotton cloth having stripes in red, blue or black, called puthukuli worn by both women and men over a waist cloth. They settle mainly in Munds comprising of five-six typical wagon shaped, windowless split bamboos, reeds and thatch huts. They do not worship any god and their consciousness is cosmic.

The Badagas belong to the backward class and are not classified as tribals. They comprise of an agricultural community and settle near Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They are engaged in tea cultivation and potato growing. They speak a language which is a mixture of Tamil and Kannada language. They form the largest group of tribes and boast a rich oral tradition of folktales, songs and poetry. These tribes are Hindus and belong to the Shiva sect. The Badagas celebrate the hindu festivals such as diwali and one among the very famous festival celebrated by this group is Pongal.

The Kotas are mainly concentrated in the Tiruchigadi area in the Nilgiris Hills. They are distinguished by their colourful folk dances and are basically musicians. They are mainly engaged in producing handicrafts. This tribe of Tamil Nadu are expert iron smiths, potters and carpenters. Their population is very small and they live in huts that have a living and sleeping area and a place of worship. Their language is similar to that of the Badagas. They speak Tamil and a form of Kanada language. 63 Introduction to Tribal The Kurumba tribe of Tamil Nadu inhabit the intermediate valleys and forests Society and Culture in villages. They were mainly known for their black magic and witch craft. They use to hunt and gather for living in the past, but they have shifted their cultivation into coffee and tea plantation. The Irulas tribe of Tamil Nadu occupy the lower slopes and forests at the base of the Nilgiri Hills. They constitute the second largest group of tribes after the Badagas and they are largely similar to the Kurumba tribe of Tamil Nadu. This tribe produces honey, fruits, herbs, roots, gum, dyes etc., and trades them with the people in the plains. This tribe is famous for snake catching and removing the venom. They are also gradually changing from the earlier ways of hunting to a more modern form of life.

Check Your Progress IV Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) How would you, in your own words, describe the tribal culture in India......

4.5 TRIBAL ART

Another field in which the tribes of India have gained recognition is in the field of arts. Tribal art has been prevalent since centuries from the time India came into existence. In the earlier civilizations, such as the Indus Valley civilization or the Mohenjodaro civilizations, art as a whole, has been a part and parcel of tribal life, society and culture. Indian tribal art is rich in its expression and have a sense of sensitivity and creativeness. Traditional Indian tribal art tries to wholly recreate the immortal charisma of Indian tribal life. Through solemn efforts, the Indian tribes try to keep alive a culture that is thousands years old, comprising music, traditions, rituals and art. They live in complete harmony with nature by preserving their resources and blending with the environment. Tribal paintings usually belong to the remote tribal regions, in forests or high up in the mountains.

The tribal art has developed to gain significance in the modern world encompassing several dimensions. Its rich, exotic and intense forms of art can be seen not only in the gond, Kurumba or Saura paintings but also in the daily woven shawls or other forms of art such as pottery, home–decorations, handicrafts and ornaments.

The rural folk paintings of India bear distinctive colorful designs, which are treated with religious and mystical motifs. Some of the most famous folk paintings of India are the Madhubani paintings of Bihar, Patachitra paintings from the state of Orissa, the Nirmal paintings of Andhra Pradesh, and other such folk art forms. 64 Tribal art with its full energy and life, ethnic, vibrant and colorful in its forms Tribal Languages, Art and Culture has gained significance in the mainstream art forms. Tribal dance, tribal music, tribal handlooms, handicrafts and paintings have become a daily product of most of the Indian households today.

Check Your Progress V Note: Use the space provided for your answer. 1) Discuss in brief the Tribal Art in India......

4.6 LET US SUM UP

As mentioned earlier, to encompass the cultures and traditions of each and every tribe existing in India is a tedious task since they are numerous but the overwhelming fact remains that India, being the multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious country, shares a very important sense of unity in its diversity. It is believed that languages form community, communities form a society and a society forms a nation-state, hence, the Indian tribal languages being diverse in its kind, forms the basis of the Indian Democratic, Sovereign, Federal and Republic Constitution. Amidst several languages, cultures, traditions, religion and socio-politico conflicts it still remains a country of diverse qualities and the largest democracy in the world.

4.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

1. Cu Caktivçl: Tribal Languages of India. 1976. 2. Languages shifts among the schedules tribes, Ishtiag, M (1999) in India. A get globle Ishtiaq. Motilal Bannerida ss Publications, Chennai. 3. Jannah, Sunil: The tribals of India. Oxford University Press. 2003 4. Rabindra Nath Pati (2002). Tribal and indigenous people of India–problems and prospects. APH Publishing, New Delhi. 5. W KB (1996). Problems of Tribal Development in Gujarat in RS Manna (eds.) Tribles of India ongoing Challanges. MD Publications, New Delhi. 6. Vidyarthi, L.P, Rai, Binay Kumar: (1976). The Tribal Culture of India. Concep Publishing House: New Delhi.

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