Calimera Guidelines
Cultural Applications: Local Institutions Mediating Electronic Resources
Good practice guidelines
The Calimera Project is funded under the European Commission, IST Programme
Calimera Guidelines 1 Calimera Guidelines Contents
Introduction
Section 1: Social Policy Guidelines
1. Social inclusion Risk factors of social exclusion At risk groups Use of IST to combat social exclusion Mobile services Accessibility issues
2. Cultural identity and cohesion Cultural diversity Community cohesion Content creation Cultural community information Diverse cultural content
3. eGovernment and Citizenship Process integration Service delivery Interoperability Community information Consultation Active participation Community building Promoting access to public services
4. Learning (formal and informal) Children and schools - Online services for children Adults - Basic skills/key competencies - Digital literacy - Employment-related skills Accreditation Impact e-Learning - Virtual Learning Environments - Managed Learning Environments - Interactive television - Mobile learning
Calimera Guidelines 2 Contents 5. Social and Economic Development Cultural tourism Ancestral tourism Inward investment Information resources Information services Knowledge management Charges and licences Service delivery Staff skills Neighbourhood regeneration The culture industry Publicity, marketing and outreach
Section 2: Management Guidelines
1. Strategic Planning Strategic planning Cultural strategies Project planning Business planning
2. Co-operation and partnership Strategic partnerships Cross-domain partnerships Same domain partnerships Partnerships with the education sector Partnerships with the voluntary sector Partnerships with industry and the private sector Types of partnership Initiating partnerships Organisation of partnerships Funding for partnerships Maintenance of partnerships
3. Business models Funding and financial opportunities Free and Open Source Software Outsourcing Application Service Providers Service Level Agreements Networking Intellectual Property Rights Customer Relationship Management
Calimera Guidelines 3 Contents 4. Staffing Recruitment Skills Training Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Cross-domain issues Outsourcing
5. Performance and evaluation Public library statistics Museum statistics Archive statistics Performance measures New statistical measures Benchmarking (metric and process) Measures of value and impact Practical Toolkits for measuring value and impact Standardised questionnaires Standards Measuring the use of electronic resources New statistical measures for service evaluation eMetrics
6. Legal and rights issues Copyright Copyright and its effect on access Effects of copyright on public lending Copyright and technical protection systems Enforcement of IPR Directive Collective licensing societies Databases IPR in Metadata Copyright, archiving, preservation and conservation Guidance on digitisation Licensing Data Protection and privacy Data sharing Freedom of Information Re-use of public sector information e-Commerce Accessibility for disabled people
Calimera Guidelines 4 Contents Section 3: Technical Guidelines
1. Underlying technologies and infrastructure XML (eXtensible Markup Language) web services Semantic Web Semantic Web services networks Broadband fibre optics satellite wireless WiFi
2. Digitisation Planning and workflow Financial considerations Selection Hardware and software File formats Standards IPR Design and presentation Storage
3. Digital preservation Selection Technology preservation Technology emulation Data migration Authenticity Storage Conservation Disaster recovery procedures Formats Media Standards Web archiving and domain archiving Staffing implications Administrative and legal implications
Calimera Guidelines 5 Contents 4. Resource description Interoperability Metadata Domain-specific metadata standards Collection level descriptions Terminology Ontologies Object identification
5. Discovery and retrieval Interoperability Search engines Lists of recommended sites Gateways, hubs and portals Cross-searching Clumps Image retrieval Harvesting The Semantic Web
6. Content and context management Contextualisation CMS (Content Management Systems) ERM (Electronic Records Management) DAM (Digital Asset Management) Collections Management Systems Integrated museum, library and archive systems GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
7. Multimedia services Infrastructure Multimedia formats - e-books and e-serials - Streaming media - Music and sound - Digital photography - Broadcast material - Standards and interoperability Geographic Information Systems Virtual reality Visualisation Haptics Delivery channels - The Internet - Digital TV - Kiosks - Video conferencing - Mobile services - Tour guides Calimera Guidelines 6 Contents 8. Interactivity Virtual reality Human-computer interaction Games technology Content creation Interaction with users Enquiry services Interactive displays
9. Multilingualism European languages Social inclusion Sign languages Information retrieval Multilingual thesauri Multilingual websites Scripts Fonts and keyboards Transliteration, transcription and authority files Machine translation Voice to voice translation
10. Personalisation User authentication Privacy Smartcards and swipe cards Payment systems Personalisation Recommender systems Personalised information retrieval Portals Interactive fora and online communities Virtual museums, libraries and archives Smart labels and tags Agent technology Mobile access Lifelong learning Implications for staff roles and training
11. Accessibility for disabled people Disabled people and their needs Physical access Access to information Intellectual access Virtual access Web accessibility Legislation and guidelines
Calimera Guidelines 7 Contents 12. Security Network security Firewalls Antivirus software User authentication Licences DRM (Digital Rights Management) Cryptography Digital signatures Digital watermarks Steganography Automated Payment Systems SSL (Secured Sockets Layer) protocol Authenticity and integrity Trusted digital repositories Domain names Information security RFID
Calimera Guidelines 8 Contents INTRODUCTION
These Guidelines have been compiled by the CALIMERA Co-ordination Action, funded under the European Commission’s Information Society Technologies (IST) Sixth Framework Programme (FP6).
Their aim is to provide policy makers and professionals working in cultural institutions at the local level (in particular, public libraries, museums and archives) with a concise and relevant summary of the state of the art in the use of new technologies. The Guidelines are intended to explain in a readable way how these technologies can be deployed to develop digital services designed to meet real user needs - social, cultural and economic – and to stimulate wider take-up and creativity among our professional community .They are also intended to support a clearer understanding of the way in which local cultural services can play a key role in the fulfilment of major policy goals in Europe, including those of the e-Europe Action Plan [1].
The Guidelines follow on from those produced by the PULMAN Thematic Network under FP5 [2], which were published in 2002/03 and translated into 26 languages. The CALIMERA guidelines are organised according to a similar structure. The major difference is that the CALIMERA Guidelines not only update the previous version but extend their scope to include services offered by archives and museums, in addition to those offered by public libraries. Similar plans exist for their translation into numerous European languages during the first part of 2005. All versions are made available on the CALIMERA website [3].
There are 23 separate Guidelines in all. These are structured as three main groups covering Social, Management and Technical issues. To ensure ease of use by busy decision makers, a Summary of each Guideline is also available in addition to the full version. The last part of each Guideline comprises a series of links to innovative applications of technology involving or affecting local cultural institutions, designed to help users to assess leading developments across Europe from their own perspective.
The co-ordination of the CALIMERA Guidelines has been undertaken by Essex County Council (United Kingdom), a partner in the Co-ordination Action, under the general editorship of Julia Harrison. However, contributions have been made from a very wide variety of experts from throughout the EU and its neighbouring countries, in the form of workshop participation, written submissions and editorial criticism. We would like to thank all those who have participated so willingly and productively in the compilation of the Guidelines and also those who have engaged with the task of their translation.
During the final period of CALIMERA, which ends in May 2005, a Best Practice Forum will be launched via the website, to enable wider discussion of the content of these Guidelines. We hope very much that many members of the professional community will participate in further development of ideas and identification of good practice.
Calimera Guidelines 9 Introduction Finally, I would like to emphasise that the content of the Guidelines is freely available for re-publication. All that is required is an acknowledgement of the source and of European Commission funding under the IST programme. We would be happy to provide publishers with the necessary logos etc on request.
Robert Davies Scientific Co-ordinator CALIMERA. [email protected]
REFERENCES [1] e-Europe Action Plan http://europe.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/action_plan/index_ en.htm
[2] PULMAN Thematic Network http://www.pulmanweb.org
[3] CALIMERA http://www.calimera.org
Calimera Guidelines 10 Introduction Calimera Guidelines Section 1: Social policy guidelines
Calimera Guidelines 11 Calimera Guidelines Social inclusion
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Risk factors of social exclusion At risk groups Use of IST to combat social exclusion Mobile services Accessibility issues
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Risk factors of social inclusion Back to Scope The risk factors which increase the danger of poverty and social exclusion include: • long-term dependence on low/inadequate income (over-indebtedness); • long-term unemployment; • insecure, low paid, low quality employment; • low level of education, illiteracy and e-illiteracy; • growing up in a vulnerable family; • disability; • poor health; • living in an area of multiple deprivation (crime, drugs, anti-social behaviour); • homelessness and precarious housing conditions; • immigration, ethnicity, racism and discrimination; • discrimination on grounds of gender, sexual orientation, religion, or any other grounds; • de-institutionalisation (prisons, institutional care, mental institutions). The European Union is committed to making serious inroads into the eradication of poverty and social exclusion. The European Council of Lisbon in March 2000 recognised that the extent of poverty and social exclusion was unacceptable. Building a more inclusive European Union was considered an essential element in achieving the Union's ten-year strategic goal of sustained economic growth, more and better jobs, greater social cohesion and the eradication of poverty. A Community Action Programme was launched, and each of the EU Member States was obliged to prepare and implement a National Action Plan for social inclusion based on the common objectives adopted at the Nice European Council [1]. Some countries also have national social inclusion policies.
The challenge for cultural heritage institutions is to pull together the disparate strands of legislation, influential reports and initiatives and integrate them into their services. Their policies should take account of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [2], the European Convention on Human Rights [3], the European Union
Calimera Guidelines 12 Social inclusion Disability Strategy [4] and the Community Action Programme to Combat Social Exclusion 2002-2006 [5].
Cultural heritage institutions are ideally situated to contribute significantly to community regeneration by taking the initiative to reach out to people at risk of social exclusion in their locality and to strengthen the social cohesiveness of their area or region. This involves adopting positive measures for social inclusion, adapting and extending the range of services provided, forming new links and partnerships with the community, and challenging some of their more traditional values and practices. Museums, libraries and archives can support learning, crime reduction, rural development, economic and cultural regeneration, cultural diversity, creativity, re-skilling, eGovernment and democracy, sense of community, citizenship and cultural identity, all of which contribute to social inclusion.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
This guideline is equally applicable to museums, libraries and archives. There is much scope for co-operation among all three domains.
Archives, generated by individuals, families, businesses or institutions, tell the story of our past, showing us how we came to be what we are as individuals, as communities and as nations. An awareness of history leads to a better understanding of ourselves, our communities, and our culturally diverse heritage. Archives offer contact with historical events through documents, letters, film, recordings, maps, plans, drawings, posters, photographs – the primary sources of history.
Museums, through thoughtful approaches to collection, display, programming and interpretation, can help to engender a sense of belonging for groups which may have been marginalised, encourage mutual respect, understanding and tolerance between different communities, tackle discrimination and challenge the stereotypes that feed intolerance.
Libraries have historically provided people with informational, educational and leisure-related materials and resources. They can now enable people without access to computers to use the Internet for information and communication purposes, provide homework facilities for children from socially excluded families, make virtual services available to housebound and isolated people, and much more. The EU has recognised the contribution libraries can make by funding through the European Social Fund (ESF), the EQUAL programme [6] which tests new ways of tackling discrimination and inequality experienced by people in work and those looking for a job.
Being closer to their communities, local institutions can have a greater impact than national institutions, particularly when they encourage individuals and groups to build their own collections or community archives, or to participate as volunteers. Compared with large national institutions, they can appear less intimidating, and may be less constrained by bureaucratic procedures, enabling them to be more responsive and flexible. Engagement with cultural heritage institutions can potentially
Calimera Guidelines 13 Social inclusion impact positively on the lives of people by increasing self-esteem and personal confidence, enabling the learning of new skills, and providing opportunities to explore a sense of identity and belonging.
At risk groups Back to Scope Some local institutions in Europe already provide services for the following at risk groups, although provision is by no means consistent geographically or by service type or quality: • disabled people (including people who are temporarily disabled through accident or illness, those with long-term disabling illnesses such as arthritis, those with age-related disabilities, print-disabled people, learning disabled people and people with mental health issues); • housebound people; • older people at risk of social exclusion; • children growing up in at risk families; • unemployed people; • people with drug and alcohol problems; • homeless persons; • refugees and asylum seekers; • immigrants; • ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural minorities; • people with skills requirements; • people who left school early; • rural populations; • poor people; • prisoners.
Cultural institutions can further help combat social exclusion by: • mainstreaming social inclusion as a policy priority within all their services. The organisational culture should be one in which social inclusion can flourish; • consulting and involving socially excluded groups, both users and non-users, in order to ascertain their needs and aspirations, and positively targeting these; • locating services wherever there is a demand, but building upon existing facilities and services wherever possible; • considering the possibilities of co-locating their facilities with other local services; • providing mobile services to reach people in all outlying areas, staging exhibitions in the community, arranging travelling exhibitions, etc.; • adopting more flexible opening hours, not necessarily increased opening hours, but tailored to reflect the needs and interests of the community; • forming partnerships to develop and deliver services; • providing services for people in institutions e.g. residential accommodation, hospitals and prisons; • ensuring that collections and exhibitions reflect the cultural, linguistic and social diversity of their local communities, e.g. libraries should ensure they hold books, newspapers etc. in minority languages and alternative formats; • tailoring services to meet the needs of specific groups; • redefining the role of staff to include a more socially responsive and educational role;
Calimera Guidelines 14 Social inclusion • changing the image of museums, libraries and record offices to make them more welcoming to socially excluded groups, without alienating traditional users; • ensuring that the diversity of the local population is reflected in the workforce e.g. recruiting people from ethnic minorities and disabled people; • making full use of IST (Information Society Technologies) to combat social exclusion.
Use of IST to combat social exclusion Back to Scope In the modern world it is important for all people to have access to IST facilities, which increasingly pervade every aspect of community life. Some level of IST skill is required in most jobs, and shopping, banking, and many leisure pursuits involve using IST facilities. Local cultural institutions are well placed to narrow the digital divide which exists between those who have and those who do not have access to technology by providing public access to digitised services.
With a high percentage of unemployed, low-income or people of low educational achievement among their inhabitants, disadvantaged neighbourhoods in both urban and rural areas are characterised by low Internet penetration. This has implications for the local economy, and for the general quality of life in these areas, making public access facilities particularly important. (See the guideline on Social and economic development.)
Museums, libraries and archives traditionally collect, preserve and organise items as physical objects. IST enables the creation of digital surrogates which can be organised in different ways e.g. by theme. The cultural heritage of a community can be recorded as an inter-related collection of books, objects, photographs, documents, oral history recordings, film and video footage etc. which can be searched by keyword, subject or free text. This can be a socially inclusive way of providing services as it enables people to use collections in a way that is relevant to their own background and circumstances and so increases their sense of belonging within the community. (See also the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion.)
Examples of how IST could be used with at risk groups include: • IST services can be delivered to people with poor health, either at home or in hospital; • older people who are no longer educationally or economically active can learn to use IST facilities, or can have services delivered to them if they are housebound; • children from socially excluded families or living in deprived neighbourhoods can use IST facilities for homework purposes; • unemployed and unskilled people can use IST facilities to upgrade their skills and to find employment; • IST services can be used in prisons to help in rehabilitation; • IST can make available to homeless people facilities usually only available to those with fixed addresses; • people whose first language is not the main or official language of their country of residence can benefit from online services provided in minority languages; • the growing population of immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers in Europe often share other criteria of exclusion such as low-income, language barriers, or living in disadvantaged areas. On-line facilities for immigrants, asylum Calimera Guidelines 15 Social inclusion seekers and refugees in their native languages can assist them in getting accustomed to their new environment; • people without personal access to the Internet can use IST facilities to keep in touch with relatives and friends, which helps to keep families together and keeps people from feeling isolated. They can also use IST facilities for leisure purposes such as playing on-line chess, which may seem frivolous but is improving their skills as well as quality of life; • services can be delivered to disabled people when accessible formats are provided.
Mobile services Back to Scope Innovative approaches to service delivery can result in a high-quality service being available to everybody, especially where a high proportion of a local or regional population lives in rural areas or small towns. Many people who live in rural areas are affluent, but distance, geographical isolation, poor access to jobs, transport, services and other opportunities compound the problems of at risk groups in rural areas. Mobile services can be used to deliver services such as arts activities, exhibitions, information campaigns and library services to small communities and schools, and to individual homes. Technological developments such as broadband, wireless networks and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) open up many more ways of providing a service to individuals in their own homes or in community centres such as village halls, e.g. • computers can be carried on mobile vehicles and used to access catalogues and the Internet; • computers can be taken into people’s homes or residential establishments; • laptops can be lent to individuals or groups; • computers, digital cameras, audio equipment etc. can be lent to groups for content creation purposes.
Accessibility issues (see also the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people in the Technical guidelines section) Back to Scope
It has been estimated that people with disabilities represent 10 to 15% of the total population of Europe. Disabled people are twice as likely as others to have no qualifications; education is not as consistently available, and is often at a lower academic standard than for others, while further and higher education, vocational training and work experience are sometimes less available to them. They are around five times as likely as non-disabled people to be out of work. The identity of disabled people has undergone dramatic change over recent decades. The view of disabled people as valuable citizens with equal rights, who make their own life decisions and choices, continues to gain ground and shows disabled people as part of society and influential in its progress. The culture of social inclusion recognises that disabled people exist, meets their needs and creates a space where they can contribute.
The European Union Treaty Article 13, which recognises the need to combat discrimination against disabled people, provides stimulus for a campaign for full civil rights for disabled people. (See the European Union Disability Strategy [4]. The European Disability Forum [7] is campaigning for a disability specific directive covering access to all services. Cultural heritage institutions must be aware of and Calimera Guidelines 16 Social inclusion comply with European policies, which will influence the development of disability rights in all member states. For example, in the UK, the European Employment Directive 2000/78/EC [8] will have the effect of extending the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 [9] to all employers, regardless of how few employees they have, from 2004.
Accessibility issues for disabled people, i.e. people with physical impairments (reduced mobility, reach, balance, stamina and/or height), sensory impairments (reduced vision and/or hearing), and ‘print-disabled’ people (people with a visual, mental or physical impairment as well as dyslexic persons who encounter difficulties reading conventional print) can be categorised in four main areas: • physical access (to buildings, service counters, workstations, reading rooms, shelves etc); • intellectual access (to the content of information carriers, including the availability of alternative format materials, adapted workstations and special software); • virtual access (to services for those not able to visit the actual building, which can include visits to housebound people as well as digital access); • and training for staff members in helping disabled people.
Institutions should make accessibility integral to the values of the organisation. When a new service is being planned, or when an existing service is being digitised, then accessibility issues should be considered from the start of the planning stage, and not added on afterwards. However most institutions will be running existing services which they need to bring up to the standards demanded by legislation and guidelines. A useful way to start is to carry out an accessibility audit covering all aspects - building, furniture, equipment, signage, publicity materials, stock, website etc. Audits can be carried out by staff or an outside contractor can be employed to do it. Having a professional audit done can often help in cases of dispute or compensation demands.
It is advisable to involve disabled people from the start if possible, and to consult them regarding their needs and the suitability of the services provided.
If finance is an issue, expenditure on alterations and improvements should be proportionate to the purpose of the service and how it will be used. In most cases institutions are expected to do what is “reasonable” in terms of alteration to buildings etc. Managers should check whether any financial help is available from government. For example there may be VAT or tax allowances for the purchase of some equipment. It may also be possible to get sponsorship from charitable or commercial organisations. Budgeting for disability access should be included in core budgets for refurbishments, stock acquisition, events, publications and exhibitions.
Staff training should include disability awareness, and also specific training in the use of any special equipment, and in dealing with people with specific types of disability. Using technology to provide services to disabled people is dealt with in the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people in the Technical guidelines section.
Conclusion
Calimera Guidelines 17 Social inclusion Museums, libraries and archives which are run by a local authority can work together with other departments on policies to combat social exclusion. (An example of such a policy might be to enable disabled people and young children to borrow a computer on a long-term basis through the local authority or school.) A common process could be adopted by each local authority to develop its policies and services: • identify the people who are socially excluded and their geographical distribution and engage with them to establish their needs; • assess and review current practice; • develop a strategy and prioritise resources; • develop the services, and train the staff to provide them; • implement the services and publicise them; • evaluate success, review and improve.
The outcomes and success of the service should be regularly evaluated against predetermined objectives, criteria for success and performance indicators (see also the guideline on Performance and evaluation). This will enable institutions to demonstrate the difference they make to local people, learn lessons, and make further improvements to their service.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Clearer national and consequently local strategies are now emerging in many countries which should help museums, libraries and archives develop the directions and partnerships to address effectively the problem of social exclusion. However, more concerted and widespread action is still needed.
National governments need to encourage a holistic approach to social inclusion issues and to recognise the unique role which museums, libraries and archives can play in the neighbourhood renewal and social inclusion agenda. Museums, libraries and archives need to be aware of such agenda and ensure that they are working towards meeting any targets or objectives.
Local governments should support and promote the work of museums, libraries and archives, ensure adequate resources, create structures to facilitate partnerships with other organisations, and recognise and promote diverse evaluation methodologies.
Policy makers should work to raise the public profile of the sector so that individuals and organisations working with social inclusion and neighbourhood renewal projects are aware of the potential and unique value of its contribution.
Museums, libraries and archives should be advocates for social inclusion, using their role in delivering lifelong learning, eGovernment, neighbourhood regeneration, etc. as drivers in combating social exclusion.
Museums, libraries and archives should mainstream social inclusion as a policy priority within all their services. The organisational culture should be one in which social inclusion can flourish.
Calimera Guidelines 18 Social inclusion Museums, libraries and archives should consult and involve socially excluded groups, both users and non-users, in order to ensure that services are needs-based.
Policy makers and staff, through contact with community leaders etc., should encourage excluded groups to be proactive in ensuring they receive services relevant to their needs.
Policy makers should examine all policies in the light of social inclusion, for example registration systems and charging policies could be socially inclusive.
Training organisations should ensure that their courses and programmes are relevant to work for social inclusion. All staff, not only those who work directly on front-line services, need continuing education to develop sensitivity to social and cultural diversity and to adopt a good level of customer care, and also to take on an instructional role with regard to IST.
Research institutions and research funding bodies need to support detailed research into the cultural heritage related needs of excluded groups. They also need to undertake detailed statistical monitoring of the use of services by categories of excluded people and use effective, comprehensive evaluation methods to measure the sector’s impact on social inclusion.
Telecommunications providers need to provide ICT connections to all communities regardless of geographical location, e.g. by broadband, cable or wireless technology.
Hardware and software developers need to continue to develop new methods of providing services using IST, and improve accessible formats and multilingual services.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] National Action Plans for social inclusion (http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2001/jun/napsincl2001_en.ht ml) based on the common objectives adopted at the Nice European Council (http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-prot/soc-incl/com_obj_en.htm).
[2] Universal Declaration of Human Rights http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html
[3] European Convention on Human Rights http://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html
[4] European Union Disability Strategy http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-prot/disable/strategy_en.htm
[5] Community Action Programme to Combat Social Exclusion 2002-2006 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-prot/soc- incl/ex_prog_en.htm
Calimera Guidelines 19 Social inclusion [6] Public Libraries and the EQUAL Agenda: Public Libraries: Social Inclusion and Lifelong Learning in the United Kingdom, Italy and France by Robert Davies and David Fuegi with contributions by Pier Giacomo Sola and Alessandra Tagliavini. August 2004. http://www.learneast.com/transnational/documents/EQUALcomparativestudy- finalsept.04.pdf
[7] European Disability Forum http://www.edf-feph.org/
[8] European Employment Directive 2000/78/EC http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_303/l_30320001202en00160022.pdf
[9] Disability Discrimination Act 1995 http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/1995050.htm
LINKS Back to Scope
Europe
Access to Cultural Heritage: Policies of Presentation and Use (ACCU) An EU project running for 3 years from Sept. 2004 to promote accessibility to cultural heritage. It will promote co-operation between operators in the field of heritage management and offer new tools for professionals to use on accessibility issues. Cultural institutions from six European countries will participate in the project, led by the Finnish National Board of Antiquities (Helsinki, Finland). http://www.accessculture.org/
EQUAL Funded by the European Social Fund (ESF), EQUAL forms part of the European Union strategy to create more and better jobs and to make sure that no one is denied access to these jobs. Its agenda encompasses three interlocking issues, namely social inclusion, lifelong learning and employment. It tests new ways of tackling discrimination and inequality experienced by those in work and those looking for a job. In addition it has a separate theme which addresses the needs of asylum seekers. http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/equal/index_en.html
Infobus The Mobile Information and Communications Centers (MICC) Project, known as InfoBus, delivers information resources and empowering tools to disadvantaged groups across South Eastern Europe (Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia), giving access to information, education and training, community and economic development, and enhanced government-citizen communication. http://www.infobus.org/
Czech Republic
Calimera Guidelines 20 Social inclusion Support for social programmes • Člověk v tísni - Supports people in need through human rights work, a field social work programme, educational projects, etc. http://www.clovekvtisni.cz • Nadace rozvoje občanské společnosti (NROS) - The Civil Society Development Foundation supports non-profit organisations which provide help to threatened and disadvantaged groups, protects human rights and democratic values and contributes to mutual communication and tolerance of minorities in society. http://nros.cz • Open Society Fund in Prague - Supports programmes focusing on the rule of law, public administration, human rights, education, equal opportunities, arts and culture and other areas. http://osf.cz
Finland
Info Bank The pages of Info Bank contain important basic information for immigrants on the functioning of society and opportunities in Finland. It is available in several languages. http://www.caisa.hel.fi/
Italy
ABSIDE (Apprendere in Biblioteca nella Società dell'Informazione per ridurre la Discriminazione e l'Emarginazione sociale) Funded by the EQUAL Programme, ABSIDE aims to use learning to reduce social discrimination and exclusion. It is working to extend the network of learning points within public libraries, and to promote the role of the librarian as tutor, advisor and guide for people with training needs. http://www.abside.net/
Poland
Ikonka project (Icon Project) The aim of this Ministry of Science and Information project is to open Public Internet Access Points in local libraries and community centres across Poland, especially in small towns and villages. The project is specifically targeted at alleviating problems created by the digital divide through the provision of free Internet access and computer training. http://www.informatyzacja.gov.pl/en/projekty.html
Russia
The Youth of Moscow The Centralised Library System of the North-West Administration District of the City of Moscow has developed this programme which aims to foster a healthy way of life among teenagers and youth, combating drug addiction and alcohol abuse, crime and anti-social behaviour. http://www.horoshevo.ru/
Spain
España.es Includes the following programmes: Calimera Guidelines 21 Social inclusion • Internet in libraries (http://internetenlasbibliotecas.red.es/); • Internet in schools (http://internetenlaescuela.red.es/); • Internet in rural areas (http://internetrural.red.es/). The aim is to develop a wide network of public Internet access points with high speed connections. http://www.red.es/Redes-Page-PlantPageStandard_espana.html
Turkey
T.C. Başbakanlık Özürlüler İdaresi Başkanlığı (Prime Ministry, Department for the Disabled) Portal The Department’s web site contains not only all legislative and pratical information concerning education and working opportunities, rehabilitation and other services available, but also incude links to addresses of NGOs, other governmental offices, schools etc. http://www.ozida.gov.tr/tr_files/index.htm
United Kingdom
Community Access to Archives Project (CAAP) This project is led and funded by The National Archives (TNA), in partnership with West Yorkshire Archive Service (WYAS), Hackney Archives Department (HAD), the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), the National Council on Archives (NCA), the National Library of Wales (NLW), the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), and Commanet. It is developing a “best practice model” to address the practicalities of developing community-based online archive projects with the aim of encouraging social inclusion by taking archives to new audiences. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/archives/caap/
LearnEast LearnEast is a project supported and funded under the EQUAL Programme which is piloting new ways for public libraries to work at community level supporting the employment of disadvantaged groups, especially women planning to return to work, unemployed and employed persons who want to improve employment skills, ethnic minorities, older learners and travellers. It involves public libraries in the East of England, and partners in Italy and France. http://www.learneast.com/
Mobile Library Traveller Project Essex County Council Libraries run a mobile service to travellers which visits six sites on a weekly basis. As well as providing books, videos, DVDs and information, the travellers are able to use laptops. Gypsies and travellers are also encouraged to use the Internet access in static libraries. Essex Libraries also works closely with Cyber Pilots (http://www.groundswelluk.net/~fft/cyberpilots/About.htm), a website for all Gypsy, Traveller, Show and Fairground children. http://www.cilip.org.uk/aboutcilip/medalsandawards/LibrariesChangeLives/lclawinrep 04.htm
MLA (Museums, Libraries and Archives Council) MLA has produced toolkits for cultural heritage institutions which can be used as starting points for ensuring that access and inclusion principles are embedded in the work of the institution:
Calimera Guidelines 22 Social inclusion Social Inclusion Toolkit http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/socialinc_tk.doc Access for all Toolkit http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/access_mla_tk.pdf
Scottish Library & Information Council (Slic) Slic has published a report entitled Making a difference: libraries, ICT & social inclusion, June 2004, which contains descriptions of projects in Scottish public libraries. http://www.slainte.org.uk/Files/pdf/pnet/gates/gatesreport04.pdf. One example is the Dundee project “Learning Together Through Reminiscence” which created a website and published a book based on the memories of times past recorded by local people. Many people received computer training as part of the project, and a link was made with local schoolchildren to develop an inter generational learning experience. http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/gates/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 23 Social inclusion Calimera Guidelines Cultural identity and cohesion
SCOPE
The issues dealt with in this guideline include: Cultural diversity Community cohesion Content creation Cultural community information Diverse cultural content
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
There are a great many definitions of culture. A society or community can be identified by its culture, the shared knowledge and traditions which are passed down through the generations. In this sense Europe has both one culture and many cultures. Each individual needs to have a sense of identity, community and place, of belonging to a culture. However, as Ghandi said, No culture can live if it attempts to be exclusive. So cultural diversity is linked to social inclusion; community cohesion exists in a socially inclusive society in which diverse cultures live together in mutual understanding. Romani Prodi, President of the European Commission in February 2004, described Europe as A Union of diversity where differences are accepted and perceived as enriching the whole, He said that Europeans live with multiple allegiances – to home town, to own region, to home country, and to the European Union. [1]
The new EU Commissioner for Information Society and Media, Viviane Reding, has vowed to be the "commissioner for innovation, inclusion and creativity". “Innovation must act as a driving force in the Lisbon process; inclusion will combat the digital divide and strengthen European identity and its cultural diversity, by means of media pluralism that will provide free expression for creativity”. Mrs Reding added that "the new technologies must help ensure a wider distribution of the images, stories, histories and identities of the people of Europe" [2].
There is also a wider idea that culture is “everything we do” and that there are interfaces between culture and knowledge, learning and information for everyday life.
The European Union supports actions designed to stimulate the preservation, development and promotion of culture [3], which it defines as “language, literature, performing arts, visual arts, architecture, crafts, the cinema and broadcasting” [4]. Its cultural policy centres on respect for cultural identity and diversity and its aim is to preserve and support this diversity and make it accessible to all. The Council of Europe’s Cultural Policy and Action website [5] lists useful publications on subjects such as cultural diversity and conflict prevention. Calimera Guidelines 24 Cultural identity and cohesion The EU supports community cohesion through a range of actions, policies, themes, programmes and projects including: • the Culture 2007 programme (2007-2013) [6]. This is intended to replace CULTURE 2000 [7] which ends in 2006. Building on the March 2004 Communication entitled Making citizenship Work: fostering European culture and diversity through programmes for Youth, Culture, Audiovisual and Civic Participation [8], its general objective is the achievement of a common cultural area through cultural co-operation and the development of a European identity from the grass roots. It will give cultural operators and citizens more opportunities to promote cultural heritage, create networks, to implement projects, to be more mobile and to enhance the cultural dialogue within Europe and with other parts of the world; • the eContentplus programme (2005-2008) [9]. This has been proposed as a successor to the eContent programme [10] which ends in 2004. It will encourage the combination of information from different systems, irrespective of format, language or location. To achieve this, digital content must be better adapted to meet the needs of users, and capable of being distributed via different platforms. The programme will focus on three types of information: geographical data, educational material and cultural content; • the Digicult programme [11] which is carrying out research into technologies which have the potential to improve the accessibility, visibility and recognition of Europe's cultural and scientific resources; • the Culture and Society theme [12], which focuses on eGovernment, social inclusion, culture and languages; • the eInclusion programme [13] which aims to promote eInclusion as a “core horizontal building block in the establishment of the Information Society to ensure equal access and participation for all in Europe”;
The EU IST (Information Society Technologies) conference held in November 2004 included a workshop entitled Interactive Living Heritage, which discussed “the need to unlock the creative potential of the European citizen, of the communities of the enlarged Europe, and of its diverse cultural organisations, large and small (including, but not limited to, libraries, museums and archives)”. [14]
The Europe and Culture portal [15] gives information about what is happening, fields of activity, funding, and links to individual national cultural portals and websites.
The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, 2001 [16], adopted in the wake of the events in New York on 11th September 2001, is relevant to museums, libraries and archives as it notes that culture is at the heart of contemporary debates about identity, social cohesion, and the development of a knowledge-based economy. For a discussion about the role of cultural institutions in preserving cultural identity and promoting social cohesion see Cultural diversity: common heritage, plural identities, Unesco, 2002 [17].
Memory and heritage institutions need to work together to create new resources covering local history, cultural events, local cultural content and community information. It is important to use standards to avoid problems with interoperability Calimera Guidelines 25 Cultural identity and cohesion (see the guidelines on Digitisation and Digital preservation). Much can be done to co- ordinate activities on a national and regional level as well as at a local level. Examples of good practice at national level are the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council in the UK and the Norwegian Archive, Library and Museum Authority (see Links).
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Cultural diversity Back to Scope Cultural diversity is enshrined in the Treaty establishing the European Union [3]. “Language, literature, performing arts, visual arts, architecture, crafts, the cinema and broadcasting are all part of Europe’s cultural diversity. Although belonging to a specific country or region, they represent part of Europe’s cultural heritage. The aim of the European Union is double: to preserve and support this diversity and to help to make it accessible to others.” [4] Cultural diversity is thought by many to be as important to humankind as biodiversity is to nature, and that therefore it must be protected against the threat of globalisation – this theory underpins the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, 2001 [16]. With new countries joining the EU, the total population will approach 500 million by 2007, representing an immense richness of cultural diversity. As storehouses of this diverse cultural heritage, museums, libraries and archives across Europe have long been involved in a wide range of activities designed to support access to culture. There are two strands to this: • providing access to local cultural resources to a potentially global audience by making full use of ICT. This can enable people to learn about other cultures and support cultural tourism etc.; • providing access to services and resources to a culturally diverse local community (see the guideline on Social inclusion). It goes without saying that museums, libraries and archives should comply with any laws concerning cultural diversity, such as race relations, human rights, equal opportunities or anti-discrimination legislation. Cultural heritage organisations will first need to discover through community profiling the composition of their target communities, establish what barriers exist for particular groups, and identify any gaps in the services provided. They should ensure that collections and exhibitions reflect the cultural and social diversity of the communities served by, for example: ° having permanent policies and programmes in place which support cultural diversity; ° providing services which are sensitive to the mores of each sector; ° providing services, and materials, in all relevant languages (see the guideline on Multilingualism); ° collecting materials relating to the history and culture of all sectors; ° staging exhibitions and events which celebrate cultural diversity; ° incorporating cultural diversity into all exhibitions and events wherever possible; ° employing staff from different cultural sectors of the community, and/or employing staff with language skills and other cultural knowledge; ° promoting and marketing services to all sectors;
Calimera Guidelines 26 Cultural identity and cohesion ° consulting with and making partnerships with all sectors to ensure that services are meeting their needs and to measure impact.
Supporting cultural diversity brings educational, economic and social benefits and contributes to agendas on lifelong learning, social inclusion and economic regeneration: • people can learn about other cultures; • people from all cultural backgrounds will be encouraged to use the services, gain confidence, learn new skills which might lead to employment or improved job prospects, etc.; • more people using the service could attract more funding for the organisation; • a culturally diverse user base can bring new ideas and innovation into the service; • a market can be provided for works of minority and specialised interest, regardless of economic return. Digitisation and the Internet provide a platform for these products; • cultural tourism can be fostered (see the guideline on Social and economic development).
Local history, histories of houses, places, migration, indigenous populations, displaced groups, etc., and family history, underpin cultural identity and stimulate a sense of community. These are key subjects for museums, libraries and archives and important areas for co-operation among them. There is a growing interest in family history, and the exploration of personal identity. In the case of ethnic minorities this can include finding out where their ancestors came from, why they or their ancestors moved, etc. Museums, libraries and archives, can provide the resources for this research, such as literature, art, music, objects etc. from around the world, records of births, marriages, deaths, adoptions, evidence relating to migration, census documents, etc. Digitisation makes possible the searching of resources relating to a particular culture regardless of whether these are in a museum, library or archive, or even if they are in another town or country.
Community cohesion Back to Scope The independent thinktank Demos has published a report “Europe in the creative age” in which it puts forward the view that creative people prefer to live in tolerant societies, and that tolerant societies therefore attract talented and creative people who contribute to technological innovation. [18]
In 1997 ICOM (the International Council of Museums) published Museums and Cultural Diversity: Policy Statement, which recognised the crucial role museums can play in promoting and strengthening community cohesion. What it says can be applied to the whole cultural heritage sector. [19] It is crucial that cultural diversity does not lead to division, but to community cohesion, which requires that there is a shared sense of belonging and an understanding and respect for difference, linguistic, ethnic, religious and cultural. It is the view of the EU that all Europeans must be given the opportunity to develop a sense of identity with Europe and with their local community, while at the same time enjoying their own cultural identity. Museums, libraries and archives can play a key role in promoting community cohesion: Calimera Guidelines 27 Cultural identity and cohesion • they hold the resources from which people can learn about their roots and how they interact with others (see the guideline on Learning); • they can provide places and activities where people from different backgrounds can work and play together (see the guideline on Social inclusion); • they can provide access for disabled people (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people); • they can co-operate with other agencies to tackle crime and anti-social behaviour (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership); • they can provide information which people need to be active citizens (see the guideline on eGovernment and citizenship); • they can provide people with opportunities to learn new skills and contribute to social and economic development (see the guideline on Social and economic development); • they can provide access to resources in all relevant languages (see the guideline on Multilingualism); • they can bring people together in communities of interest, or virtual communities, regardless of geography, background or circumstance; • they can help people to set up community archives and websites (see content creation). Taking part in this type of project can be used to bring divided communities together. A good example is the commaNET community archive system which has been used in Northern Ireland and Cyprus (see Links).
Contentcreation Back to Scope Increasingly digitisation is being carried out in locally-based cultural heritage institutions, and members of the community are getting involved. People need to feel ownership of their local museums, libraries and archives, and one way of inspiring this is through content creation. Sharing in content creation can also be used to bring divided communities together. Schools, colleges, community groups and individuals can put together their own archives containing photographs, film and video footage, personal documents, oral history contributions, and ephemera. Good examples are the CHIMER and COINE projects (see Links). Such collections can make valuable additions to local history resources. Museums, libraries and archives can play a key role by helping the creators to implement standards, ensuring quality, digitising, indexing and classifying such collections, and making them available to a wide audience.
Although such content creation usually starts with family photographs and personal reminiscences, the people involved can develop wider historical interests. This provides an opportunity for museums, libraries and archives to contribute to lifelong learning by supporting people undertaking background research. People involved also learn ICT skills and may improve their skills and confidence generally.
Sites on which people can tell their own story are becoming very popular. There are hundreds of web sites which now invite people to add their own story to an archive. Photographs and recordings can also be submitted in some cases. One examples is the BBC’s WW2 People's War (see Links). Community archives can be formed around any theme - communities of people from the same area, or who share an interest, or who lived through a particular experience. Doing something active like contributing to an archive fosters a sense of belonging and can be the start of active participation Calimera Guidelines 28 Cultural identity and cohesion in the community. Volunteers are often involved in such projects, helping people to write their stories or to put them in the web, recording oral histories, taking photographs etc., and this too can be a way of taking an active part in society.
Cultural heritage institutions can also set up virtual community websites where people are drawn together by common interests regardless of geographical or cultural barriers. (See Links).
Cultural community information (see also the guideline on Social and economic development) Back to Scope Local cultural heritage institutions are in a good position to provide this sort of information, which is clearly suitable for digitisation. It may include: • local events; • local places to visit; • local theatres, cinemas, concerts etc.; • local voluntary groups including organisations for dramatic and choral societies, photography clubs, gardening clubs, etc.; • tourist information. In large cities, towns and regions, there are often centralised local authority departments which sponsor cultural institutions with a strong strategic interest in this work. Public libraries are well-placed to demonstrate that they have the skills to lead in this area on behalf of the local authority, working in partnership with other agencies and local organisations to maintain accurate and up to date information, supplied in a form compatible with agreed standards. Many public libraries produce community information databases searchable by subject, place and organisation name and provide links to other community information pages in the same region.
Diverse cultural content (see also the guidelines on Multimedia services, Digitisation and Digital preservation) Back to Scope Cultural diversity includes the entire range of cultural expressions, creations and activities of any given group, and music, film, literature and broadcasting are among them. The dissemination of audiovisual resources is an effective way of sharing cultural identities. Local cultural institutions may organise events to promote diverse experiences and points of view and encourage dialogue between groups. They also have a duty to reflect diversity in the material they acquire and preserve.
Music and sound (e.g. folk music, contemporary music, oral history) play a very important part in cultural identity. The role of cultural heritage institutions with regard to digital music and sound is to provide services such as: • information about the music and oral culture of societies; • provision of downloadable music and sound (subject to copyright issues); • facilities to record and preserve music and sound archives; • provision of music and sound to broadcasting organisations; • creation of and access to oral history resources and sound archives.
Visual resources such as film, video and photographs are also important to a community’s cultural identity. Nearly 700,000 prints of films are held in various film archives throughout the European Union. Considering the fundamental place cinema occupies in Europe’s historical and cultural heritage, the conservation of this vast Calimera Guidelines 29 Cultural identity and cohesion collection of films is clearly of vital importance. Programmes such as MEDIA [20], aim to assist with this through training and the promotion of film festivals etc. The European Commission has also proposed adopting a recommendation of the European Parliament and Council on legal deposit of audio-visual materials and state funding for film preservation [21].
Co-operation with audiovisual concerns such as film producers and television companies is desirable so that films and television programmes can be digitised and made available over the Internet. Most television is now produced in digital format. TV companies such as the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision [22] are working on strategies to preserve hundreds of thousands of hours of broadcast material in authentic ways.
Digital cameras have revolutionised the way photographs are taken and used. It is now very easy to add photographs to websites etc., but there is a threat from the fact that photographs have become ephemeral and disposable. If people were to cease to keep for example family photographs in physical form this would be a loss to historical archives. Therefore preservation of photographic material should be at the core of any digitisation project. The EU funded project SEPIA is researching the digitisation, cataloguing and preservation of photographic materials [23].
Digitisation has the potential to give very wide access to cultural content and to strengthen cultural networking (see the guideline on Digitisation). More and more cultural resources in diverse formats are becoming available electronically and online. Museums, libraries and archives are digitising their collections at a rapid rate, and are also creating cultural content themselves. Museum, archive and library sites include those of physical institutions and virtual institutions. There are many projects designed to enable everyone to participate more fully in the arts and culture (see Links).
The EU supported a number of projects under the Fifth and Sixth Framework Programmes to carry out research into audio-visual resources, films and local history projects including BRAVA, CHIMER, CIPHER, COINE, DIAMANT, ECHO, FIRST, METAVISION, PRESTO and PRESTOSPACE. Details of these plus a comprehensive list of projects can be found on the IST (Information Society Technologies) website [24].
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Cultural diversity should be part of mainstream activity and integrated into policies, planning and budgeting. The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto proclaims “belief in the public library as a living force for education, culture and information, and as an essential agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women” [25]. This could apply equally to museums and archives.
Museums, libraries and archives should pilot the creation of resources relevant to the needs of their communities, which in large metropolises can be very diverse. The trend is for users to become more and more involved in creating and collecting resources, and this should be encouraged as it helps people to learn new skills, Calimera Guidelines 30 Cultural identity and cohesion involves them in the community, and supports e-learning, eGovernment and social inclusion agendas.
Community cohesion is strengthened when people know about each other. Museums, libraries and archives are in a strong position to enable people to learn about other cultures.
The generation of content, such as community information, may become more sophisticated and involve co-operative projects. Institutions can develop and promote tools which help individuals to work together as a group.
The digitisation of cultural collections will continue until a substantial proportion of the cultural heritage of Europe is available in one way or another by digital means. Local content will form an increasing part of this picture. Museums, archives, libraries of all types, community and voluntary organisations, private and business sectors will need to work jointly to ensure that this material is accessible.
More and more material will be “born digital” and museums, libraries and archives will need to develop strategies for dealing with this if it is not to be lost to future generations. E-mail has largely replaced letter-writing; digital images have replaced photographs, cine-film, and video; broadcasting companies are producing round the clock digital television and radio programmes which have replaced tapes and video; downloadable music is taking over from records, tapes, CDs and DVDs. It is particularly important to ensure that the diverse cultural heritage of communities is not lost in an increasingly globalised world. (See the guideline on Digital preservation).
Staff in museums, libraries and archives should be trained in relevant legislation regarding human rights, etc., and in how to be sensitive to the cultural diversity of the user population.
Specialist staff, or staff trained in the subject, should be provided for music, film etc.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission: A Union of minorities. Seminar on Europe - Against anti-Semitism, for a Union of Diversity. Brussels, 19 February 2004. http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/04/85&format =HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=fr
[2] Reding pledges "innovation, inclusion and creativity" in information society. http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-130372-16&type=News
[3] “The Community shall contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the member states, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore” (article 151 of the Treaty establishing the European Union)
Calimera Guidelines 31 Cultural identity and cohesion http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/treaties/selected/livre234.html
[4] Activities of the European Union: Culture http://europa.eu.int/pol/cult/index_en.htm
[5] Council of Europe: Cultural policy and action http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/culture/
[6] Proposal for a decision of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing the Culture 2007 programme (2007-2013). July 2004. http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/education_culture/newprog/com1_en.pdf
[7] CULTURE 2000 http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture/eac/index_en.html
[8] Making citizenship Work: fostering European culture and diversity through programmes for Youth, Culture, Audiovisual and Civic Participation http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/education_culture/comcitizen_en.pdf
[9] eContentplus programme 2005-2008 http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/telearn/econtentplus.htm
[10] eContent programme 2001-2004 http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/home.html
[11] Preservation and enhancement of Cultural Heritage / DigiCULT http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/digicult/programme.htm
[12] European Culture and Society in the Digital Age http://europa.eu.int/information_society/soccul/index_en.htm
[13] the eInclusion programme http://www.cordis.lu/ist/so/einclusion/home.html
[14] IST event 2005: Conference workshop details: Interactive Living Heritage. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/istevent/2004/cf/vieweventdetail.cfm?ses_id =373&eventType=session
[15] Europe and Culture portal http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture//index_en.htm
[16] The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, 2001 http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php- URL_ID=2450&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
[17] Cultural diversity: common heritage, plural identities, Unesco, 2002 http://unescdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271/127161e.pdf
[18] Florida, Richard and Tinagli, Irene: Europe in the Creative Age. Demos, 2004. http://www.demos.co.uk/catalogue/creativeeurope_page370.aspx
[19] ICOM: Museums and Cultural Diversity: Policy Statement. 1997. http://icom.museum/diversity.html Calimera Guidelines 32 Cultural identity and cohesion [20] MEDIA http://europa.eu.int/comm/avpolicy/media/index_en.html
[21] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the follow-up to the Commission communication on certain legal aspects relating to cinematographic and other audiovisual works. Brussels, 16.3.2004 COM(2004) 171 final. http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/lip/latest/doc/2004/com2004_0171en01.doc
[22] Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/gvnNL/handler.cfm/event/onpage/pageID/8FA E9963-0FAB-4112-BF19-325991A23477/collectionid/A1C3C760-1070-49C8-9257- A9AF9FB858BB
[23] SEPIA (Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access) http://www.knaw.nl/ecpa/sepia/home.html
[24] IST (Information Society Technologies) http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/digicult/projects_all.htm. FIRST (Film Conservation and Restoration Strategies) has recently published its final report and State of the Art Reports http://www.film-first.org
[25] UNESCO Public Library Manifesto http://www.unesco.org/webworld/libraries/manifestos/libraman.html
LINKS Back to Scope
Australia
State Library of Tasmania A culturally rich website with several electronic services, including Tasmania Online http://www.tas.gov.au/, which gives access to government, business and community websites. http://www.statelibrary.tas.gov.au/
Europe
CHIMER (Children's Heritage Interactive Models for Evolving Repositories) This project, funded by the European Commission's Information Society R&D programme, is an open international network of children, teachers and museologists from across Europe who are developing a multimedia multilingual digital heritage archive as a long-term storage medium for European cultural repositories. The children learn to use new creative tools, such as PCs, digital cameras, GPS, video cameras and web cameras. http://www.chimer.org/index.asp and http://dbs.cordis.lu/cordis- cgi/srchidadb?ACTION=D&SESSION=153372004-11- 27&DOC=1&TBL=EN_PROJ&RCN=EP_RCN:61828&CALLER=EISIMPLE_EN_PROJ
CIPHER (Communities of Interest Promoting Heritage of European Regions)
Calimera Guidelines 33 Cultural identity and cohesion Under the Heritage for All theme four cultural heritage forums, defined as online spaces where people can participate and learn through accessing and contributing to a range of heritage resources organised around a common theme, were set up across Europe: • Irish Cultural and Natural Heritage (Dublin); • Nordic Heritage Through Storytelling and Historical Artefacts (Helsinki); • Shared Heritage of Central Europe (Austria/Czech Republic); • The Tradition of Technological Innovation in South Central England (UK). http://cipherweb.open.ac.uk/d13/
COINE (Cultural Objects in Networked Environments) Funded by the EU, this project aims to develop a piece of software that will allow anybody to tell their own heritage stories digitally, publish their own exhibitions on the Internet, or prepare a story to be shared with others. The project involves five partners from across Europe (Greece, Poland, Spain, Ireland and the UK) and is led by Manchester Metropolitan University working in partnership with the Armitt Museum. http://fp.armitt.plus.com/coine_project.htm commaNET commaNET is a not-for-profit organisation that promotes and supports community archives through advice and training, sells the comm@ software and publishes the resulting archives on CD-ROM and on the Internet. European funding has enabled the project to be developed across Europe. The software is multilingual, i.e. the database fields can be translated into other languages (currently Danish, Dutch, German and Italian), which enables community archives to be created in one language and searched in another. For further information see Listening to the past, speaking to the future. MLA, 2004. ISBN 1903743494 (http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents); and Record makers [by] Simon Parker in The Guardian, November 13, 2002. (http://society.guardian.co.uk/internet/story/0,8150,838615,00.html). http://www.commanet.org
Armenia
Armenian Genocide Institute-Museum Scholarly exposition of historical-documentary materials, archival documents, photos on the Armenian Genocide in 1915-1923; guided tours of the Museum in English, French, German, Russian and Armenian; accumulation of new data. http://www.armenocide.am
Bulgaria
Community Development and Participation through the Chitalishte Network The goal is to strengthen the community role of the Chitalishta (basic public libraries) as traditional cultural and educational centres and offer working models for their participation in local community development. http://www.chitalishte.bg
Czech Republic
Calimera Guidelines 34 Cultural identity and cohesion Chimeru School website about the local heritage. http://chimer-chanovice.wz.cz/ChimerOf.html
Místní kultura Information on local culture http://mistnikultura.cz
Městská Knihovna Český Těšín Website of the local library in Cesky Tesin in Polish (the largest national minority). http://www.knihovna.ctesin.cz
Denmark
Kulturnat Danmark A portal to Danish culture on the Internet. http://www.kulturnet.dk/index.html
Finland
Agricola project Archives project promoting the research and teaching of Finnish history. http://agricola.utu.fi//
France
Médiathèque A model multimedia site and gateway to resources which includes recordings, videos, musical analysis and audio excerpts. http://mediatheque.ircam.fr/index-e.html
Ireland
Ardkeen Online Ardkeen Online will make it easy for people with no technical expertise to create Internet web pages and become part of their local network. It aims to be a one-stop- shop for the Ardkeen Community, providing a focal point for local events, community groups, information and businesses. http://www.ardkeen.ie/
Libraries and Cultural Diversity This is a co-operative research project involving Dublin City Public Libraries, Waterford City Council Library Service, Meath County Library Service and An Chomhairle Leabharlanna. http://www.waterfordcity.ie/library/libraryprojects.htm
Italy
Museo diffuso del Mugello, Alto Mugello e Val di Sieve This is a broad partnership of numerous public and private institutions and a network of small local museums covering art, archaeology, anthropology and natural history of the area. http://www.cm-mugello.fi.it/musei/04%20museo%20diffuso.htm
Calimera Guidelines 35 Cultural identity and cohesion The Netherlands
Nederlands Platform Ouderen en Europa (Netherlands Platform for Older People in Europe) Personal memories of older people, together with photos, objects, documents and film are thematically scanned and filed and made accessible with the aid of multimedia on CD-Rom and the Internet. Uses commanet technology. http://www.seniorweb.nl/npoe/projectentooneng.asp?ProjectID=16
Norway
Digitalarkivet (The Digital Archive) “Digital Inn” is a part of the Digital Archive which enables online creation of new content by users (organisations and private individuals). It represents an important example of new ways of using the web to publish nationwide datasets, and an interesting approach to historical exhibitions based on sources from the archive, thus representing new ways of promoting archives and their services. http://digitalarkivet.uib.no/
Poland
Culture.pl This website is managed by the Adam Mickiewicz Institute (AMI), a government cultural institution whose mission is to promote Polish culture throughout the world. In particular, the statutory tasks of AMI include compiling and updating an integrated system of information about Polish culture and disseminating this information, in Polish and other languages, on the Internet. http://www.culture.pl/en/culture
Russia
Archival Mosaic of Karelian Culture Provides free access to an annotated catalogue of archival document groups on the subject of Karelian culture. The project is also available in English. http://archives.karelia.ru/nark/projects/mosaic
Archives of the Russian Federation The “Victory” section contains documentary photographs and films made during the Great Patriotic War. http://www.rusarchives.ru
Armenia in Novgorod The Novgorod Regional Universal Reference Library developed this project to familiarise people with Armenian culture and history and to help to distribute ideas of tolerance in the Novgorod region. http://www.reglib.natm.ru/reglib/projects/armenian/task.asp
Biblionight project Youth art-carnival “Biblionight” at the Central municipal library of N.A. Nekrasov launched this website for the young people of Izhevsk. The project aims to give young people opportunities for creative work, create a positive image of young Calimera Guidelines 36 Cultural identity and cohesion people, provide a place for constructive dialogue with young people, and create an information network. http://www.biblionight.udm.ru
The Chuvash Book The National Library of the Chuvash Republic has developed and implemented this project to provide access to resources and events about the Chuvash people and their history, language and culture. http://lib.chuvashia.ru/chuvash book.phtm
International Action: the Young Generation against the Nuclear Threat The Central City Library of Novouralsk has developed this project. It takes place in the Information and Educational Centres of cities involved in nuclear production activities (Novouralsk (Russia) and Los-Alamos (USA)) and the Central City Library of Novouralsk. The aims of the project include: raising awareness among young people about the issues of peace, mutual understanding, and non-violence; developing the skill of avoiding extremism, nationalism and xenophobia; opening a civil dialogue aimed at prevention of international and social conflicts; development of the intellectual and creative potential of children and young people; enhancement of friendship between children and young people of different countries. http://www.municipal-library.novotec.ru/
Project KOMart - cultural itineraries of Karelia The Cultural Centre of the Karelia Museum Agency have set up this project to develop cultural tourism in Karelia both at the national and international levels, attract young citizens to the sphere of culture by means of the Internet, and create mechanisms for collaboration between local tourism and cultural institutions, mass- media, commercial enterprises and public organisations. http://www.adit.ru
Slovakia
SK Cinema Slovak Cinematography Information System and Slovak Film Database - project of the Slovak Film Institute. http://www.sfd.sfu.sk
Slovenia
KAMRA This portal will provide a single point of access to contents created by archives, libraries, museums and other partners at the local level, covering the topic of community information. The portal will be innovative by using new systems for publishing and description of content and support for user queries. Interoperability will be assured by the use of web services based on MS Share Point Portal Server. http://www.kamra.si (under construction, available September 2005)
Spain
Local writers on the Net Online guide to authors from Huelva province. Authors themselves have contributed information about their work to the website, which also includes local information about books and literature. Calimera Guidelines 37 Cultural identity and cohesion http://www.bibliotecaspublicas.es/huelva/seccont_278.htm
A bit of our history: the library memory and memory of the community Older readers of the State Public Library of Huelva contributed information about the different locations this library has had. The website shows old photographs and press releases, and also a summary of records and inventory of the library archive. http://www.bibliotecaspublicas.es/huelveng/index.htm
G.I.O. (Genealogía, Informática y Ocio) Aims to develop a new role for archives in the information society by offering citizens the possibility of tracing local family history using the computerised data contained in the civil registers of Torrelavega and parish registers. It will also be possible to extract information for demographic studies. Published on CD-ROM and accessible through a touch screen system located in the Town Hall, and eventually via the Internet.
Sweden
SVAR (Svensk Arkivinformation) Specialises in family chronicles and courses in genealogy. It provides research facilities, produces and distributes microcards and provides scanned and digitised records for customers. SVAR also distributes books and other publications via the Internet. http://www.svar.ra.se/
Turkey
APİKAM - Ahmet Priştina Kent Arşivi ve Müzesi, İzmir (Ahmet Priştina City Archive and Museum, Izmir) This recently established institution is under development and aims to have a city archive accessible through the Internet. One element of this archive will be oral history. Stories are expected to be added to the web site by local people and they are encouraged to make oral history contributions. http://www.apikam.org.tr/
Ukraine
Children of Ukraine This project enables children to contribute stories, poetry, drawings and pictures for presentation on the website. http://www.chl.kiev.ua/ENG/kids_e.htm
Genealogical Research Online Archives service accessible online which enables citizens to search for genealogical information, compile a family tree, research the history of relatives' birthplaces, produce videos or photographs of places where relatives lived, and translate all the researched documents into English. http://www.genealogicaltree.org.ua
United Kingdom
BBC WW2 People's War
Calimera Guidelines 38 Cultural identity and cohesion This site is dedicated to capturing personal stories of World War Two in a lasting archive. It is an Internet-only project aimed at the generation which lived through the Second World War and so encourages them to learn ICT skills as well as fostering a sense of history and cultural identity. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/ww2
Community Access to Archives Project (CAAP) This is a pilot project led and funded by The National Archives (TNA), in partnership with West Yorkshire Archive Service (WYAS), Hackney Archives Department (HAD), the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), the National Council on Archives (NCA), the National Library of Wales (NLW), the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), and Commanet. Its aim is to give participants a sense of community pride and ownership through involvement in community archive projects. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/archives/caap/
Get a Life This innovative project has been developed by Dumfries and Galloway Libraries, Information and Archives in partnership with the dramatist in residence from the local Arts Association. Housed on the Council’s intranet, it is an interactive online narrative in which young people are able to create their own characters, meet other characters and make up their own stories. http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/lia
Moving Here This is a database of digitised photographs, maps, objects, documents and audio items from 30 local and national archives, museums and libraries which record and illustrate why people came to England over the last 200 years. http://www.movinghere.org.uk/. (For a description see DigiCULT Thematic Issue 5: Virtual communities and collaboration in the heritage sector. 2004. ISBN 3902448124. http://www.digicult.info/pages/Themiss.php)
SALIDAA (South Asian Diaspora Literature and Arts Archive) This digital archive aims to showcase the richness and diversity of contemporary South Asian literature and arts in England. http://www.salidaa.org.uk/
Wiltshire Community History This website contains information on 261 Wiltshire communities compiled by Wiltshire Libraries & Heritage. Every community page will eventually contain administrative information, population, local newspapers, maps, information on churches and schools, listed buildings, local authors and literary associations, historical information, access to old photographs, a booklist, and links to other sites of interest. http://www.wiltshire.gov.uk/community
USA
Images of the Indian Peoples of the Northern Great Plains A museum and library collaborative project in Montana, through which Plains Indians are discovering more of their own heritage through an online database of tribal images from the past. http://libmuse.msu.montana.edu/epubs/nadb/
Wisconsin Stories Calimera Guidelines 39 Cultural identity and cohesion Wisconsin Public Television and the Wisconsin State Historical Society have joined forces to form the Wisconsin Collections, which combines the archival resources of the historical society with the technical expertise of the television company to increase the use of in-depth historical information for leisure and educational purposes. http://www.wisconsinstories.org/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 40 Cultural identity and cohesion Calimera Guidelines eGovernment and citizenship
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Process integration Service delivery Interoperability Community information Consultation Active participation Community building Promoting access to public services
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Citizenship of the European Union, enshrined in the Treaty of Rome and further established by the Maastricht Treaty [1], is characterised by rights and duties and involvement in political life. A website has been set up to give people information about their rights and duties [2]. The reality however is that many citizens regard the EU, and their own governments, as merely remote political and economic entities. One way to encourage active citizenship is to improve access to information and services, and this is one of the aims of eGovernment.
The European Union defines eGovernment as “the use of information and communication technologies in public administrations, combined with organisational change and new skills, in order to improve public services and strengthen support to public policies” [3], and has declared it a priority in the eEurope 2005 Action Plan [4]. In September 2003, the Commission adopted a communication on eGovernment [5] calling on all administrations to ensure access to public services for all citizens, through investment in multi-platform approaches (PC, digital TV, mobile terminals, public access points etc). The recent expansion of the EU is an opportunity to boost eGovernment across the continent. Erkki Liikanen, former European Commissioner for Enterprise and the Information Society, has highlighted the skills and commitment to change of the new entrants [6], although the turnout at the 2004 European Parliament elections was unexpectedly low especially in these countries.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
By their championship of intellectual freedom and the right to access information, cultural heritage institutions have a proven role to play in building active citizenship. They can do this on two levels:
Calimera Guidelines 41 eGovernment and citizenship • as public services they need to offer their own services electronically. (In fact public libraries are among the 20 basic services surveyed in the Top of the Web survey [7] and are the public e-service with the highest level of online usage.); • as information services they can offer information about and access to other eGovernment services, local, national and European. Information is a powerful democratic tool, but it needs to be organised and managed so that it does not overwhelm, and this is the business of libraries and archives in particular.
Introducing eGovernment involves process integration, (changes in the “back office”), improvements in service delivery (changes in the “front office”), and interoperability. For museums, libraries and archives this means: • for process integration - looking at which of their procedures can be changed from offline to online to achieve faster working, less duplication, easier performance measurement, financial savings, etc. For example it might be found that the same data is being collected and stored in more than one place and data sharing could enable the same data to be used for more than one purpose; Back to Scope • for improvements in service delivery – introducing new ways to access the service e.g. Internet, digital TV, mobile terminals, public access points, telephone call centres, etc., to complement the more traditional face-to-face interactions at enquiry desks, etc. The benefits to be aimed for are those which customers want – time saving, no queuing, services available 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, and services which are easy to use and easy to find without having to know specifically which institution or department to contact; Back to Scope • for interoperability – enabling systems and institutions to work together for the benefit of users: ° interoperability could lead to making it easier for users interested in a subject to find useful information in a variety of museums, libraries and archives without needing to know exactly where to look in advance; ° interoperability can contribute to joined-up government. With interoperability between different departments and levels of government, data and systems can be shared and one-stop services provided. As Arvo Ott, the Head of the Informatics Department at the Estonian Ministry of Economics, has said “this will make government more efficient. There will be no need to run around town to different public offices. You can do your running around on the Web”; ° on a Europe-wide level, the European Commission has recently announced the final version of the European Interoperability Framework [8], which “provides recommendations and defines generic standards with regard to organizational, semantic and technical aspects of interoperability, offering a comprehensive set of principles for European cooperation in eGovernment." Back to Scope eGovernment is made up of three elements: information, consultation and active participation.
Information can be defined as a one-way relationship in which government delivers information to citizens. Current trends show that the scope of information has increased greatly and that its provision now forms a shared objective for all EU countries. The EU provides a great deal of information online, including via portals such as the European Youth Portal [9]. All individual member countries also provide
Calimera Guidelines 42 eGovernment and citizenship government information online, but the quantity, quality and range of information provided varies [7] and [10].
Community information Back to Scope The public needs up to date community information in order to be effective and responsible citizens. Community information should be relevant to the whole community (see the guideline on Social inclusion). This type of information is clearly suitable for digitisation, which makes it more easily and widely accessible. • Museums build a picture of their local community through artefacts and exhibitions. • Archives contain official and unofficial records and documents of all kinds, as well as photographs and sound and video archives, both historical and contemporary, which illustrate and explain the development of the community they serve. • Public libraries provide information about the range of organisations which make up civil society.
Digitisation makes it possible for museums, libraries and archives, and also users such as community groups etc., to create content which is useful as community information (see also the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion). • Museums can create virtual exhibitions and events organised around themes of importance and relevance to local communities. • Archives can organise access by subject or theme regardless of format. • Libraries can build seamless databases of local information searchable by subject, place and by organisation name. The type of information could include: ° local events; ° local voluntary groups including organisations for various social minorities such as older people, children, people who have types of illnesses, charities, residents organisations, sports clubs, hobbyists, etc.; ° self help groups; ° sexual minorities; ° political organisations and pressure groups; ° administrative bodies; ° political representatives; ° schools and colleges, private tutors; ° tourist information; ° local newspapers; ° local government information e.g. who does what and at which office; ° transport information e.g. times of buses and trains; ° lists of businesses though there is no point in duplicating the yellow pages; ° links to other community information pages in the same region.
Access to community information can be presented via a local portal ensuring wider and more seamlessly accessible coverage of all aspects of the life of a local community. Building and sustaining partnerships with public, voluntary and private organisations (such as social services departments, health services, colleges and universities, citizen’s advisory bodies, ethnic minority organisations, private sector organisations such as IT and local media companies, grant-making organizations) is a key part of creating and maintaining such a portal (see the guideline on Co operation and partnership). Local libraries are well placed to create local community Calimera Guidelines 43 eGovernment and citizenship information portals and to act as mediators and co-ordinators, ensuring standards are maintained.
Consultation Back to Scope Consultation is a two-way relationship in which citizens provide feedback on issues defined by government. This is on the rise but at a slower rate and large differences remain between European countries. The International Teledemocracy Centre (ITC) [11] based at Napier University in Scotland is however researching ways of using technology for consultation. It has worked on a number of, mainly Scottish, projects, including one for the Scottish Executive on “What sort of Scotland do we want to live in?” [12]
Activeparticipation Back to Scope Active participation can be defined as a partnership in which citizens actively shape policy options, but where government retains the responsibility for final decisions. Efforts to engage citizens in policy-making are rare and examples are confined to a few countries such as Estonia (see Links). The International Teledemocracy Centre is also researching ways of using technology for enabling participation. It has worked on a number of projects including the EC funded project, AVANTI (Added Value Access to New Technologies and services on the Internet) (see Links), which used prototype digital avatars (see also the guideline on Personalisation) to enhance the acceptability of eGovernment services to citizens. The Scottish Executive also used an animated human character, SEONAID, to engage young people in current affairs (see Links).
Another aspect of participation which governments are encouraging is e-transaction. This is where people fill in forms, make payments etc. electronically. The type of transactions people may be able to do online include: • applying for a passport; • registering to vote; • licensing a vehicle; • booking a driving test; • buying a TV licence; • completing a tax return; • applying for benefits; • paying taxes. Museums, libraries and archives can help people to familiarise themselves with online transactions and build up trust in the process by introducing their own e- transactions. Many archives for example already enable citizens to order copies of genealogical records online, and many libraries make it possible for users to consult catalogues, request and renew books, etc. from home or work, and many users find this very convenient.
Personalisation can add value to eGovernment services (see the guideline on Personalisation). For example: • information from various sources can be brought together and presented in a package to meet the user’s needs; • government and local government departments could share data about people (subject to data protection legislation) so that they do not have to give the same Calimera Guidelines 44 eGovernment and citizenship information several times to different people, and to enable them to be addressed by name; • form filling could be simplified if certain standard sections such as name and address could be filled in automatically using stored data.; • people could collect in one place links to the services they use regularly, together with the personal information relevant to those services such as reference numbers etc. (a sort of “MyGovernment” or “MyLocalGovernment” similar to “MyMuseum” or “MyLearning”); • they could register for alerts or reminders to be sent to them about transactions or updated information.
Community building Back to Scope Community building plays an important part in encouraging active citizenship (see also the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion). When people join together with others with shared interests, identities or histories it can make them feel included and can give them the confidence to participate in society and become active citizens.
Promoting access to public services Back to Scope Local museums, archives and libraries can assist in promoting access to public services by: • emphasising the positive role they can play in delivering eGovernment services. By aligning with eGovernment agendas they may attract new sources of funding; • drawing on their experience of closeness to their users to help to ensure that eGovernment projects take into account what people want; • demonstrating that new ways of interacting with government are effective and lead to change, so that people do not lose interest.
Museums, libraries and archives each have unique ways in which they can contribute to increasing participation in eGovernment, for example: • Museums have moved a long way from being places with static exhibitions. When they programme displays in thought-provoking ways they can stimulate discussion both within the museum and outside via the media. Thus they can involve the community, including those sections not traditionally drawn to museums. The Animating Democracy Initiative [13] website contains numerous examples of innovative ways in which museums have contributed to community building and democracy, from linking exhibitions to film shows and lectures to organising informal discussion groups in coffee bars. • Archives have an important and unique role to play in providing people with access to decisions made on their behalf. Archival records are essential to understanding the processes of decision-making and governance. This role has become increasingly important to public life as new responsibilities for the care of archives and current records have emerged. Freedom of information and data protection legislation, the demands of electronic records management and increasing media scrutiny of government have brought fresh challenges. The increasing interest in family and local history has in turn increased interest in archives by some previously socially excluded groups. • Public libraries have historically been a key institution in civic participation for a variety of reasons, but chiefly because they can represent the public face of local Calimera Guidelines 45 eGovernment and citizenship government. They are sometimes the only civic buildings in local communities, especially in rural areas, and they often have opening hours that are more user- friendly than government offices, so making services available outside normal office hours. They can provide space for people to meet local councillors and members of parliament, and provide meeting places for organisations to organise their own events, together with support such as access to PCs, photocopiers, catering facilities. In addition they have been identified in a recent European Commission survey as the most frequently accessed local eGovernment service [8]. They can build on this by, for example: ° being strategically placed in local communities (in libraries, mobile libraries, kiosks etc.) to act as access points for eGovernment through Internet provision and guidance, ensuring everyone is within easy reach, especially those in rural areas or deprived neighbourhoods; ° providing training and support, face-to-face or on-line, for the public, for organisations, and also for public sector staff in the use of technology and the Internet etc.; ° providing communication channels (e.g. e-mail, video-conferencing, chat lines) for people to contact government officials etc.; ° providing e-mail addresses for local government staff; ° providing a platform for other local government departments to put information on the web; ° being the access points for national government ICT initiatives; ° providing an online platform for discussion groups and newsgroups; ° providing facilities for e-transactions – e.g. to pay bills, make appointments, fill in forms, make bookings for events, rooms, transport etc.; ° providing virtual access so that people can access information and services from their own homes and places of work etc. ° providing, or being active in ensuring provision of good delivery channels e.g. broadband and wireless networks; ° being represented on local decision-making bodies dealing with this subject; ° being knowledgeable about legal aspects such as data protection, privacy, and freedom of information. ° taking a lead in helping local government to set up interactive and interoperable eGovernment systems.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
In March 2004 the Commission adopted a Communication entitled Making citizenship Work: fostering European culture and diversity through programmes for Youth, Culture, Audiovisual and Civic Participation [14], in which it is recognised that the recent and future enlargements of the Union, together with demographic changes and immigration flows, make it more necessary than ever that Europe’s citizens have an opportunity to experience a feeling of belonging to the Union and are able to identify with it. Museums, libraries and archives will need to contribute towards making this happen.
People already take part in discussions on the websites of television and radio programmes, vote for their favourite contestant in TV reality shows, answer quiz Calimera Guidelines 46 eGovernment and citizenship questions online, use technology to do hazard perception and theory tests as part of their driving tests, etc. They also engage electronically with museums, libraries and archives (consulting online library catalogues, reserving and renewing books from home, booking tickets for exhibitions, buying goods from museum gift shops, ordering photographs from archives, etc). Familiarity with these sorts of activities should help to increase participation in eGovernment. The convenience, informality, anonymity (where appropriate), speed, and adaptability for people with disabilities, should draw in people who have never engaged in a debate about local or national issues before.
Postal voting generally produces a higher turnout, so e-voting might encourage even more people to vote. It offers a greater choice of when and where to vote, and should make counting faster and more accurate. eGovernment should make it easy for people not only to find out about local issues (through access to the minutes of council meetings for example), but also to take part in decision making through consultation and polling, discussion forums, citizens’ panels etc., and to carry out certain transactions with government electronically.
The EU has set targets for all public services to have broadband connections and this will enable all museums, libraries and archives to deliver their own services electronically and, as broadband is rolled out to more citizens, to reach larger audiences.
As eGovernment becomes more widespread, people without personal access to the Internet will need to be within easy reach of public Internet access points with broadband or wireless connections. These could well be in museums, libraries or archives, which in most countries have a large number of buildings and mobile services.
For many people access via the Internet might not be possible, for a variety of reasons including personal preference. Other delivery channels will therefore be needed such as interactive TV. Very few people do not have access to a TV, and digital TV is gradually replacing analogue TV. Museums, libraries and archives will need to explore using a variety of delivery platforms.
New technology can be used to add value to traditional services, and allow the delivery of entirely new services. Museums, libraries and archives should seize opportunities to experiment and take part in research projects.
To be used, services need to be secure and trusted by the public. Museums, libraries and archives are used by a large proportion of the population of most countries and are generally seen as trustworthy. By conducting their own transactions electronically they can familiarise large numbers of people with e-services, demonstrate the benefits, and help to build up trust.
In future people will expect online access to be personalised and organised according to demand profiles, rather than according to service supply structures. Local authority run museums, libraries and archives can respond to this agenda by Calimera Guidelines 47 eGovernment and citizenship assisting in the development of systems for personalised access, and to deliver local eGovernment.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Maastricht Treaty http://www.eurotreaties.com/maastrichtext.html
[2] Dialogue with Citizens http://europa.eu.int/citizensrights/index_en.cfm
[3] About eGovernment http://europa.eu.int/information_society/programmes/egov_rd/about_us/index_en.ht m
[4] eEurope 2005 Action Plan http://europe.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/action_plan/index_ en.htm
[5] The Role of eGovernment for Europe's Future http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/egovernment/com munication/index_en.htm
[6] New Member States, future e-government champions? http://europa.eu.int/ida/jsps/documents/dsp_showPrinterDocument.jsp?docID=3193 &lg=en
[7] Report on quality and usage of public e-services in Europe. Top of The Web, November 2003. http://www.topoftheweb.net/en/
[8] European Interoperability Framework for Pan-European eGovernment services. Version 1.0. November 2004. http://europa.eu.int/ida/servlets/Doc?id=18101
[9] The European Youth Portal http://www.europa.eu.int/youth/index_en.html
[10] eGovernment Factsheets - eServices for citizens [by country]. http://europa.eu.int/ida/en/chapter/422
[11] The International Teledemocracy Centre http://www.e-consultant.org.uk/
[12] What sort of Scotland do we want to live in? http://e-consultant.org.uk/sustainability/
[13] The Animating Democracy Initiative http://www.americansforthearts.org/AnimatingDemocracy/
Calimera Guidelines 48 eGovernment and citizenship [14] Making citizenship Work: fostering European culture and diversity through programmes for Youth, Culture, Audiovisual and Civic Participation http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/education_culture/comcitizen_en.pdf
LINKS Back to Scope
Europe
AVANTI (Added Value Access to New Technologies and services on the Internet) This project used prototype digital avatars to promote eGovernment services to citizens, targeting the “digitally excluded” in particular. The avatars were animated characters designed to guide a person through online transactions and services. Four public authorities across Europe were involved; the London Borough of Lewisham (England), Kista Borough/City of Stockholm (Sweden), the City of Edinburgh Council (Scotland) and Ventspils City Council (Latvia). The Edinburgh project dealt with library services. http://www.avantiproject.org/
European Interoperability Framework for Pan-European eGovernment Services. European Communities, 2004. Very important and relevant document. Final European Interoperability Framework November 2004. Provides recommendations and defines generic standards regarding organisational, semantic and technical aspects of interoperability, and offers a comprehensive set of principles for European co-operation in eGovernment. http://europa.eu.int/ida/servlets/Doc?id=18101
Czech Republic
Portál Veřejné Správy České Republiky Portal of the Czech government. http://portal.gov.cz/wps/portal
Společná česko-slovenská digitální parlamentní knihovna The Parliamentary Library – project of the Common Czech and Slovak Digital Parliamentary Library http://www.psp.cz/eknih
Usti nad Orlici city library Website with information for local goverment. http://www.knihovna-uo.cz/knihovna/obce.html
Estonia
Esileht An eGovernment portal providing a single, one-stop umbrella for the many government services already online, and for all new services being developed. Its features are being extended to provide access to hundreds of national and municipal websites and services. http://www.eesti.ee/est
Täna Otsustan Mina
Calimera Guidelines 49 eGovernment and citizenship An e-democracy website called TOM (Tana Otsustan Mina, or “Today, I'm Deciding”) has been running for several years, enabling citizens to comment on draft bills and submit their own ideas for legislation. http://tom.riik.ee/
Greece
Ministry of Economy and Finance Official site of the General Secretariat for Information Systems of the Ministry of Economy and Finance. Gives useful information on the electronic services offered to the citizen and corporate entities, and enables online communications on tax, vehicle registration, etc. http://www.e-oikonomia.gr/
Ireland
Public Libraries to assist in the delivery of e-Government Services Dublin City Public Libraries are carrying out a Research and development project (November 2004 - October 2005) aimed at developing a blueprint for assisting the delivery of eGovernment Services via Irish public libraries. http://www.iol.ie/dublincitylibrary/projects_egovernment.htm
Italy
Iperbole, Bologna Iperbole, Bologna Civic Network uses the Internet to develop teledemocracy, transparency in administration, the right to information, interaction with citizens and participation in decision-making. Libraries act as access points to Iberpole. http://www.comune.bologna.it/
Racine Rete civica dei Comuni e della provincia di Ravenna (Local network of Ravenna comuni and Provincia) The network , created in 1995, has developed a complete integration of all the public information services in the area, and it offers its services to SME. The network has integrated both the Libraries and Museum networks http://www.racine.ra.it/ http://opac.provincia.ra.it/h3/h3/ase http://dev.racine.ra.it/sistemamusei/chisiam.htm
Luxembourg eLuxembourg Launched by the national library in 2001. http://www.eluxembourg.lu/
Poland
“Cities on Internet” Association, Tarnów, Poland The core mission of this organisation is to support public administration, both central and local, in the process of transformation toward modern eGovernment solutions.
Calimera Guidelines 50 eGovernment and citizenship The “Cities on Internet” Association is co-operating with ELANET, ERIS@ and Telecities. http://www.smwi.pl/Ang/index.php
Poland’s Gate This project is a part of the Ministry of Science and Information’s strategy for a platform for government services. http://www.informatyzacja.gov.pl
Slovenia
Državni portal Republike Slovenije (State Portal of the Republic of Slovenia) This portal provides a single access point to many government services online. It enables citizens to fill in various forms and make transactions such as licensing a vehicle, booking a driving test, completing a tax return, applying for a passport, etc. It also provides user-friendly access to visually impaired people, and special access for WAP-enabled mobile phones. http://euprava.gov.si/e-uprava/euprava.euprava
Spain
TeleCities : Local Citizen Network of Gijón Included in an organization of more than 120 European cities promoting the NTIC (Technologies de l’information et de la Communication). Its major aim is to foster “e- Citizenship for all” at a local level. A large number of Gijón citizens have citizen smart-cards which allow them to use many municipal services, including the local library network. The whole of the city is cabled with optical fibres. http://www.bcn.es/telecities; http://www.ayto-gijon.es
Turkey e-Türkiye (e-Turkey) Portal including links to the Turkish legislation web site, government departments’ database, news on e-Turkey projects etc. http://www.turkiye.gov.tr/
United Kingdom
Active Citizenship Centre Created by the UK Home Office to promote research that demonstrates the value of civil renewal and to inform policymaking in this area. The website contains much useful information about the benefits of active citizenship to communities, and aims to showcase best practice in this area. http://www.active-citizen.org.uk/
SEONAID (Scottish Executive Online News and Information Distributor) Avatar used by the Scottish Executive in an experiment (now finished) to help motivate a younger, but very e-sophisticated, audience to learn more about the business of Government. Created in partnership with Digital Animations Group (DAG) (http://www.digital-animations.com/). http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/News-Extras/44 (For an account of this experiment see also Emerging technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. Digicult Technology Watch Report 2. European Commission, 2004. ISBN 92-894-5276-5. pp.75-78. Calimera Guidelines 51 eGovernment and citizenship http://www.digicult.info/pages/techwatch.php).
USA
Government Information Locator Service (GILS) Several state libraries, including Washington State Library, have set up a GILS service to provide easy and useful access to government information in their states. The project has developed standards for interoperability, ease of language and innovative use of technology. http://find-it.wa.gov/ Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 52 eGovernment and citizenship Calimera Guidelines Learning (formal and informal)
SCOPE
This guideline deals with lifelong learning, and covers:- Children and schools - Online services for children Adults - Basic skills/key competencies - Digital literacy - Employment-related skills Accreditation Impact e-Learning - Virtual Learning Environments - Managed Learning Environments - Interactive television - Mobile learning
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Lifelong learning is “all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competence, within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective”.[1] It may or may not involve obtaining a formal qualification. It ranges from pre-school years to post-retirement, from formal learning in schools and universities, through vocational training in workplaces, to informal learning such as parents learning ICT (Information and Communication Technology) skills from their children, and includes “edutainment” such as watching television and visiting museums.
Learning is not confined to institutions such as schools and colleges. New technologies can offer all members of society the opportunity to match learning to their specific needs and circumstances. For example, the home is becoming more important as a learning environment for many people, including disadvantaged groups such as the unemployed, people with special needs and those in remote locations.
The European Union is committed to lifelong learning as an integral part of its aim to make Europe the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-driven economy in the world.[2] In July 2004 it published “An integrated action programme in Lifelong Learning” [3], and has set up PLOTEUS (Portal on Learning Opportunities throughout Europe) and The Learning Citizen to provide information. [4] Many national governments also have learning policies and targets, for example on basic skills and language learning for all citizens.
Calimera Guidelines 53 Learning (formal and informal) Many museums, libraries and archives are proactive learning institutions, using their storehouses of learning materials for the benefit of their users. However, all cultural heritage institutions need to respond to policies and developments which are acting as drivers for change. These include: • EU and national targets as already mentioned; • government agendas which are increasingly “joined-up” (for example education is no longer solely the responsibility of education departments, schools and colleges; crime prevention is not only the province of the police); • technological developments which are making possible the delivery of education through a growing range of interactive and mobile devices; • the emergence of a generation of students, and teachers, who expect learning to involve technology in an interactive and exciting way; • the demise of many old traditional industries and the growth of new knowledge- based industries requiring new skills; • the need for all active citizens to be digitally literate; • the expansion of the EU and the opening up of labour markets across national boundaries, increasing the need for language skills etc (see the guideline on Multilingualism); • the growth in migration and asylum seeking, increasing the need for knowledge of world cultures (see the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion).
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Museums, libraries and archives need to build a learning culture into their policies. Making themselves into “learning organisations”, which involves encouraging and facilitating the learning and skills development of staff (see the guideline on Staffing), will impact on the delivery of services to end users. A learning policy could include: • providing effective learning opportunities (by consulting teachers, students and employers within the community, and by building partnerships with schools, colleges etc); • creating an environment which is conducive to learning (by providing study facilities, education spaces, staff support for learners, IT equipment etc); • responding to political initiatives relating to learning, including applying for funding; • promoting the organisation as a place to learn; • evaluating the impact on learning of all services provided. For a detailed framework on becoming a learning organisation in its widest sense see Inspiring Learning for All. [5]
Children and schools Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives can contribute to the development of children’s intellectual, emotional, social, linguistic and motor skills, help them acquire an aesthetic sense, foster an interest in literature, science and the arts and stimulate creativity.
Calimera Guidelines 54 Learning (formal and informal) The report What did you learn at the museum today? showed that “through the enjoyment, engagement and surprise that pupils experience during their museum visit, they are inspired to learn more, to broaden their aspirations and to feel more confident about themselves as learners”. [6]
Inspiring Children: The Impact of the Summer Reading Challenge (held annually in UK public libraries) gives evidence that children enjoy reading and want to read more, that it broadens their horizons and instils confidence. [7]
Raising educational standards in schools and beyond contains several examples of children using and learning from archives. [8]
Cross domain projects such as CHIMER show how creative children can be given the resources and tools. [9].
In many cases museums, public libraries and archives have privileged relationships with local education authorities, which presents an opportunity to enhance their role in support of the school curriculum. They often have educational departments which provide services such as: • the lending of books, objects and copies of documents etc. to schools for project work; • homework clubs; • an education room, or even a small area, where classes or groups of children can engage in activities like handling objects, making models, cooking, dressing up to “live the life” of people from a different time or place, and using technology to do research on the local area; • an online networked learning environment aimed at children, teachers, parents and carers and accessible in schools, homes, clubs, etc.; • links to specially designed homework help websites which can be particularly useful in remote areas; • specially created online learning packages and directories of resources to support national and local curricula; • support for children who are taught at home, either from choice or necessity, who might otherwise feel isolated. [10]
Support for children’s learning can also be provided in less formal ways, by for example: • providing safe meeting places. “Safe” in this context should be extended to online services (see below); • providing opportunities for shared enjoyment between children and adults involving for example using computers, games, story-telling, exhibitions, film, music and other cultural activities which increase the potential for constructive use of leisure time; • providing services attractive to client groups associated with children, such as parents, grandparents, carers, teachers, childminders and playgroup leaders; • ensuring that opening hours are family friendly; • having interactive exhibits which are especially attractive to children; • organising holiday activities to ensure skills are not lost during time away from school. Calimera Guidelines 55 Learning (formal and informal) Online services for children Back to Scope Children enjoy using ICT as is evidenced by the popularity of computer games. When ICT is used in teaching they are often more likely to be interested and engaged, especially when the systems are interactive and/or enable them to be creative. The UK National Archives Learning Curve, an online teaching and learning resource, is very popular with both teachers and children.[11]
The provision of Internet services to children however requires decisions to be made regarding filtering, and whether access to services such as chat lines should be allowed. Careful consideration must be given to the use of filtering software and/or acceptable use policies which require parents or guardians to give permission before their children can access the Internet. Filtering or blocking is the process of preventing access to sites. For information on European initiatives on filtering, particularly on filtering in different languages, see Net Protect, supported by the European Safer Internet Action Plan [12].
In some legal settings the publicised use of filtering software may create an implied contract with users that they, and especially their children, will not be exposed to harmful or offensive Internet material. No one is in a position to guarantee this and users of terminals on which the software is installed should be made aware of its shortcomings. On the other hand, some jurisdictions in Europe, like some in the USA, may not permit censorship of the Internet. Acceptable Use Policies (AUP) are a way to address these issues: such policies should be made known to both staff and public and should be in line with any national policies such as those produced by national library associations. In some circumstances, the formal acceptance of AUPs is a condition of membership of the institution or of using its facilities. (See Earl issue paper: Internet Acceptable Use Policies. [13].)
Adults Back to Scope Education for adults can be formal or informal. Formal education leads to a qualification and usually takes place in colleges and universities, but can take the form of distance learning linked to a college or university. Cultural institutions often work closely with educational institutions to support formal learning by, for example: • providing study space with books and IST equipment for distance learners; • making their collections available for research purposes; • liaising with teachers in order to provide relevant and timely support for course work; • outreach work, such as providing expert staff to give talks to students; • contributing content for the creation of “learning objects” and Virtual Learning Environments (see e-Learning below).
However, museums, libraries and archives are more often associated with informal learning. This often begins with someone pursuing an interest. Cultural institutions contain resources which can provoke curiosity, stimulate discussion and inspire creativity. They can meet the learning needs of many different kinds of learner. Ideas for services and activities which stimulate learning could include: • theatre, drama and dance workshops; • short courses; Calimera Guidelines 56 Learning (formal and informal) • reader development through book lending, reading groups, author events and provision of appropriate literature for beginning readers; • web-based book selection tools; • book delivery schemes for ethnic minorities who may not find it easy for cultural or social reasons to visit a library; • reminiscence therapy for older people, including the loan of archival boxes to groups, or outreach events such as film shows, to stimulate memories, conversation and interaction; • art exhibitions; • guided tours; • handling of objects; • using archives to teach interpretation and deduction skills; • provision of facilities for people to create and/or add content to community websites, including the loan of recording equipment and/or digital cameras to local groups to record events.
The desire to pursue an interest can lead on to the acquisition of basic skills.
Basic skills and key competencies Back to Scope Basic skills are usually understood to mean literacy and numeracy, but the Lisbon European Council in 2000 identified five additional areas of basic skills for the knowledge-based economy: • ICT (Information and Communication Technology) skills, or digital literacy (see below); • technological culture; • foreign languages; • entrepreneurship • social skills. These have developed into three areas of key competencies [14]: • personal fulfilment and development throughout life (cultural capital): key competences must enable people to pursue individual objectives in life driven by personal interests, aspirations and the desire to continue learning throughout life; • active citizenship and inclusion (social capital): these key competences should allow everybody to participate as an active citizen in society; • employability (human capital): the capacity of each and every person to obtain a decent job in the labour market. Museums, libraries and archives are well placed to contribute towards equipping citizens with all these skills and competencies, as well as more advanced skills (see the guidelines on Social inclusion, eGovernment, and Social and economic development).
Digitalliteracy Back to Scope The e-learning programme [15] promotes digital literacy as one of the basic skills of all Europeans and also addresses the contribution of ICT to learning in general, especially for those who, due to their geographical location, socio-economic situation or special needs, do not have easy access to traditional education and training. The use of ICT provides new learning opportunities, but conversely it can also increase the risk of creating a digital divide which can lead to the social exclusion of those who, for whatever reason do not have, or do not choose to have, access to ICT. New Calimera Guidelines 57 Learning (formal and informal) learning environments, often involving a combination of e-learning and traditional teaching methods, are needed to combat this. Personalised approaches can be very effective (see the guideline on Personalisation). Research shows that museums, libraries and archives can be particularly effective in working with communities and individuals at risk of exclusion, drawing them back into the learning cycle and improving their quality of life. Examples of good practice in this area can be found in the Links. One of the goals of the eEurope 2005 action plan [16] is for all museums, libraries, archives and similar institutions to be connected to broadband networks so that they can play a key role in spreading digital literacy. Many are now providing instruction in this area leading to qualifications such as the ECDL (European Computer Driving Licence) [17].
There is now a need to go beyond ECDL in order to foster the acquisition of related skills, e.g. a European Information Literacy driving licence has been mooted. The European e-Skills Forum has identified a skills gap and recognised the need for more advanced ICT skills including e-business skills. [18].
Employment-related skills Back to Scope Another aim of the eEurope 2005 action plan [16] is to equip everyone with the key skills needed to improve their employability. Many new jobs are being created in the IST sector. Cultural Institutions can provide services ranging from information for job-seekers (newspapers, commercial information etc.) to online learning centres. They can also liaise with local firms to provide specific work-related courses, and can provide knowledge management strategies for small firms, voluntary organisations, charities etc. LearnEast, funded under the EQUAL programme, "is an innovative and stimulating project piloting new ways for public libraries to work at a community level supporting employment for disadvantaged groups [19]." The final report [20] was published in August 2004 and concludes that most success can be achieved through partnership working with formal education providers.
Accreditation Back to Scope Relatively few cultural institutions yet provide structured or accredited learning, e.g. involving tutors or mentors. However, accreditation must be considered if museums, libraries and archives are to be taken seriously as learning providers. This includes accreditation for their own staff for the skills needed to support learners [21], as well as accreditation for learning undertaken by users. Certificates of learning enable comparability between formal and informal learning, are an incentive for learning, and a proof of skills valuable for jobs. This is particularly the case if the qualification is widely recognised like the ECDL [17]. Accreditation can also act as a measurement of impact. Museums, libraries and archives should explore the creation of formal links with accredited educational providers with a view to being able to offer certificates of achievement which would have national and international recognition. with other learning providers (colleges, universities, distance learning organisations, and workplaces) to facilitate accreditation.
Impact (see also the guideline on Performance and evaluation) Back to Scope Accreditation can also act as a measurement of impact [22]. Impact measurement is an important tool in finding out if local management is effective in achieving its objectives. It can also be used to provide evidence of meeting government and other Calimera Guidelines 58 Learning (formal and informal) targets, and also to present to funders when necessary. However, many users of museums, archives and libraries have unfocused and undeveloped agendas for learning and in these cases measurement of impact will usually be a combination of statistics and anecdote. Users make their own judgements about the success or otherwise of their visit (whether on-site or on-line) and surveys can reveal whether they feel that they have increased their knowledge and understanding; improved their intellectual, practical or professional skills; or changed their attitudes or values as a result of their visit. Statistical evidence can take the form of numbers of people reporting that they have moved on to do a formal course, have obtained a job or a better job, or have gained a qualification, etc. e-Learning Back to Scope New technology has increased opportunities for learning and changed the way learning is delivered. Most cultural institutions now have websites, many have set up virtual reference and enquiry points, and communities of interest are being created regardless of geographical location of the members. However, simply displaying objects (taking “objects” in its widest meaning to include books, documents, audio visual formats, pictures and any other digitised resource) on a website is only the beginning of providing an e-learning experience. An “object” needs additional information to enable it to be understood; for example a picture of a household appliance becomes more useful if information about what it was used for is added. As more museums, libraries and archives are digitising their collections they are emerging as storehouses of “digital objects”, or durable digital resources which can be combined together to create “learning objects” usable in a wide variety of learning scenarios. If these “objects” are to be re-usable in many different combinations they need describing using standard metadata schemas. There are various schemas and local museums, libraries and archives may need to seek advice from regional and/or national agencies or professional associations, or from parallel educational agencies, regarding which one to use. They include: • IMS Learning Resource Metadata Specification [23]; • IEEE Learning Object Metadata Standard [24]; • Dublin Core Metadata Initiative [25]; • CanCore (Canadian Core Learning Resource) [26]; • ISO/IEC JTC1 SC36 [27]; • SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) [28]; • UK LOM Core (UK Learning Object Metadata Core) [29].
The use of digital content brings up issues of copyright, authenticity and integrity (see the guidelines on Legal and rights issues and Security). These matters could be dealt with by incorporating metadata about rights issues into the descriptions.
Work is ongoing on standards and specifications for LOM (Learning Object Metadata). For a description of research in this area see the Digicult Report Learning objects from cultural and scientific heritage resources. [30]
Adults as well as children can be motivated and inspired by using ICT. The European Commission set up Netd@ys to raise awareness of new media, sounds and images as resources for learning and teaching. Netd@ys provides an open platform for all those who are willing to display their experiences of educational and cultural Calimera Guidelines 59 Learning (formal and informal) networking and who wish to develop international links with the creative use of new media in day-to-day learning. [31]
Virtual Learning Environments Back to Scope VLEs manage and deliver “learning objects” and administer communication between teachers and students. Their objective is to guide a student through a course of study and they are typically made up of elements such as: • details of the course/curriculum; • details of “learning objects”; • guidance, advice; • assessment, tests, accreditation; • student details, including tracking the student’s progress; • teacher details; • communication methods, e.g. e-mail, online tutor support, discussion groups, peer support, etc.
There are commercial VLE packages available e.g. Lotus LearningSpace, COSE and Learn eXact [32]. At the present time however it is more usual for cultural institutions to provide “learning objects” to educational institutions to be used in their VLEs.
Managed Learning Environments Back to Scope The term MLE is used to include the whole range of systems and processes of relevance to learning within an institution. A VLE may be one of its components, along with student record systems, financial systems, etc.
Interactive television (”T-learning”) Back to Scope Broadcasters are discovering the resources held in museums, libraries and archives to be a rich source of programming content, and curators should seize opportunities to work with them. It may also be an opportunity to make money from the collection (see the guideline on Business models).
Watching a television programme can stimulate visits to a museum, library, archive, gallery or heritage site. Often programmes will advertise links to websites, which will lead to increased virtual visits, or publish booklets to which the cultural institution can contribute, and maybe sell from its gift shop or website.
Digital television is making more channels available so there is more programming time to fill and more choice for viewers. It is also interactive so viewers can take part by answering questions etc., and can personalise it for their own learning use. New ways of storing content mean that much larger amounts of content can be stored than on a video or DVD. Content could be stored locally in the home or remotely and accessed through a distribution channel when required.
The UK Learning and Skills Council is currently (from Sept.2004) conducting a pilot project looking at the feasibility of using interactive TV as a way of engaging people in learning. The Finnish public service broadcaster YLE’s Teema has a channel with cultural and educational programming and interactive services. RTE, the Irish public service broadcaster, has plans for an interactive learning channel. In Italy RAI, the Calimera Guidelines 60 Learning (formal and informal) public service broadcaster, has expanded its video-on-demand schools service via digital satellite, and Stream, one of Italy’s commercial operators, has introduced a language learning interactive service based on multiple-choice questions. (See Links). For a discussion on this subject see Atwere, Daniel and Bates, Peter: Interactive TV: a learning platform with potential [33]. See also Bates, Peter: t- learning Study: a study into TV-based interactive learning to the home. Final Report. pjb Associates, 2003 (This study was carried out with funding from the European Community and includes an overview of developments in European countries) [34].
Mobile learning (“M-learning”) Back to Scope This is learning through a mobile or wireless device. Already many students have access to laptops, and nearly all have mobile phones. Mobile phones are very prevalent among young people, even those at risk of social exclusion, who have not succeeded in the education system, are not currently involved in any education or training and may be unemployed, under employed, or even homeless. Soon it will be common to own a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) which will allow even greater flexibility in terms of where it can be used and how much content it can store. A PDA could for example be used on location in a museum, gallery, archive, library, field centre or heritage site to link with learning modules created by tutors or by the cultural institution. Online seminars and tutorials could be conducted with all students and tutor connected. The e-Innovation Centre in Birmingham, UK, held a workshop in June 2004 on the potential for handheld computers in universities and colleges. [35].
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
The experience gained from projects such as LearnEast [19] needs to be shared across domains and countries to enable the development of similar innovative approaches.
The role of museums, libraries and archives in the learning process needs to be established and recognised by policy makers, the formal education sector and the public.
Museums, libraries and archives need to raise awareness in the education sector of their digital resources. More co-operation is needed between the two sectors.
Research needs to continue into cross-sectoral standards to co-ordinate cultural metadata standards with educational ones. Cultural heritage professionals need to continue to be involved with this.
The creation of reusable “learning objects” will enable resources from any organisation regardless of geographical location, domain, size, etc, to be linked together for educational purposes. For example information about World War II from all over Europe could be brought together, including documents in archives, militaria in museums, books in libraries, reminiscences on websites and in sound archives, popular music of the time, films, etc.
Calimera Guidelines 61 Learning (formal and informal) The spread of broadband connections, interactive TV and mobile technology is opening up learning opportunities.
Content from TVs, websites etc. can be downloaded onto mobile devices. As the capacity of PDAs and mobile phones increases people will be able to learn on the move, e.g. on the train.
Broadcasters and those in mainstream education and training need to work together on ways to utilise the range of interactive digital TV technology solutions that are starting to emerge. They should aim to move the focus from broadcast/scheduled programmes to interactive personalised TV.
Cultural heritage institutions, as content providers, should aim to produce digital content that will work with the full range of digital delivery technologies
In the future people will be able to access VLEs whenever and wherever they want to. Content in cultural institutions will reach wide audiences without wear and tear on originals.
Technology is already enabling museums, libraries and archives to deliver exciting informal learning experiences such as personalised guided tours and virtual tours. Future developments in this area will be limited only by imagination.
The challenge facing society now is to bring together teachers, service providers and the developers of course content, including cultural heritage institutions, in order to make available to everyone relevant, stimulating, affordable and high-quality learning services.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality. EC, 2001. http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lll/life/communication/com_en.pdf
[2] Education and training 2010: diverse systems, shared goals. http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/et_2010_en.html
[3] An Integrated Action Programme in Lifelong Learning http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/education_culture/newprog/index_en.html
[4] PLOTEUS: a Portal on Learning Opportunities throughout Europe http://europa.eu.int/ploteus/portal/about.jsp The Learning Citizen http://www.learningcitizen.net/
[5] Inspiring learning for all: a vision for accessible learning in museums, archives and libraries. MLA, 2004. http://www.mla.gov.uk/action/learnacc/00insplearn.asp
Calimera Guidelines 62 Learning (formal and informal) [6] Research Centre for Museums and Galleries: What did you learn at the museum today? MLA, 2004. ISBN 190374346X. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185exec.doc
[7] Inspiring Children: The Impact of the Summer Reading Challenge. The Reading Agency. http://www.readingagency.co.uk/
[8] Raising educational standards in schools and beyond: the contribution from cultural services. Local Government Association, November 2003. http://www.renewal.net/Documents/RNET/Research/Raisingeducationalstandards.pdf
[9] CHIMER http://www.chimer.lt/index.en.htm
[10] See for example Education Otherwise http://www.education-otherwise.org/
[11] Learning Curve http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/
[12] Net Protect, supported by the European Safer Internet Action Plan http://www.net-protect.org/en/default.htm.
[13] Earl issue paper: Internet Acceptable Use Policies. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/earl/issuepapers/internet.html.
[14] The key competencies in a knowledge-based economy: a first step towards selection, definition and description. March 2002. http://www.cede.it/ri2003/moe/sito/docCD/Altri%20documenti%20Commissione%20 Europea/key%20competencies_27_03_02_en.doc
[15] A Programme for the Effective Integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Education and Training Systems in Europe (2004 – 2006) http://elearningeuropa.info/doc.php?lng=l&id=4552&doclng=1
[16] eEurope 2005 action plan http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/index_en.htm
[17] European Computer Driving Licence. http://www.ecdl.com/
[18] The European e-Skills Forum: e-Skills for Europe: towards 2010 and beyond. Synthesis Report, September 2004. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/ict/policy/doc/e-skills-forum-2004-09-fsr.pdf
[19] LearnEast: Public Libraries Supporting Employment http://www.learneast.com/
[20]Public Libraries and the EQUAL Agenda: public libraries, social inclusion and lifelong learning in the United Kingdom, Italy and France. Final Report [by] Rob Davies and David Fuegi, MDR Partners. (Italian case study by Pier Giacomo Sola and Alessandra Tagliavini, Amitié). August 2004. Calimera Guidelines 63 Learning (formal and informal) http://www.learneast.com/transnational/documents/EQUALcomparativestudy- finalsept.04.pdf
[21] See for example the UK Guidance Accreditation Board http://www.gab.org.uk/
[22] For a report on a pilot study to measure impact see The generic learning outcome system: measuring the outcomes and impact of learning in museums, archives and libraries. The Learning Impact Research Project (LIRP): short project report. MLA, [2004?]. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/insplearn_lirp_rep.doc
[23] IMS Learning Resource Metadata Specification http://www.imsproject.org/metadata/
[24] IEEE Learning Object Metadata Standard http://Ltsc.ieee.org/wg12/
[25] Dublin Core Metadata Initiative http://dublincore.org/groups/education
[26] CanCore (Canadian Core Learning Resource) http://www.cancore.ca
[27] ISO/IEC JTC1 SC36 http://jtc1sc36.org/
[28] SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) http://www.adlnet.org/
[29] UK LOM Core (UK Learning Object Metadata Core) http://www.cetis.ac.uk/profiles/uklomcore
[30] Learning objects from cultural and scientific heritage resources. Digicult Thematic Issue 4. October 2003.ISBN 39024480106. http://www.digicult.info/pages/Themiss.php
[31] Netd@ys http://www.netdayseurope.org/
[32] Lotus LearningSpace http://www.lotus.com/products/learnspace.nsf/wdocs/homepage; COSE http://www.staffs.ac.uk/COSE/: Learn eXact http://www.learnexact.com/.
[33] Atwere, Daniel and Bates, Peter: Interactive TV: a learning platform with potential. Learning and Skills Development Agency, 2003. ISBN 1853388351. http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1443.pdf
[34] Bates, Peter: t-learning Study: a study into TV-based interactive learning to the home. Final Report. pjb Associates, 2003. http://www.pjb.co.uk/t-learning/contents.htm.)
[35] A National Workshop and Tutorial on Handheld Computers in Universities and Colleges (11th June 2004). Calimera Guidelines 64 Learning (formal and informal) http://www.e-innovationcentre.co.uk/events/110604/110604.htm
LINKS Back to Scope
International
Intel Computer Clubhouse Network This is an after-school learning environment for young people aged 10-18. The aim is for young people from disadvantaged communities to become technology literate. Members have access to state of the art computer technology to create animation, music, videos, graphic and Web designs, robotic constructions and computer programmes. Volunteer mentors come from Intel, the local community, IT facilities and colleges to support club members in their work. The first club was created in 1993 by the MIT Media Lab and the Computer Museum, now part of the Museum of Science, Boston, USA. There are now more than 60 Intel Computer Clubhouses in 10 countries, including Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy and the Netherlands. http://www.intel.com/education/icc/
Europe
The Learning Citizen EC sponsored initiative with the specific objective of facilitating and enhancing lifelong learning for all members of society. http://www.learningcitizen.net/ m-learning This EU IST 5th framework project was set up to develop and test mobile communications systems for the education of young adults, specifically those most at risk of social exclusion. The aim of the project is to investigate how the technologies popular with these young people might be used to engage them in learning activities, start to change their attitudes to learning and thereby contribute to improving their skills, opportunities and lives. Trials are taking place in Italy, Sweden and the UK. http://www.m-learning.org/index.shtml
Austria
ZOOM Kindermuseum This is a place of playful inquiry, learning and discovery for children. It gives young museum visitors the chance to ZOOM in on new situations and use all their senses to grasp the world around them. http://www.kindermuseum.at/
Belgium
Stichting Lezen Vlaanderen (Reading Foundation) Collaborates with libraries to promote reading through campaigns and projects e.g. ”Youth Book Week”, ”Fahrenheit 451”, “Read to others Week”, etc. http://www.stichtinglezen.be/
Bulgaria Calimera Guidelines 65 Learning (formal and informal) Kids on the web – project of Dobrich Municipality Library The aim is to introduce children to ICT, and to the opportunities of the Internet for making contacts and for searching for information. http://www.libdgabe.dobrich.net
Croatia
Zadar City Library website The children’s department website was designed together with children, and because of its simple maintenance, its interactive content is fed by children. For example children design online quizzes themselves, and winners receive gifts from the library. http://www.gkzd.hr
Czech Republic
Karlovy Vary and Plzeň public libraries It is possible to get the international certification ECDL (European Computer Driving Licennce) in the Educational Centres of the Libraries in Karlovy Vary and Plzeň. http://www.knihovna.kvary.cz; http://www.svkpl.cz/
Knowledge for everybody (Mudrc pro každého) Special websites for children and young adults with information adapted to their needs. http://www.knihovna.kvary.cz/Portal/UVOD/MUDRC.HTM
Memory Institutions in Kromeriz - Competition for Children Competition organised by all memory institutions in the town (archive, library, castle and museum). Each institution contributes a few questions and the children must visit every institution and use their online catalogues etc. to find the answers. http://www.knihkm.cz
Univerzita Volného Času University of free time in the Regional Library of Highlands in Havlickuv Brod. http://www.kkvysociny.cz/UVC/default.htm
Finland
ELEF : North Karelia Co-project of three main Joensuu libraries, the polytechnic, the city and the university, to help customers and staff learn new skills (e.g. information literacy) and the knowledge needed in the information society. http://www.ncp.fi/projektit/elef/pohjois-karjala/eng/index.html
Tiedonhankinnan taidot The material on this site, which is part of ELEF Northern Savo, is suitable both for private study and for the teaching of information retrieval skills. http://www.uku.fi/elef/tiedonhankinta/
YLE Teema Calimera Guidelines 66 Learning (formal and informal) Digital TV channel dedicated exclusively to culture, science and education. http://www.yle.fi/teema/
France
CARIBAL-ÉDIST Funded by the EQUAL Programme and a partner in the LearnEast Project, this project aims to improve lifelong learning opportunities, particularly among older workers in Martinique, by training library staff to benefit the communities served. http://malavoi.martinique.univ-ag.fr/caribal-edist/index1.php
Ireland
LifeSteps Public libraries initiative which provides the general public with instructions for using the Internet to achieve particular life goals, e.g. shopping, travelling, preparing for a driving test, planning for retirement, etc. Backed up by support from library staff and the availability of public-access Internet PCs in every library, the project aims to encourage the day to day use of the Internet and overcome the digital divide. http://www.lifesteps.ie/
Italy
Abside Project within the framework of the EQUAL Programme, launched by the European Union to facilitate the inclusion of disadvantaged people. The project aims to test how new models based on training services offered by libraries can support activities targeting discrimination and exclusion problems. The project targets both librarians and end-users. http://www.amitie.it/; http://www.britishcouncil.org/tisa_abside.ppt
Macedonia
Heritage Education on Web Sites This web application arose from a 3-month project of interactive heritage education involving the Museum of Macedonia and groups of high-school students from Skopje and Norway, within the framework of European Heritage Days 2002. Works created by the students were displayed on the site so that they could be seen by many more young people in both countries. The web-application was chosen as a completely new way for young people to learn about the heritage of another country without spending money on travelling and accommodation. http://edkn.com.mk
Norway
Terra Buskerud This is a web-based tool developed mainly for educational purposes aimed at strengthening interaction between schools and the cultural sector. The county is co operating with archives, libraries and museums to develop an extensive database about the history of the county of Buskerud. Pupils are also producing content. This is a new way of publishing historical content covering a long time span as a Calimera Guidelines 67 Learning (formal and informal) multimedia presentation. The service also has a version for users with a visual disability. It is part of a Scandinavian project, Terra Scaniae, (http://www.ts.skane.se/), and there are plans to extend it to the Baltic countries. http://www.historieboka.no
Portugal
Project BiblioCiência To contribute to the fight against low performance levels of Portuguese students in science and mathematics, the Department of Libraries and Archives from Lisbon Municipality visit schools with a bus equipped with a laboratory. The bus is linked with five municipal libraries. Schoolchildren are invited to visit these libraries in order to play games about science and do scientific experiments as well as to borrow books and other library documents about science. There is also an Internet site to which teachers and library staff can upload contents to use during classes and to support homework. http://www.bibliociencia.cm-lisboa.pt/
Romania
Ethnographic Museum of Transylvania Cluj-Napoca The museum has developed a multimedia CD about Ion Creanga, a famous Romanian writer, for use in schools which do not have access otherwise. Because of the audio-video features, children with disabilities can use it. Also used in the City Prison.
Russia
Local Studies School for the Young The Central City Children’s Library of Ozyorsk has developed and implemented a local studies project, which includes a programme of additional education for schoolchildren. The programme contains lesson scenarios, tests and event scenarios. http://ch-lib.ozersk.ru/projects/enc/krai/index_kr.html
Obruch The Central Children's Library of Kamensk-Uralsk has developed and implemented this programme under which the Infancy Problems Information Centre has been established. Targeted at child readers and adults involved in childcare, the programme aims to develop a wide range of intellectual, social, ethical and basic life skills. http://k-uralsk.ru/bazhov/bazhov2.shtml
Program of Establishment and Development of a Virtual Children's Centre of the Northern Administration District of the City of Moscow on the Basis of Children's Library N 149 The Central Library (the Gorky Library) of the Northern Administration District of Moscow has developed and implemented this project, which is aimed at developing the intellectual and cultural potential of teenagers. http://www.big75.org.ru/v_center.doc
Slovenia Calimera Guidelines 68 Learning (formal and informal) Slovene book quiz for children Multimedia reading project for elementary schoolchildren. Its theme is traditional (a Slovene author and his/her native region), but its form is very modern (an interactive literacy project that makes schoolchildren use libraries and look for information sources (books, periodicals, audio-visual material, internet pages, etc.). http://www.lj-oz.sik.si/kviz/
Spain
Gabinetes Pedagógicos de Bellas Artes of Andalusia Museums, libraries and archives have benefited from the work carried out by these organisations which work with children and schools to open local memory institutions to the community. http://averroes.cec.junta-andalucia.es/gabinetes/
Internet para todos This is an initiative of the Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, whose aim is to foster Internet literacy in the population at large. A network of centres co operates in the project to provide the ECDL (European Computer Driving Licence). http://www.internetparatodos.es
TUNE Project (Training of library users in a new Europe) This project, developed by the Regional Library of Castile-La Mancha, the Public Library of Helsinbörg (Sweden) and the Public Library of Ränders (Denmark), and funded by the EU programme Culture 2000, promotes digital literacy for library users. http://www.jccm.es/biblioclm/
Sweden
Arkiv och skolungdom i Värmland (Archives and School Children in Värmland) School learning package that introduces pupils to archives. http://www.ra.se/vla/index.html
Kunskapskanalen (The Channel of Knowledge) An interactive channel established in co-operation with Swedish public libraries through the e-service “Ask the library!” http://www.kunskapskanalen.se/
United Kingdom
Ask Chris This is an online and interactive source of reading advice. The “Quick Reads” section is a unique feature developed in conjunction with Basic Skills tutors in the Adult Education Department of Essex County Council to support emergent readers. http://www.essexxcc.gov.uk/askchris
Be Websmart This project developed by Dumfries and Galloway Libraries, Information and Archives promotes safe and responsible use of the Internet, by demonstrating a creative and Calimera Guidelines 69 Learning (formal and informal) positive use of Internet resources, in particular chatrooms. It has raised awareness of the positive contribution to be made by local libraries in addressing community safety issues. http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/lia
Cambridgeshire Libraries - Ely Learning Centre Courses Ely Learning Centre is accredited by the British Computer Society to offer ECDL, and by the OCR Examinations Board (University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate) to offer New CLAIT and CLAIT Plus, and is one of relatively few public library services in the UK offering learning leading to a qualification. http://www.camcnty.gov.uk/library/learning/ely/courses.htm
Curriculum Online An online catalogue which gives teachers easy access to a wide range of multimedia teaching and learning resources, all linked to the school curriculum in England. Museums, libraries and archives are among suppliers of content, and there is a special section of the website for them dealing with how to prepare content etc. There are also examples of good practice. http://www.curriculumonline.gov.uk/culture
'Hands-On Learning' with Reading Museum Service A service for schools based on the use of real museum objects. It is a collaborative project supported by museum curators and devised by teachers and includes interactive online services as well as more traditional visits and loans etc. http://www.readingmuseum.org.uk/handson/index.htm
I Can Read You Like A Book An online book group hosted by East Lothian Libraries, Scotland, for people who don't have the time, opportunity, or confidence to attend a group in their community. Members are welcome from anywhere in the world and can post and read messages about books on a different theme each month. http://www.icanreadyoulikeabook.org.uk/index.html
KickstartTV The Learning and Skills Council is conducting a pilot project looking at the feasibility and effectiveness of using interactive digital TV as a way of attracting adults to learning. In the pilot phase (6 months from September 2004) it will be aimed at improving literacy and numeracy through activities, quizzes and games in subjects such as job skills, DIY, gardening, shopping, money matters, health and cookery. http://ferl.becta.org.uk/display.cfm?resID=8055
Metadata for Education Group (MEG) MEG is considering the implications for metadata to support Managed or Virtual Learning Environments (MLEs, VLEs). http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/education/
SCRAN (Scottish Cultural Resources Access Network) Award winning learning image website with access to quality images, sounds, movies and learning resources, including over 300,000 images from museums, galleries and archives. The full service is available on subscription to schools, tertiary education, libraries, museums, and community and home users. http://www.scran.ac.uk/ Calimera Guidelines 70 Learning (formal and informal) USA
Connecticut History Online (CHO) Provides information, lessons, activities and other resources to help teachers and students use Connecticut History Online as a window to the past and tool for discovery and understanding. http://www.cthistoryonline.org/classroom.html
Lower East Side Tenement Museum At this museum new immigrants learn English through the letters and diaries of immigrants of an earlier century. http://www.tenement.org/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 71 Learning (formal and informal) Calimera Guidelines Social and economic development
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Cultural tourism Ancestral tourism Inward investment Information resources Information services Knowledge management Charges and licences Service delivery Staff skills Neighbourhood regeneration The culture industry Publicity, marketing and outreach
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Amartya Sen, Nobel prize-winning economist, believes that without culture there can be no sustainable development. What this means is that culture, through its relationship with lifestyle, sense of place, education and social cohesion, is integral to the conditions for economic success.
The European Union recognises that Europe's cultural heritage is a precious asset in economic terms and supports a number of projects in this area [1]. Because of their experience in the digital world, museums, libraries and archives are key players in the rapid progress towards a knowledge-based society driven by digital technologies, which is a goal of the European Union [2]. The eEurope 2005 Action Plan [3] objective is that Europe should have modern online public services (eGovernment, e- learning services, e-health services) and a dynamic e-business environment and, as an enabler for these, widespread availability of broadband access at competitive prices and a secure information infrastructure. The EU is addressing the need for policies to bridge the digital divide [4]. Museums, libraries and archives can provide direct online access via PCs, they can provide facilities for online learning, their staff can provide training, and they can provide access to information to support the growth of e-business, which embraces both e-commerce (trading online) and the use of ICT to transform traditional business procedures. Museums, libraries and archives can help to develop a strong local economy by supporting local business and industry in a number of ways, including by • attracting tourism and inward investment. Cultural facilities greatly support the economy of a region by stimulating tourism and attracting inward investment. Museums, libraries and archives can contribute to promoting the region to the
Calimera Guidelines 72 Social and economic development rest of the world. People anywhere in the world can obtain access to what is local information to its originators, so opening up the world to virtual cultural tourism. The EU is keen to maintain a diverse cultural heritage. Local history research helps to foster a sense of community, and local digitisation projects, which help people digitise their own material, or material from the museum, archive or library, in new combinations, creating virtual tours around buildings or towns, or based on families or themes, add an exciting dimension to this; • offering information services. Economic development relies on successful industry, business and commerce, and businesses require information and knowledge. Information services and knowledge management are core services of museums, libraries and archives. Their staff are skilled managers, classifiers, preservers, interpreters and distributors of content. ICT has changed these services exponentially, both in terms of content and method of delivery. Access can now be provided to information from all over the world, at great speed, via sophisticated delivery channels.
Museums, libraries and archives are themselves part of the “culture industry” which has both qualitative and quantitative effects on the social and economic conditions of communities. The social effects are addressed in the guidelines on Social inclusion and Cultural identity and cohesion. The economic effects can be measured by quantifying the impact of local cultural heritage institutions in terms of jobs and job creation, neighbourhood regeneration and sustainability, inward investment and cultural tourism, as well as support for local business and industry [5].
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Culturaltourism Back to Scope Tourism has become a major generator of economic activity as traditional mass employment industries downsize. Cultural tourism can be defined as visits by people from outside the area attracted by interest in the historic, artistic, scientific, lifestyle or heritage attractions of the area. The European City of Culture programme, now the European Capital of Culture programme [6], gives European cities an ideal opportunity to celebrate their cultural accomplishments, and past Cities of Culture have experienced substantial economic and social benefits.
Museums and galleries in particular can attract huge numbers of people to an area. Any economic or cultural use should of course always respect the specific nature of the collections and buildings and their safety and care. Small local museums can help to sustain a community by attracting enough visitors to support local shops, restaurants, hotels and petrol stations. Knowledge-based tourism, where visitors “do their homework” before visiting and want to interact with the community and learn from their experience at more than a superficial level, is on the increase, driven in part by the Internet which enables people to find out much more about a place prior to visiting. Museums, libraries and archives can have a big input here through their websites.
Ancestral tourism Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 73 Social and economic development The ancestral tourism market is also growing, fuelled by an interest in family history. Archives have a central role to play in the development of this market, attracting visitors from all over the world through their websites, and by adding to people’s experience the excitement of seeing original documents, maps, etc. Libraries contribute to cultural and ancestral tourism through their local studies collections which often hold material unique to the area. Community information on library websites can be invaluable to tourists preparing for a visit, as people increasingly make their own travel and accommodation arrangements.
Heritage institutions should consider adding extra facilities such as shops and cafes as these can bring in much extra income, not only to the institution itself but to the neighbourhood as people are encouraged to stay longer and spend more.
Inward investment Back to Scope Tourism is only one of the ways in which cultural heritage institutions can attract inward investment. Local people using a museum, library or record office will often combine their visit with shopping, banking, and using other services. People from outside the area looking to set up a business in the area, and individuals thinking of moving into the area, will be attracted by the presence of good local amenities, including cultural and leisure facilities as well as shops, schools, housing, and service industries. The availability of labour will also be a factor in attracting incoming businesses, and as learning organisations museums, libraries and archives provide opportunities for people to improve their skills. (See the guideline on Learning.)
Information resources Back to Scope Social and economic development depends on an economically active, socially cohesive and well-informed citizenry, who know about their responsibilities and rights. Access to excellent sources of information empowers individuals, helping them to improve their lives. Museums, libraries and archives are storehouses of information resources, much of it eminently suited to digitisation, making searching of huge amounts of data easier and quicker (see the guideline on Discovery and retrieval). Types of information resources useful in supporting social and economic development include: • community information – about local organisations, government, and services of all kinds. It is now very common for this to be provided on library websites. (See the guideline on eGovernment); • cultural information – about local events, places to visit, leisure and sporting venues etc. This is now also commonly available on websites, as well as in the form of leaflets and posters. (See the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion); • business information - the provision of business information is an important way in which institutions can support local firms. Although many businesses increasingly rely heavily on online sources for information, they can still benefit from the professional services provided by libraries in particular. Skilled staff can deal with the problems of unskilled searching, information overload, selection of relevant, reliable, accurate and up-to-date information, etc. This type of information will increasingly be in digital form and may be on subscription- based websites or CD-ROM. It includes: ° directories of companies, both national and international; ° company reports; Calimera Guidelines 74 Social and economic development ° collections of statistics both national and international published by official and other bodies; ° technical information including standards; ° information on patents, manufacturing and trading; ° information relating to the creditworthiness of companies either locally or nationally; ° national and foreign newspapers; ° local newspapers and newspaper reports on commercial and business subjects; ° information for those starting up new businesses e.g. trade names, company names, grants, registration etc.; ° information on importing and exporting including customs tariffs; ° local marketing information; ° market research reports; ° local information about the employment situation, skills available, land and buildings available, etc.; ° European and wider international information of use to local businesses trading in other countries; ° national information about government departments, chambers of commerce, professional organisations, trade associations, local government organisations etc. which may be of use to business; ° information of relevance to businesses e.g. local events, local voluntary groups, political organisations and pressure groups, administrative bodies, political representatives, trade unions, employment agencies, tourist information, transport information, local government information, local businesses; • legal information such as: ° national laws and regulations applicable to the whole country, and applicable only to the local area; ° local byelaws; ° European directives and regulations; ° international law such as environmental regulations, human rights declarations, race relations legislation, etc.; ° solicitors and barristers, locally and nationally; ° the court system locally and nationally; ° the police service, the prison service, the probation service, the criminal injuries service; ° local legal advice services such as citizens' advice bureaux; ° welfare benefits and rights; ° taxation law; ° employment law, health and safety law, trade union law, etc.
Information services Back to Scope Technology has increased the range of services which museums, libraries and archives can offer to the public, the business community and to visitors to the area. As centres of knowledge and information they support formal and informal learning, help people develop lifestyle and leisure interests, and preserve and promote the area’s culture and heritage. Specific services which support economic and social development and neighbourhood regeneration might include: Calimera Guidelines 75 Social and economic development • specialised research such as literature searches, genealogical research and research on the history of buildings etc.; • business services such as searches for technical standards, patents or regulations, credit checks on companies, EU tenders, in depth reports on the recent history of selected companies, and the creation of mailing lists for marketing purposes; • opportunities for research leading to innovation which in turn leads to competitive advantage; • personalised services tailored to the needs of individuals, groups, organisations and firms (see the guideline on Personalisation); • facilities for local firms, groups or individuals to digitise local materials according to agreed standards so adding to the local cultural heritage; • training in the use of technology and in finding and evaluating information; • the creation, hosting and managing of websites for local firms and community groups; • computers, not only for Internet searching, but also loaded with office software so that people can write letters and reports, do homework, produce publicity materials, do accounts, prepare presentations, and design web pages etc.; • computers for particular uses e.g. dedicated to websites on particular subjects, or with access to subscription databases; • special areas for activities for groups, schools, adult education classes, etc.; • display areas for local artists, photographers, sculptors, embroiderers etc. to display their work; • facilities for the performing arts e.g. local dramatic and musical groups, with sets of plays and music available for loan to drama groups, orchestras and choirs; • assisting with information for publicity and marketing campaigns e.g. a museum might provide examples of old machinery, or archives might have photographs of old shop fronts or factories; • special areas dedicated to, for example, health information, or careers information. These areas might be staffed at advertised times by staff from another organisation; for example staff from the local careers department might be available in the careers section of a library to offer advice and hold interviews, or staff from a local college might attend to advise on courses. Careers sections can be linked to learning centres; • referral to other specialist services such as advice bureaux, chambers of commerce, local authority departments.
Knowledgemanagement Back to Scope Knowledge management is the process through which organisations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets, which fall into two categories: explicit (broadly, anything which can be documented) and tacit (the knowledge contained in people's heads). Skilled and experienced staff are in themselves a valuable asset of a heritage institution. However they can also provide a knowledge management service to other organisations and businesses, by helping them to organise and make the best use of their knowledge-based assets.
Charging and licences Back to Scope In most countries public libraries and archives usually offer a basic level of service free of charge. Some local institutions however, especially museums, may make a
Calimera Guidelines 76 Social and economic development charge, for example for entry, with maybe a higher charge for special exhibitions etc.
Regarding information services, where specialised services are offered, consideration may need to be given to one-off charges or an annual subscription for some added- value services, e.g. where the institution has had to pay database or other fees and needs to recover the cost. Requiring companies or individual users to pay an annual subscription for 'value-added' services requires a decision on what to include in the basic level of service. Because of the expense involved in compiling specialised information databases, there are often rules, usually contained in a licence, which govern its use in public institutions which go beyond the normal protection granted by the copyright laws. The institution will need to decide what conditions of use will be acceptable to its users and compatible with its work practices.
Servicedelivery Back to Scope Technology has revolutionised the way people access services. People now expect services to be available whenever and wherever they need them. Communication with users will need to be by a variety of methods (e-mail, contact centres, chatlines, weblogs, videoconferencing, Internet delivered by broadband, satellite or wireless networks, mobile devices, kiosks, digital and interactive TV, as well as traditional visits, telephone calls and fax) to meet the needs of all users. Integrated systems can now do more than perform traditional housekeeping applications. Through resource discovery and guided access methods they can provide access to content. Examples of delivery methods include: • contact centres - enquiries can be taken by any means - from a web site, by e- mail, by telephone or fax, or in person - and dealt with by the most appropriate member of staff, which makes efficient use of specialist staff and allows other staff to contribute and gain skills and experience. Enquiries can be logged using enquiry management software which tracks the progress of each enquiry, and allows enquiries to be passed to other staff when someone goes off duty, important when an institution is open long hours. Such management software also gives valuable information on usage and can monitor the effect of any promotional activities and so enable targeting of publicity to audiences who might be underusing the system. Call centres are often organised on a local authority- wide basis, and libraries in particular are well placed to take the lead in running these; • "Ask a Librarian" type services - these are now available in many countries, and internationally. Libraries throughout the network collaborate to provide the service usually on a rota basis. Questions are placed on an enquiry page which is automatically routed to one of the participating reference libraries which receives it as an e-mail message. Librarians respond by e-mail to the enquirer as soon as possible. Enquiry services shared across several countries and time zones are particularly useful for smaller institutions as they enable a service to be given around the clock including during hours when the local institution is closed, and they give access to the expertise of other institutions. This type of shared service could be used by museums and archives, but is perhaps not so applicable where enquiries tend to be specific to the institution; • "Talk-to-a-person" type services - these use chat line technology to allow enquirers to talk to a member of staff in real time. Like the “Ask a Librarian” type Calimera Guidelines 77 Social and economic development services they can be shared across countries and time zones with similar benefits for small institutions; • co-browsing techniques - these enable staff to assist in searching databases or the Internet; • portals which integrate access to a range of different sources and present them through subject gateways; • websites – most institutions now have a website and these can be used to provide a number of services e.g. ° virtual tours of the institution; ° pictures of and information about exhibits; ° access to catalogues (with facilities for placing requests, renewing loans etc.); ° access to databases such as community information databases; ° the ability to view, read or listen to digitised materials of all types; ° links to other relevant web sites; ° FAQ services; ° bulletin boards with news of coming events; ° contact or “ask a question” pages. For a guide to digital reference services see Berube, Linda: Digital Reference Overview. Networked Services Policy Task Group, February 2003. [7]
Staff skills (see the guideline on Staffing) Back to Scope Skilled and experienced staff are in themselves a valuable asset of a heritage institution. The work of a high quality information service in a heritage institution is complex and demands considerable expertise on the part of those running it and those providing the service directly to users. This expertise requires a combination of experience and aptitude. The expertise which these staff build up during the course of their work is a valuable resource for the service as a whole.
Neighbourhood regeneration Back to Scope The presence of a cultural heritage institution in a community can contribute to neighbourhood regeneration in a number of other ways, such as: • direct employment of staff; • indirect employment through demand for goods and services, both for staff as individuals and for the institution; • revenue from fees, charges and commercial activities (museum shops, archive publications, in-house cafes, specialist research, booksales, etc.) when re-invested in the institution; • revenue from e-commerce which draws income from a potentially global audience (online sales of tickets for exhibitions, membership subscriptions, goods and services); • contribution to rent and rates; • creation of a market for broadband, and also for ICT equipment and associated services; • job creation – directly, but also by providing opportunities for learning new skills.
Social and economic sustainability is dependent on jobs. The information society places new and ever-changing requirements on skills and training. Workers must be adaptable and able to learn and relearn throughout their working lives. Museums, libraries and archives are important providers in the lifelong learning sector, Calimera Guidelines 78 Social and economic development providing the stimulation to learn at every level (see the guideline on Learning). They need to collaborate and form partnerships with industry and education and training organisations to develop the skills needed in the local economy. With specific relevance to economic development they can for example provide: • access to computers for job related purposes such as looking for vacancies and writing CVs and applications; • access to computers for educational purposes such as learning computer skills or improving basic skills which can lead on to getting a job, or a better job; • virtual learning environments, as well as safe physical places to study; • access to the materials needed for learning; • access to educational and employment related information e.g. about courses at colleges etc., careers, qualifications, job opportunities, etc.
Theculture industry Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives are part of the “culture industry”, made up of the creative and knowledge industries based on intellectual property, which now accounts for more than half of all employment in developed countries. As well as being part of this industry they are well placed to support and co-operate with it. The broadcast media for example now recognises that historical and heritage programmes attract large audiences, and museums, libraries and archives can capitalise on this, both by working with programme producers etc., and by attracting post-programme visits. In support of economic development they can also make links with the tourist and travel industries, and with local entertainment and leisure industries.
Publicity, marketing and outreach Back to Scope People, including other organisations and businesses, will not necessarily know the range of services the local institution can provide, so marketing will be necessary. The institution may need to be particularly pro-active in this regard. Maximum use should be made of technology in order to reach as wide an audience possible. Marketing methods could include: • a well designed and accessible website. As these can be seen anywhere in the world the potential for promoting the service and the region is immense. The inclusion of contact pages enables users to get in touch with the service directly; • a newsletter; • mail shots to potential users of the service; • the preparation and distribution of leaflets; • visits to local companies, schools, colleges, community groups etc. to make sure they are aware of the service; • speaking to groups of local people and to organisations; • outreach activities for highly skilled staff such as training away from the building, e.g. on business premises, in colleges, in community centres in rural areas, etc., taking part in local festivals and carnivals, organising events and exhibitions in the community, etc; • active participation of staff/ directors of museums, libraries and archives in public debate forums such as newspapers, TV and radio programmes.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 79 Social and economic development It is estimated that the creative economy is growing at the rate of 5% a year. About 40% of the increase in productivity in Europe since the mid-1990s has been due to the use of information technologies. The ICT sector produces about 8% of GNP. The cultural heritage sector needs to position itself to take advantage of this.
The rapid development of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) will open up access to collections and information in new and more interactive ways. Museums, libraries and archives need to make use of this trend to encourage use by new audiences not traditionally drawn to them.
Museums, libraries and archives need to be proactive in ensuring that they are recognised as access points for knowledge, information and learning, as skilled gateways, guides and navigators in the digital environment. They will need to develop virtual learning environments to increase their impact in the lifelong learning sector.
New digital online services are already overtaking traditional broadcast media because of their interactivity, global reach, accessibility regardless of location, and possibilities for do-it-yourself publishing. Museums, libraries and archives will need to put forward their storehouses of content to feed this new environment, which will stimulate tourism and e-tourism, inspire creativity, and create jobs and wealth.
Services are now expected to be available round the clock, increasingly provided by networks of institutions which can call on the skills and resources of cultural institutions around the globe and from the academic, special and research sector as well as the public sector (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership).
People’s expectations have been raised by banks and retail organisations and they will require services and information to be tailored to their requirements (see the guideline on Personalisation).
People's needs for information will grow in order to fulfil their roles as citizens in the modern world (see the guideline on eGovernment). Museums, libraries and archives need to position themselves in the forefront of information providers.
Tourism features largely in economic development. Promotion of, and production of, cultural information, will increase in importance as long as tourism continues to be a growth industry. Museums, libraries and archives will need to use technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) to increase the usefulness of their websites to cultural tourism and to exploit mobile technologies.
Museums, libraries and archives will need to provide services using a variety of delivery channels including networks, mobile devices, kiosks, and digital television.
Increasingly museums, libraries and archives will need to provide services and communicate with users by a variety of delivery systems e.g. broadband, wireless, e- mail, chatroom-type live conversation, video-conferencing, and call centres. Remote
Calimera Guidelines 80 Social and economic development access via mobile devices, laptop PCs, etc. may well become the norm, as people on the move require information.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Cultural heritage as a factor in economic development http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture/activities/cultural_heritage_dev_en.htm
[2] Towards a Knowledge-based Europe http://europa.eu.int/comm/publications/booklets/move/36/en.pdf
[3] eEurope 2005 Action Plan http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/action_plan/index_ en.htm
[4] Bridging the 'digital divide': EU policies. Nov. 2004. http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-132315-16&type=LinksDossier
[5] South West Museums, Libraries and Archives Council: Making a difference: the impact of museums, libraries and archives in the South West, May 2004; and The economic contribution of museums, libraries and archives in the South West, April 2004. http://www.swmlac.org.uk
[6] European Capitals of Culture http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture/eac/other_actions/cap_europ/cap_eu_en.html
[7] Berube, Linda: Digital Reference Overview. Networked Services Policy Task Group, February 2003. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/nsptg/virtual/
LINKS Back to Scope
Croatia
Zadar City Library website Collaborative portal for community information. Hot issues are reflected through forums and polls. A dynamic, script-driven web application is used to enable local community librarians to update the site using simple web-forms and basic computer- graphic skills. Free and open-source software, PHP and MySQL, is used. http://www.gkzd.hr
Pitajte knjižničare – Ask a librarian New collaborative reference service offered by 15 public libraries throughout Croatia. Inclusion of additional libraries, plus museums and archives, is planned. http://jagor.srce.hr/pitajte-knjiznicare
Czech Republic
Information Centre UNESCO Calimera Guidelines 81 Social and economic development Electronic information service prepared by the public library (http://www.knihkm.cz) in co-operation with the Club UNESCO. http://unesco-ic.cz
Information for unemployed people The website of the Regional Library in Karvina contains information specially for unemployed people. http://www.rkka.cz/2004/cz.php?stranka=http://192.168.254.2/htm/Czech/sluzby/ne zam/registr.html
Karviná - Informační portál pro každého Information portal of the Regional Library providing an information service for businesses. http://www.karvina.info
France
Guichet du Savoir - Bibliothèque municipale de Lyon Online digital reference service where professional librarians aim to answer questions on any subject within 72 hours. Also provides an online chat service every Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. http://www.guichetdusavoir.org/GdS/
Germany
Online-Auskunft The Zentral- und Landesbibliothek Berlin is the first German-language library to use QuestionPoint (http://www.questionpoint.org/) for virtual reference. The user can choose between several different languages, and questions which cannot be answered locally are forwarded to an international network of libraries. The application, which runs on the server of OCLC in the United States, provides an administrative tool to make e-mail reference and chat reference transparent for both the user and the library. Furthermore each library has the possibility of creating consortia which correspond to strengths within the library’s own holdings. http://www.zlb.de/fragen_sie_uns/ask_a_librarian
Latvia
Riga City Libraries Seven libraries provide free public access to the Internet. http://www.ltn.lv/~rcb
Norway
Lokalhistorisk spørjevev (Answering service about local history and local culture) Co-operative project involving an archive, a museum and a library. The service focuses on schools as the main user group. Questions and answers are stored in a database on the web and can be reused. http://www.sporjeveven.sffarkiv.no
Spør biblioteket (Ask the Library) Web-based reference service where patrons can ask a question and get the answer by e-mail. All questions and answers are gathered in a searchable database. There is also an SMS reference service and, in co-operation with Bibliotekvakten, a chat- based reference service, giving people a choice of different contact methods. Calimera Guidelines 82 Social and economic development http://nyhuus.deich.folkebibl.no/deichman/spor.html
Romania “Ask a Librarian” - Project of "Octavian Goga" Cluj County Library Innovative information service for Romanian public libraries delivered directly through the web site. http://www.bjc.ro/referinta
Electronic Reference Service/Internet (REI) - Service of “V.A. Urechia” Galati County Library Through this reference service users have access to the catalogues, the Internet, application programmes, and electronic reference documents regardless of format. They can also get assistance and guidance from a reference librarian. http://www.bvau.ro
Russia
Cyber Information Space of the Oryol Rural Toiler The Oryol Regional Public Library has developed this project which is setting-up the first universal information and communication network in the Oryol region through updated computer technologies in work places (through companies) and in residential areas (through local offices and Central Libraries). Information services will be provided to every worker engaged in the agricultural sector through co operation between the Central Scientific Agricultural Library (CSAL) and the Oryol Regional Public Library. http://www.valley.ru/~book/new_page_6.htm
Information and Legal Centre for Children and Youth The Central City Children’s Library of Saint Petersburg has established this project to provide free access to legal information for children, parents and teachers through the legal databases of the leading legal companies ''Codex'', ''Garant'', ''Consultant+'', specialised library stocks, educational legal programmes and specialised Internet resources. http://www.pushkinlib.spb.ru/russian/Law.htm
Public Centres of Legal Information The Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation has developed and implemented this programme with the aim of establishing a multi-functional well-balanced system of information and legal provision for the population. 230 Russian libraries are involved in the project. http://www.rflr.ru/projects/pcpi.htm
Slovenia
On-line Reference Service ORS is being managed and developed during its project phase (2004-2005) by a partnership between the Institute of Information Sciences and 6 libraries using QuestionPoint software. It will deliver an enhanced information service by providing 24/7 access to library and information professionals in Slovenia through chat and e- mail technology. (Website under construction; available via the Slovene virtual library in 2005)
United Kingdom
Calimera Guidelines 83 Social and economic development Answers Now Answers Now is an interactive, online information service provide by a partnership of public library services in Somerset (UK), Brisbane (Australia), Christchurch (New Zealand) and Richland (South Carolina, USA). Trained librarians are on hand to answer quick reference enquiry 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. http://www.somerset.gov.uk/somerset/culturecommunity/culturalservice/libraries/inf ormation/index.cfm?override=subtopic&infoid=3223
Best for Business Part of Birmingham Central Library’s Business Insight, this portal was rated by the Guardian newspaper in its top 10 business information sites for 2003. http://www.bestforbusiness.com/ (For a detailed description of the services provided see Getting down to business by Catherine Prosser in CILIP’s Update, Nov. 2003. http://www.cilip.org.uk/publications/updatemagazine/archive/archive2003/november /update0311c.htm ).
Discovery Centres Discovery centres being developed in Hampshire (first one due to open in 2005) will bring together a modernised library service with associated learning opportunities and facilities, including local history zones, museums, art galleries, free internet access, cafes and crèches all under one roof. The County Council, in partnership with community groups, will also deliver services such as careers advice, support for local business, adult learning opportunities, information on local sports groups and access to basic skills courses. The centres will be young people-friendly, with an entertainment zone and a study area. Technology will play a big part in making services accessible. Where limited space prevents the physical presence of some facilities, virtual access will be provided via computers. http://www.hants.gov.uk/rh/discoverycentres/
People’s Network Enquiry Service in England Real-time enquiry service being managed and developed during its project phase (Nov. 2004 – Nov. 2006) by the East of England partnership, Co-East, in partnership with OCLC Pica providing the QuestionPoint software. It will deliver an enhanced information service by providing 24/7 access to library and information professionals in England through chat and e-mail technology. There are links to similar services in other countries to provide a global and multilingual service. http://www.ask-a-librarian.org.uk/mla_vrt/policies.html
Resource Discovery Network The RDN is a collaboration of over 70 educational and research organisations, including the Natural History Museum, the British Library, the Finnish Forest Research Institute and the German National Library of Medicine. It is a gateway to Internet resources provided through 8 portals Artifact, EEVL, Gesource, Sosig, Biome, Altis, Humbul and PSIgate. http://www.rdn.ac.uk/
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Calimera Guidelines 84 Social and economic development Calimera Guidelines Section 2: Management guidelines
Calimera Guidelines 85 Calimera Guidelines Strategic planning
SCOPE
This guideline covers: Strategic planning Cultural strategies Project planning Business planning
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The European Union has set out its own strategic plan for culture – the Culture 2007 programme – setting out its vision and objectives for the years 2007 to 2013 [1].
European countries have traditionally undertaken strategic planning for economic and social development and regeneration purposes. In the field of culture and information, strategic planning is a more recent issue. It is now generally acknowledged that culture makes an important contribution to the well-being of communities. Cultural plans should therefore be integrated into national and local government strategies for the benefit of society.
Whether or not there is a requirement to produce a strategic plan, it is useful to do so for a number of reasons, including: • to clarify what the purpose of the institution is; • to be clear about future direction; • to take control of progress rather than reacting to events; • to inspire confidence among stakeholders; • to measure achievement; • to match resources to aspirations; • to ensure government agendas are not overlooked; • to ensure external opportunities which are taken up are in line with the purpose of the organisation.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
The purpose of planning is to set out objectives and the policies and procedures that will enable them to be achieved. Planning may help to determine whether a task should even be attempted. To use a very simple analogy, if you try to cross the road without looking right and left you may get knocked down. If you look right and left first, you may decide it is not even worth trying to cross at this point, and look for a crossing or underpass.
Calimera Guidelines 86 Strategic planning An organisation without a plan will tend to be reactive, that is it will spend time, effort and money reacting to circumstances as they happen. The exercise of planning should enable managers to anticipate and be prepared for certain risks and to have contingency plans in place.
There are various types of plans for different situations. Plans which are relevant to museums, libraries and archives include strategic plans, project plans, and in some cases business plans.
Strategic planning Back to Scope A strategy is a plan that integrates the major goals, policies and actions of an organisation or group of organisations. A strategic plan describes what the organisation is, what it does, and why it does it, and sets out objectives for future development and ways to achieve those objectives. The purpose of producing a strategic plan is to ensure that all stakeholders (governing body or local authority, staff and users) understand what the organisation is for and what it is trying to achieve. A good strategic plan should ensure that the best use is made of resources by focusing on key priorities. A process for measuring progress, and for informing stakeholders of progress, should be included.
A strategic plan should cover both short and long term planning. A rolling plan will include a long term vision with general aims covering perhaps a three or five year term, and specific objectives to be aimed at over a shorter term of perhaps one year. After each short term period, the plan should be reviewed, the long term vision checked and amended if necessary, and the goals for the next short term set out.
It is useful to involve stakeholders in the making of a strategic plan. Even in a small organisation, one person should not prepare the plan alone. Being involved gives people a sense of ownership and helps to ensure success. The draft plan could be drawn up by a small team and then put out for consultation by staff, local authority, trustees, funders, etc. as relevant, and representatives of users.
A strategic plan needs to consider: • the organisation's mission, vision and values; • a description of the current situation of the organisation (its resources (materials, money, staff, equipment, technology, infrastructure, etc.); what services it offers; the results of market research (performance appraisals, user consultations); its strengths and weaknesses (SWOT analysis); etc.); • a description of the gap between where the organisation is and where it would like to be (according to its mission and vision statements); • what strategic goals, or longer term aims, need to be set to work toward the mission, i.e. to close the gap between current situation and mission and vision (an example for an archive might be make more of the collection accessible through cataloguing and digitisation); • issues facing the organisation (these could include a demographic description of the area served (ethnic make up, age profile, etc.), a geographic description (rural, urban areas), a socio-economic analysis of the area, any local or national government objectives which impact on it, and any lack of resources, etc.)
Calimera Guidelines 87 Strategic planning • policies or strategies which will be needed to achieve the goals, taking the issues into account. These are the short term objectives which should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-limited. (For example – to digitise Second World War papers by 31st December; or stage an annual programme of at least 5 exhibitions); • action planning (who will do what and by when); • allocation of costs and budgets; • performance targets and how they will be measured.
Any plan should be well documented so that all involved are clearly informed of objectives, roles and responsibilities, timescales and deadlines, costs etc. The following checklist gives an indication of the sort of documentation which should be produced in connection with a strategic plan: • introduction – mission and vision statements, current situation etc. • statement of long-term objectives • issues facing the organisation • short/medium term objectives • action plan • financial plan • staffing plan • performance targets • if this is a part of a rolling strategic plan, a review of the plan and progress for the previous year • new medium term action plan and targets • long term action plan and targets. All changes and amendments should be documented and circulated. Minutes of meetings held in connection with the plan should be kept.
A good way of learning how to do a strategic plan is to look at some of the many examples of corporate strategic plans on the Internet. (See Links.)
Cultural strategies Back to Scope A cross-domain strategic plan to improve cultural facilities in a town, region or country, or even continent, can be described as a cultural strategy. Some countries, such as the UK, encourage local authorities to draw up local cultural strategies. In producing these strategies they may forge partnerships with services and facilities outside the direct public sector, such as local sporting facilities, theatres, galleries, heritage sites, etc. The existence of a clear well-documented cultural strategy will focus attention on the importance of culture by for example: • drawing attention to the cultural needs, demands and aspirations of the community; • giving cultural activities a higher profile in local government; • advertising the sector to the public; • encouraging lifelong learning; • helping to ensure equity and access for everyone to cultural activities; • bringing the sector, its services, resources, as well its needs, to the attention of local businesses, and demonstrating the contribution cultural activities make to economic and social well-being;
Calimera Guidelines 88 Strategic planning • promoting the sector to voluntary organisations and encouraging volunteering in cultural community events; • encouraging partnership and co-operation between cultural services; • clarifying priorities among all services with the aim of reconciling competing demands; • helping to attract outside funding.
A local cultural strategy should aim to: • address the cultural needs, demands and aspirations of the community. This should involve consultation with a wide range of organisations and local people both users and non-users of services; • ensure fair access for all; • be developed through a cross-domain and inter-agency approach, involving community organisations, the private sector, voluntary groups, etc.; • take account of the wider central and regional government agendas for social inclusion, lifelong learning, economic development, public health, environmental sustainability, etc.; • take account of the wider geographical community and the potential impact on tourism etc.
A cultural strategy is a strategic plan (see strategic planning above). The documentation should take the form of an action plan containing: • priorities for resources and action; • defined outcomes; • forward planning; • mechanisms for implementation; • mechanisms for monitoring and review.
For an example of a cultural strategy see the Eurocities strategic objectives [2]. For information about cultural strategies, with some examples, see Policies for Culture: participative policy-making in south-east Europe [3]. The Interarts Foundation website contains information on the cultural strategies of many European cities and regions [4].
Projectplanning Back to Scope The first step in any project is to produce a plan. The process itself will raise questions (issues and risks) which might not otherwise have been thought of, and contingency plans can be put in place to deal with these should they arise. A risk assessment should always be carried out. In very simplified form, the plan should answer the following questions: • What? The plan will need clearly defined objectives. For example, if it is a project to digitise a collection, objectives might include: ° the reasons for digitisation e.g. to preserve originals, to make the resources accessible to a wider audience over the Internet; ° what is to be digitised. Considerations will include whether the resources are unique (if not they may already have been digitised by someone else), whether the rights to copy can be obtained, who is the target audience for the digitised resources (it could be useful to find out if usage will warrant the digitisation). Calimera Guidelines 89 Strategic planning • Who? What skills and knowledge will be needed? Options include: ° using existing staff, perhaps with additional training; ° recruiting specialised staff, perhaps on a short term contract, ° contracting out all or part of the project. • Where? This involves ascertaining whether sufficient space and/or equipment are available on site. If it is a digitisation project, considerations could include how far possibly fragile documents should be moved, whether special environmental conditions are needed, whether the process will disrupt normal services. • When? There are two aspects to this: ° is there a quiet period when the project could be carried out with minimum disruption to the service?; ° how long will the project take to complete? A detailed workflow or timetable with milestones and deadlines will be needed. • How? This will depend on the project. For example, if the project is to set up a community programme involving children in producing a video, or to move the contents of a museum to a new building, the methods will be quite different from those involved in a digitisation project, but the same principles will apply.
There are of course a great many issues which will need to be considered and included in a plan, such as finance, workflows, equipment, expected outputs and outcomes, evaluation, involving and reporting to stakeholders. Once completed, the plan should be regarded as a dynamic document. It should be reviewed on a regular basis and may need updating as the project goes on.
Again, documentation is important. All changes and amendments should be documented and circulated. Minutes of meetings held in connection with the plan should be kept. The following checklist gives an indication of the sort of documentation which should be produced at each stage of a project lifecycle. Start-up: • project brief • business case (costs and benefits) • project initiation document • risk assessment and plan and contingency plan • roles and responsibilities • stakeholder analysis Project phase: • project plan (this is the main document containing details of tasks, roles and responsibilities, workflow, timetable, milestones, etc. as described above); • status reports • meeting minutes • risk control record • issue control record • change control - costs, impact etc. if necessary Project closure: • post project report (objectives achieved, targets met, timescale, costs, lessons learned etc.).
One example of a structured project management method is PRINCE (Projects in Controlled Environments), the UK Government standard for IT project management. Calimera Guidelines 90 Strategic planning Although originally designed for IT projects, it can be applied to a wide range of projects, from a programme of related large projects down to a single small project, and comprises the main elements of a project plan, the processes and techniques involved, and a set of templates. The latest version is PRINCE2 [5].
There are numerous examples of project plans on the Internet, and online tutorials [6]. There are also software packages which can be used for project planning, such as Microsoft Project [7]. For an overview of software packages, including free open source software, see Software Tools for Project Planning [8].
Business planning (see also the guideline on Business models) Back to Scope A business plan is usually what is required when bidding for funds. It is very similar to a strategic plan, but may have to be in a specific format laid down by the sponsoring body [9].
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Increasingly cultural institutions must provide evidence of their value to society, must show that they provide value for money, and increasingly must bid for funds for specific projects. The ability to produce strategic, project and business plans is becoming an essential skill for managers.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Culture 2007 programme – setting out its vision and objectives for the years 2007 to 2013. http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/education_culture/newprog/com1_en.pdf
[2] Eurocities Strategic Objectives: Working towards a better quality of life for all. 2003. http://www.eurocities.org/masterIndex.html
[3] Policies for Culture: participative policy-making in south-east Europe. 2003. http://www.ecumest.ro/pdf/PfC_May2003_workshop_dossier.pdf
[4] The Interarts Foundation website contains information on the cultural strategies of many European cities and regions http://www.interarts.net
[5] PRINCE2 http://www.ogc.gov.uk/prince/
[6] An example of a free online project planning tutorial can be found on the website of the [United States] Institute of Museum and Library Services http://e-services.imls.gov/project_planning/
[7] Microsoft Project http://www.microsoft.com/uk/office/project/prodinfo/default.mspx
[8] See JISC infoNet Software Tools for Project Planning
Calimera Guidelines 91 Strategic planning http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/project-management/software-tools
[9] See for example Business plans: helping your application. Heritage Lottery Fund. http://www.hlf.org.uk/dimages/Business_plan_for_application03/BusinessPlans.pdf
LINKS Back to Scope
Finland
Library Strategy 2010. Policy of the Finnish Ministry of Education for ensuring access to knowledge and culture. 2003. ISBN 952-442-188-7. http://e.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=13383
Italy
Linee di politica bibliotecaria per le autonomie (General policy framework for local libraries) In January 2004 local authorities signed an agreement defining a common strategic plan for public libraries services, and aiming to create a common policy for the development of innovative services for citizens. This agreement was presented to the national government in order to reach a broader co-ordination policy. http://www.comune.firenze.it/sdiaf/associazione/lineeguida_anci.htm
Spain
Barcelona Library Plan 1998-2010 http://www.bcn.es/biblioteques/ Archive Plan 2002-2010 http://www.bcn.es/arxiu/
Castilla-La Mancha Action Plan for library development (2003-2006): Public libraries in the XXI century, launched by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha. http://www.jccm.es/cultura/liarbi/planbibliotecas/index.html
Catalan Public Reading Map Guide to producing a public reading map. http://www.gencat.net/
Ministerio de Cultura The Integrated Museums Plan aims to ensure the highest quality administration and best use of the State's museum network. This Plan is designed to adapt Spanish museums to modern trends in demand, the display of exhibits, research and educational activities. http://www.mcu.es/museos/intro.jsp
UK
Department of Culture, Media and Sport
Calimera Guidelines 92 Strategic planning Public Library Position Statements. Database of library standards and examples of good practice. http://www.libplans.ws/standards/default.asp?keyword=all
The National Archives Corporate Plan 2004-05 to 2006-07 and Business Plan 2004-05. This is a very good example of a strategic plan. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/about/operate/pdf/corp_plan.doc
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Calimera Guidelines 93 Strategic planning Calimera Guidelines Co-operation and partnership
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Strategic partnerships Cross-domain partnerships Same domain partnerships Partnerships with the education sector Partnerships with the voluntary sector Partnerships with industry and the private sector Types of partnership Initiating partnerships Organisation of partnerships Funding for partnerships Maintenance of partnerships
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The need to consider public needs in a more ‘holistic’ context means that heritage institutions need to work together with other local authority departments, the educational sector, agencies and local and regional offices of central government, as well as with their cultural partners.
There is increasingly a demand for services which no single institution can provide in a given geographical area: partnerships are needed to add cost-effectively to the range of services available to the public or to provide a way of maintaining and developing services where funds are insufficient.
The advent of networked services and the nature of digital content in cyberspace is a further powerful force in the dissolution of organisational barriers and the need for institutions to take an open and innovative approach to co-operation and partnership. For example: • e-mail etc. has made communication between partners easier and quicker; • new technologies have made the sharing of resources easier; • portals can give access to the resources of many different organisations; • virtual communities of professionals and/or public can be set up and used for a variety of collaborative purposes including e-learning strategies, online discussions and conferences, and sharing of expertise.
By entering partnerships, museums, libraries and archives can address political agenda, find funding for innovation and development, achieve economies of scale, acquire access to skills which traditionally are not to be found among their own staff,
Calimera Guidelines 94 Co-operation and partnership and share best practice. The World Library and Information Congress: 69th IFLA General Conference and Council in August 2003 discussed Co-operation among archives, libraries and museums in its Genealogy and Local History section [1].
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
A partnership is a means to an end. Partnerships usually come into being because participants see them as an effective way of furthering their aims and objectives. Partnerships succeed when all participants both benefit and contribute. An effective partnership is one which results in clear and measurable benefits to users.
Potential partners Various types of co-operation and partnership are effective in delivering different types of objective:
Strategic partnerships Back to Scope Strategic partnerships can be established at national, regional or local levels and can provide a platform for creativity and inspiration.
At national level, strategic partnerships can be designed to carry out important national programmes for specific purposes. Examples at this level are the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) of the UK and the Norwegian Archive, Library and Museum Authority (ABM-Utvikling).
At regional level, strategic partnerships may be formed in order to: • establish a development agency for museum, library and archive organisations facilitating the sector's development across a region through leadership, advocacy, advice, obtaining funding, developing new bids and exemplar projects, and service delivery; • deliver objectives such as the creation of a regional broadband public information network; the development and delivery of electronic content; re-skilling the workforce; promoting literature and reader development; and providing opportunities for lifelong learning to local and regional communities; • represent the interests of the three domains within a regional and strategic context, dealing with: government and government agencies; regional political and executive bodies; national and regional professional bodies; education bodies; economic agencies; local authorities; and the voluntary sector. To succeed, regional strategic bodies need to work in partnership with their member organisations and other stakeholders, recognising the priorities and needs of individual services and local autonomy.
At local level, museums, libraries and archives are often departments of local government and need to work with other departments to provide a seamless joined- up service. One example of collaboration could be developing a joint CRM (Customer Relations Management) system. Several departments might need data about users and a joint CRM can reduce duplication of effort, eliminate contradictory data being stored, and enable a personalised face to be presented to users. Subject to data protection legislation and privacy considerations (see the guideline on Legal and
Calimera Guidelines 95 Co-operation and partnership rights issues, section on Data Protection), a CRM can integrate all contacts with the organisation from a user by e-mail, telephone, mobile device, post or face-to-face, and enable any member of staff dealing with the user to see the complete record of the user’s interaction.
Providing integrated services in line with the joined-up government agenda gives museums, libraries and archives the opportunity to work with other local organisations. For example, a library service might engage with a health authority or social services department to deliver services to people’s homes.
Cross-domain partnerships Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives have been seen as different kinds of institution with different professional practices and organisational cultures. However these differences are more administrative than purposive since they all have as their mission the collection, preservation and making available of objects, artefacts, documents and information. Digitisation is eroding administrative differences, as the processes involved in managing digital materials is the same whether they originated as books, documents or objects. In fact the term “digital document” is now sometimes used to mean “all kinds of other things, like text files, audio files, image files, even multimedia presentations and Web pages” [1]. Groups of museums, libraries and archives may agree to co-operate for example to give people the opportunity to search their holdings simultaneously. People are often not interested in where they find their information, whether it is in a book or a leaflet in a library, from a description of an artefact in a museum, or from an organisation’s details in an archive. The importance of interoperability, and therefore of the use of recognised international standards, cannot be over-emphasised if such collaboration is to work. A good example is Denmark’s NOKS (see Links).
Partnerships between institutions in the same domain Back to Scope Groups of libraries, museums or archives may agree to co-operate in areas such as consortium purchase of resources (particularly electronic resources), digitisation of key resources and the provision of access through a common website, gateway, portal or retrieval service e.g. by linking their catalogues together. (See Links for examples.)
Partnerships with the education sector Back to Scope There is a great deal of synergy to be obtained from partnerships with the education sector (see the guideline on Learning). Museums, libraries and archives within the local government sector often have close relationships with local schools and colleges. They can also build partnerships with universities, adult education institutions, training departments in local businesses, independent schools, playgroups and nurseries.
Partnerships with the voluntary sector Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives may benefit from partnerships with the voluntary sector and NGOs (non-governmental organisations) through their commitment to and understanding of the needs of specific target groups, e.g. children, elderly people, disabled people, community groups and ethnic minorities.
Calimera Guidelines 96 Co-operation and partnership Partnerships with industry and the private sector Back to Scope • Many businesses and specialist organisations make their libraries and archives available to the public. Because they receive no public funding such resources can be at risk if for example a firm closes down. Creating links between these types of organisations and public sector organisations could enable these resources to be safeguarded. Such partnerships could also lead to these collections being digitised to recognised standards and made more widely available. • Telecommunications providers need to sell services running over the infrastructure in which they have invested and which will help them generate the revenues they need for a sustainable commercial future. Bandwidth is often purchased by local or regional authorities or consortia to deliver a variety of services. Content can be seen as a key driver for developing a market for broadband, so it is in the interests of the telecommunications companies to encourage the digitisation of content by museums, libraries and archives. The possibility of joint investment in services by the cultural heritage sector and telecommunications organisations, on the basis that risk and income could be shared, could be worth exploring.
Typesofpartnership Back to Scope There are a number of types of and purposes for partnerships: • regional or location based, where organisations in a given locality agree to co operate; • subject based, where groups of organisations specialising in a particular subject, regardless of location, agree to work together; • activity-based, which might include: ° Service delivery - Heritage institutions might in some circumstances be able to deliver services from a joint local or regional centre. Technology enables co operative delivery of online services. ° Training - for example IT training and management training. The scope may include: identifying and implementing opportunities for co-operative ventures in staff training and development; discussing common problems and solutions and promoting best practice; organising joint training events and mentoring activities; identifying opportunities for sharing training resources and the joint purchase of training materials; and setting up staff exchanges. (See also the guideline on Staffing). ° IT development partnerships – these can support improvements in the range of services offered, for example by sharing electronic resources, providing electronic access to catalogues and databases, enabling contribution of content etc., so working co-operatively towards the development of the virtual museum, library or archive. ° Purchasing partnerships and consortia – these have become widespread and influential, especially for example in the library sector where they are seen as an important means of providing better value for money from library budgets by achieving discounts through negotiating bulk purchase and common licensing arrangements, especially for electronic publications. Publishers and suppliers also benefit from consortia through savings in marketing, guaranteed market share and exposure for their products. Such Calimera Guidelines 97 Co-operation and partnership partnerships are helpful in the development of common collection development policies and the avoidance of wasteful fragmentation in purchasing policy. Consortia can enter into negotiations with suppliers from a position of strength. They may be international in scope (see for example EIFL (Electronic Information for Libraries [2])). ° Preservation partnerships – preservation of unique materials may be done co-operatively in order to pool expertise and avoid duplication of effort. A preservation programme requires concerned and informed staff, accurate data, adequate funding, appropriate standards, preservation policies and procedures, and mechanisms for sharing information and access. Co-operative disaster planning can also be useful, and can include keeping back-up copies of crucial information and resources on each others’ premises and systems. (See also the guideline on Digital preservation.) ° Conservation partnerships – small institutions may not have the resources in terms of money, staff expertise and space to carry out conservation on delicate objects, documents and books. Sharing resources or setting up centres of expertise might be a way forward. ° Project partnerships are often necessary when applying for external funding in a competitive arena e.g. funding for EU research programmes is usually dependant on multi-partner project proposals. The CORDIS Partners Service [3] was set up to provide help and guidance in finding partners for EU projects. ° Funding partnerships – jointly bidding for and developing Information Society projects and services, e.g. to support the lifelong learning or e- government agenda, can sometimes be more successful than a bid from a single institution. Small institutions sometimes do not have the staff and expertise to put together successful applications. ° Partnerships for commercial purposes – many institutions have to generate some income through paid research services, publishing, sales of books, photographs, copies, gifts etc., and through sales of material to the media. Small organisations sometimes face barriers to the development of such services e.g. lack of staff and time to devote to it, high initial start-up costs, lack of incentive if local authority financial regulations mean that income earned does not go back to the service. Setting up a partnership to encourage innovation and share marketing expertise could help to overcome any problems and improve the prospects of sustainability. A shared outlet might also be a possibility. ° Outsourcing partnerships – if it is necessary to outsource work because the skills and resources are not available within the institution, local institutions might achieve economies of scale if they do this in partnership with others engaged in similar projects.
Initiatingpartnerships Back to Scope Informal contacts and soundings between decision-makers from the prospective partners are often a first step, followed by flexible early discussions which seek opportunities to complement the objectives of all partners involved. All partners should aim to understand the needs and priorities of the other partners, and should be able to demonstrate how their own unique contribution can contribute to the synergy of the partnership for the benefit of the end-users. The nature of the agreed Calimera Guidelines 98 Co-operation and partnership collaboration should be defined in writing, recording goals and each partner's responsibilities. Among the issues to be considered are funding, facilities, time, personnel, audiences, marketing and the use of media.
The organisation and structure of co-operation partnerships Back to Scope • Mission statement Once formalised, a partnership needs a mission statement, for example: ° “to champion and support the sector's unique role in enhancing the cultural, social, educational and economic life of the region"; or ° “to modernise, revitalise and transform [museums, public libraries or archives] and to fully harness their potential for learning, for social inclusion, for creativity, and for economic and social regeneration”. • Key visible activities Among the activities which give life and external visibility to a partnership and potentially increase its influence are: ° a strategic plan setting out a number of strategic objectives; ° published action plans for specific periods of time; ° task forces to carry out these action plans; ° key reports and documents to show the results of these action plans. • A partnership should be an accountable organisation. Partnerships may have a formal legal status or legal personality such as registered company or registered charity. A partnership may often need a corporate identity, including a “brand name” and logo etc. A partnership may itself decide to enter other partnerships as a corporate body. • Partnerships should operate with clear governance rules e.g. for board meetings and decision-making. A Board of Directors or similar structure should be set up to represent the range of stakeholders involved and may be drawn, for example, from local authorities; political bodies or assemblies; the academic sector; independent organisations; and professional officers from museums, public libraries and archives. The Board may also include observers from national and regional agencies and other bodies with an overall interest. (See for example the Norwegian Archive, Library and Museum Authority in Links.)
Funding for partnerships Back to Scope Finding can be sought from a variety of approaches, for example: • core grants from national or regional funding programmes; • member subscriptions; • local authority support funds; • generated income; • project funding from government initiative funds, European Social Funds and the RTD (Research and Technological Development) programme e.g. IST (Information Society Technologies); In some cases, to obtain further funding, the partnership may need to identify its own “match funding”.
Maintenance of successful partnerships Back to Scope Several key factors are needed to sustain a successful partnership:
Calimera Guidelines 99 Co-operation and partnership • the senior management and governing body or local authority of each partner organisation should be committed to any partnership arrangement; • a named individual of the appropriate status within each organisation should be responsible: high profile partnership projects may involve the highest level of management of the organisation; • good mutual understanding of the partner organisations’ institutional cultures, remits and objectives; • realistic expectations; • an exit strategy – an agreement to leave the partnership in certain circumstances, covering apportionment of assets and liabilities. There should be an agreed method of winding up the partnership once its work is completed.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
The vision of enabling a user to search for material relating to a specific topic and of bringing everything together in an integrated response without the user needing to know the source of the information, be it museum, library or archive, depends on collaboration among cultural organisations at every level. The development of digital technology is making this possible.
Digital technology is having the effect of making cultural institutions less insular and more mutually dependent. New models such as regional cultural service centres may emerge to provide innovative applications, solutions and services for local cultural institutions for the benefit of the end user.
The future of partnerships is closely linked to the future of funding. The exigencies of funding make partnerships desirable or essential for certain purposes: changes in the availability of funding or in the conditions attached to awards of funds affect the viability of consortia and partnerships.
The legal and regulatory framework for partnerships and co-operation within which cultural organisations operate needs to develop to take account of the fact that government agendas are now delivered in a more “joined-up” way. For example, all departments of a local authority are now expected to contribute to e-government targets, learning is no longer the sole responsibility of the education department, etc. Local services are likely to become increasingly integrated. Also many services which were once wholly provided by local authorities may now be provided through partnerships with the private and/or voluntary sectors.
It is now recognised that museums, libraries and archives share many of the same aims and objectives and national and regional associations are being formed to develop an effective regional infrastructure for the museums, libraries and archives sector.
There are many portals and gateways being set up by regional or domain groups. In the future these groups should aim to link together with the aim of providing a seamless response listing information sources wherever they may be housed in response to a single enquiry from anywhere in the world.
Calimera Guidelines 100 Co-operation and partnership Technology has made much easier the sharing of resources, for example among the members of a professional body, among a group of institutions, or among a group of individuals with a common interest. For example peer-to-peer (P2P) networks can collect huge amounts of information from widely distributed sources. File sharing services such as Foldershare, Groove Networks, Skype, Gnutella and Kazaa enable all types of digital objects including film, images and software to be shared [4].
The uses for collaborative technologies include online learning, joint exhibitions, virtual museums, etc., and providing copyright issues can be resolved, are limited only by imagination.
On a European level, co-operation needs to be cultivated at a strategic level to provide a platform for creativity and inspiration, exchange best practice, co-ordinate policies on digitisation, multilingualism, access, education, tourism etc. for the benefit of all European people, and to promote European culture to the rest of the world.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] The World Library and Information Congress: 69th IFLA General Conference and Council, Berlin, August 2003. Genealogy and Local History section. http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla69/prog03.htm . Papers: • Cooperation and Change: Archives, Libraries and Museums in the United States, by Robert Martin (Institute of Museum and Library Services, Washington DC, USA) • If we can do it, so can you: the UK North Yorkshire digitisation project, by Elizabeth Anne Melrose (North Yorkshire Country Library, Northallerton, England) • Library innovation is hard work: lessons from a Norwegian case study, by Bozena Rasmussen (Gjerdrum Public Library, Gjerdrum, Norway) and Tord Høivik (Oslo University College, Oslo, Norway)
[2] EIFL (Electronic Information for Libraries http://www.eifl.net/
[3] CORDIS Partners Service http://partners-service.cordis.lu/
[4] Peer-to-peer (P2P) http://www.openp2p.com/ Foldershare http://www.foldershare.com/ Groove Networks http://www.groove.net/ Skype http://www.skype.com/ Gnutella http://www.gnutella.com Kazaa http://www.kazaa.com
LINKS Back to Scope
International
Answers Now This interactive 24/7 reference service is a partnership of the Brisbane City Council Library Service, Queensland, Australia; the Christchurch City Libraries, Christchurch, Calimera Guidelines 101 Co-operation and partnership New Zealand; Richland County Public Library, South Carolina, USA; and Somerset County Council Libraries, Arts and Information Service, United Kingdom. http://vrl- live01.lssi.com/wcscgi/CDM.exe/ansnow?SS_COMMAND=CUST_SUP&Category=SOM ERSET
Europe
AMICITIA (Asset Management Integration of Cultural Heritage in the Interexchange between Archives) Broadcasting companies and technology partners from across Europe worked together on a demonstration project to link digital video archives together by establishing a P2P (peer-to-peer) network. A DRM (Digital Rights Management) system was developed to deal with rights issues and a CMS (Content Management System) to store the various contracts. http://www.amicitia-project.de and http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue4/amicitia/ eMarCon (Electronic Maritime Cultural Content) An EU supported project which created a platform allowing geographically distant European museums and their visitors to arrange and subsequently experience common virtual exhibitions via the Internet. The partners were 9 institutions from 7 European countries representing 4 maritime museums and a broad cross-section of the academic, regional and informatics/communication technologies organisations in Europe. The demonstration exhibitions are tailored for adults, children or experts. http://www.emarcon.net/
MIRROR MIRROR aims to establish a Europe-wide community of practice for natural science museums by developing a novel learning methodology and by implementing state-of- the-art tools, techniques and systems. http://www.mirror-project.net
Armenia
Academical Scientific Research Computer Network (ASNET-AM) Links academic, research, educational and other organisations engaged in scientific and educational activity by hosting web resources. http://www.sci.am/; http://www.asnet.am/index.php
Austria
Bibliotheken Online Over 500 Austrian public libraries have pooled their resources to enable the retrieval of information on the availability of titles in these libraries via the Internet. http://www.bibliotheken.at
Belgium
VLACC (Vlaamse Centrale Catalogus Openbare Bibliotheken or the Flemish Union Catalog) Calimera Guidelines 102 Co-operation and partnership Union catalogue of the holdings of all public libraries in Flanders. VLACC II will be a stepping stone towards a Flemish Digital Library which will systematically include all holdings, and will integrate day-to-day work saving an estimated 10% of staff time on cataloguing back-office tasks. Internet access is through Bibnet. http://www.bibliotheek.be
Bulgaria
Old Varna Project Co-operative project involving Varna Regional Library, Varna State Archive, Varna Regional Museum and VASSAN Media for creating a historical chronicle of Varna available on the web site of the Regional Library. http://www.libvar.bg
Cyprus
University of Cyprus Library In addition to links to its own material and databases, also has links to other Cypriot libraries and to a Greek library network. It also hosts the catalogues of 7 public libraries. http://library.ucy.ac.cy/
Czech Republic
Archives Direction Division of the Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic Czech archives are represented in ICA, EURBICA and in special commissions and they participate in the Blue Shield. In addition international co-operation is organised on the basis of bilateral agreements. Archives closely co-operate with domestic cultural institutions in the areas of development and research, preparation of publications and exhibitions and on preservation of national cultural heritage. http://www.mvcr.cz
Informace pro knihovny - portál Knihovnického institutu Národní knihovny ČR. Librarianship Institute Portal of the National Library of the Czech Republic. http://knihovnam.nkp.cz
State Technical Library in Prague Provides lists of local library actvities, information about conferences, etc. http://www.stk.cz/akce
Uniform Information Gateway UIG provides uniform and easy access to various information sources including full texts and document files. http://www.jib.cz/
Denmark
DANPA (Denmark’s national private archives database) The database contains search capabilities for approximately 120,000 descriptive records from 190 private archive institutions with digital catalogues, including the State Archives, the Emigration Archives, the Royal Library, and the Library and Archives of the Labour movement. http://www.danpa.dk Calimera Guidelines 103 Co-operation and partnership NOKS (Nordjyllands Kulturhistoriske Søgebase. Cultural historical database for searching material concerning the North of Jutland) Project involving 9 institutions: archives, libraries and museums. Their catalogues have been amalgamated giving access to 115,000 items including photographs, books, leaflets, newspaper clippings, archives, museum items etc. http:// www.noks.dk (For a description of how this was set up see Benefits of archives, libraries and museums working together, by Ruth Hedegaard (Vendsyssel Historical Museum and Archives, Hjoerring, Denmark), 2003. http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla69/papers/051e-Hedegaard.pdf.)
Estonia
ELNET - Consortium of Estonian Libraries Network Not-for-profit association of libraries, archives and other informational organisations. The main areas of its activity are administering and developing the ESTER shared catalogue of Estonian libraries, coordinating the acquisition of electronic publications for ELNET member libraries and coordinating other joint projects. http://www.elnet.ee/
Finland
ELEF (ELECTRONIC LIBRARY OF EASTERN FINLAND) ELEF projects are carried out in all the regions of Eastern Finland. The main object of these projects is to improve electronic library and information services available on the web and to offer better access to these services. http://www.ncp.fi/projektit/elef/eng/alku.html
Elkad-project In this co-operative project a documentation system for the digital materials of companies is being built, functionality of the system tested, specialists trained and long-term preservation of information and its use through the networks enabled. http://www.elka.fi/
France
Région Centre Museums Represents a network of some 50 museums and gives details of their collections, services, exhibitions, virtual exhibitions etc. http://www.musees.regioncentre.fr/
Iceland
SagaNet This is a co-operative project involving the Library, Cornell University in the USA and the Árni Magnússon Institute. It gives online access to manuscripts and printed works on Old Icelandic Literature. http://www.sagnanet.is
Italy
Calimera Guidelines 104 Co-operation and partnership Municipality of Florence The Municipality of Florence has set up a complete documentation system which provides links to 18 municipalities of the wider metropolitan area and to more than 40 public and academic libraries and libraries run by associations and cultural organizations. The system coordinates the funding process and guarantees complete management of shared services. http://www.comune.firenze.it/comune/biblioteche/biblioteche.htm
Latvia
Co-operation of Archives, Museums and Libraries in a Digital Environment Special purpose programme set up in 2003 by the Culture Capital Foundation of Latvia to survey and evaluate digitisation projects focusing on the use of standards and interoperability. http://www.linc.lv
Norway
ABM-utvikling (Norwegian Archive, Library and Museum Authority) Established January 1, 2003, this institution is the result of a merger between the Norwegian Directorate for Public Libraries, the Norwegian Museum Authority, and the National Office for Research Documentation, Academic and Special Libraries. Joint development in the Archive, Library and Museum sectors, in addition to sector specific challenges, are priorities. http://www.abm-utvikling.no/
National Museum Reform ABM-utvikling is currently administering a five-year reform of the museum domain, due to be completed in 2006. The goal is to create a museum domain with fewer and stronger units. These units will engage in different national networks, based on the various thematic fields they work in. The reform is referred to as a consolidation process, and the aim is to create more cohesive units and promote a high degree of professional competency and administrative effectiveness. http://www.abm-tvikling.no/prosjekter/Interne/Museum/museumsreform/index.html
Primusbase for Akershus A shared online database for all the museums in Akershus County, handling information about collections and enabling easy routines for publishing information on the web. (Website forthcoming.)
Russia
Corporate Library Systems In a number of Russian regions work on the establishment of regional corporate nets has been set up to integrate the regional library and Russian city information resources and optimise user-friendly services. All the projects have local aims and objectives, many including digitisation, computerised union cataloguing, etc. The CLS can include public libraries, specialised libraries and university libraries. Examples include: Corporate Library System of the Tver Region http://corbis.library.tver.ru/ Corporate System of the Republic of Karelia http://libraries.karelia.ru/system.shtml Calimera Guidelines 105 Co-operation and partnership Novgorod Regional Information and Library Network http://library.novgorod.ru/ Novosibirsk Regional distributed Corporate Library System (developed under the Mega project “Pushkin’s Library” http://pushkin.rstlib.nsc.ru/2002/index.shtml Corporate Network of the Uralian Libraries http://consensus.eunnet.net/ Corporate System of the Libraries of the Khabarovsk Region http://www.fessl.ru/korp/
PRIOR NW (E-Development Partnership in the North-West of Russia) Part of the Partnerstvo dlya Razvitiya Informatsionnogo Obshestva v Rossii (PRIOR) programme, the main goals of PRIOR NW are to facilitate development of an Information Society and Knowledge Economy through building a partnership among government, business, civil society, the research and education community, donors and investors with the aim of making targeted efforts to bridge the digital divide in North-West of Russia. http://www.prior.nw.ru/eindex.htm
Through Joint Efforts to New Round of Development Reference libraries in four neighbouring Russian south-western regions are working together to strengthen their role in making a modern civic society, developing new management approaches to forming library policies, and applying innovative techniques to library professional training. http://www.scilib.debryansk.ru/undesign/5program/korporat/index.html
Local Community in the Modern Information Space The Bryansk Regional Research Universal Library and Unech Central Library have developed and implemented this project which represents a comprehensive library programme of providing improved services through development of a new model of partnership among the regional library (as the resource centre), the district (town) library (as the information intermediary) and the regional population (as the main customer of the information services). http://www.scilib.debryansk.ru/undesign/5program/unecha/index.html
Serbia and Montenegro
Digitisation and central information system for all museums of Montenegro Project for creating a wide range of information and documentation systems which will connect all museums in Montenegro with the National Museum as its central institution. (Website in preparation.)
Slovenia
Conference of Slovene public libraries The main topic at the 2003 conference was co-operation between libraries, archives and museums, and in 2004 co-operation in the digital environment. http://www.neumann-haz.hu/db/dia_en.html
Visiting Art Project All three domains took part in this project from Sept. 2003 to March 2004. The goal of the project was the compilation of Mapping the Infrastructures of the Museums,
Calimera Guidelines 106 Co-operation and partnership Archives and Libraries Sector in Slovenia and Hungary. Resource, 2003. ISBN 1- 903743-36-2. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id585arep.pdf
Spain
State Public Library of Tarragona Support and documentation service for the Local Studies Centres, the result of a strategic partnership with the Instituto Ramon Muntaner, a foundation for the development of local studies in Catalonia. http://cultura.gencat.es/bpt/actual/docs/conveni.pdf
Sweden
Image Databases and Digitisation - platform for ALM-collaboration A joint digitisation project between the Royal Library - National Library of Sweden, the Nationalmuseum, the National Heritage Board and the National Archives of Sweden. http://abm.kb.se/eng.htm
Ukraine
Museum.org.ua Gathers countrywide cultural heritage focused on art and history in electronic media. Representatives of Ukrainian museums prepare and send e-materials (text, photos, video, etc.) to the Ukrainian Intermuseum Centre (UIC). UIC publishes these materials free of charge on the project website. http://museum.iatp.org.ua/UIC/INDEX.HTM
United Kingdom
Creating Partnerships An online resource designed to support creative collaboration between libraries, museums and the arts. It draws upon the East Midlands Books Connect project http://artsandlibraries.org.uk/bc/, which was designed as a pilot to demonstrate how books and reading can inspire new ways of working together, taking into account the themes of social inclusion, community cohesion and cultural diversity. http://www.artsandlibraries.org.uk/creatingpartnerships/index.html
Citizenship Past A major learning resource being developed by a cross domain consortium consisting of the Ford Collection of British Official Publications, the University of Southampton Library, the West Yorkshire Archive Service and the Children's Society. http://www.citizenshippast.org.uk/about/about.html
East Midlands Oral History Archive This partnership between the Centre for Urban history at the University of Leicester, Leicester County Council and Leicester City Museums and Library Services has brought together more than 20 collections, and has also generated new oral history recordings. http://www.le.ac.uk/emoha/
Calimera Guidelines 107 Co-operation and partnership Linking Arms This is a partnership of the National Archives, the National Archives of Scotland, the National Library of Wales and the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland together with regional and local organisations and community-based archives to develop an archives gateway that will bring together and develop all the existing networked information about archives in the UK. http://www.ukat.org.uk/news/lcraven20040616.pdf.
Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) This is the national development agency working for and on behalf of museums, libraries and archives and advising government on policy and priorities for the sector. It is represented at regional level by nine Regional Agencies (RAs), one in each English region. http://www.mla.gov.uk/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 108 Co-operation and partnership Calimera Guidelines Business models
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Funding and financial opportunities Free and Open Source Software Outsourcing Application Service Providers Service Level Agreements Networking Intellectual Property Rights Customer Relationship Management
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Cultural heritage organisations, such as museums, libraries and archives face new challenges in a period of reduced public funding and increased importance in promoting their usefulness to society. In particular they need to find ways to determine and meet the costs of introducing new services. In this context, they are increasingly focusing on moving away from a collection- to a user- or visitor-centred approach, seeking to develop more effective ways of managing internal resources and assets, and of providing better services and value to their public.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are increasingly becoming indispensable to cultural heritage institutions. The use of ICT in organisations is acknowledged as an important lever for improving the management of resources and assets. Information systems can help rationalise and optimise all aspects of the relationship between organisations and their internal and external environment, the more so as contemporary organisations operate in the context of a networked information society.
Nevertheless, individual museums, archives and libraries have a core mission that focuses on the care and utilisation of their collections for the benefit of end users. In order to achieve the best use of information technologies, and exploit the opportunities provided by the information society, they need to seek effective ways of procuring and establishing the necessary technological infrastructure and services. Establishing new ways of co-operation and integration within the broader business and technical environment (including government, other cultural heritage organisations, and technology providers) is essential. The Calimera Project is funded under the European Such an approach will help cultural heritage organisations to contributeCommission, to the objectives of the e-Europe action plan 2005 [1], which supports ISTthe Programme use of digital technologies, aiming to ensure that everyone in the European Union has access to
Calimera Guidelines 109 Business models the new information and communication technologies and exploits them as fully as possible.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Cultural heritage organisations should seek to develop policies that will help them establish a competitive information technology infrastructure, They need to look for ways to determine and meet the costs of introducing new digitised services, but without endangering their core mission which is to serve the public. For a discussion of these issues see the NINCH Guide to Good Practice in the Digital Representation and Management of Cultural Heritage Materials [2] and Building and Sustaining Digital Collections: Models for Libraries and Museums. Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, D.C., August 2001. ISBN 1-887334-85-8 [3].
The growth of ICT has led to the establishment of promising new business models, which could, potentially, be of use for the management and distribution of the information assets of cultural heritage organisations. This guideline outlines the most promising of these models.
Free and open source models, outsourcing and the related Application Service Provider models have already proved to be valuable especially to smaller and local museums, libraries and archives, which do not always have the expertise or the financial and knowledge resources to develop their own internally managed infrastructure and technology projects. In particular, Application Service Providers can provide useful applications and services over the Internet, which could facilitate the discharge of their mission and provide them with affordable and effective tools for standard operating procedures. Networking and intermediaries’ organisations can also help memory institutions to promote knowledge and exchange best practice, while at the same time retaining control of their assets. However, consideration should be given to Intellectual Property Rights and Customer Relationship Management.
Things which can be done in the commercial world may not always be suitable for mission-driven organisations. Nevertheless, museums, libraries and archives should look at what commercial organisations do and see what can be applied to their own situations as mission-driven user-centred public services, in many cases operating within a regulatory system.
The business model chosen should fit with and be part of the strategic or project plan (see the guideline on Strategic planning). For example, when planning a digitisation project, the business model chosen could be the outsourcing model.
Many commercial organisations sell services as opposed to products so there are similarities. A business model is the mechanism by which a “business” generates revenue and profits and covers its costs. A typical, very simplified, business model consists of the following elements: • how it will select its customers; • how it defines and differentiates its product offerings;
Calimera Guidelines 110 Business models • how it acquires and keeps customers; • how it goes to the market (promotion strategy and distribution strategy); • how it defines the tasks to be performed; • how it configures its resources; • how it captures profit.
Such a model can be adapted for use by a museum, library or archive. Variations of all these elements are applicable to all types of business model, but each type of business model has a particular focus. When developing a business model the main issues to consider include: • who are the users e.g. the public, the culture sector, the education sector, the government sector, commercial organisations; (important in the CRM model); • products to be offered e.g. services, goods for sale; (important in the funding and financial opportunities model); • marketing of the service; (important in the CRM and funding models); • definition of the tasks performed; (important in all models); • financial resources e.g. income from public subsidy, grants, etc.; (important in the funding and financial opportunities model); • other resources e.g. buildings, equipment, staff; (important in the outsourcing, ASP, SLA and networking models); • costs; (important in the outsourcing, ASP, SLA and networking models); • types of income generation to cover costs; (important in the funding and financial opportunities model).
Funding and financial opportunities Back to Scope Increasingly cultural heritage institutions are under pressure to make some financial return on their investment in digitisation. This is something which most museums, libraries and archives are not used to thinking about. Traditionally they have seen their resources as assets to be provided free of charge for the public good. Many museums and most archives and public libraries are dependent for most of their money on statutory funding, and in some countries may be required by law to provide certain “core” services free of charge.
The value of cultural heritage however can be said to be greater than its economic or market value; its social and educational benefit to society is also part of its value. It is important therefore for policy makers to take a realistic view of the potential financial return on investment as it is comparatively rare for cultural institutions to make a profit in financial terms. Nevertheless in many cases revenue needs to be found to go some way towards covering costs. Marketing opportunities cannot therefore be ignored.
Marketing is essential to attract users and can take many forms such as: • financing the website by selling advertising banners etc.; • advertising on relevant websites and in newspapers and journals; • speaking on the radio or television; • attending trade fairs or community events; • taking part in national and international promotions e.g. national archives weeks; • publishing leaflets; • via information aimed at tourists. Calimera Guidelines 111 Business models It can be helpful to develop a niche market and target resources towards that. It is useful also to have a brand image.
Ways in which income could be generated might include: • for the public: ° charging for services not considered to be “core” services; ° charging for copies, photographs, etc.; ° sale of content online (e.g. by allowing users to browse a catalogue or look at thumbnail images, and charging for downloading full text or large images); ° sale of products (gifts, cards etc.) online, face-to-face in a gift shop and/or through commercial outlets and tourist agencies etc. If possible, establish a brand and develop unique products related to the resources of the institution; ° selling refreshments; ° development and marketing of digital products such as CD-ROMs, videos, DVDs, audio media. This might be done through partnership with commercial companies or using sponsorship; • for the education sector: ° licensing the online use of digital resources and charging for their use; ° digitising resources specifically for use as course material; ° developing subscription-based information services and virtual environments; ° selling or licensing the rights to use content in “learning objects” (see the guideline on Learning); ° offering training in-house, extra mural or online – fees could be charged particularly if accreditation is offered; ° “selling” educational tours and visits. • for the cultural sector: ° producing and selling copies of art works; ° “selling” information, content (e.g. video and audio footage) and services (e.g. experts to assist with programmes) to broadcast media organisations for use in programmes (this is also a form of advertising); • for the commercial sector: ° “selling” value added business information services to firms; ° “selling” training courses tailored to the needs of local firms.
To augment core funding, cultural organisations might consider lobbying and advocacy at national and local levels, influencing public opinion and forming groups of friends, applying for grant funding, outsourcing or joint service delivery with other organizations or the private sector, income generation or charging for services.
For a discussion of ways to raise value from cultural assets see the DigiCULT report: Technological landscapes for tomorrow’s cultural economy: Unlocking the value of cultural heritage. [4].
The last decade has seen the rise of a “bidding culture” in museums, libraries and archives in many countries. Governments, the EU and other bodies or foundations have chosen to channel funds through competitive tender or submission of a bid. Sufficient investment can often be obtained in this way to implement new policies or services which might not be affordable from core funding. This competition for money has also been seen by governments as leading to a more innovative, Calimera Guidelines 112 Business models entrepreneurial, market-oriented culture. Museums, libraries and archives need to identify suitable bidding opportunities and prepare effective bids. This requires investment in terms of time, money (often matched funding must be found), and staff skills. Training may be required to equip staff with the skills necessary to prepare successful bids (see the guideline on Staffing).
Smaller institutions might explore the possibilities of developing partnerships: • with other cultural institutions to bid jointly for funding. A consortia might be in a better position to present a project likely to impress a funding body; • with publishers, broadcasters and other cultural organisations to carry out market research, stimulate interest in specific themes, topics and resources e.g. family history, and produce and market products and services.
Free and Open Source Software Back to Scope A component of a basic commercial business model is costs. For museums, libraries and archives a major cost will be the technology underpinning the service. A model that has recently generated a lot of interest, especially in the context of public administrations and the not-for-profit sector, is that of free and open source. Free, in this context, should be understood in the sense of “free speech” rather than “free beer”. Open source software will have a lower initial cost (typically limited to service fees for customisation and setup), but will require more specialised technical skills to maintain.
Open Source Software [5] and Free Software (OSS/FS) [6] are two initiatives within the field of computer science which have the same aim, namely allowing users the freedom to run, copy, distribute, study, change and improve software. This does not mean that OSS/FS software is necessarily free of charge. OSS/FS advocates refer to “distributing free software for a fee'', the point being that no-one has the exclusive right to distribute OSS/FS software and no-one can place any restrictions on the re use and modification of such software, and the source code has to be part of the distribution.
The difference between the OSS and FS movements is really one of emphasis. For the Open Source movement, the issue of whether software should be open source is a practical question; for the Free Software movement it’s an ethical issue, i.e. ‘free’ as in ‘freedom’. For practical purposes there’s no real difference between them. For an overview see Free/Libre and Open Source Software: Survey and Study [7].
OSS/FS principles are enforced through using special licences such as the GPL (General Public Licence) and "copyleft" to allow others to use their work, with the understanding that all derivative works created are also made freely available to anyone who cares to use them. The most popular OSS/FS licence is the GNU GPL, used by more than 75% of OSS/FS software. (GNU is a recursive acronym for “GNU's Not UNIX”; it is pronounced “guh-noo.”) More information can be found on the Open Source License Law Resource Center’s website [8]. For an overview see An overview of "Open Source" software licenses [9], and Stallman, Richard: Linux and the GNU Project [10]. The Apache Software Foundation produces many open source software products [11].
Calimera Guidelines 113 Business models When programmers can read, redistribute, and modify the source code for a piece of software, the software evolves. People improve it, people adapt it, people fix bugs. And this can happen at a speed that, if one is used to the slow pace of conventional software development, seems astonishing. The OSS/FS communities believe that this rapid evolutionary process produces better software than the traditional closed model. For a detailed discussion of emerging developments in this area see Digicult Technology Watch Briefing no. 18: Open Source Software and Standards, July 2004 [12]. For information specifically for libraries see oss4lib open source systems for libraries [13], and for archives see The LEADERS toolkit [14].
Open source software has the advantage of interoperability, of not tying the organisation to one system, and is generally very robust because the users help to develop and maintain it. Typical examples of open source software of potential interest to museums, libraries and archives include the Linux operating system [15], the Koha library management system [16], the DSpace digital assets management system [17], the Greenstone digital library server software [18], and the Zope web application server [19].
Outsourcing Back to Scope An element of a business model is the resources available. Over recent years, Information Technology outsourcing has become a successful business model, which could resolve issues related to scarce IT skills, hardware and software infrastructure, and upfront financial investment. Outsourcing consists of allocating the functions related to the procurement and operation of the IT infrastructure and applications outside the organisation, as the responsibility of an external provider. Instead of maintaining internal specialised technical staff, cultural organisations can allocate the development and operation of IT-based services, such as the development of a website, to a commercial IT company, benefiting from their technical knowledge and expertise. Outsourcing such institutional activities, which have a supportive role, will help memory institutions to focus on their core functions of caring for collections and providing information and cultural services to their users. As outsourcing does not involve hiring personnel and managing projects internally, it may also be a cost- efficient way of engaging in information technology projects and activities, minimising initial investment and overall cost. Smaller local institutions might consider forming a partnership with other organisations to outsource two or more similar projects to the same company, which might lead to a reduction in cost (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership).
Application Service Providers Back to Scope The related Application Service Provider (ASP) model is based on outsourcing IT functions to companies which manage and distribute software-based services and solutions, offering shared access to software and computer infrastructure services. One of the most compelling advantages of using Application Service Providers is they can offer services without the costs of an in-house department. In particular, by using the ASP model, local museums, libraries and archives are not forced to run complex in-house IT systems, a task that most of them would not have the expertise or the resources to undertake. Potential areas of application are data acquisition storage, manipulation and distribution.
Calimera Guidelines 114 Business models For example, using the ASP model: • a local archive could allocate the task of digitisation of its collections to an external organisation, such as a digitisation centre; the archive would have to pay a flat fee per item digitised, while the digitisation centre would have the responsibility of maintaining the specialised digital imaging infrastructure, providing digitised material to the archive, and possibly also keeping safe copies of the digital surrogates for long-term preservation purposes; • a museum could use the services of an ASP to manage and operate membership services; the museum would pay a flat fee related to the size of its mailing list plus an additional fee for each mailing or other communication (physical or electronic) to its friends, while the ASP would run the information systems, network connections and mailing logistics necessary for the service.
Service Level Agreements Back to Scope The related outsourcing and Application Service Provider models operate under service contracts. Since the cultural heritage organisation will not have direct control over the setup and operation of services provided, it is essential that such services have guarantees as to their timeliness and quality. Thus, these models are typically regulated by Service Level Agreements (SLAs), specifying in non-ambiguous terms the minimum standards required by the cultural heritage organisation and providing for financial and other penalties if such standards are not met.
Networking (see also the guideline on Co-operation and partnership) Back to Scope While, in the commercial sector, outsourcing and Application Service Providers are typically commercial companies, in the field of cultural heritage they can take alternative forms. In fact, digital technologies can support, and even enforce, effective co-operation between cultural organisations. For example, networks or consortia can take responsibility for functions that will achieve an objective common to all the participating organisations but which would not be feasible for a single cultural organisation to undertake.
Actually, networking can be regarded as one of the most promising business models for museums, libraries and archives. Networks of distributed content can be created, where cultural organisations can exchange information and knowledge on IT use. In addition, such networks, or consortia of cultural organisations, could undertake, for example, the task of managing the rights and revenues from the use of the information assets of the individual organisations; such intermediaries would effectively act as ASPs, but their nature and status would make it easier for cultural heritage organisations to retain effective control of the assets entrusted to the network, and reduce fears that information assets belonging to individual organisations would be abused.
Smaller museums, libraries and archives, which constitute the vast majority of European cultural heritage organisations, have a core mission and skill set that often does not currently involve technology, or technology-based services. Therefore, instead of developing in-house all the elements of a comprehensive infrastructure that would allow them to manage and utilise their assets for public benefit, it makes sense for such organisations to seek co-operative solutions, drawing from the experience of the commercial sector. Calimera Guidelines 115 Business models Intellectual Property Rights Back to Scope The networking model may allay fears that cultural heritage organisations may entertain about abuse of Intellectual Property Rights, and related rights to their information assets, as they become available in a digital environment. As assets such as written works and digital surrogates of artworks become available through electronic networks, it is important not only that unauthorised use is controlled by means of technologies such as digital watermarking, but also that the whole lifecycle of resource exploitation is managed by digital rights management systems (see the guidelines on Security and Legal and rights issues).
On the other hand, as cultural heritage organisations are typically funded by society in order to provide a public service, they should balance considerations for rights control with provisions for protecting fair use of their information assets for non profit or educational purposes; in particular, parallel to the commercial protection and exploitation of their resources, they should consider adopting a “some rights reserved” policy, such as that provided by Creative Commons licensing [20].
Customer Relationship Management Back to Scope A component of a basic business model is how to acquire and retain customers. Providing a service to end users, both current and future, is the main purpose of a cultural heritage institution and the reason for managing the information assets. Indeed, building, retaining and growing value-based relationships with the public is an essential aspect of the educational and cultural mission of such organisations. Variants of Customer Relationship Management systems, typically used in commercial marketing and customer support systems, can be valuable in supporting the communication between cultural heritage organisations and their friends, visitors and readers.
The purpose of CRM systems is to strengthen the relationships, on the one hand, between memory institutions and their users and, on the other, between the different departments within each organisation. They provide an holistic approach to different needs and purposes, helping institutions to define their objectives in accordance with their users’ needs. In the smallest case, CRMs could consist just of an automated mailing list support system, or a mail-merge package, allowing organisations to inform their audience about important events. Through dedicated CRM systems, museums, libraries and archives could target products and services more accurately, improve their inter-relationships and foster better communications with and understanding of their existing and target “customers”. Cultural heritage organisations should consider their needs carefully, and select systems that will help them to manage their audiences better.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Memory institutions will be increasingly faced with challenges making it appropriate to adopt solutions such as those illustrated in this guideline. New business models, based on knowledge transfer, collaboration and outsourcing, will be extremely important in future developments. There will be an increasing need for common
Calimera Guidelines 116 Business models models for management of technology in local cultural institutions, based on a co operative approach; these could be shared to promote good practice, knowledge and create new alliances between cultural heritage institutions.
Local museums, libraries and archives will need to adopt business models which take into account increasing integration within local government environments.
All the above recommendations should be considered today as alternatives to standard practice by cultural heritage organisations, in the context of optimising the use of resources and improving public service. All of them are already in use in the commercial sector, and, under the considerations noted above, they offer promise in the cultural field. Potential future developments include the emergence of specialised commercial ASPs in the field of collections management and digital assets management systems, an expansion of digitisation and cultural service centres based on a networking or consortium model, generally available software tools for cultural heritage organisations based on the open source model, and established standards and platforms for digital rights protection and management. For a useful discussion of the issues to be considered see the briefing paper for the ERPANET seminar on Business Models related to Digital Preservation, 20 – 22 Sept. 2004 [21].
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] eEurope 2005 Action Plan http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/action_plan/index_ en.htm
[2] The NINCH Guide to Good Practice in the Digital Representation and Management of Cultural Heritage Materials http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/ninchguide/index.html
[3] Building and Sustaining Digital Collections: Models for Libraries and Museums. Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, D.C., August 2001. ISBN 1-887334-85-8. http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub100/pub100.pdf
[4] The DigiCULT Report: Technological landscapes for tomorrow’s cultural economy: Unlocking the value of cultural heritage. European Communities, 2002. ISBN 92-828- 5189-3. http://www.digicult.info/pages/report.php
[5] The Open Source Definition http://www.opensource.org/docs/definition_plain.html
[6] Free Software Definition http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html
[7] Free/Libre and Open Source Software: Survey and Study http://www.infonomics.nl/FLOSS/index.htm
[8] Open Source License Law Resource Center
Calimera Guidelines 117 Business models http://www.denniskennedy.com/resources/technology-law- central/opensourcelaw.aspx
[9] An overview of “open source” software licenses: a report of the Software Licensing Committee of the American Bar Association’s Intellectual Property Section http://www.abanet.org/intelprop/opensource.html
[10] Stallman, Richard: Linux and the GNU Project. Updated 2004. http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html
[11] Apache Software Foundation http://www.apache.org/
[12] Digicult Technology Watch Briefing no. 18: Open Source Software and Standards, July 2004. http://www.digicult.info/downloads/DigiCULT_TWB18_OSS_1_1.pdf
[13] oss4lib open source systems for libraries http://www.oss4lib.org/
[14] The LEADERS toolkit http://sourceforge.net/projects/leaders/
[15] Linux operating system http://www.linux.org/
[16] Koha library management system http://www.koha.org/
[17] DSpace digital assets management system http://www.dspace.org/
[18] Greenstone digital library server software http://www.greenstone.org/
[19] Zope web application server http://www.zope.org/
[20] Creative Commons licensing http://creativecommons.org/
[21] ERPANET seminar on Business Models related to Digital Preservation, Amsterdam, 20 – 22 Sept. 2004. Briefing paper. (Also contains a useful bibliography.) http://www.erpanet.org/events/2004/amsterdam/erpaTraining- Amsterdam_BriefingPaper.pdf
LINKS Back to Scope
International
The Art Museum Image Consortium (AMICO) The Art Museum Image Consortium (AMICO) is an not-for-profit organisation of institutions with collections of art, collaborating to enable educational use of museum multimedia. http://www.amico.org
Calimera Guidelines 118 Business models Europe
Cultural Heritage in Regional Networks (REGNET) REGNET aims to set up a functional network of service centres in Europe to provide IT-services dedicated to cultural heritage organisations and to be an enabler of eBusiness activities for cultural heritage organisations. http://www.regnet.org
Open Heritage: Enabling the European Culture Economy A European Commission part-funded project, which aims to create an IT infrastructure that would improve access to collections held by regional museums and develop a “cultural driven” economy for contributing significantly to the local economic development. http://www.openheritage.com
Austria
Büchereiverband Österreichs (Austrian Library Association) This organisation has developed an IT-based service, namely a prototype website for libraries, which enables librarians to create their own library website with the help of specialised staff of the Büchereiverband via special vocational training courses. This makes it unnecessary for libraries hire a commercial company or set up an in-house department to produce their own website. http://www.bvoe.at/
Hungary eVillages Using the open source business model it is planned to connect small villages in Hungary to the Internet to provide information services and opportunities for participation in eGovernment. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/istevent/2004/cf/document.cfm?doc_id=115 4
Municipal WEB portal for libraries in small communities New tool to help the integration of small municipal libraries into the modern information society. It supports the creation and maintenance of an easy to use, home made on-line library catalogue. The portal, besides making accessible traditional library functions, aims to satisfy all the information needs that may be supported electronically. http://www.kiskonyvtar.hu
Poland
SSWIM - The Museum Information Exchange Network The defined set of standards may be used in museums in conjunction with SSWIM to provide a minimalist programme giving details of items housed in museum collections for those museums which do not have their own cataloguing programmes and databases. As such, the programme may serve as encouragement for those museums looking for the cheapest solution to taking the first step in computerising their catalogues. http://www.pma.pl
Romania Calimera Guidelines 119 Business models BiblioPhil - Project of “Petre Dulfu” Maramures County Library Integrated library system model, connecting the security systems, home lending, virtual library, book circulation, statistics, user management and document processing within a single system, which offers transparency for users as well as for librarians. http://www.bibliotecamm.ro
United Kingdom
The Scottish Cultural Resources Access Network (SCRAN) SCRAN is a searchable online resource base of over one million text and multimedia records, an online interactive library with an extensive and diverse collection of records relating to culture, history and science. http://www.scran.ac.uk
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 120 Business models Calimera Guidelines Staffing
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Recruitment Skills Training Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Cross-domain issues Outsourcing
POLICY ISSUES Back to scope
The last few years have seen great changes in the way services are delivered by museums, libraries and archives, and it is likely that the next few years will continue to provide challenges for staff.
The biggest factor for change has been technology. Making resources available over the Internet, whether they are created by the institution or acquired in some way (co-operation, payment/licensing etc.) has implications for what type of staff will be required, the training they will need, what services will be provided, and how these services will be delivered. Technology continues to develop at a rapid rate which necessitates continual retraining.
Other issues include demographic changes, changes in working patterns, and political agendas.
Museums, libraries and archives must ensure they have the staff with the necessary skills to do the job through recruitment, training and development, and the use of outsourcing and external consultants.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Recruitment Back to scope The population of Europe is ageing, which means that there is greater competition for good young recruits. Museums, libraries and archives, like other employers, need to offer attractive working conditions, including: • pay and conditions should compare favourably with other sectors requiring similar skill levels. This can sometimes be a problem for smaller organisations; • career prospects also need to be attractive. Again, this can be a problem for smaller organisations, particularly if they have a low turnover of staff; • more flexible working patterns may need to be accommodated, e.g. part-time, job share, temporary contracts, outsourcing to freelance workers, etc. Calimera Guidelines 121 Staffing Image and outsider perceptions can sometimes deter entrants. There is a need to market the positive qualities of working within the sector, such as the range of jobs available, skills required and career prospects.
Equal opportunity agendas mean that the diversity of the population should be reflected in the workforce e.g. people from ethnic minorities and disabled people should be recruited.
People may be recruited from all over the EU. The free movement of persons is one of the fundamental freedoms guaranteed by European Community law and includes the right to live and work in another member state. There are three main regulations covering the mutual recognition of qualifications within the EU: Directive 89/48/EEC, Directive 92/51/EEC and Directive 99/42/EC [1]. The best source of detailed information is the professional associations in member states.
Advertising in professional journals, newspapers etc. is still the most usual way of recruitment, but increasingly employers are advertising on websites and mailing lists directed at specific professions. Obtaining new recruits via training schools is also very common.
Skills Back to scope Various factors are affecting the range and type of skills required in the cultural heritage sector, including: • technology – this continues to develop rapidly necessitating continual retraining; • user expectations – these are getting more demanding, driven largely by the commercial sector; • political agendas – including social inclusion, cultural identity and diversity, community cohesion, lifelong learning and economic development; • changing work patterns – it is anticipated that people will change jobs and careers more than once during their working life, requiring retraining and the acquisition of new skills.
Skills required include:
• Technical skills On a basic level staff should be able to use everything which is available for visitors, including PCs, printers, fax machines, microform readers, photocopiers, audio and video equipment, interactive exhibits, etc. More advanced ICT skills are also required. There is still a need for staff to carry out expert searching for information, Staff are now needed who can design and set up websites, or produce a digital video of an object. People are required who can understand the whole process of digitisation and who know how to store, retrieve and manipulate digital resources. Staff are also needed with the skills to deal with non-ICT technology, such as environmental monitoring equipment in museums and archives.
• People skills
Calimera Guidelines 122 Staffing On the whole the cultural heritage sector has a good record in the area of customer care. However, users are tending to become more demanding. They expect services to be delivered quickly, and to be available whenever and wherever they want them. This is leading to more services being delivered electronically, and to service points being open in the evenings, at weekends and on bank holidays. Flexible staff with good people skills are therefore needed.
• Pedagogical skills The lifelong learning agenda is changing the role of staff. At a basic level they are now expected to be able to show people how to use PCs etc. Increasingly they are teaching people on a one-to-one basis, in groups, and outside the premises in educational institutions, workplaces and community centres etc. Subjects covered are not only ICT related, but related to the organisation’s specialisms. Teaching skills are also needed to train other staff.
• “Political” skills Staff need to be politically aware in order to meet international and national targets and objectives. In addition, “joined-up” government means that they are likely to have to work with a range of different government and/or local government departments. For example, an archivist might need to provide details of school visits to an education department, evidence of engagement with elderly people to a social services department, details of special events to a tourist or leisure department, numbers of website hits to an ICT department, and usage statistics to a national or local department collecting performance figures. Negotiating and lobbying skills are also required to ensure funding, staffing levels etc. are adequate, and partnership skills are needed to work with other sectors.
• Marketing and promotional skills Museums, libraries and archives cannot sit and wait for people to come through their doors; they must promote their services in a world where there are many competitors for people’s time and attention. This involves market research and outreach work. For example, staff might visit schools, residential homes or travellers’ sites, appear on TV or radio, attend exhibitions or business fairs, give talks to clubs, organise events, set up special interest groups, etc. They can also use their websites for promotion to audiences worldwide and encourage virtual communities of interest.
It is also important to promote the contribution museums, libraries and archives can make to agendas such as lifelong learning, social inclusion, etc. They need to market their services and resources to the formal education sector, to broadcasters, to social service departments, to tourist offices, to the voluntary sector, and to local businesses.
• Financial skills There has been a shift towards a bidding culture, so the skills needed to prepare and submit a successful bid for project funding will be useful. Smaller organisations may find these through partnership schemes (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership). In some cases institutions might be required to
Calimera Guidelines 123 Staffing raise additional income through sales of goods and catering etc. Of course the skills to administer the general budget will be needed.
• Legal skills A knowledge of rights issues, copyright law, data protection, freedom of information, and general security issues is very important. (See the guideline on Legal and rights issues.)
• Specialist skills Domain specific professional skills are of course important, such as curatorial and conservational skills, record keeping, information skills, metadata and terminology skills, bibliographic skills, etc. In the digital era some of these skills might be used in different settings. For example, metadata is being recognised as a core skill for library professionals arising from cataloguing, indexing and library management practice. Information handling and management skills used by archivists and librarians are needed in areas such as web content management, knowledge management and records management. Conservation and curatorial skills are required in any digitisation project to ensure the safety of original objects and documents.
• Project management skills Project management is nowadays very important as many improvements and developments such as digitisation projects are carried out with project funding rather than from the general budget. Project management skills include for example: ° leadership; ° people management (customers, suppliers, managers and colleagues); ° communication (verbal and written); ° negotiating; ° planning; ° contract management; ° problem solving; ° creative thinking.
• Leadership skills In some countries a lack of leadership skills in the cultural sector has been identified.
• Other skills Other skills needed include communication skills, administrative skills, statistical skills, research skills, and time management.
Training Back to scope • Initial professional training The Bologna Process [2] is presently the major process of higher education reform in Europe. It is driven by the participating countries but also involves the European Commission, the European University Association (EUA), the Council of Europe, ESIB (National Unions of Students in Europe) and EURASHE (European Association of Institutions in Higher Education). The Bologna Declaration [3] was Calimera Guidelines 124 Staffing signed in 1999 by 29 countries. An important goal of the Process is to move higher education in Europe towards a more transparent and mutually recognized system.
Initial professional training generally takes place in universities. Changes are taking place in the content of courses as a result of the changing roles of museums, libraries and archives and of the increasing use of technology. However, more work could be done to close the gap between teachers and employers, perhaps by offering more work placements linked to courses and more on-the-job training.
• Continuing Professional Training (CPD) Back to scope It is estimated that within ten years 80% of a person’s skills will be out-of-date. CPD is therefore desirable, and may even become a requirement of retaining one’s professional qualifications. CPD can take many forms including for example: ° taking time off to study full-time at a university; ° studying part-time in one’s own time; ° following an e-learning course; ° attending short courses/workshops run by professional organisations or commercial trainers; ° in-house training from another member of staff; ° mentoring by another member of staff from one’s own or another institution; ° coaching; ° learning on the job; ° job rotation.
CPD implies some logic to what is learned, a plan, rather than just attending a course “because it is there” or “because one is sent”. It is useful for each member of staff to have a personal training plan regularly discussed and reviewed with their manager or team leader.
As part of CALIMERA Workpackage 4, a review of training modalities available to local cultural institutions was carried out. Responses indicated that all domains in member states include technological topics and legal issues in their professional courses. Pedagogical skills and financial skills are given a lower priority. Responses also indicated a need for more training in these same areas i.e. technology and legal issues, with a view to implementing technology and improving the ability to discuss needs and negotiate with technology suppliers.
Training is sometimes not given the priority it should be for reasons such as: • Lack of time – it is often difficult for smaller institutions to release staff for training; • Lack of money – this too can be a problem for smaller organisations. It can be exacerbated when training budgets are controlled centrally by a governing body or local authority and where managers must make a case for funds; • The culture of the organisation might not encourage training. Sometimes staff become set in their ways and do not want to move from the “comfort zone” of their own particular specialism. Involving such staff in training others might encourage them to see the value of updating skills. Staff should be made aware Calimera Guidelines 125 Staffing of factors such as government agenda which are necessitating changes in the way people work, or of cases where funding is linked to the achievement of objectives which require them to gain and use new skills.
Professions other than museum curators, librarians and archivists are now employed in the cultural heritage sector, including educationalists and ICT professionals. Their skills must also be kept up to date. Other staff such as para-professionals, assistants, auxiliary workers, drivers, cleaners, volunteers, all bring skills to the job, and have training needs. All staff should be given the opportunity to gain new skills and qualifications. In some countries courses leading to qualifications are available for non-graduates. Developing and supporting staff that do not have a professional qualification, is an important way of increasing the pool of people able and willing to enter professional training.
Cross-domain issues Back to scope Many skills required in the cultural heritage sector are transferable. Skills such as communication, team working, financial management, customer care, administration, marketing, project management, knowledge management, pedagogic skills and ICT skills are in demand outside the sector altogether, and are equally required in museums, libraries and archives.
All three domains have many common aims and objectives and are sometimes linked together locally, regionally and even nationally as in Norway and the UK (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership). Smaller institutions may share a building, and may organise joint events or collaborative projects.
It is useful therefore if staff have an understanding of the work of the other domains, and can even work in more than one domain. Cross-domain training may be useful in this respect. Job exchanges and secondments could be arranged between the domains and can benefit both the secondee and the institution. This is often easier to arrange where a local authority runs the local museum, public library and archive services. Cross-domain networks could be set up to share best practice and to offer advice and support regarding professional development. This sort of arrangement could be very useful for staff in small institutions, and particularly for those working in single-staffed institutions, as well as for freelance workers.
Outsourcing and use of external consultants Back to scope Sometimes skills are needed for short-term project work which fall outside the core/ traditional competences of museums, archives and libraries and cannot be met in house. In these cases one way of acquiring the skills is to employ outside contractors or external consultants.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to scope
Digital culture has acted as stimulant to employment growth in the past, and is likely to do so in the future given the demand for creativity and content in the wider cultural sector, including areas such as TV, publishing, and the music industry as well as museums, libraries and archives. The culture industry as a whole is characterised
Calimera Guidelines 126 Staffing by a high share of freelancers and very small companies which do not fit easily into previously typical patterns of full-time professions. There are also a large number of volunteers employed, particularly in museums. Consequently it is difficult to quantify the size of the workforce. However, the study Exploitation and development of the job potential in the cultural sector in the age of digitalisation [4] estimated a growth in the multimedia and software industries from 12 million in 2001 to 22 million in 2011. Furthermore this study anticipated a demand for workers in the content and creativity sub-sectors (Web design, advertising, publishing, media, education, entertainment, etc.). Workers with transferable skills should benefit from this potential growth.
It is anticipated that in future staff will change jobs and careers more than once during their working life, and will need to broaden their experience and skills base in order to achieve their potential. They will become multi-skilled, and their working patterns will be more flexible.
Working in another country also increases people’s experience and skills. With the expansion of the EU and the mutual recognition of qualifications this should become easier to arrange.
Movement between the domains may become more common as the sector shares many characteristics and challenges e.g. social inclusion programmes, lifelong learning initiatives, information society targets, economic regeneration, financial pressures, changes in ways of working caused by digitisation and technology in general.
More collaboration is required between training organisations and employers to ensure new recruits are equipped with the relevant range of skills.
Leadership has been identified in some countries a major capacity lack in the museums, libraries and archives sector. Ways need to be found to encourage high calibre recruits to work in the sector, and more initiatives such as the Clore Leadership Programme in the UK (see Links) are needed to give staff the development opportunities needed.
REFERENCES Back to scope
[1] EU Directives 89/48/EEC, 92/51/EEC and 99/42/EC. http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/qualifications/general-system_en.htm
[2] The Bologna Process http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co- operation/education/Higher_education/Activities/Bologna_Process/default.asp
[3] The Bologna Declaration http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co- operation/education/Higher_education/Activities/Bologna_Process/Bologna_Declarati on.asp
Calimera Guidelines 127 Staffing [4] Exploitation and development of the job potential in the cultural sector in the age of digitalisation. http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture/eac/sources_info/studies_evaluation/exploit_empl oi_en.html
LINKS Back to scope Bulgaria
The Center for Continuing Education for Librarians Joint project of the Bulgarian Library Association (ULISO) and the Library and Information School at Sofia University. Sponsored and supported by the Open Society Institute, Regional Library Program, Budapest, and the Open Society Foundation, Sofia. http://www.lib.bg/Cntr-for%20cont.ed.htm
Czech Republic www.dobrovolnik.cz Voluntary activities in the Czech Republic. http://www.dobrovolnik.cz
Denmark
Skjoldenæsholm Tram Museum Many museums rely on volunteers. This is an example of a museum which is run entirely on a voluntary basis by members of the Danish Tramway Historical Society. http://www.sporvejsmuseet.dk/
Ireland
A Training Strategy for the Irish Museum Sector Training for museum staff is linked to the introduction of an accreditation scheme for museums. http://www.heritagecouncil.ie/publications/museums3/training.html
Poland
Bibweb project This distance Internet training tool helps library staff (and other professions) to acquire and develop competencies in offering new innovative services to users. http://www.bibweb.pl
Russia
MR-Prof (Russian museums for professionals) The Russian Institute of Cultural Research (Russian Museum Encyclopaedia Section) (http://www.evarussia.ru/eva2001/catalog_eng/prod_121.html) and the Russian Cultural Heritage Network (http://www.rchn.org.ru/defengl.htm) have opened this joint information project linking materials, technologies and users of the “Museums of Russia” Internet-portal (http://www.museum.ru). Content is regularly added by museum experts and practitioners. The purpose of the project is to transform the Internet into a high-grade working tool for museum specialists.
Calimera Guidelines 128 Staffing Verchnevolzhje Resource Centre on regional museums information Based on the Rybinsk Museum-Reserve database (http://rmuseum.orbis.spb.ru), this is a consultation centre for the training of museum workers on effective methods of creating and using museum information systems.
Slovakia
InfoLib Slovak portal of librarianship and information science theory and practice - project of the Slovak Librarians’ Association. http://www.infolib.sk
Sweden
BIBSAM - the Royal Library´s Department for National Co-ordination and Development BIBSAM arranges seminars and conferences for library staff in order to highlight issues of current interest to library staff and to raise the level of competence. Quite often lecturers and speakers are brought in from countries outside Sweden. http://www.kb.se/BIBSAM/english/courseconf/first.htm
Turkey
Turkish Archives Site Contains useful information and links to archival sites, mailing lists, organisations etc. for archivists and records managers working in, or interested in, Turkey. http://www.archimac.org/index.spml
UK
Clore Leadership Programme Initiative of the Clore Duffield Foundation which aims to help to train and develop a new generation of leaders for the cultural sector. http://www.cloreleadership.org/
Sector Skills Councils (SSCs) Government initiative to bring together employers, trade unions and professional bodies to address issues such as reducing skills gaps and improving productivity and performance. There are several SSCs, but two of particular relevance are the Creative and Cultural Skills Sector Council (for the arts, museums and galleries, heritage, crafts and design http://www.cciskills.org.uk/) and the Lifelong Learning Skills Sector Council (for community-based learning and development, further and higher education, library and information services and work-based learning http://www.ssda.org.uk/ssda/Default.aspx?page=1203).
Volunteering England Published “Get it Right from the Start: volunteer policies – the key to diverse volunteer involvement” covering recruitment, training, diversity, health and safety, etc. http://www.volunteering.org.uk/centre/docs/Policies%20Booklet.pdf Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 129 Staffing Calimera Guidelines Performance and evaluation
SCOPE
The issues dealt with in this guideline include: Public library statistics Museum statistics Archive statistics Performance measures New statistical measures Benchmarking (metric and process) Measures of value and impact Practical Toolkits for measuring value and impact Standardised questionnaires Standards Measuring the use of electronic resources New statistical measures for service evaluation eMetrics POLICY ISSUES Back to scope
EU Involvement The European Union has no legal basis for involvement in museums, libraries or archives as such and touches on them only to the extent that they can demonstrate relevance to policy initiatives for which it does have a legal mandate. Examples include: • e-Europe; • employment; • culture; • research; • international co-operation; • trade (e.g. intellectual property rights); • social development; • structural development. Measuring the impact of museums, libraries and archives in these areas is a challenge.
Performance measures are of potential interest to many stakeholders: • government, whose policy it may be to collect performance data as it is in the UK (see Links) and in the USA; • policy makers and funders, who want to know whether services are effective in reaching their objectives; • service managers, who want to make the best possible use of the resources allocated to them for the benefit of their users;
Calimera Guidelines 130 Performance and evaluation • the public, both as customer and supporter, who want to know that the service will be there when they want to use it; • advocates of public libraries, museums or archives; • researchers acting on behalf of any or none of these groups.
The issue can be addressed at three levels: local, national/regional and international.
The key questions driving the agenda for performance measurement internationally are:
• What are museums/public libraries/archives for? • Who controls the agenda? Is it a national, regional or local matter? • Should museums/public libraries/archives be a broad service, catering for the whole community, or do they need to sharpen their marketing to demonstrate their value to and impact on specific client groups? • Modernisation brings in issues concerning the Internet and electronic information and links the cultural heritage agenda to such issues as e-government, social inclusion, freedom of information, employment, education and economic well being. • The modernisation agenda confronts archives (more than libraries or museums) with the issues of dealing with “born digital” materials and of meeting users’ expectations of accessing material remotely via the Internet. • What is a good service and how much should it cost? • If a good public service now is different from the previous concept of a good public service, then new measures are called for. The development of Internet- based services makes this inevitable. • If there is increased competition for public funds, so museums, libraries and archives need arguments to win their share. Sometimes the argument is purely political. Sometimes it is rational and evidence-based, which is where performance indicators fit. They should provide the language for rational debate.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to scope
External observers are often surprised by the amount of work which has been done to develop performance indicators for libraries - there are even official International Standards on the subject. Performance indicators and statistics for archives and museums have not received as much international attention and are not so well developed. (See specific sections on each below).
Public library statistics Back to scope Statistics are valuable for improving standards or gaining financial support. Public libraries in Europe mostly have good statistics (see Links) but issues for all three sectors include: • timeliness (they are often published “late”); • completeness (they may not be grossed up, making time trends impossible); • international standardisation (they may not respect international standard definitions); • presentation and access (they may be poorly presented and hard to find);
Calimera Guidelines 131 Performance and evaluation • fitness for purpose (they may not cover topics needed by stakeholders – electronic services is a current issue). A large collection of library-related statistics is maintained by LibEcon (see Links. See also the bibliography.)
Museumstatistics Back to scope Whilst there has been a good deal of work on public library statistics and basic comparable data is readily available, the same is not true of local museums or archives. A basic difficulty is a failure to agree on an international classification of museums acceptable to all. This means that such data as is collected is not internationally comparable. Even ICOM’s basic definition of a museum is currently under review. [1].
The nearest equivalent to an international standard for museum statistics is the UNESCO questionnaire which asks about numbers of museums, types, visits, staff numbers, income and expenditure and aims to get contextual data for grossing up. The last UNESCO survey of museums was in 1995 and it encountered significant difficulties.
EUROSTAT looked into the question of cultural statistics in Europe in depth in the LEG (Leading Experts Group) Report. [2] Amongst other things, the report examined museum statistics and the extent of their standardisation in a pilot group of 5 countries and reached the following conclusion:
“Most countries use the UNESCO or ICOM definition of museums. If the UNESCO definition is considered to be an adequate yardstick, the total number of museums may be regarded as a statistic, which is available and comparable. On the other hand, the number of admissions gives only a partial idea of total attendance in the five countries in question. Admission figures generally apply to only a portion of the museum world (State museums, major museums) and often leave out the smaller museums. The figures are similarly incomplete as regards breakdown by status (public museums, private museums) or by type of collection. In most cases, they cover a part only of public museums. Lastly, statistics on museum staff and takings are not available in all countries.”
The LEG was pointing out that in most countries there are huge numbers of private museums, often not documented at all, and that provincial public museums are not consistently reported. In addition, the LEG does not regard the UNESCO breakdown of museum types as helpful:
“The definitions and classifications proposed by the Task Force, while based largely on those of UNESCO, derive from a stricter approach to what constitutes a museum. They exclude, for example, institutions which display living creatures, nature reserves and science centres.”
The proposed classification breaks down museums by: • Nature of collection : the proposal is to simplify the UNESCO classification by reducing its nine headings to three. The reason for this choice is that museum collections are generally poly-thematic. Distinction by single theme does not Calimera Guidelines 132 Performance and evaluation seem necessary for European comparisons, although it can be of interest in national statistics. It should also be mentioned that museums of modern art are classified under the heading "Art, archaeology and history museums". • Administrative status: the proposal is to distinguish public from private museums. Public museums are broken down into “national museums administered or owned by the State and other public museums administered or owned by local authorities (province, region, commune).”
Whilst Eurostat has continued with its generic approach to cultural statistics, the European museums world has maintained a sectoral focus on museums in general. The European Group on Museum Statistics (EGMUS) was recently formed by merging the Eurostat Museum Working Group (a group specifically studying one cultural sector (the museums)) and the annual Conference on Museum Statistics convened since 1995 by the Institut für Museumskunde (IfM) of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin-Preußischer Kulturbesitz (SMB). They have recently published (dated December 2003) “A Guide to Museum Statistics in Europe.” [3] This publication presents reports from 21 European countries on their museum-related statistics and on related questions (definition of "museum"; museum related law(s); compilers and sources of the statistics; collection types presented; ownership types presented). The publication also contains first comparative tables elaborated by EGMUS and reports on the Berlin conferences and some EUROSTAT (Statistical Office of the European Communities) activities. Some general topics resulting from the data and the reports are discussed. It deserves to be widely read though the data collected cannot simply be placed side by side, without many comments, into a single table because of the usual standardisation problems.
This report also acknowledges a need for performance indicators, but does not recommend any specific indicators for use by practitioners or funders.
Archivestatistics Back to scope There is little evidence of work at an international level on archive statistics and the sector has problems similar to those besetting the museum sector. UNESCO last did a survey of archive statistics in 1988 after a few years’ experimentation starting in 1984 using a statistical model developed with help from the International Council on Archives. There is no international standard for archival statistics, so the UNESCO questionnaire is the nearest thing.
The LEG report [2] investigated the state of the art of archives statistics in Europe to a limited extent. Because Eurostat is addressing the whole field of cultural statistics, which is a complex and difficult area, it has needed to prioritise its work and so far has not specifically addressed the archives domain in depth.
Two international surveys on statistics of national archives are listed in the references section [4]. There appears to be no comparable international work on local archives. The value of both these studies for local archives is perhaps mainly that: • they provide some information on archive law; • they indicate whether national archives supervise local archives; • Ogawa [4] provides an approach to the issues around archiving of “born digital” Calimera Guidelines 133 Performance and evaluation and of digitising older material; • both questionnaires can be regarded as pilots for future work in the field.
Performance measures Back to scope Performance measures help managers to condense statistical data into meaningful indicators of actual performance – the term ‘indicator’ may be preferred as it correctly suggests that judgement is needed in interpreting the results. However, to be useful indicators must be robust and meaningful. They must be related exactly to the service’s objectives. If used to compare one service with another, great care is needed to ensure comparability. Finally, the effort expended to collect datasets for the calculation of performance measures must be in proportion to the likely benefits from improved decision-making.
There is an ample literature on library performance indicators. In the UK, the Public Services Quality Group [5] is working on performance indicators for archives and the Society of Archivists published a guideline on the topic in 1993 (Measuring Performance by Patricia Methven et al. 1993. ISBN 0 902886 45 2. [6]). In the USA The Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (the Results Act) requires each agency to develop and publish an annual Performance Report. The National Archives and Records Administration’s (NARA) reports [7] are on the web. Some of their indicators could be applied to local archives.
New statistical measures and other tools for evaluating electronic services (see also the section on measuring the use of electronic resources below) Back to scope Work has taken place, in Europe and elsewhere, to develop indicators for the provision of IT-based services in libraries. Some of these measures are relatively crude but may nevertheless be useful: examples would be the number of publicly- accessible PCs installed in public library branches and hits on public-facing web sites. Some of these indicators could easily be adapted for use in archives and museums.
More sophisticated approaches (for libraries) have been explored in a number of projects, mostly with an academic library focus. The EC Telematics Programme EQUINOX Project [8] was designed to cover all library sectors. In the USA, the main work has been undertaken by McClure and Bertot. [9]
Benchmarking (metric and process) Back to scope Benchmarking essentially means comparison with a view to improvement. Types of benchmarking include: • metric (statistical comparison using either existing published statistics or figures collected specially for the purpose); • process (where services investigate how other comparable services achieve their results). Benchmarks can be set against other museums/public libraries/archives or other kinds of organisations for generic functions such as purchasing or personnel management.
There are examples of public library benchmarking at national level in the UK and in Germany (see Links) Both models could easily be adapted for use in other countries.
Calimera Guidelines 134 Performance and evaluation The American Association of Museums operates a system of peer review [10]. The (UK) South Eastern Museums service developed a prototype automated benchmarking site. [11]
Measures of value and impact Back to scope Measuring value and impact is extremely complex. The issue is best considered as part of a continuum of possible measures: Input > Process > Output > Outcome > Impact. • Inputs include all the resources that the organisation uses in order to produce whatever service or product it wants to sell (using ‘sell’ in a wide-ranging sense). They include finance, buildings, raw materials, machinery, staff, and increasingly recognised as an important input, information. Measurement usually consists of counting, though increasingly emphasis is shifting to measures of quality. It cannot be assumed, however, that a better-resourced institution is necessarily a better one. • Processes are whatever is done to inputs to create something new. When we measure processes it is usually to see how well they are working. So a library may measure processing times for new books as a way of seeing if the process of making stock available quickly is working as well as it should. • Outputs are the things that the organisation produces. Examples are ‘book issues’, ‘reference questions answered’, visits to an exhibition and ‘seats occupied by readers’. Very often measurement consists of counting the number of outputs produced. However, the quality of provision will be as important as quantity. • Outcomes are the short to medium term results of applying outputs. The number of borrowed books actually read might be an example of an outcome of book issuing. • Impact is the effect of the outcomes on the environment – again, using that term very broadly to include people and society at large – and is usually long- term. An example here might be the growth in literacy as a result of reading library books. • The main difficulty in measuring impact is that very many different factors contribute, so isolating one (such as the library contribution) is very difficult. Usually the best way forward is to ask customers for their views and/or to observe their behaviour.
The case for outcome based evaluation in libraries and museums is made by IMLS (Institute for Museum and Library Services): Perspectives on Outcome Based Evaluation for Libraries and Museums. [12].
Practical Toolkits for measuring value and impact Back to scope At least two toolkits are available on the web: • Inspiring Learning for All is a UK toolkit focused on learning outcomes. [13] . It is designed to describe what an accessible and inclusive museum, archive or library which stimulates and supports learning looks like. It allows you to find out what the people that use your services learn, assess how well you are achieving best practice in supporting learning and improve what you do.
Calimera Guidelines 135 Performance and evaluation • The Outcomes Toolkit [14] is an American toolkit for public libraries (but with methods which could also be applied to museums and archives) which allows services to actually carry out outcome-based evaluation.
• VITAL: The Value and Impact of IT Access in Libraries [15] addressed the question ‘What is the value and impact of the provision of end-user access to IT-based services in public libraries?’ The main focus of the Project was not just on gathering data on what the answers might be now, but on developing transferable methodologies which libraries can use to assess the value and impact of their own services. The Project Final Report and Workbook are available from the website.
• LONGITUDE II: Library Networking Impact Toolkit for a User-Driven Environment [16] is a toolkit of longitudinal survey methodologies which aims to contribute to an understanding of user needs and behaviour, with a particular focus on public libraries and the UK People’s Network. The emphasis is on qualitative approaches which illuminate the quantitative data which is more readily available.
Standardised questionnaires for end-users Back to scope Questionnaires are a market-research tool of great potential value to public services. They may be regarded as relatively high cost and there are skills in question selection, selection of samples and processing which small organisations may find challenging. By using a standardised questionnaire, costs are reduced and value added.
A range of standardised questionnaires in use nationally for public libraries in the UK is PLUS (Public Library User Surveys) [17]. Not only do libraries save effort by using the same tool, they put the results into a common database to allow inter-library comparisons and time series (benchmarking). Results are accepted as performance indicators for the UK Public Library Standards. There are now four questionnaires covering basic library use, use by children, views of non-users and use of electronic services.
PLUS is now working with the Public Services Quality Group of the (UK) National Council on Archives (PSQG) on a survey of visitors to archives. The 2002 PSQG survey (of visitors to UK archives) is available on the web both through PLUS and through the National Archives site. [18].
Eurostat has inserted questions relevant to the cultural heritage sector in to the Eurobarometer survey including questions on museum and library use. [19]
Standards Back to scope There are two relevant international standards for libraries [20]: • ISO 2789:2003 Information and documentation – International library statistics. This covers how to count libraries, librarians, books, cassettes, discs, etc. for inclusion in statistics related to library provision ; • ISO 11620:1998 Information and documentation - Library performance indicators. This specifies a set of 29 indicators grouped in the following areas: a) user satisfaction; b) public services; and c) technical services. Calimera Guidelines 136 Performance and evaluation Both have recently been revised or extended. They are both valuable but they are not well enough known and not strong on electronic measures or value and impact. (But see ISO/AWI TR 19934 - Information and documentation -- Statistics for the use of electronic library services (under development), and ISO TR 20983:2003 - Information and documentation: Performance indicators for electronic library services (recently published).)
Some elements of these standards could be applied to museums or archives.
Measuring the use of electronic resources Back to scope The use of licensed electronic information resources will continue to expand and in some cases become the sole or dominant means of access to content. The electronic environment, as manifested by the World Wide Web, provides an opportunity to improve the measurement of the use of these resources.
There are lots of tools available to analyse web usage. A typical example is Analog. [21]. The site also provides online tutorials. It is recommended that those contemplating using statistics from web servers and the like should familiarise themselves with some of the issues concerning interpretation of such data e.g. The Value of Web Statistics by James Robertson, 28 August 2001 [22] and Why Web statistics are (worse than) meaningless. [23]
The COUNTER (Counting Online Usage of networked Electronic Resources) Project is an international initiative working on developing a code of practice designed to serve librarians, publishers and intermediaries by facilitating the recording and exchange of online usage statistics [24].
New statistical measures and other tools for evaluating electronic services Back to scope • Developing National Data Collection Models for Public Library Network Statistics and Performance Measures [25]. This study (2000-01) addressed ways to design and implement a national data collection, analysis, and reporting system for public library network statistics and performance measures that is both accurate and reports data in a timely fashion. It built upon previous work (see next item) that produced a core set of network statistics and performance measures for public libraries (see below). The project directors are J.C. Bertot and C.R. McClure. • Developing National Library Network Statistics & Performance Measures [26]. This study developed a core set of national statistics and performance measures that librarians, researchers and policy makers can use to describe public library and library based state-wide network use of the Internet and Web based services and resources.
Measures for Electronic Resources (E-metrics) Back to scope The E-metrics project [27] aims to explore the feasibility of collecting data on the usage of electronic resources.
Urban Libraries Council (USA) [28] Impacts of the Internet on Public Library Use. The
Calimera Guidelines 137 Performance and evaluation research study consisted of a national random telephone survey of 3,097 adults conducted during the spring of 2000. It was conducted in either English or Spanish.
It is possible for libraries to compare themselves with other peer libraries, using the Public Library Peer Comparison Tool [29] or the Academic Libraries version. [30].
FUTURE AGENDA Back to scope
There are a number of problems in this field which need to be addressed: • to have maximum impact, standards need to be understood and applied at national level; • the cost of data collection and analysis is higher than some services feel they can afford; • the topics are considered “difficult” and are not widely understood; • good practice is slow to travel and catch on (between countries and between sectors or domains); • measuring activity in networked environments is particularly difficult, yet this will be absolutely key to future use of both statistics and performance measures; • structures for dealing with these issues can be weak at national level. At international level they are very weak.
In many places there is little awareness of best practice in this field. European research efforts are disparate and tend to be short-lived (e.g. the EC EQUINOX initiative to develop electronic library performance measures was funded for two years only – by contrast the USA has funded longitudinal research). To make a real difference it will be necessary not only to publicise best practice better but to develop tools and methodologies which can be applied internationally on a voluntary basis.
REFERENCES Back to scope
[1] ICOM’s basic definition of a museum - currently under review. http://icom.museum/definition.html.
[2] European Commission, 2000, Cultural Statistics in the EU: Final Report of the LEG, Eurostat Working Paper, European Commission. http://www.utexas.edu/cofa/unesco/documents/FINALREP.DOC.
[3] European Group of Museum Statistics (EGMUS): A Guide to Museum Statistics in Europe. 2003. (At time of writing (August 2004) not available on the web.)
[4] Position and resources - international fact finding survey on national/federal archives by Chiyoko Ogawa (paper given at International Conference of the Round Table on Archives (CITRA) in Marseille, 13-16 November, 2002) http://www.ica.org/new/citra.php?pcitraprogramid=15&plangue=eng Les archives nationals et fédérales: systèmes, problèmes et perspectives by Paula Carucci in Proceedings of the 26th International Conference of the Round Table on
Calimera Guidelines 138 Performance and evaluation Archives, Madrid 1989. Published by the International Council on Archives, Rome 1991. Pages 25-95. (not on the web).
[5] Public Services Quality Group http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/archives/psqg/parties.htm
[6] Methven, Patricia et al: Measuring Performance. Society of Archivists, 1993. ISBN 0 902886 45 2.
[7] National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Reports. http://www.archives.gov/about_us/strategic_planning_and_reporting/annual_perfor mance_reports.html
[8] EC Telematics Programme EQUINOX Project http://equinox.dcu.ie/
[9] Bertot, J.C., McClure, C.R., and Ryan, J., Statistics and Performance Measures for Public Library Networked Services. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 2001. ISBN: 0-8389-0796-2. (Introduces the issues related to new electronic service performance measurement.) (Description and contents list only available on the web http://www.alastore.ala.org/SiteSolution.taf?_sn=catalog2&_pn=product_detail&_op =797 McClure, Charles R. and Bertot, John C.: Developing National Data Collection Models for Public Library Network Statistics and Performance Measures. 2001. http://www.ii.fsu.edu/getAbstract.cfm?pageID=9&abstractID=3&projectID=8 Developing National Library Network Statistics & Performance Measures http://www.albany.edu/~imlsstat/
[10] The American Association of Museums. Peer review. http://www.aam-us.org/programs/peer_reviewer/index.cfm.
[11] The (UK) South Eastern Museums Service. Benchmarking Support. http://www.museums.bedfordshire.gov.uk/bestvalue/benchmark/info3.html
[12] IMLS (Institute of Museum and Library Services): Perspectives on Outcome Based Evaluation for Libraries and Museums. http://www.imls.gov/pubs/pdf/pubobe.pdf
[13] Inspiring Learning for All http://www.inspiringlearningforall.gov.uk/default.aspx?flash=true
[14] The Outcomes Toolkit http://ibec.ischool.washington.edu/ibecCat.aspx?subCat=Outcome%20Toolkit&cat=T ools%20and%20Resources
[15] VITAL: The Value and Impact of IT Access in Libraries http://www.mmu.ac.uk/h-ss/cerlim/projects/vital.htm
[16] LONGITUDE II: Library Networking Impact Toolkit for a User-Driven Environment http://www.cerlim.ac.uk/projects/longitude/index.php Calimera Guidelines 139 Performance and evaluation [17] PLUS (Public Library User Surveys) http://www.ipf.co.uk/plus/eplus/default.htm
[18] The 2002 PSQG (Public Services Quality Group) survey of visitors to UK archives is available on the web both through PLUS (http://www.ipf.co.uk/plus/psqg/default.htm) and through the National Archives site (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/archives/psqg/survey.htm).
[19] Eurostat has inserted questions relevant to the cultural heritage sector in to the Eurobarometer survey, including questions on museum and library use. http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/standard_en.htm
[20] Quality - Statistics and performance evaluation: Standards/projects http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueListPage.CatalogueList?COMMID=1792&scopelis t=ALL
[21] Analog. http://www.analog.cx/
[22] Robertson, James: The Value of Web Statistics. 28 August 2001. http://www.steptwo.com.au/papers/webstats/index.html
[23] “Why Web statistics are (worse than) meaningless”. http://www.goldmark.org/netrants/webstats/
[24] COUNTER (Counting Online Usage of networked Electronic Resources) http://www.projectcounter.org/
[25] McClure, Charles R. and Bertot, John C.: Developing National Data Collection Models for Public Library Network Statistics and Performance Measures. 2001. http://www.ii.fsu.edu/getAbstract.cfm?pageID=9&abstractID=3&projectID=8
[26] Developing National Library Network Statistics & Performance Measures http://www.albany.edu/~imlsstat/
[27] The E-metrics project http://www.arl.org/stats/newmeas/emetrics/
[28] Urban Libraries Council (USA) http://www.urbanlibraries.org/index.html
[29] National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Library Statistics Program. Compare public libraries. http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/libraries/publicpeer/
[30] National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Library Statistics Program. Compare academic libraries. http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/libraries/academic.asp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Back to scope
Calimera Guidelines 140 Performance and evaluation (This section contains works not specifically mentioned in the text.)
Fuegi, D. Who Needs Statistics? : A note on the Libecon Project, Cultivate Interactive, issue 9, 7 February 2003. http://www.cultivate-int.org/issue9/libecon/
Moore, N. Measuring the Performance of Public Libraries: a Draft Manual. Paris, General Information Programme and UNISIST, UNESCO, January 1989. (This is a commendably comprehensive work; its language is straightforward and clear.)
Ward, Suzanne; Sumsion, John; Fuegi, David; Bloor, Ian. Library Performance Indicators and Library Management Tools. Luxembourg, European Commission DG- XIII-E3, 1995. (Final report of the PROLIB Project, otherwise known as "The Toolbox Study". A "ground clearing" study aimed (1) to survey the state of library performance measurement across Europe, (2) to recommend priorities for further development, and (3) to produce a toolbox of performance measures and indicators applicable and important for all types of library in Europe.
Van House, Nancy A; Lynch, Mary Jo; McClure, Charles R; Zweizig, Douglas L; Rodger, Eleanor Jo. Output Measures for Public Libraries: A Manual of Standardized Procedures. Second edition. Chicago, America Library Association, 1987. (A classic and formative text which has served to introduce sampling measurements of output to library managers worldwide.)
Van House, Nancy A; Weil, Beth T; McClure, Charles R. Measuring Academic Library Performance: A Practical Approach. Chicago, American Library Association, 1990. (Following the manual for public libraries one year later, this is also a classic and formative text which has served to introduce sampling measurements of output to library managers worldwide.)
LINKS Back to scope
Introduction This section aims to represent good practice and includes material which is: • accessible linguistically and via the web; • established and usable (not small scale pilots).
At the same time we have included: • some projects which are we consider to have strong potential to be influential; • material in languages other than English if the service/activity has significant potential.
We have emphasised European material but included important material whatever its origin. For example, Joe Ryan’s library statistics site http://web.syr.edu/~jryan/infopro/stats.html is American but excellent for library statistical information and measures. It includes links, an extensive bibliography and
Calimera Guidelines 141 Performance and evaluation sources in academic, museum, and school library statistics, as well as a number of links to European library statistics sources.
International
The International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (IFACCA) For a good recent overview of problems in the area of international cultural statistics, including a bibliography see: Madden, Christopher: Making Cross-country Comparisons of Cultural Statistics: Problems and Solutions. June 2004. http://www.ifacca.org/files/1Background.pdf Statistical Indicators for Arts Policy: Discussion Paper (July 2004) identifies current work and global resources on cultural indicators, explores a number of analytical and coordination issues and makes suggestions for future directions. http://www.ifacca.org/FILES/StatisticalIndicatorsArtsPolicy.pdf
International statistical surveys of national archives include: • Position and resources: international fact finding survey on national/federal archives by Chiyoko Ogawa (paper given at International Conference of the Round Table on Archives (CITRA) in Marseille, 13-16 Nov. 2002) http://www.ica.org/new/citra.php?pcitraprogramid=15&plangue=eng • Les archives nationals et fédérales: systèmes, problèmes et perspectives by Paula Carucci in Proceedings of the 26th International Conference of the Round Table on Archives, Madrid 1989. Published by the International Council on Archives, Rome 1991. Pages 25-95. (not on the web).
Unesco Institute for Statistics The UIS Culture and Communication Programme is currently under review and has temporarily suspended all data collections pending the outcome of this process. They expect to launch a new data collection soon. http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev_en.php?ID=3754_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC
Europe
LIBECON The site for European library statistics for all library sectors, including public libraries. http://www.libecon.org
EQUINOX This was a project funded under the Telematics for Libraries Programme of the European Commission. It addressed the need of all libraries to develop and use methods for measuring performance in the new networked, electronic environment, alongside traditional performance measurement, and to operate these methods within a framework of quality management. The project devised a set of performance indicators for electronic library services. http://equinox.dcu.ie/
CAMILE Concerted Action on Management Information for Libraries in Europe This was a concerted action supported by the Telematics for Libraries sector of the Telematics Applications Programme of the European Commission. It was designed to disseminate and promote the common results of four EC supported projects DECIDE, Calimera Guidelines 142 Performance and evaluation DECIMAL, EQLIPSE and MINSTREL. Each of these research projects aimed to develop models and tools to support decision-making in libraries throughout Europe and provide unique insights into the issues and challenges which librarians in Europe have to meet in the current environment. http://www.staff.dmu.ac.uk/
Czech Republic
Archives Direction Division of the Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic Historically official statistics on archives have not been kept. From 2004 archives are included in the project EUROSTAT “Finances in Culture”, guaranteed by the Czech Statistical Office. Internal statistics can be obtained from the annual reports of individual archives, the records of which are held by the Archives Direction Division, and from the results of a general inventory carried out in 2001-2003. http://www.mvcr.cz
The National Information and Consulting Centre for Culture - statistics http://ipos-mk.cz/st_statistika.asp
Denmark
Danish National Library Authority This site makes available (up to date, free of charge, without registration and without cookies) a summary of the national public library statistics The site is presented in English. A model for all. http://www.bs.dk/index.ihtml
Estonia
Library statistics Estonia has been gathering library statistics since 1970, but the LibEcon project provided new guidelines for developing and standardising, and the facility for comparison with other European countries was found to be especially useful. http://www.nlib.ee/inglise/lib/libstat.html
Estonian Public Library statistics Analyses are published every year. http://nlib.ee/rkogud/rstat.html
Financial benchmarking The development of ancillary activities, such as statistical benchmarking, demonstrates a growing awareness of gaining more value from the statistical archives. A fully working prototype financial benchmarking tool has been developed for individual libraries in Estonia which can be adapted for use in other countries. http://www.libecon.org/millenniumstudy/default.asp
Finland
Statistics of Public Libraries in Finland Database in three languages (Finnish, Swedish and English) maintained by the Ministry of Education. http://tilastot.kirjastot.fi/
Calimera Guidelines 143 Performance and evaluation The National Board of Antiquities Museum statistics - the National Board of Antiquities compiles annual statistics on professionally-run museums with full-time staff. http://www.nba.fi/en/statistics
Germany
Bertelsmann Foundation In 1999, the Foundation established a public libraries benchmarking exercise. It will soon be enlarged to include research libraries. http://www.bix-bibliotheksindex.de/
Bertelsmann Stiftung Bix Benchmarking (metric and process). http://www.stiftung.bertelsmann.de/
German Library Statistics There is a nationwide scheme for measuring the performance of all types of German libraries. This statistical scheme is relatively old and has been criticised as being ineffective and old-fashioned, but no other nationwide alternative has been accepted. http://www.bibliotheksstatistik.de/
Norway
ABM-utvikling Statistikk - Statistics for public and research libraries and museums. New system for submitting and processing data implemented December 2004. Data for archives to be implemented in next phase. (Norwegian only.) http://www.abm-utvikling.no/prosjekter/Interne/ABM/Statistikk/index.html Kvalitets- og Resultat-indikatorer for Bibliotek - Proposal on performance indicators for Norwegian libraries. 2004. (Norwegian only.) http://www.abm-utvikling.no/faghjornet/dokumenter/kvalitetsindikatorer.pdf
Poland
Statistical data connected to public libraries and museums are available at http://www.stat.gov.pl Statistical data connected to Polish archives are available at http://www.archiwa.gov.pl/?CIDA=152 The National Library in Warsaw prepares a publication, Public Libraries in Figures, available online at http://www.bn.org.pl/BPL_2002/BPL_2002_cover_eng.htm
Spain
Estadística de bibliotecas públicas españolas On the Subdirectorate General of Library Co-ordination website is the Estadística de bibliotecas públicas españolas, a general compilation providing data collected by the Autonomous Regions based on one single questionnaire, following the standard ISO 2789 "Information and documentation - International library statistics". Other statistical sources are the national library statistics which are compiled every two
Calimera Guidelines 144 Performance and evaluation years by the National Institute of Statistics (INE), within its Estadísticas de bibliotecas. http://www.mcu.es/bibliotecas/jsp/marcosAncho.jsp?id=40
Estadística de Museos y Colecciones en España The statistics on museums and collections in Spain are collected by the Statistical Office and the General Subdirectorate of State Museums from the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the Autonomous Regions and the Ministry of Defence. In addition, there is the Spanish Museums and Collections Directory on the Net, which offers statistics related to 2000. http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla.jsp?id=42&area=estadisticas
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute) Archive statistics are collected by the Archive Information and Documentation Centre (CIDA), a department belonging to the General Subdirectorate of State Archives from the Ministry of Culture, and are published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute). http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=/t12/a111/a1998/&O=pcaxis&N=&L=1
Programa de Análisis de Bibliotecas (PAB) The Bertelsmann Foundation in Spain is co-ordinating and financing this Library Analysis Programme on library management and performance measurement. The aim of the project is to develop an evaluation methodology to facilitate decisions about the services. http://www.fundacionbertelsmann.es/pab/
Travesía, Subdirectorate General of Library Co-ordination This site makes available a summary of the national public library statistics compiled in the paper "Las bibliotecas públicas en España, una realidad abierta". http://travesia.mcu.es/estadisticas1.asp
United Kingdom
Government In the UK the government requires local authorities (who run public libraries, public record offices and many museums) to measure their performance. • Best Value – each authority must aim to meet targets for individual services, including cultural services. Targets include numbers of visits to public libraries, the percentage of public library users who found the book/information they wanted, numbers of visits/usages to museums (usages includes visits to websites and numbers of pupils visiting museums in organised school groups), the percentage of residents satisfied with local authority cultural services including libraries, museums and arts activities and venues, etc. Under Best Value the authority assesses the quality, cost and performance of their services by using prescribed methodology, also known as the 4C's: Consulting with service users and non users, Comparing performance with others providing the same or similar services, Challenging why and how the service is provided and Competing by assessing the competitiveness of the service against other means of provision. • Comprehensive Performance Assessment (CPA) – where Best Value looks at individual services, CPA looks at the overall capacity of the authority to improve. A judgement is made, by the Audit Commission, on the Council's performance and Calimera Guidelines 145 Performance and evaluation the authority is classed into one of five categories, excellent, good, fair, weak or poor. http://www.audit-commission.gov.uk/
The Accreditation Scheme for Museums in the United Kingdom: Accreditation Standard MLA's Accreditation Scheme, launched in November 2004, sets nationally agreed standards for UK museums. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/accreditation_standard.pdf
Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIPFA) On this site the UK public library statistics and the UK local archive statistics can be accessed and downloaded, but only by subscribers. http://www.cipfastats.net/
Cultural Trends Cultural Trends has been providing in-depth analysis of cultural sector statistics since 1989. It focuses on key trends within the fields of material culture, media, performing arts and the historic environment, and includes coverage of issues which impact on the sector as a whole such as the Internet, poverty and access to the arts, and funding. This journal contains a comprehensive article on the state of archive statistics in the UK. Other countries may recognise some of the difficulties described. (Chris Pickford: Archives: a Statistical Overview in Cultural Trends no.48, 2002. pp.4-36.) (Online access is only available on subscription.)
Department for Culture, Media and Sport Public Library Service Standards http://www.culture.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/ew4ob736q3yuydouvxx4whrlypftajwunbi4c7 bi64ah6rahyrpi5csbym23xwsqyuhlc3c4qdeyr3eqmeaccrjh6qd/PUBLICLIBRARYSERVIC ESTANDARDSFINAL1OCTOBER.pdf These new standards were issued in October 2004 to replace the standards which have been in use since 2001 (i.e. Comprehensive, Efficient and Modern Public Libraries – Standards and Assessment http://www.culture.gov.uk/PDF/libraries_pls_assess.pdf). Both are worth reading.
IPF Public Library Benchmarking Club Benchmarking (metric and process). http://www.ipf.co.uk/benchmarking
Inspiring Learning for All Describes what an accessible and inclusive museum, archive or library which stimulates and supports learning looks like. It allows you to find out what the people that use your services learn, assess how well you are achieving best practice in supporting learning, and improve what you do. http://www.inspiringlearningforall.gov.uk/default.aspx?flash=true
Learning Impact Research Project (LIRP) Research commissioned by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council to develop a scheme for finding evidence of the outcomes and impact of learning in museums, archives and libraries. http://www.mla.gov.uk/action/learnacc/lirp.asp Calimera Guidelines 146 Performance and evaluation The Library & Information Statistics Unit LISU publishes compilations of statistical information about libraries and for librarians. LISU Annual Library Statistics features trend analysis of UK public and academic libraries. A summary of the issue for 2003 covering 1992-2002 is available online. The LIST is an annual sampler of UK library statistics from all sectors (public, academic, special, national and school libraries) and is available free online for the following years: 1997 – 2004. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/dils/lisu/index.html
MIEL: Management Information for the Electronic Library Reviewed current trends in library development and the related literature and proposed performance indicators for the electronic, networked library. One chapter usefully summarises previous texts and manuals. Largely academic library-based. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/dlis/models/studies/
Performance measures These matrices are the results of a comparative review of a number of key documents on performance indicators for libraries. The review was commissioned by the DECIDE project and carried out by John Sumsion. http://www.staff.dmu.ac.uk/~camile/matrices/intro.htm#top
The People’s Network This project connected all UK public libraries to the Internet. The project was managed as a partnership between the New Opportunities Fund (NOF) and Resource: The Council for Museums, Archives and Libraries (now MLA). The website is used to publicise outcomes by the use of case studies etc. See also The evaluation of public library online services: measuring impact [by] Peter Brophy, available on the website. http://www.mla.gov.uk/action/pn/impact.asp
SEAX SEAX keeps statistics of all users in the Essex Record Office. It can distinguish between users at different branches, so allowing electronic ordering at all branches and alerting members of the public to the location of documents not held in the main office. It records all the visits made by each member of the public and using this staff can return to the orders and productions for any day to see what documents have been ordered. http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/
Standardised questionnaires • PLUS (Public Library User Survey). http://www.ipf.co.uk/plus/ • PLUS (archives) - the latest published results (2002) of a user survey of UK archives covering 12000 responses nationally. http://www.ipf.co.uk/plus/psqg/default.htm and http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/archives/psqg/survey.htm
Society of Archivists Best Practice guidelines: No. 1: Measuring Performance by Patricia Methven et al, 1993. ISBN 0 902886 45 2. Not available online – for details see http://www.archives.org.uk/content.asp?id=290 Calimera Guidelines 147 Performance and evaluation Visitors to Museums and Galleries 2004 Comprehensive survey of museum satisfaction rates and visitor numbers in Britain, undertaken by MORI on behalf of MLA. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/mori_visitors_v2.doc
What did you learn at the museum today? The evaluation of the impact of the Renaissance in the Regions Education Programme in the three Phase 1 Hubs (August, September and October 2003). July – February 2004. Funded by MLA, this is an innovative research study and is the first national large- scale study to focus on the learning outcomes of school visits to museums in three regions of England using the concept of the Generic Learning Outcomes. http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185exec.pdf http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185repa.pdf http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185repb.pdf http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185repc.pdf http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/id1185repd.pdf
USA There are a number of exemplary US sites covering public libraries and other sectors.
ARL Statistics site An interactive site, where you can select variables, rank libraries, produce ratios and indicators, and also present data graphically. Raw data can be downloaded in ASCII format. http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/newarl/ (For a description see the article Interactive Peer Group Comparisons through the Web http://www.arl.org/newsltr/197/peergroup.html.)
Institute of Museum and Library Services Important site with some relevant surveys and reports. http://www.imls.gov/about/index.htm
International Coalition of Library Consortia (ICOLC) Guidelines for Statistical Measures of Usage of Web-Based Indexed, Abstracted, and Full Text Resources (November 1998). http://www.library.yale.edu/consortia/webstats.html
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Library statistics program: public libraries. http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/libraries/Public.asp
National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) Statistics and surveys. http://www.nclis.gov/statsurv/statsurv.html
Outcomes Toolkit Allows local services to get involved practically in outcome-based evaluation. http://ibec.ischool.washington.edu/ibecCat.aspx?subCat=Outcome%20Toolkit&cat=T ools%20and%20Resources Back to contents Calimera Guidelines 148 Performance and evaluation Calimera Guidelines Legal and rights issues
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Copyright Copyright and its effect on access Effects of copyright on public lending Copyright and technical protection systems Enforcement of IPR Directive Collective licensing societies Databases IPR in Metadata Copyright, archiving, preservation and conservation Guidance on digitisation Licensing Data Protection and privacy Data sharing Freedom of Information Re-use of public sector information e-Commerce Accessibility for disabled people Legal issues relating to security and authenticity are dealt with in the guideline on Security. Neither of these guidelines constitute or are intended to replace legal advice. Such advice should be sought when and where necessary.
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The EU has adopted a large number of Directives designed to encourage the development of an information society. In addition, it has published discussion documents and has organised a number of conferences and hearings of relevance. Many of these EU initiatives have significance for museums, libraries and archives.
This guideline is intended for policy makers in museums, libraries and archives in order to ascertain the relevant issues and encourage best practice. It is also intended for specialist associations representing professionals from these bodies in order for them to give guidance to their members and to have evidence when lobbying governments for appropriate changes. It can also be used as a reminder to governments and funding bodies that legal issues, especially copyright and the importance of clearing rights, must not be forgotten when planning or providing funding for national digitisation projects.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 149 Legal and rights issues Copyright Back to Scope Copyright is a complex subject, and its specifics will vary among countries in Europe as well as among categories of works protected by copyright and within the categories of works themselves. There are several issues to be aware of when using copyright protected works and it is essential that librarians, archivists and museum professionals avail themselves of as much knowledge of their own copyright laws as possible and those that apply to the specific works that they deal with. These are outlined in this guideline together with some points to consider when planning the digitisation of collections, online or as digital networks. Some of the issues highlighted within the guidelines may be adapted to be included within copyright policies and within strategic planning.
Whatiscopyright? Back to Scope Copyright, or authors’ right (droit d’auteur), is an exclusive property right offered to the creators of material expressions of works of the mind to permit or prevent copying of certain specified categories of subject matter. The duration of this right normally lasts for a fixed period of time (usually their lifetime plus a number of years). National copyright laws are based on the principles contained in international treaties and conventions. The treaty which forms the basis of the current international copyright law is the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works [1]. The Berne Convention has been revised several times since its inception and there have been several other treaties covering other works. Two more treaties were adopted in 1996 bringing copyright protection into the digital age i.e. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation) Copyright Treaty (WCT) [2] and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) [3]. As well as strengthening the rights of performers and record producers, there were new rights added. In the Copyright Treaty (WCT) a new Right of Communication to the Public, also called the Internet Right, was added.
Whatarethe rights? Back to Scope Creators are given a set of exclusive rights to exploit (sell, assign, license) how they wish: reproduction right, publication right, adaptation right, rental and public lending rights, public performance rights, broadcasting and making available on public networks rights. In most countries, such as the UK, these rights are granted automatically upon the creation of the work, whilst other jurisdictions, may require registration. The USA for example has a voluntary registration system; copyright exists from the moment the work is created, but registration is recommended because it is necessary if an author wishes to bring a lawsuit for infringement of copyright.[4]
Attached to copyright are moral rights, notably the right to be identified as the author of a work and the right not to have a work treated in a derogatory manner. The importance and role of these will vary between European states. The collections in Europe’s museums, libraries and archives whether in print, analogue or digital form (including databases, intranets, software, born digital content and websites), are all protected by copyright law.
Calimera Guidelines 150 Legal and rights issues Differences in legal traditions Back to Scope Countries on the European mainland follow civil law, whereas the UK and the Republic of Ireland along with other English speaking nations (USA, Australia, South Africa etc.) follow common law. Under civil law, authors have an inalienable right to their intellectual property; in other words, it is part of their civil rights. Under common law, copyright is not an absolute right: it is granted only by law. This is an important distinction and is a reason why harmonisation of copyright across EU Member States can be difficult. UK and Ireland fair dealing and the American fair use are examples of differences. The civil law countries do not have such concepts.
EU harmonisation Back to Scope Since 1988, the European Commission, with the single market in mind, has followed a programme of harmonisation of copyright laws across the EU with the result that although copyright laws of Member States are not identical, they are very similar. The differences usually lie with the exceptions and limitations (see below). Each nation has its own traditions when allowing copying and use. However, following implementation at the end of 2002 of the EU Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society [5], they have been constrained by the proscribed limits on exceptions. The effects of the exception curtailing copying to “non-commercial” research has recently become effective in a number of European states. Professionals working in museums, libraries and archives need to be aware of the effect of such a provision upon their own activities and those of others provided within their professional service capacity, such as relevant licensing schemes.
In 2004, the European Commission launched a consultation on working paper SEC (2004) 995 (19/7/04) [6] reviewing EU legislation in the field of copyright and related rights. The response of EBLIDA (the European Bureau of Library, Information and Documentation Associations), which lobbies on behalf of archives and libraries, is available on their website. [7]
Copyright and its effect on access: the exceptions and limitations Back to scope Copyrights are not absolute rights and most countries in the world recognise the need to limit the exclusive rights given to authors in certain specific circumstances. These limitations and exceptions ensure that access to information to further the public interest in research, education and other important policy goals are not subject to unnecessary copyright restrictions. Professionals working within museums, libraries and archives worldwide believe that certain exceptions are essential to ensure equal unhindered access to information and cultural heritage. Without such exceptions, copyright would be a monopoly.
When a work ceases to be protected it enters the public domain, an area where, generally speaking, contents are free from property rights, or are treated as such. Digitisation makes it possible for information to be shared widely, easily and quickly, which can be of great benefit in the world of scientific research for example, Digitisation of government information can facilitate its wide and speedy distribution contributing to eGovernment agendas. However, this cannot take place if the material is protected without permission from the rights owners. Consequently there Calimera Guidelines 151 Legal and rights issues is much concern over the trend in recent years for countries to extend the term of protection so reducing the material (books, music, films etc.) in the public domain (the EU Copyright Directive [5] extended it to life plus 70 years – the term already in use in Germany but an extension for other countries). The EU Database Directive [15] also put constraints on the public domain by protecting databases. This also has an impact on creativity as much new work is based on earlier works, or uses some earlier work in some way. Extensions to the term of protection are usually made to enable rights holders to benefit from royalties etc., and it is arguable that research and cannot continue unless there is some financial income from publishing. This applies also in the world of popular music for example. (Much has been written on this subject. See for example IFLA Position Paper on Copyright in the Digital Environment, and Public domain, from Wikipedia. [8])
Only balanced copyright laws will promote the advancement of society as a whole by giving strong and effective protection to authors and rights holders as well as providing reasonable access to users in order to encourage creativity, innovation, research, education and learning.
The effects of copyright on public lending Back to Scope Non-commercial public lending is not an activity that has traditionally been controlled by copyright law. Public lending has always been essential to give access to cultural and educational materials and should be available to all. Information packaged in all formats has and will become part of the lending stock. However, following the EU Directive on Rental and Lending, Europe’s libraries are governed by lending regulations. (See Council Directive 92/100/EEC on Rental and Lending Right and on Certain Rights related to Copyright in the field of Intellectual Property [9].) These stipulate that material lent by public libraries has to be authorised or licensed. This means that for some materials, authors may demand some remuneration. This will also apply to museums and archives if they lend material.
Copyright and technical protection systems Back to Scope Rights holders have been concerned that, in the digital environment, their works were not fully protected by law. As a result, publishers may use technological protection measures such as digital rights management (DRM) systems to automate the process of licensing works and of ensuring that the licence terms are complied with. Article 6 of EU Copyright Directive [5] makes it a criminal offence to circumvent or avoid such technological protection measures.
However, this has caused concern to those who wish to copy a work under a lawful exception. DRMs are meant to protect against copyright infringement, but can go further and restrict legitimate access. For example, if an exception is given to allow a visually impaired person to reformat a work in order to read it, this will be impossible if the work is protected by a DRM which prevents copying and reformatting without authorisation. The exception therefore becomes worthless. In the worst case, DRM, together with restrictive licences, can prevent any copies at all being made for any purposes. This has been addressed in the Directive by allowing Governments to intervene if complaints are made to them, but there is concern that this will not work sufficiently well in practice. For example it certainly will not work quickly enough to enable someone wanting information to obtain it in time to meet their needs. Some Calimera Guidelines 152 Legal and rights issues user groups are calling for circumvention of technical measures to be allowed in special cases e.g. for legal or voluntary deposit, preservation and archiving, in order to safeguard the availability of material for future generations. Librarians, archivists, museum professionals and other user groups will need to monitor developments in this area.
It is also a criminal offence to interfere with digital/electronic rights management information (information provided by the copyright owner which identifies the work, the author or any other rights holder, or information about the terms and conditions of use of the work), to remove such data or to retransmit a work without it.
These new offences relating to technological protection measures and digital rights management information work both ways however, and give museums, archives and libraries powers to protect their own digitised collections or other material that they have produced in electronic form.
Enforcement of IPR Directive Back to Scope On 29 April 2004, the Council of Ministers and European Parliament adopted Directive 2004/48/EC [10] on the enforcement of intellectual property rights, covering copyright and related rights, trademarks, designs, patents, geographical indications, etc. Its purpose is to impose sanctions against counterfeiting and piracy. However, it applies to all infringements, unintentional and minor as well as deliberate and serious, and is not limited to infringements for commercial use only. The European Court of Justice is examining the possibility of introducing criminal sanctions in the near future. There is much concern about the possibility that people such as students, researchers, teachers, and library, archive and museum staff, might be vulnerable to the risk of prosecution resulting from minor infringing acts made in good faith for no commercial use. Again, museums, libraries and archives need to keep a close watching brief on developments in this area.
Regulation of collective licensing societies Back to Scope Collective licensing societies are set up by copyright owners to license certain uses of their works on their behalf. For example, collective administration bodies exist for licensing, and/or distributing royalties from certain uses of music and sound recordings, printed material, artistic works and characters, broadcast material and TV listings. Collective licensing can benefit users when it offers a blanket licence covering the use of all the repertoire of the collecting society, so eliminating the need to negotiate a large number of individual licences. However, collecting societies can effectively be in a monopoly position for some uses of copyright material.
The activities of collecting societies are increasingly coming under scrutiny by the European Commission, in particular their categorisation as monopolies that need to be regulated within the EC Communication: The Management of Copyright and Related Rights in the Internal Market, EC (COM (2004) 261 (Final) [11]. The Communication also concluded that interoperability and acceptance by all stakeholders, including consumers, of Digital Rights Management (DRM) systems should be a pre-condition for their emergence. Lastly, the Communication sets out several options for improving the situation regarding the development of Community- wide licensing for the exploitation of rights. The Communication is based on the Calimera Guidelines 153 Legal and rights issues conclusions of the consultation carried out on these issues, which took place against the backdrop of the emerging Information Society. The Commission subsequently launched a further consultation exercise (which ended on 21 June 2004).
The Database Directive Back to Scope The European Council Directive No 96/9/EC on Legal Protection of Databases [15] regulates the use of and provides for the protection of databases. The selection or the arrangement of the content of a database is protected by copyright. The protection of the investment in creating a database is protected by a sui generis right. A database is described in the Directive as "a collection of independent works, data, or materials arranged in a systematic or methodical way and individually accessible by electronic or other means." Databases may include any type of information, such as text, sound, images, numbers, facts, or data. Electronic and print databases are covered. Catalogues such as library catalogues are databases under this definition, as are collections of metadata (see IPR in metadata). Database makers can prevent unauthorized copying for 15 years from the date of completing the database or making it available to the public. Substantial changes to the database will cause a new 15-year period to run. It is left to Member States to provide for exceptions to this right, such as exceptions for teaching or non commercial research, etc., but there are restrictions - users can extract a substantial part of a non-electronic database for private purposes, but may not extract a substantial part of an electronic database for private purposes. This Directive is currently under review with the aim of addressing the issue of exceptions [6].
IPRinmetadata Back to Scope In principle, metadata is protected in the EU, under database right and/or copyright. Under the database Directive [15], any collection of metadata qualifies as a database. The protection accorded to that database depends on whether there is intellectual or creative effort in the database. There is a strong argument that if an indexer used skill and expertise to apply metadata tags to a document, then the metadata tags should be protected by copyright. Even if a Court were to decide they did not qualify for such protection, because of the human and financial investment in such tagging, they would without doubt enjoy database right.
IPR in metadata becomes a particular issue when there is a joint project for adding metadata to a collection. The ownership of such a jointly developed collection rests with the various partner institutions. This means that no one institution can exploit the materials without the agreement of all the other partners. In such cases, it is best to agree a partnership agreement before the co-operative work starts.
In the case of most local institutions, it is unlikely that the metadata will be sufficiently valuable or important to justify an active policy of policing the Internet, which a number of commercial services offer to do for a fee, but it must then be recognised that by placing the metadata in some public domain, the organisation risks third parties making use of such metadata for its own ends. However, only if the metadata collection is very important and valuable will such a policy be warranted.
Calimera Guidelines 154 Legal and rights issues Another aspect to this issue concerns ownership of the copyright in a work to which metadata is to be added in order to describe it so that it can be retrieved. When seeking permission from a copyright owner to digitise a work, permission to add/incorporate metadata should be sought at the same time.
Copyright, archiving, preservation and conservation Back to Scope Copying in order to archive, preserve or conserve a work in a collection is considered to be an important role of many museums, libraries and archives. It is essential, as well as being in the public interest, that these bodies are given an exception to copy in order to preserve/conserve the original and to be able to make this copy available for consultation and other uses in the same way as the original format. In the EU Copyright Directive [5], EU Member States were given the option of being allowed to archive and preserve specific works and make them available subject to strict conditions. However, many countries chose not to incorporate these non-mandatory provisions within their national legislation and so authorisation has to be sought for these purposes. (See articles 5.2.(c) and 5.3(n) of the EU Copyright Directive [5].) This continues to hinder national objectives to preserve cultural heritage as such clearance is administratively burdensome and costly.
Guidance on planning the creation of digital material (see also the guideline on Digitisation) Back to Scope Successful digitisation projects depend on the content being accessible to the public. Inevitably, there will be both born digital content (such as databases, web content etc.) and many non-digital works in collections across Europe which will be considered ideal for inclusion. Professionals working in museums, libraries and archives need to be aware of the copyright legislation in their country as well as relevant International Directives and Treaties. They need to take responsibility for making sure that their activities and those of their users are compliant with national and international copyright legislation. • It is important to note that although museums, libraries or archives may be the sole owners of the physical work, they may not necessarily own the rights. Whether there will in the future be an exception for digitising in-print works in order to make them available to users on a public access network, only time will tell. However, the EU Copyright Directive [5] includes some qualified exceptions for reproduction by museums, libraries and archives (see articles 5.2(c) and 5.3(n). • The copyright in protected works needs to be cleared prior to digitisation and making available on networks, public facing websites or internally. Cultural heritage practitioners will, therefore, have to be prepared to negotiate with whoever holds the rights for authorisation. This could be the publisher, a collecting society, a licensing agency, or maybe even the original creator or the author’s estate if the author is dead. • There will often be a need to negotiate to purchase access to existing works in digital form. Knowledge of contract and copyright law is therefore desirable if both parties are to negotiate on an equal footing. • There are many pitfalls which may be encountered when dealing with contracts and licensing which could put the organisation at risk of expensive litigation so it is essential that negotiators familiarise themselves with proposed terms as well as
Calimera Guidelines 155 Legal and rights issues costs. (See Digital copyright : law and practice by Simon Stokes [12] and the section on Licensing below.)
Before considering digitisation, museums, libraries and archives should ideally: • Be aware of current and any forthcoming copyright legislation and seek legal advice. (General information on copyright and related rights may be found on the WIPO [13] web site and details of national copyright legislation covering most nations may be found on the UNESCO web site [14]. (See also the EU Copyright Directive.[5]) • Devise a copyright policy outlining aims and objectives of the service. What uses are allowed should flow from these aims. E.g. establish who will have access and for what purposes, decide about network security and how copying and use will be controlled. Will there be a technical protection system or will access be monitored by identification, registration and password controls? Will remote access be offered to protected works? • Decide on content to include and identify who owns the copyright in protected works. Those works where the copyright is not owned by the organisation will have to be cleared for inclusion. Some works could already be published in electronic form and so a licence will be needed from the publisher to provide linked access. • Estimate how long in advance rights will take to be cleared and be prepared to put aside staff time to carry this out. Be aware that identifying and tracing rights holders can prove one of the most time consuming elements of any digitisation project. • Put aside sufficient funds to clear copyright, particularly in cases where creators and other rights holders are represented by collecting societies. Budgets should also take into consideration the costs in employing extra staff or replacing the duties of existing staff in dealing with rights clearances. • Establish clearance mechanisms and negotiate licences as necessary. If possible involve legal advisers. • Consider negotiating access to existing electronic works via a consortium (see also the guideline on Co-operation and partnership). Professionals working in libraries and archives in particular, can be in a better position to improve deals with publishers if they pool information and knowledge and form consortia. (See the section on Licensing below.) • Be aware that one of the main problems will be to overcome the resistance of rights holders to allow print and artistic works to be digitised. They will have to be convinced that their works will not be abused or misused and that they will not lose out financially. An author or a publisher will be reluctant to give carte blanche permission for a work to be electronically available without some guarantee that it will not be misused, or sent around the network where (they fear that) it could be accessed by countries with inadequate copyright protection. Therefore, careful consideration has to be given to such concerns before considering network uses. For example, if remote access by users is to be given to the website, consideration has to be given on how will this be controlled. A good example is SCRAN. (See under Links – UK, and also the TECUP project under Links - European.) • Be aware of contractual limitations and library liability. Contracts may forbid certain uses or require the use of certain measures to restrict or control access to Calimera Guidelines 156 Legal and rights issues third parties. In the case of museums, it is essential that they have the proper authority to legally bind themselves, particularly if they are granting licences themselves. • The copyright in a developed website should ideally be owned outright by the museum, library or archive to which it belongs. So, if the site is being developed by some other person or organisation, it is extremely important that all the relevant authorisations (assignments or licences of copyright works) are obtained from the developer before the site goes live. The organisation is then free to exploit its copyrights as it wishes. Any digitised collection will also be a database and will be protected by copyright and database right, and will also be owned by the library, archive or museum. (See IPR in metadata below). This is regardless of the rights in the contents which are protected in their own right and may or may not belong to the organisation. (See European Council Directive No 96/9/EC on Legal Protection of Databases [15].) • Make suitable provisions for the management of rights associated with licences that have been granted. In particular, consider the use of Digital Rights Management (DRM) solutions to record rights holders’ details, duration of licences and any special clauses within the licences. (For more information about relevant fields, see the European Museums’ Information Institute website [16] and search for “legal requirements”.) • Make sure that adequate provisions are made for staff training in alerting them to policy issues and pitfalls regarding copyright. Ensure that staff are aware of the risks of not clearing rights as well as the damage to any organisation if intellectual property assets are inadvertently given away. • The Frankfurt Group (see Links - Europe) has published a statement on retrodigitisation (digitisation of content originally published in print, such as back runs of journals) by publishers and libraries.
Licensing Back to Scope Access to and use of electronic information is usually governed by a contractual agreement, otherwise known as a licence, which is binding upon both parties. This has become the preferred business method of copyright owners for content in digital form. A licence does not confer ownership rights. It merely specifies the conditions upon which databases and other copyright works can be used and exploited, and by whom.
The contract would normally stipulate where a case is to be heard should a dispute arise. But where this is not the case, then the law must decide (see Council regulation 44/2001 of 22nd December 2000 on jurisdiction and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters [17]).
The EU Copyright Directive 2001/29/EC [5] encourages the use of licences. In recital 30 it says: “The rights referred to in this Directive may be transferred, assigned or subject to the granting of contractual licences, without prejudice to the relevant national legislation on copyright and related rights”. This last point is important; licences should not override copyright law.
Licences set out who is entitled to access the work, at what price and on which terms. These terms address questions such as whether a user is entitled to make any Calimera Guidelines 157 Legal and rights issues copies of the work, for how long a user is entitled to access the work; or whether they can make any changes to it. Museums, libraries and archives enter into licence agreements in order to make available digital content to their users (electronic document delivery). They should negotiate the best possible deal to suit the needs of those users. This is not simply a question of price, but also of ensuring that the contract includes definitions of “authorised users”, “authorised uses” and “site” which best fit with the needs of the institution. It is not only necessary for the staff to respect the licence terms, but they also need to communicate those terms to their users.
Contracts will normally include provisions where the museum/library/archive undertakes that neither it nor its users will infringe copyright or any other proprietary rights. The licensee also undertakes that it will use or allow its users to use the licensed materials in accordance with the terms and conditions as laid down in the licence. Staff working in museums, libraries and archives should uphold the moral and legal rights of the creators and distributors of intellectual property; however, when signing a licence agreement, they should not sign up to a contract clause which places an unreasonable responsibility on their organisation for acts that are outside their direct control.
Consortia licensing is being seen by many to be the answer to the might of publishers and other rights holders. In some countries it may be possible to persuade governments to fund such consortia deals. Many national consortia groups have joined forces to share licensing information and to produce a set of licensing principles. (See ICOLC statement [18] and IFLA Licensing Principles [19].) Publishers are becoming used to dealing with consortia but they are wary of requests for “model licences”. Nevertheless such model licences do exist. (See LIBLICENSE under Links – USA, and also NESLI, under Links - UK.)
The EBLIDA publication “Licensing digital resources: how to avoid the legal pitfalls” by Emanuella Giavarra [20] is a useful guide to good practice for those who are required to negotiate licences for electronic products.
Creative Commons Creative Commons is a not-for-profit organisation which offers a way for creators of digital content (music, photographs, film, writing, educational materials) to make their work available under a licence (see Licensing). They retain copyright but allow others to use their work under certain conditions. For example, the licence could allow people to copy, distribute, display, and perform the copyrighted work providing they give credit to the author/creator. The idea is to allow creators to choose to make their work available under less restrictive conditions than would be allowed under full copyright law. Creative Commons was founded in 2001 in the USA and has since set up an international offshoot, iCommons, which has negotiated country specific licences with the jurisdictions of several countries including, in Europe, Austria, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. Licences are in the process of development in Belgium, Croatia, France, Ireland, Italy, Sweden and the UK. For more information, and to see the licence(s) applicable to specific countries, see the Creative Commons website [21]. (See also the appendix to the guideline on
Calimera Guidelines 158 Legal and rights issues Digitisation for a chart showing how the Creative Commons licence could be applied in conjunction with the publication on the internet of low-resolution images.)
Data Protection and privacy Back to Scope According to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms [22] “everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence”. In order to allow for the free movement of data whilst at the same time ensuring protection of personal privacy, the European Union has harmonised the laws of member states through a number of directives and regulations [23]: • Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data; • Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector; • Regulation (EC) 45/2001 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by the Community institutions and bodies and on the free movement of such data.
Information relating to individuals – known as “personal data” – is collected and used in many areas of everyday life, such as when someone registers for a library card.
If institutions collect in any form, or use, transmit, share access to, record, alter or otherwise deal with any personal data on or off the web there is an obligation to process that data fairly and in a secure manner. The responsibility for data security includes where the data has been put into the hands of third party companies, and therefore contracts with third parties should explicitly state that they are required to store and transmit the data securely and in accordance with the relevant legislation.
Under European law, people must process data according to eight general principles: • fairly and lawfully; • for limited purposes; • data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive; • data must be accurate; • data must not be kept for longer than is necessary; • data must be processed in line with the data subject’s rights; • data must be kept secure; • data must not be transferred to countries without adequate protection.
There are very stringent rules which apply to the processing of “sensitive data”, i.e. data relating to racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade union membership, data concerning health or sexual preference. Such data can only be processed under very specific circumstances. These include where the data subject has given their explicit consent to process the sensitive data.
It is important to be clear and transparent about any personal data that is being collected, and what will be done with that data. It is advisable therefore to have a privacy statement which sets out: • why you are collecting this personal information; Calimera Guidelines 159 Legal and rights issues • what you intend to do with the information you collect; • what options users have when it comes to your making use of their data; • an explanation of who may have access to the data; • how long you intend to hold the data on your system(s); • whether you use cookies/beacons to track user activity; • whether you process the data globally.
At any point where personal data is collected, the privacy statement should be available for people to consult. The OECD have a privacy policy generator tool [24] which can help anyone drafting a privacy statement. There are numerous examples of privacy statements on the www, including for example Europe Direct, the University of Leicester and Russian Archives Online [25].
National laws guarantee a series of rights for individuals. These include: • the right to be informed when data was processed; • the reason for this processing; • the right to access the data; • the right to have the data amended or deleted if necessary. All requests by data subjects wishing to access their personal details should be dealt with promptly; and any personal information relating to a third party individual should not be disclosed without the consent of the third party.
(For further information see the Europa data protection website [26] and the websites of the national data protection commissioners [27].)
Datasharing Back to Scope Data sharing here refers to the sharing of data by the public sector across traditional organisational boundaries, e.g. across all departments of a local authority or between a local authority and national agencies. For example the departments of a local authority could share data about an individual with the aim of providing a more personalised service to that individual. This would seem to be in accordance with government agendas to deliver more integrated “joined-up” services. However it can come into conflict with an individual’s right to privacy. A balance must be achieved between efficiency, the wider public interest (for example where a crime could be prevented if information were shared) and the public’s expectation of privacy. Data sharing must comply with data protection, human rights and freedom of information legislation. (See the section on data protection and privacy.)
Freedom of information Back to Scope According to the United Nations General Assembly of 1946 "Freedom of Information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone for all freedoms to which the United Nations is consecrated". [28] Details of relevant legislation in the EU member states can be found in Freedom of information and access to government records around the world by David Banisar, Privacy International, Updated May 12, 2004 [29] and Freedom of information: a comparative legal survey by Toby Mendel, UNESCO, 2003. [30]
At a European level, the Amsterdam Treaty [31] introduced a new Article 255. Under this article, on 30 May 2001, the Council and the European Parliament adopted Calimera Guidelines 160 Legal and rights issues regulation 1049/2001 regarding public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents [32].
Staff working in museums, libraries and archives provide the essential link between users and the information they require. They should demonstrate a commitment to the defence and advancement of access to information, whilst recognising the need to balance the promotion of public access to official information with the protection of personal information.
Where a citizen seeking access to official information does not adequately describe the information that they require, staff at the public authority should provide advice and assistance to enable the requester to clarify their request. Staff must fulfil their role with impartiality, and avoid any inappropriate bias. The aim of providing assistance is to clarify the nature of the information sought, not to determine the aims or motivation of the applicant.
The process of providing information, and the standards and procedures governing that process should be made as clear and open as possible. Information should be provided promptly, and in any event must comply with the statutory time limit. Where a request for access to information is refused, the relevant exemption should be cited, and the reasons for refusing the request should be explained.
Requesters should be given details of the authority's complaints/appeals procedure, and staff should deal promptly and fairly with complaints and keep users informed about progress in the handling of their complaints.
Staff in museums, libraries and archives must show appropriate concern for the preservation and conservation of materials as required. They should follow the agreed records retention schedule for their authority.
Good practice on the handling of requests for information and on the management of records in the UK is set out in the Lord Chancellor's codes of practice. [33]
The re-use of public sector information Back to Scope The public sector collects and produces vast amounts of information, much of which is of interest to individuals and businesses, and which can be the raw material for value-added information services produced by the content industries. Examples include geographic information, business information and statistics. This information resource has considerable social and economic potential, for example, geographic data could be used by private companies to develop new added-value services and products useful for the tourist industry.
The EU recognises that re-use of this information could generate wealth and jobs for Europe. The European Directive 2003/98/EC on the Re-use of Public Sector Information [34], which must be implemented by member states by 1st July 2005, establishes a minimum set of rules governing the re-use of public sector information for commercial purposes with the aim of stimulating the European information industry so it can compete more effectively in the global marketplace. In the Directive, “re-use” is defined as any use “for commercial or non-commercial purposes Calimera Guidelines 161 Legal and rights issues other than the initial purpose within the public task for which the documents were produced”.
Together, the legislation on Freedom of Information (which confers a right of access to information) and Public Sector Information (which imposes an obligation to make many public materials re-usable and available – wherever possible in electronic form) will lead to greater transparency of government, subject to data protection legislation. The PSI Directive [34] specifically does not apply to : • “documents held by educational and research establishments, such as schools, universities, archives, libraries and research facilities including, where relevant, organisations established for the transfer of research results; • documents held by cultural establishments, such as museums, libraries, archives, orchestras, operas, ballets and theatres.” However, in so far as museums, libraries and archives provide public sector information to the public they will be affected by this legislation, which applies “when public sector bodies license, sell, disseminate, exchange or give out information”. (For information on Public Sector Information - access and re-use, including practices in member states, see Europa: Public Sector Information: Access and Re-use [35]. ) e-Commerce Back to Scope eGovernment agendas are aiming to provide most public services electronically, which includes via telephone, television, mobile technologies and the Internet. If goods or services are bought or sold over the Internet then institutions must comply with EU Directive 2000/31/EC (The E-commerce Directive) [36] and EU Directive 97/7/EC (The Distance Selling Directive) [37].
The e-Commerce Directive [36] states that member states shall ensure that their legal systems allow contracts to be concluded by electronic means. The Directive also limits the liability of Internet Service Providers (ISP) under certain circumstances where the ISP acts as a mere carrier and has no control over the contents of messages sent (this covers liability for defamation etc.). This Directive is applicable to all kinds of e-commerce, and is therefore relevant wherever museums, libraries and archives undertake commercial activities with third parties electronically. This would include, for example, the provision of electronic document delivery services and the receipt of or order for documents or other materials by e-mail. The ISP rules will be of significance to those institutions which host their own Web pages.
The Distance Selling Directive [37] applies if the institution sells goods or services by the Internet, digital television, mail order (including catalogue shopping), phone or fax, and so would apply to goods from a museum gift shop or photographs from an archive etc. if sold in this way.
Security is one of the biggest fears for all kinds of e-commerce. Directive 1999/93/EC (The Electronic Signatures Directive) [38] was introduced to facilitate the use of e- signatures and to contribute to their legal recognition. Under the Directive, electronic signatures have the same legal validity as traditional hand-written signatures across the Member States. The Directive sets certain minimum authentication standards before e-signatures have to be accepted in law. These are that the signature is: Calimera Guidelines 162 Legal and rights issues • uniquely linked to the signatory; • capable of identifying the signatory; • created by a means that the signatory can maintain under his/her sole control; • linked to the data to which it relates in such a way that any subsequent change of that data is detectable. In practice, this can only be achieved using Public Key Cryptography (see the guideline on Security).
Accessibility for disabled people Back to Scope The EU is committed to providing services which are accessible to all and do not discriminate against disabled people. Many member states have introduced their own national legislation regarding access, e.g. the Disability Discrimination Act in the UK which makes it unlawful to provide a service of a lower standard to a disabled person. For details of legislation in member states see the appendix to the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people.
The provisions of the EU Directive 2001/29/EC [5] allow an important exception for visually impaired people, so recognising that there may be situations where they require copies of works. Certain national states, such as the UK, have already incorporated this exception within their legislation and established licensing schemes for the provision of multiple accessible copies of works in any format for use by visually impaired persons, whilst following notable restrictions on multiple copying. [39]
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Museums, libraries and archives should maintain a watching brief on international and national copyright legislation in order to lobby for adequate access to information for all citizens and to give guidance on best practice.
Professionals working in European contexts also need to be aware of other issues and topics which are loosely linked to copyright and IPR and be prepared to respond to any consultation (Green papers) or Directives launched by the EU. • Museums, libraries and archives should be prepared to gather evidence where copyright restrictions become a barrier to their services and report their findings to their national associations and institutions. EU directives are reviewed and (in theory) can be changed if there is good reason. For example, for EU Directives affecting copyright currently under review see SEC (2004) 995 (19.7.2004) Commission Staff Working Paper on the review of the EC legal framework in the field of copyright and related rights [6]). • Initiatives, where professionals working within the cultural heritage sector and rights holders get together to resolve contentious issues, such as ECUP, TECUP and the Frankfurt Group, should be encouraged. (See Links - European.) • Policy makers in museums, libraries and archives should support and liaise with International and European organisations such as EBLIDA (European Bureau of Library, Information and Documentation Association). (See Links - European) which was established in 1992 as a non-governmental, non-profit umbrella organisation representing libraries on a European level and which campaigns to ensure that copyright legislation does not adversely affect the goals of a Calimera Guidelines 163 Legal and rights issues European Information Society. EBLIDA has a well established Copyright Expert Group consisting of representatives from most of the EU Member States.
It is increasingly essential and within the public’s interest in gaining access to content, that libraries, archives and in particular museums are granted more extensive exceptions to reproduce material without the requirement to clear rights with rights holders. It is also important to ensure that an appropriate balance is achieved between the rights of rights holders and those of content users.
Museums, libraries and archives need to address how they manage their rights. This can prove valuable both to record rights granted to them by third parties, as well as ensuring that intellectual property in their own content is sufficiently recorded. Technological developments in the field of Digital Rights Management (DRM) solutions can be monitored to realise the possible benefits.
Museums, libraries and archives also need to consider the benefits of exploiting their own intellectual property as an alternative revenue stream. They need to look to advances in technology, such as DRM solutions, micro-payments and licensing arrangements for the most appropriate solutions. (See also the guideline on Business models.)
Digital records management is a key technology underpinning eGovernment. Aspects of digital records management should be built into both record-generating and record-keeping systems so that electronic records can be managed consistently within the appropriate regulatory frameworks.
Increasingly, museums, libraries and archives should seek out blanket and far- reaching umbrella digitisation licences as a means to address the granular and monopolist approach taken by rights holders in their licensing activities. They need to be aware of alternative forms of licensing e.g. Creative Commons which might prove advantageous both towards their use of others’ content, as well as making their own content available.
In view of the differences that presently exist at the national level regarding the law applicable to copyright contracts, the question of whether some form of harmonisation at the European level is called for will need to be addressed.
The technical issues of interoperability will also need to be addressed. COM DOC (2004) 261 [11] on the management of copyright and related rights in the internal market states that “the establishment of a global and interoperable technical infrastructure on DRM systems based on consensus among the stakeholders appears to be a necessary corollary to the existing legal framework and a prerequisite for the effective distribution and access to protected content in the Internal Market”.
With regard to data protection, it is very important to get the right balance between complete openness and the need for some intrusion into personal privacy in the light of terrorism, fraud, and other criminal activity. This needs to be monitored on an ongoing basis to see whether initiatives at a local, national, regional, and international level in areas such as electronic government, protecting the security of Calimera Guidelines 164 Legal and rights issues citizens, and combating terrorism are balanced by adequate protections for the privacy of individuals, including their right for example to use the Internet for legitimate purposes in cultural heritage institutions.
One difficulty which needs to be properly addressed is ensuring that public authorities do not hide behind data protection and privacy rules as an excuse for withholding information. Also, data protection laws may need to be adapted in order to ensure that they are robust enough to cope with technological advances.
Concerning freedom of information, there is a continuing need for citizens to be made more aware of their right of access to information. Public authorities need to find ways of making it as easy as possible for citizens to ask for official information. At an EU level, for example, there have been calls for a common "portal" for accessing information from the institutions from a single website, and for the setting up of an inter-institutional helpdesk. The European Union has powers to set the pace on freedom of information, and could produce legislation enforcing FOI on all member states, and thus creating a more harmonised approach.
There will be an increasingly urgent need to combat spam through legal, technical, social and educational measures. As far as legal measures are concerned, it is not enough to regulate in this field at either a European or a national level, when the problem of unsolicited commercial email is an international one.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/.
[2] WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation) Copyright Treaty (WCT) http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo033en.htm
[3] WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation) Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo034en.htm.
[4] United States Copyright Office http://www.copyright.gov/
[5] EU Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg =EN&numdoc=32001L0029&model=guichett
[6] European Commission staff working paper on the review of the EC legal framework in the field of copyright and related rights SEC (2004) 995 (19/7/04) http://www4.europarl.eu.int/registre/recherche/ResultatsAbreges.cfm?relation=REFS OURCE&typerelation=SEC(2004)995
Calimera Guidelines 165 Legal and rights issues [7] EBLIDA (the European Bureau of Library, Information and Documentation Associations): Response to the European Commission staff working paper on the review of the EC legal framework in the field of copyright and related rights SEC (2004) 995 of 19 July 2004. http://www.eblida.org/position/Copyright_Response_CommissionReview_October04. htm
[8] IFLA Position Paper on Copyright in the Digital Environment. http://www.ifla.org/III/clm/p1/pos-dig.htm; Public domain, from Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain
[9] Council Directive 92/100/EEC on Rental and Lending Right and on Certain Rights related to Copyright in the field of Intellectual Property. http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/ecommerce/legal/documents/392L0100/392L0100_EN.doc
[10] Directive 2004/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2004/l_195/l_19520040602en00160025.pdf
[11] EC Communication (COM (2004) 261 (Final): The Management of Copyright and Related Rights in the Internal Market. http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/copyright/management/management_en .htm
[12] Stokes, Simon: Digital copyright : law and practice. London: Butterworths, 2002. ISBN 0406947023 (pbk.)
[13] WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) http://www.wipo.int/
[14] UNESCO: Collection of national copyright laws http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php- URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
[15] European Council Directive No 96/9/EC on Legal Protection of Databases http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg =en&numdoc=31996L0009&model=guichett
[16] European Museums’ Information Institute http:www.emii-dcf.org
[17] Council regulation 44/2001 of 22nd December 2000 on jurisdiction and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_012/l_01220010116en00010023.pdf
[18] International Coalition of Library Consortia (ICOLC): Statement of Current Perspective and Preferred Practices for the Selection and Purchase of Electronic Information. 1998. Calimera Guidelines 166 Legal and rights issues http://www.library.yale.edu/consortia/statement.html
[19] IFLA Licensing principles. 2001. http://www.ifla.org/V/ebpb/copy.htm
[20] Giavarra, Emanuella: Licensing Digital Resources: How to avoid the legal pitfalls. 2nd ed. 2001. http://www.eblida.org/ecup/publica/
[21] Creative Commons http://creativecommons.org/
[22] European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms http://www.pfc.org.uk/legal/echrtext.htm
[23] Europa data protection legislative documents http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/privacy/law_en.htm
[24] OECD Privacy Statement Generator http://www.oecd.org/document/39/0,2340,en_2649_34255_28863271_1_1_1_1,00. html
[25] Europe Direct http://europa.eu.int/europedirect/privacy_en.htm University of Leicester http://www.le.ac.uk/li/libservices/dataprot.html Russian Archives Online http://www.russianarchives.com/rao/privacy.html
[26] Europa data protection website http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/privacy/index_en.htm
[27] National Data Protection Commissioners http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/privacy/links_en.htm
[28] United Nations. Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its First Session, 1946. Resolution 59(1). http://ods-dds- ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/033/10/IMG/NR003310.pdf?OpenElement
[29] Banisar, David: Freedom of information and access to government records around the world. Privacy International, Updated May 12, 2004. http://www.freedominfo.org/survey.htm
[30] Mendel, Toby: Freedom of information: a comparative legal survey. UNESCO, 2003. http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php- URL_ID=14139&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
[31] The Amsterdam Treaty. http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/a18000.htm
Calimera Guidelines 167 Legal and rights issues [32] Regulation (EC) No 1049/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2001 regarding public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents. http://www.iue.it/ECArchives/pdf/1049EN.pdf
[33] Lord Chancellor's Code Of Practice on the discharge of public authorities functions under Part I of the Freedom of Information Act 2000. http://www.dca.gov.uk/foi/codepafunc.htm and, Lord Chancellor's Code of Practice on the Management of Records issued under section 46 of the Freedom of Information Act 2000. http://www.dca.gov.uk/foi/codemanrec.htm
[34] European Directive 2003/98/EC on the Re-use of Public Sector Information http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/l_345/l_34520031231en00900096.pdf
[35] Europa. Public Sector Information: Access and Re-use. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/policy/psi/index_en.htm
[36] EU Directive 2000/31/EC (The E-commerce Directive) http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_178/l_17820000717en00010016.pdf
[37] EU Directive 97/7/EC (The Distance Selling Directive) http://europa.eu.int/comm/consumers/cons_int/safe_shop/dist_sell/index_en.htm
[38] Directive 1999/93/EC (The Electronic Signatures Directive) http://europa.eu.int/eur- lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_013/l_01320000119en00120020.pdf
[39] Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd. Visually Impaired Persons Guidelines. http://www.cla.co.uk/directive/vip.html
LINKS Back to Scope
International
Museums Computer Network - Copyright and Intellectual Property Law Resources Comprehensive links to sites related to copyright across the globe, including for example Canada, Japan and Australia. http://www.mcn.edu/resources/copyright.htm
UNESCO Information on copyright activities including copyright conventions and access links to copyright laws of UNESCO members. http://www.unesco.org/culture/copyright
World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) General information available on all aspects of intellectual property plus texts and signatories to the Berne and other intellectual copyright conventions. http://www.wipo.int
Calimera Guidelines 168 Legal and rights issues Europe
Council of Europe/EBLIDA Guidelines on library legislation and policy in Europe. http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co- operation/Culture/Resources/Reference_texts/Guidelines/ecubook_R3.asp
EBLIDA (European Bureau of Library, Information and Documentation Associations) EBLIDA lobbies on behalf of archives and libraries. http://www.eblida.org/
EDRI (European Digital Rights) An international non-profit association which campaigns to defend civil rights in the information society. Some examples of regulations and developments that concern EDRI are data retention requirements, spam, telecommunications interception, copyright and fair use restrictions, the cyber-crime treaty, rating, filtering and blocking of Internet content and notice-and-takedown procedures of websites. http://www.edri.org/
EMII-DCF (European Museums Information Institute Disseminated Content Framework) For the promotion and exchange of best practice and effective use of standards in information management. http://emii-dcf.org
EUROPA Intellectual Property News http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/intprop/news/index.htm
European Archival Network Primary site for all European referenced archives. http://www.european-archival.net/
European Copyright User Platform (ECUP) Copyright Focal Point. http://www.eblida.org/ecup/
TECUP (Testbed implementation of the ECUP framework) The intention of the TECUP project was to analyse practical mechanisms for the distribution, archiving and use of electronic products from different types of content owners and involving different types of libraries. http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/tecup/ (See especially: TECUP Memorandum of understanding 2001 (TECUP project report D6.4). http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/tecup/mou.pdf; and, Dreier, Thomas: Towards Consensus on the Electronic Use of Publications in Libraries – strategy issues and recommendations. 2001 (TECUP project report D6.6). http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/tecup/towacons.pdf
The Frankfurt Group Consensus Forum for Academic and Research Information. This is a follow-up to the TECUP project. It has published, for example, proposals on retrodigitsation (digitisation of content originally published in print, such as back runs of journals) by publishers and libraries. http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/frankfurtgroup/
Calimera Guidelines 169 Legal and rights issues France
Convention d'utilisation de supports de données numériques Example of convention signed with editors to facilitate the loan and usage of digitised documents in libraries. http://www.addnb.org/fr/docs/convent2.htm
Lithuania
MUSICALIA This the Lithuanian website of the EUREKA (http://www.eureka.be) project “Endangered Cultural Heritage: Tools for Preservation, Investigation and Copyright Clearance” (http://212.34.140.167/ech/ech.php). It gives access to the digital archive of the multimedia musical heritage items stored at the Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. It aims to develop a new generation of tools for creating a one-stop marketing and management environment for multimedia products and copyright trading capable of operating on a European basis. http://www.musicalia.lt/
Spain
La Federación Española de Sociedades de Archivística, Biblioteconomía, Documentación y Museística (FESABID) The Guadalajara State Public Library and the Intellectual Property Rights and Libraries Work Group of FESABID have had a very important role in a national campaign started to raise awareness within the public at large of the need to exempt public libraries from a possible charge for public lending. The argument for this exemption is based on the shortages that Spanish public libraries still experience. Their levels of book-reading rates are among the lowest in the EU, and to impose a charge of this kind would mean reducing the funds available for the library sector even more. http://www.maratondeloscuentos.org/librolibre/jornadaslibrolibre.htm; http://www.bib.uab.es/project/cas/piadr0.htm
United Kingdom
LACA (Libraries and Archives Copyright Alliance) Represents the major professional librarianship, archivist and information science organisations in the UK, and is working with the Museums Copyright Group to extend its work to the museums domain. http://www.cilip.org.uk/committees/laca/laca.html.
Museums Copyright Group Group of museum professionals with an interest in all aspects of the relationship between museums and copyright, particularly in the areas of lobbying, licensing and digitisation. http://www.mda.org.uk/mcopyg/
NESLI (National Electronic Site Licensing Initiative) A programme to deliver a national electronic journal service to the UK higher education and research community. NESLI encourages the widespread acceptance by publishers of a standard Model Site Licence. http://www.nesli2.ac.uk/index.htm
Calimera Guidelines 170 Legal and rights issues PA/JISC guidelines The result of an agreement between the UK higher education sector and publishers on what it is acceptable to copy electronically without having to obtain clearance (i.e. what can be defined as fair dealing). http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/services/elib/papers/pa/clearance/study.doc
SCRAN (Scottish Cultural Resources Access Network) Project to create “a networked multimedia resource base for teaching and celebration of human history and material culture in Scotland”. Users have to be licensed and agree to strict conditions of use. http://www.scran.ac.uk
UKOLN Centre of expertise in digital information management, providing advice and services to library, information, education and cultural heritage communities. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/
United States
Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) Organisation dedicated to supporting networked information technology for the advancement of scholarly communication and the enrichment of intellectual productivity. Includes a draft for negotiating networked information contracts and licences from the project “Rights for Electronic Access to and Delivery of Information”. http://www.cni.org/
Legal insight Legal website which features interviews with legal experts and includes a comprehensive section on intellectual property, music and copyright, rights and ownership options in technology development agreements and software infringement. http://www.legalinsight.net
LIBLICENSE This project, funded by the U.S. Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR), was established in 1996 to inform and educate members of the information supply chain about how to effectively negotiate contracts for electronic information resources. The website contains a model licence, licensing terms and descriptions, national site licence initiatives and a mailing list. http://www.library.yale.edu/~llicense/index.shtml
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Calimera Guidelines 171 Legal and rights issues Calimera Guidelines Section 3: Technical guidelines
Calimera Guidelines 172 Calimera Guidelines Underlying technologies and infrastructure
SCOPE
The cultural heritage sector aims to provide services which have a measurable social, economic and educational impact on their communities. This guideline describes the key technologies which underlie these services: - XML (eXtensible Markup Language) - web services - Semantic Web - Semantic Web services - networks - Broadband - fibre optics - satellite - wireless - WiFi
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Technology has already transformed the way museums, libraries and archives deliver services, and has made possible new services unimagined only a few years ago. Users are becoming used to the electronic delivery of services, for example in the retail and banking sectors. The focus of the EU’s IST 6th Framework Programme is “on the future generation of technologies in which computers and networks will be integrated into the everyday environment” [1]. Cultural heritage institutions can play a major part in making this happen.
Delivering services electronically has implications for the general infrastructure consisting of buildings, furniture and equipment. Space must be found for computers, interactive displays and activities. Different types of furniture are required. Communications technology connections must be installed. On the other hand many users will access services remotely and for them physical space, furniture and equipment will be less important.
This guideline however focuses on the technological infrastructure, where policy issues for museums, libraries and archives include finding ways to keep up with increasingly sophisticated new technologies which quickly become obsolescent, selecting those technologies most relevant to their domains, satisfying the demanding expectations of users, and meeting European and national targets for e- accessibility.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 173 Underlying technologies Technologies and standards are still emerging and will continue to change and develop over time. Museums, libraries and archives need to be aware of the current state of the art so as to avoid the adoption of inappropriate or obsolescent technology and standards.
Museums, libraries and archives need an understanding of these issues in order to plan and prioritise their work and particularly when they are procuring new systems or commissioning development work from outside consultants or contractors.
XML – eXtensible Markup Language Back to Scope XML is a mechanism or “metalanguage” for creating special-purpose mark up languages. Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information between computers across the Internet. XML is formally defined as a recommendation of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). An understanding of mark up helps to understand XML. A mark up language is a set of rules for encoding or tagging structures in a document. The name is derived from the traditional publishing practice of "marking up" a manuscript, that is, adding printer's instructions in the margins of a paper manuscript, as used, for example, by the publishing industry to communicate printed works among authors, editors and printers. The XML specification defines a standard way to describe mark up.
The focus of XML is on the content of the document rather than the format or layout, i.e. the emphasis is on identifying a piece of text as a name and laying down rules for how a name should be structured rather than that the name should be bold, underlined or indented, since these are merely visual devices and do not represent the characteristics of a name, such as first name, last name, title etc.
XML documents can be made to conform to rule sets which are expressed as Document Type Definitions (DTDs) or Schemas. So a DTD or Schema might lay down the characteristics of a name and how it is to be encoded. Once a DTD or Schema (such as MARC-XML [2] or EAD (Encoded Archival Description) [3]) has been defined and published, any XML document may be associated with it. This mechanism allows XML documents to be validated and processed consistently by software applications, for a wide variety of purposes, e.g. search and retrieval, data exchange.
Finally XML is expressed in Unicode [4] which makes it language and computer independent.
For an introduction to the subject see A Gentle Introduction to XML by C M Sperberg- McQueen and Lou Burnard [5] on the TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) website. The TEI is an international and interdisciplinary standard that helps libraries, museums, archives, publishers, and individuals represent all kinds of literary and linguistic texts for online research and teaching, using an encoding scheme that is maximally expressive and minimally obsolescent [6]. (See also the 10 point summary produced by W3C [7].) More detailed information can be found on the websites of W3C [8], Wikipedia [9] and XML.COM [10]. There is a great deal of research and development activity focused around XML. A good source of current information on query facilities and specifications, including tools such as xpath, is the webpage of the W3C XML Query Group [11]. Calimera Guidelines 174 Underlying technologies WebServices Back to Scope Web Services evolved in response to the need for large organisations to enable a diverse range of software applications written in different languages and running on different hardware systems to share and exchange data. However outside the organisation the Internet is a similar mix of applications and environments. The cultural heritage sector is a good example – in order to discover resources on the Internet a searcher needs a facility that will enable him/her to get the results of a single search from a range of systems held in different databases with different data structures, search conventions and presentation facilities.
So what exactly are Web Services? A service is a piece of program code – usually written in Java, C#, or other object-oriented programming language – which specifies the means by which objects or classes of objects can be accessed and/or manipulated. Web Services use XML to describe services through the Web Services Description Language (WSDL) [12] and through the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) [13] to pass messages between services and the client applications which use (consume) them. SOAP messages are mostly accessed using TCP/IP based protocols, e.g. HTTP, SMTP, FTP over Internet / Networks. Universal Description, Discovery and Integration (UDDI) [14] and Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) [15] are directory services which enable available services to be discovered. Web services are language and hardware platform independent.
More detailed information can be found on the websites of W3C [16], OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) [17], Wikipedia [18], and WS-I (Web Services Interoperability Organization) [19]. OASIS also provides a current awareness service [20].
For examples outside the cultural heritage sector and some fun with Web Services try Xmethods, a directory of simple services with demonstration capabilities [21].
Web services technology is developing rapidly. See for example WS-Security [22].
SemanticWeb Back to Scope The Semantic Web is a vision described in a Scientific American magazine cover story in May 2001 [23], in which Tim Berners-Lee, Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), says “The Semantic Web is a web of data, in some ways like a global database”. This builds on the idea that “a goal of the WWW is that it should be useful not only for human-human communication, but also that machines would be able to participate and help”. Important concepts, technologies, protocols and standards for developing the Semantic Web include XML, RDF and unique identification. A good source of current information, and news about research and developments, is the W3C Semantic Web webpages [24]. In the European context, the 6th framework programme has demonstrated the EU’s commitment to this technology area and the first European Semantic Web Symposium was held at Heraklion, Greece, in May 2004 [25].
RDF (Resource Description Framework)
Calimera Guidelines 175 Underlying technologies RDF enables the encoding, exchange and re-use of structured metadata, using XML as an interchange syntax. In this way it supports the integration of a variety of applications from library catalogues and world-wide directories; to syndication and aggregation of news, software, and content; to personal collections of music, photos, and events.
RDF allows statements to be made about a resource as a set of properties that conform to a named schema. Statements are recorded in rdf:Description XML elements.
The reason it is so powerful is that it imposes structural constraints which support the consistent and unambiguous encoding and exchange of standardized metadata and this provides for the interchangeability of separate packages of metadata defined by different resource description communities. In addition RDF provides a means for publishing both human-readable and machine-processable vocabularies designed to encourage the re-use and extension of metadata semantics among disparate information. Descriptions of RDF sometimes use libraries as an analogy. For information see the W3C RDF webpages [26].
The Web Ontology Language (OWL) [27] builds on RDF and RDF Schema to add a richer vocabulary to describe properties and classes. OWL facilitates the creation of definitions of basic concepts and their relationships that can be processed by machine. OWL is derived from DAML+Oil [28], the latest release of the DAML language, which provided a rich set of constructs with which to create ontologies and to markup information so that it is machine readable and understandable.
Semantic Web Services Back to Scope Web services are sites that do not merely provide static information but allow some action, such as the sale of a product. Semantic Web services aim to enable users to locate and use such services automatically. WSMO (Web Service Modeling Ontology) [29] defines ontologies for describing the various aspects of a Web Service. OWL-S [30] (formerly DAML-S [31]) is an ontology of services that aim to make this possible. The importance of ontologies to Semantic Web services has prompted the development of schema extensions to existing Web standard languages: XML has been extended to give XML-Schema (XMLS) [32], while RDF has been extended to give RDF-Schema (RDFS) [33].
Ontologies Ontologies are crucial to the development of intelligent web services by helping machines to communicate more effectively. An ontology may be described as a formal description of objects and their inter-relationships. In the context of the Semantic Web, the aim is to enable machines to speak to machines with limited or no human intervention (see Wonderweb [34]). There are progressively more semantically rich approaches to modelling ontologies, including: • term lists with undefined relationships; • classification schemes; • thesauri with inheritance and association relations; • topic maps [35], a new ISO standard for a system describing knowledge structures and associating them with information resources. They should provide Calimera Guidelines 176 Underlying technologies powerful ways of navigating large and interconnected corpora. Instead of replicating the features of a book-index the topic map generalises them, extending them in many directions at once.
Ontologies are of growing importance in knowledge management systems and in the development of Semantic Web services. They have applications in knowledge management systems such as e.g. in e-commerce for the description of products and services (see the guideline on Social and economic development), and the description and organisation of digitised museum collections.
Projects may wish to explore the potential for semantic interoperability offered by established ontologies such as the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM) [36] or the ABC Ontology/Model [37]. The CRM provides a common and extensible semantic framework that any cultural heritage information can be mapped to, and can provide a model for mediating between different sources of information. The ABC Ontology, developed for the Harmony Project, is a top-level ontology intended to facilitate interoperability between metadata schemas within the digital library domain.
Networks Back to Scope Any two or more computers connected together makes a network. A network allows computers to share files, printers, scanners, and Internet connections. There are two main types of networks: Wireless and Ethernet (or “wired”). Both types have two main components: a base station (also known as a gateway or router), and a network adapter for each computer on the network. In a wired network, Ethernet cables connect each computer’s network adapter to the base station, or router. In a wireless network, radio waves are used to communicate between each networked computer’s wireless adapter and the Wireless Base Station. Depending on the range covered, a network can be a PAN (Personal Area Network), a LAN (Local Area Network), or a WAN (Wide Area Network). Wireless technology enables global networking.
Filesharing networks allow users to request and distribute electronic files through their computers, often acting as both a client and a server on the network. Computer and handheld operating systems can integrate Peer-to-Peer (P2P) [38] capabilities to harness the file sharing, distribution and communication aspects of the technology. File sharing services such as Foldershare [39], Groove Networks [40], Skype [41], Gnutella [42] and Kazaa [43] enable all types of digital objects including film, images and software to be shared.
Broadband Back to Scope Broadband is a type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry several channels at once, so users can use the telephone and surf the web at the same time. It has sufficient bandwidth to support sophisticated multi-media applications. A typical speed for a dial-up modem is 56 kilobits per second; a broadband connection can be up to 1,000 times faster. Most larger organisations will use ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) modems, or T1 or T3 connections (high-capacity, always-on network connections that directly connect a local area network (LAN) to the Internet, usually through a telephone company). Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) and digital cable connections can be used by small institutions Calimera Guidelines 177 Underlying technologies or in homes. DSL is a relatively inexpensive always-on connection to the Internet which uses a phone line without interrupting the phone service. Speeds are about 1.5 megabits per second. Digital cable connections are also always-on and are transmitted over copper or fibre optic cables at speeds up to 1 megabit per second.
Fibreoptics Back to Scope Optical fibres are glass fibres which are used to carry signals in the form of pulses of light over distances of up to 50 kilometres. The signals may be coded voice communications or computer data. As they use much less energy than copper cable and can support a much higher bandwidth, they can carry more channels of information over longer distances. Optical fibre cables are very light and thin and so easier to install in cabling ducts. It is difficult to tap information from them, and they are immune from interference from radio signals etc. and from fire. Optical fibres are coming into common use in Local Area Networks, cable TV, CCTV (Closed Circuit TV), etc.
Satellite Back to Scope Satellite Internet access may be worth considering for systems serving largely rural communities. It uses a satellite dish for two-way (upload and download) data communications. Upload speed is about one-tenth of the 500 kilobits per second download speed. Cable and DSL have higher download speeds, but satellite systems are about 10 times faster than a normal modem. Two-way satellite Internet uses Internet Protocol (IP) multicasting technology, which means up to 5,000 channels of communication can simultaneously be served by a single satellite which sends data from one point to many points, simultaneously, in compressed format. Compression reduces the size of the data and the bandwidth. Dial-up land-based terrestrial systems have bandwidth limitations that prevent multicasting of this magnitude.
Satellite Internet represents the best opportunity for remote areas to gain access to worldwide communications. It is not subject to local control over access or content. It has the ability to reach people no other communications medium can at a practical cost.
Wireless Back to Scope Wireless technologies enable connectivity without the restrictions of wires and cables. There are several kinds of wireless networks covering ranges from the size of a desk top to whole continents: • Local wireless (or PAN - Personal Area Network) for use within an office or room. Allows connectivity between cordless mice, keyboards, laptops and printers etc. using radio or infrared technologies. • Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) for connecting typically 10 to 15 users over a range of about 100m indoors or 300m outdoors. Could be useful in a museum, library or archive with several rooms or floors, or at an outside heritage site. Most WLANs are built to WiFi standards (see below). • Wireless Wide Area Network (wWAN) e.g. mobile phone network for connecting worldwide. For an overview see Wireless networks by Deborah Liddle and Stuart Smitton [44].
Calimera Guidelines 178 Underlying technologies Wireless standards/protocols include: • GSM (Groupe Spécial Mobile - Global Systems for Mobile Communications) [45], the dominant second-generation (2G) digital mobile phone standard for Europe. It uses a land-based network of masts and stores information on SIM cards; • Bluetooth [46], a short range radio technology with a range of about 10 metres which can support labelling devices and barcode scanners etc.; • WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) [47], designed to connect mobile phones etc. to the Internet. Users view web pages written in WML (Wireless Mark-up Language) [48]; • GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) [49], a 2.5G technology (i.e. it is more advanced than standard 2G digital technology, but does not meet the requirements of a full-fledged 3G technology) that allows information to be sent and received across a mobile telephone network. It has a faster transfer rate than WAP and a higher success rate for connection. • Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) [50], one of the third- generation (3G) mobile phone technologies. Transmission speed can be up to 2 megabits per second per mobile user and global roaming is possible.
WiFi Back to Scope WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) is a technology for transferring network data between computers without the need for cabling.
A WiFi access point (sometimes called a ‘hotspot) will ‘broadcast’ a wireless signal that can be received by a wireless-enabled device. This can be a laptop, a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a 3G mobile telephone or any other device capable of receiving a wireless signal.
The major development in WiFi has been the proliferation of WiFi hotspots. WiFi hotspots are aimed primarily at people on the move who wish to get access to the Internet or other secure networks via the Internet. Typical locations for hotspots are fast food restaurants, coffee houses, railway stations, hotels and libraries. However, supercharged hotspots are now being developed which cover whole city centres. Some WiFi hotspots are available free of charge but most require a payment based on a specific period of time (e.g. per 30 minutes).
The WiFi hotspot enables the user to simply switch on (for instance) their laptop and begin to surf the Internet without having to physically connect or ‘plug in’ to the host network. This has obvious benefits for the person who is away from the office and needs to check e-mail, the researcher who stores data on his/her own laptop, or anyone that just needs a convenient site to browse the Internet.
WiFi is convenient for the host organisation because it offers a relatively cheap way of providing a public Internet access facility. If a network is already in place, the WiFi kit to extend the reach of the network (usually about 100 metres) is fairly inexpensive. Building a WiFi hotspot from scratch will require the installation of a dedicated (for instance ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) feed from an Internet Service Provider.
Calimera Guidelines 179 Underlying technologies Technical standards for WiFi have been developed by the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) [51]. The standard usually associated with WiFi hotspots is 802.11b but the 802.11 standard has a number of variants for different types of wireless applications. The UK Department of Trade and Industry has published a useful short factsheet on WiFi [52]. Other sources of information include WiFi Networking News [53], an online newsletter reporting on developments regarding standards etc., and the WiFi Alliance [54], a not-for-profit international association formed in 1999 to certify interoperability of wireless products based on IEEE 802.11 specification. The website contains a guide to creating a wireless network, and lists WiFi hotspots worldwide.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
The Semantic Web has a long way to go before the dream of Tim Berners-Lee is realised. It will be built in parts, by people with varied interests. The real power of the Semantic Web will be realised when people create many programs that collect web content from diverse sources, process the information and exchange the results with other programs. In its envisaged next step, the Semantic Web will break out of the virtual realm and extend into the physical world. The vision of the web-enabled microwave oven consulting the frozen-food manufacturer's website for the best cooking instructions can be extended to the services provided by museums, libraries and archives. The virtual picture frame might for example, consult the local museum or art gallery for an ideal picture to display, and the local virtual public library for an ideal e-book biography to download to accompany it, in response to a simple voice request. In this environment, the imagination of cultural heritage people should be encouraged to run wild! The EU IST FP6 is funding new projects in this area [55].
In the future, ontologies may be used to support content-based access and to provide users with much more sophisticated searching and browsing capabilities as well as support from intelligent agents.
In the future it is envisaged that directories of Web Services will be available on the Internet for client programs to seek out and consume. There are however issues of maintenance, persistence, quality, control, security and IPR to be resolved before such a vision is universal. In the meantime closed communities are implementing their own controlled libraries of services.
In the next few years web services may be developed which can be understood and used automatically by the computing devices of users. External Application Services Providers (ASPs) for cultural heritage organisations may also provide such services. The concept of web services is currently being developed under the banner of e- commerce. However, there do appear to be potential applications for public sector service providers. For example, search interfaces could be accessed or provided as web services by public libraries or by Application Service Providers on their behalf. The overwhelming need to develop plug-in modes of technology transfer from industry to local cultural heritage institutions is a key element for the future.
Calimera Guidelines 180 Underlying technologies The flexibility of XML is one of the principle reasons for its popularity. But it is also one of its potential weaknesses. New XML-based languages, schemas etc. are defined every day. The long term value of XML will depend to a significant extent on user communities agreeing to focus on adapting and developing a few core standards rather than on proliferation.
The popularity of mobile phones illustrates how people now require access to services while on the move. WiFi technology is likely to develop to meet growing demand. Public libraries are ideal places for WiFi hotspots, given their synonymity with information; indeed some are already and the number is likely to grow. WiFi hotspots have traditionally covered a small area such as a café, but a more powerful version is now being developed which will cover much larger areas with fewer base stations, and this may supersede the need for individual hotspots. Also mobile phones are being made with WiFi technology allowing much faster Internet access, and computers are being built with WiFi chips and access cards as standard features. This is an interesting development which, over time, may well change the Internet delivery infrastructure to wireless, particularly in large cities and other highly populated areas.
Wi-Fi is revolutionizing the way museums and exhibitions use technology to serve their visitors. Many museums are replacing their existing audio head set devices with interactive, context-aware, location based tours powered by Wi-Fi handsets.
Technologies are developing rapidly and delivery channels are getting increasingly smaller and more portable. Keeping up with developments will be important for museums, libraries and archives, and will pose challenges in terms of finance, infrastructure, staff skills and user expectations. Staff and policy makers need to use communications form professional associations, mailing lists, newsletters and other current awareness techniques to keep up-to-date. Projects such as DigiCULT [56], which monitors and assesses existing and emerging technologies specifically for the benefit of the cultural heritage sector and which publishes newsletters and technology watch reports, are invaluable.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] EU IST 6th Framework Programme http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/fp6/index_en.html
[2] MARC 21 XML Schema - The Library of Congress' Network Development and MARC Standards Office is developing a framework for working with MARC data in a XML environment. This framework is intended to be flexible and extensible to allow users to work with MARC data in ways specific to their needs. The framework itself includes many components such as schemas, stylesheets, and software tools. http://www.loc.gov/standards/marcxml/
[3] EAD (Encoded Archival Description) http://www.loc.gov/ead/
[4] Unicode http://www.unicode.org/
Calimera Guidelines 181 Underlying technologies [5] Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Burnard, Lou: A Gentle Introduction to XML. TEI Consortium, 2004. http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/SG.html
[6] Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) - The TEI is an international and interdisciplinary standard that helps libraries, museums, archives, publishers, and individuals represent all kinds of literary and linguistic texts for online research and teaching, using an encoding scheme that is maximally expressive and minimally obsolescent. http://www.tei-c.org
[7] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): XML in 10 points http://www.w3.org/XML/1999/XML-in-10-points.
[8] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) - XML site http://www.w3.org/XML
[9] Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xml
[10] XML.COM – a site covering all aspects of XML http://www.xml.com/pub/a/98/10/guide1.html#AEN58
[11] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) XML Query Group http://www.w3.org/XML/Query
[12] Web Services Description Language (WSDL) http://www.w3.org/TR/wsdl
[13] Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) http://www.w3.org/TR/soap12-part1/
[14] Universal Description, Discovery and Integration (UDDI) http://www.uddi.org/
[15] Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) http://www.openldap.org/
[16] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) – The major source of Web standards http://www.w3c.org/2002/ws/
[17] OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) - a not-for-profit, global consortium that drives the development, convergence and adoption of e-business standards. http://www.oasis-open.org/who/
[18] Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_services
[19] Web Services Interoperability Organization (WS-I) http://www.ws-i.org. See also http://xml.coverpages.org/ws-i.html
[20] OASIS provides Cover Pages as a current awareness service http://xml.coverpages.org/
[21] Xmethods http://www.xmethods.net/
[22] Web services technology is developing rapidly. See for example WS-Security Calimera Guidelines 182 Underlying technologies http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/webservices/library/ws-secure/
[23] Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James and Lassila Ora: The Semantic Web. Scientific American, May 2001. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?articleID=00048144-10D2-1C70- 84A9809EC588EF21&catID=2
[24] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) - Semantic Web webpages http://www.w3c.org/2001/sw/
[25] European Semantic Web Symposium, Heraklion, Greece, May 2004. http://www.esws2004.org/
[26] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) RDF webpages http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-rdf-primer-20040210/
[27] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Web-Ontology (WebOnt) Working Group: [Web Ontology Language (OWL)] http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/WebOnt/ OWL Web Ontology Language Overview http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/
[28] DAML+OIL http://www.daml.org/about.html
[29] WSMO (Web Service Modeling Ontology) http://www.wsmo.org/
[30] OWL-S http://www.w3.org/Submission/2004/SUBM-OWL-S-20041122/
[31] DAML-S http://www.daml.org/services/
[32] XML-Schema (XMLS) http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema
[33] RDF-Schema (RDFS) http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-schema/
[34] Wonderweb http://wonderweb.man.ac.uk/
[35] Pepper, Steve: The TAO of Topic Maps: finding the way in the age of infoglut. Paper presented at XML Europe 2000, Graphics Communications Association. http://www.gca.org/papers/xmleurope2000/papers/s11-01.html
[36] CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM) http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/
[37] The ABC Ontology and Model http://jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Articles/v02/i02/Lagoze/
[38] Peer-to-Peer (P2P) http://www.openp2p.com/
[39] Foldershare http://www.foldershare.com/
[40] Groove Networks http://www.groove.net/
Calimera Guidelines 183 Underlying technologies [41] Skype http://www.skype.com/
[42] Gnutella http://www.gnutella.com
[43] Kazaa http://www.kazaa.com
[44] Liddle, Deborah and Smitton, Stuart: Wireless networks. An issue paper from the Networked Services Policy Taskgroup. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/earl/issuepapers/wireless.html
[45] GSM (Groupe Spécial Mobile - Global Systems for Mobile Communications) http://www.gsmworld.com/index.shtml
[46] Bluetooth http://www.bluetooth.com/
[47] WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) http://www.cordis.lu/ist/99helsinki/finland/wap.html
[48] WAP Wireless Markup Language Specification (WML) http://xml.coverpages.org/wap-wml.html
[49] GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml
[50] Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/umts/
[51] IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Standards Association http://standards.ieee.org/
[52] UK Department of Trade and Industry: WiFi factsheet. http://www.dti.gov.uk/bestpractice/assets/wifi.pdf
[53] WiFi Networking News http://www.wifinetnews.com/
[54] WiFi Alliance http://www.wi-fi.org/
[55] EU IST projects helping to weave the Semantic Web [61]. http://istresults.cordis.lu//index.cfm?section=news&tpl=news&ID=65260
[56] DigiCULT project http://www.digicult.info/pages/index.php
LINKS Back to Scope
Czech Republic
The National Archives (formerly the State Central Archives) Czech archives use the following technologies in connection with the Internet: XML, web services, Broadband, fibre optic, satellite, wireless, WiFi, a Networks. Calimera Guidelines 184 Underlying technologies http://www.nacr.cz
System Kramerius This system has a user and administrator interface. It is formed by database PostgreSQL, file system, disc field, server and a back-up system, and is based on open source on GNU GPL licence which will enable all other institutions to use it without any fee. The system is based on standard XML. http://kramerius.nkp.cz/
Finland
Mantsala The town of Mantsala has an 11 square kilometre WiFi network available to the public and to schools. http://www.80211gnews.com/publications/page354-880326.asp
MuseumFinland - Finnish Museums on the Semantic Web A portal which provides the end user with a semantic seamless view of distributed cultural collections. By using semantic web techniques, it is possible to make collections semantically interoperable and provide museum visitors with intelligent content-based search and browsing services to the global collection base. http://museosuomi.cs.helsinki.fi; http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/group/seco/museums/
Hungary
CodeXML CodeXML is a frame system developed by Scriptum Inc. with stable database background, designed to store, manage and query objects and descriptive information belonging to the objects. http://codex.scriptum.hu
The Netherlands
HotSpot Amsterdam In August 2004 HotSpot Amsterdam launched a wireless computer network with a supercharged version of WiFi technology which will cover the whole city with 125 antennae. http://www.hotspotamsterdam.com/ . (For an article about this see http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=internetNews&storyID=6104054.)
Norway
Digital Repository of the National Library of Norway (NLN) The NLN has developed a generalised input/output service for the Digital Repository based on open standards (SOAP communication protocol via HTTP, Software in Java, based on the SOAP-Library Apache Axis, Linux-server, Tomcat application server, Oracle database). (Still under development so no website.)
Kulturnett Norge / Culture Net Norway The official gateway to Norwegian culture on the web, Kulturnett Norge represents a new form of portal using Topic Maps and XML to distribute information to personal devices such as PDAs and mobile phones. For more information about Topic Maps
Calimera Guidelines 185 Underlying technologies see http://www.ontopia.net (in English). The Topic Maps ISO standard, ISO 13250, can be found at http://www.isotopicmaps.org/m4tm/. http://www.kulturnett.no; http://www.culturenet.no
Russia
ARBICON This project links libraries from 54 regions and creates an “umbrella” for local library systems on a regional basis. System solutions are based on open standards: Z39.50, ISO ILL, LDAP. http://www.arbicon.ru
United Kingdom
AIM 25, Archives in London and the M25 area. A major open archive initiative to provide electronic access to collection level descriptions of the archives of over fifty higher education institutions and learned societies within the greater London area. http://www.aim25.ac.uk/
Bristol StreetNet Started in autumn 2004, this is an outdoor wireless access zone with wireless hotspots installed inside street furniture such as lamp posts. http://www.cityspace.com/press/level2/releases/040722-PR-Bristol.asp
Cornucopia A database of collection descriptions funded by MLA in England which utilises Web Services to enable concurrent searching across multiple targets. http://www.cornucopia.org.uk/search
Natural History Museum The Natural History Museum’s collections and research Data Locator uses ontologies to find information about organisms and material held on the museum’s online databases. http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/locator/index.dsml
OSS Watch A web-based clearing-house for up to date information, advice and guidance about free and open source software. It develops best-practice guidelines, investigative reports, and briefing materials for strategic IT decision-makers, software developers, and end-users. http://www.oss-watch.ac.uk/
The People’s Network The remit of the People’s Network was to provide all UK public libraries with a broadband connection. This has not been possible in some rural areas, so 10 rural public libraries are now using WiFi as a pilot. This makes it possible for people to use their own WiFi-enabled devices in the library so increasing the usefulness for small businesses etc. where security is an issue. (See Potts, David: Libraries Go Wireless extending broadband to rural communities. 15 July 2004. http://www.peoplesnetwork.gov.uk/news/article.asp?id=333)
Back to contents Calimera Guidelines 186 Underlying technologies Calimera Guidelines Digitisation
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Planning and workflow Financial considerations Selection Hardware and software File formats Standards IPR Design and presentation Storage
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The European Union has declared that “Digitisation is an essential first step to generating digital content that will underpin a fully digital Europe. It is a vital activity in preserving Europe’s collective cultural heritage, providing access for the citizen to that heritage, to enhancing education and tourism, and to the development of eContent industries.” It is committed to co-ordinating national digitisation programmes, and published the Lund Principles [1] which led to the Lund Action Plan [2] .
The Minerva Project [3] was set up in 2002 to promote a shared methodology for the digitisation of cultural material and to facilitate the adoption of the Lund Action Plan.
The benefits of digitisation include wider and easier access, the conservation of originals, the possibilities of adding value to images and collections, and opportunities for income generation (see the guideline on Business models). Digitisation can also publicise materials and attract greater numbers of visitors and users.
Digitisation is the process of creating digital files by converting analogue materials. The resulting digital copy, or digital surrogate, is then classed as digital material and is subject to the same broad challenges involved in preserving access to it, as "born digital" material (material created in digital format which has no analogue equivalent). The quality of the file, the format used to store it, its description, its intended use, its long-term preservation, the method of delivery to end users, and protection from infringement of intellectual property rights, are just some of the things which must be considered. Furthermore for each type of material that is
Calimera Guidelines 187 Digitisation digitised specific factors must be taken into consideration to make sure that the digital output can be used to its full potential now and in the future.
Staffing implications need to be considered. The importance of professional curatorial skills in ensuring original materials are not damaged during a digitisation project cannot be overemphasised. A digitisation project might provide a good opportunity to carry out any necessary conservation work. Protection such as gloves and masks might be needed. Staff will need training in the technical aspects of digitisation; even if the actual work is outsourced they will need to understand the procedures. Staff will also need training in the use of the end product, and in helping users. They will need new skills to work in the digital environment, as enquiries will increasingly be received electronically and new groups of users who have historically not used traditional services may now require a service. The skills needed will include technical, design, marketing, and instructional skills.
Digitisation projects create opportunities for partnership working with other cultural heritage institutions and with commercial organisations (see the guideline on Co operation and partnership). These can include bringing together resources to create new virtual collections, sharing expertise and/or equipment, and working with software developers and suppliers. Collaboration with educational organisations and/or community groups can also result in the creation of “born digital” resources.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
The Minerva Project has produced a Good Practice Handbook [4] and technical guidelines [5] which set out practical guidelines for a digitisation project.
Digitisation is the process of creating digital files by converting analogue materials. The resulting digital copy, or digital surrogate, can then be classed as digital material and is subject to the same broad challenges involved in preserving access to it, as "born digital" materials.
Planningandworkflow Back to Scope It is important to plan the project carefully and thoroughly (see the guidelines on Strategic planning and Business models). The plan should include: • the reason(s) for digitisation, e.g. to provide access to underused holdings, to protect fragile items from the wear and tear of handling, to create a virtual collection, to target a specific group of users, to contribute to a regional, national or international network; • what is to be digitised. This will be largely determined by the reason(s) for digitisation and whether permission to digitise can be obtained from the rights holders (see selection below); • who will carry out the work. This could be in-house staff, specialist staff on a temporary contract, staff from a partner organisation, or a commercial contractor. Staff involved may need protection such as gloves, masks, etc. Curator staff familiar with the materials should always be used for any moving and handling especially of fragile items. (This might also be an opportunity to carry out any conservation work.);
Calimera Guidelines 188 Digitisation • where the work will be done. In most cases it will be preferable to do the work on site to avoid risks such as loss or damage to originals, transport costs etc. Ideally a dedicated space should be made available taking into account lighting conditions, temperature, humidity, etc., especially when fragile originals are being digitised ; • when it will be done. Consideration should be given to known busy times, staff holidays, special exhibitions or other events or projects. A timetable should be drawn up with milestones indicated; • how it will be done. This part of the plan should include workflow details as it is essential to keep track of the material being digitised, and of progress. A system of listing, signing and dating all movements would be useful. Files should be named during the digitisation process; • a preservation strategy. This needs to be in place from the planning stage to ensure sustainability and long-term usability of the collection. Preservation will depend upon documenting all of the technological procedures that led to the creation of the digital object, and much critical information can be captured only at the point of creation (see the guideline on Digital preservation); • other considerations needed at the planning stage include legal issues such as IPR (Intellectual Property Rights), choice of digital formats, hardware, software, delivery methods or output formats and of course costs.
Financial considerations Back to Scope Digitisation can be costly and local institutions may need to seek ways to augment their core funding by for example: • lobbying and advocacy at national and local levels; • influencing public opinion and forming groups of friends; • applying for grant funding for a specific digitisation project. The last few years have seen the rise of a bidding culture in museums, libraries and archives in many countries. Governments, the EU, charitable trusts and other bodies or foundations have chosen to channel funds through competitive tender or submission of a bid. National professional associations should be able to advise on sources of funding. The Europa website contains a guide to EU funding opportunities [6]; • partnership with other institutions to outsource the work involved (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership); • some form of income generation. Some countries will be restricted by statute as to whether or not they are allowed to raise income or make any charges for services, including added value services. (See also the guideline on Business models.) The amount and type of material to be digitised may be dependent on the funds available and decisions may have to be taken on what should have priority. This could be based on the aims of the project (preservation or increased access) rarity or value of the originals, the condition of the originals, the potential usage etc.
Comparatively low cost options may be adequate for some purposes. For example digital cameras, scanners etc. intended for the domestic market may produce results of sufficient quality for small community projects.
Selection Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 189 Digitisation Selection criteria will, as stated above, be largely determined by the aims of the project, but may also include for example: • legal issues such as whether it is possible to obtain permission to copy if needed (see the section on IPR below and also the guideline on Legal and rights issues); • the target audience; • the importance of the items in the cultural heritage of the community, region, country, Europe or the world; • the rarity of the items; • the condition of the items and the need for preservation of the originals by making digital versions available as an alternative; • links to other projects; • financial issues such as the need to raise income by charging for use or the sale of CD-ROMS, value for money, and costs.
Hardware and software Back to Scope These should be chosen at the planning stage, taking into account reliability, costs, ease of use, staff training needs, maintenance costs, space available, possibilities of renting, etc. Equipment should enable recording and storing to be carried out at the highest possible resolution because a lower resolution image, or smaller file, can be extracted from a higher quality, higher resolution image, but never the other way round. The storage implications should also be taken into consideration, as higher resolution images create larger files and require more storage space.
The equipment must be suitable for the material to be digitised. The following points need to be taken into consideration:
Scanners • flatbed scanners should only be used for unbound printed material or documents; • bound items will require a book cradle or digital camera; • the scanners should ideally be at least as large as the largest item to be scanned to avoid folding and “mosaicing”.
3D scanning devices • these may be used for museum objects or historic buildings.
Digital cameras • cameras may be used for museum objects or for bound books etc.; • cameras may be used to record events, buildings, sites and landscapes; • to get good picture quality the number of pixels, the bit-depth, and the optical lens quality are important; • a stand for holding the material to be photographed will be useful; • a tripod will be needed for the camera; • supplementary lighting will in most cases be needed; • filters will be required to reduce colour distortion.
Video cameras • equipment will be needed for capturing digital output from conventional film and video;
Calimera Guidelines 190 Digitisation • video recording equipment is used for capturing moving images and as such will be required for content creation projects resulting in “born digital” material; • it is also a powerful tool for presenting a continuous view of all sides of an object, or for showing a three-dimensional space; • the availability of comparatively cheap digital video camera equipment makes this sort of presentation possible for smaller institutions, mainly museums or galleries, which cannot afford the equipment to create full virtual reality content.
Audio recording equipment • equipment will be needed which can produce digital output from analogue media; • it is also used for capturing sound (speech, music etc.) and as such will be required for content creation projects resulting in “born digital” material;
Software Back to Scope Software may be required to process the digital output e.g. correcting the colour of digital images, cropping the edges or compressing the file for web delivery. Such software should be capable of; • opening very large files; • modifying resolution and colour depth; • saving different versions in different file sizes; • copying part of an image and saving it as another file; • exporting images in different file formats. Selection of suitable software must take into account the material being digitised, for example if documents contain handwritten material then an OCR (optical character recognition) package will be required.
The TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) website contains advice on all aspects of digitisation, including hardware and software. [7]
File formats Back to Scope The image or output produced by the digitisation process will be held in a particular file format. It is advisable to keep master copies and delivery copies in different formats.
It is preferable to use open standard formats when creating digitised resources to ensure that resources are reusable and can be created, modified and delivered by a variety of software applications. This will increase interoperability and therefore access, will reduce dependency on one supplier, and will help to guard against obsolescence. Master copies should be in a format which supports large, high quality images (e.g. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) for photographic images).
For delivering resources it is preferable to use more than one format in different sizes and resolutions, bearing in mind that users will have different types of hardware and software and different levels of bandwidth. Delivery copies will usually be in smaller files suitable for transmitting over the Internet (e.g. JPEG, PNG (Portable Network Graphics) or GIF (Graphical Interchange Format) for still images). For more details see Standards below.
Calimera Guidelines 191 Digitisation Standards Back to Scope Standards are very important as failure to use standard file formats and storage media can: • be a major obstacle to international exchange of image files and the creation of networked resources; • lead to obsolescence (compliance with standards is a reasonable indicator of future support of a format or medium).
Different standards exist for different types of digital formats, and for capture and storage and delivery. • Text capture and storage - There are standards for: ° character encoding (see Jukka Korpela: A tutorial on character code issues [8]); ° document formats (see AHDS Guide to good practice: creating and documenting electronic texts [9]). • Text delivery - Again, for guidance on character encoding see Jukka Korpela’s article [8]. For document formats the latest versions of XHTML or HTML are advisable, though proprietary formats such as PDF (Portable Document Format), RTF (Rich Text Format) or Microsoft Word may be appropriate as alternatives. See: ° HTML 4.01 HyperText Markup Language [10]; ° XHTML 1.0 Extensible HyperText Markup Language [11]; ° Portable Document Format (PDF) [12]. • Still image capture and storage – Still images are raster (for photographs), vector (for geometric objects or shapes) or graphic non-vector (for line drawings). For advice see TASI: Advice: Creating digital images [13]. ° When creating raster images the spatial resolution (pixels per inch) and colour resolution (bit depth) must be considered, and the highest affordable is preferable. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) [14] is the most common. ° For vector images an open format such as SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics [15] should be used. The proprietary format Macromedia Flash [16] may be appropriate in some cases. ° PNG (Portable Network Graphics) [17] is the most common format for graphic non-vector images. • Still image delivery ° Photographic images delivered via the internet must be in JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group) format [18] or JPEG/SPIFF (JPEG Still Picture Interchange File Format) [19]. More information is available about JPEG [20] and about JPEG 2000 [21] and there is an ISO standard [22]. ° Vector images should be delivered using: – GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) [23]; – PNG (Portable Network Graphics) format [24]; – or, SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) format [25]. • Video image capture and storage – Video should be stored using the uncompressed raw AVI (Audio Video Interleave) format [26], but an MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group) format [27] can be used, or even Microsoft WMF (Windows Media Format), Microsoft ASF (Advanced Systems Format) or Apple
Calimera Guidelines 192 Digitisation Quicktime (details available on proprietary web pages [28]). Standards are available on the MPEG website [29]. • Video delivery – It must be remembered that access to video is affected by bandwidth so it is advisable to provide more than one file format or streaming quality. ° Video intended for downloading should be in MPEG-1 format [30] , or Microsoft WMF (Windows Media Video), AVI (Audio Video Interleave) or Apple Quicktime (details available on proprietary web pages [28]). ° Video for streaming should be in Microsoft ASF (Advanced Streaming Format), WMF or Apple Quicktime (details available on proprietary web pages [28]).
• Audio capture and storage – Audio can be stored either in: ° uncompressed formats such as Microsoft WAV (wave) or Apple AIFF (Audio Image File Format) (details on proprietary web pages [28]); ° or in compressed formats such as MP3 [31], Microsoft WMA (Windows Media Audio) format [28], Real Audio [32] or Sun AU [33]. The Audio Engineering Society (AES) [34] and the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA) [35] make recommendations which should be considered. • Audio delivery – As with video, access is affected by bandwidth so a range of files or streams of different quality should ideally be provided. The recommendations of the AES [34] and IASA [35] should be followed. • 3D capture and storage – Digitisation of three-dimensional material is particularly important for museums. Digital video is a low-cost alternative to the creation of true 3D models, but is of course more limited in the range of interactive possibilities. For a discussion of 3D technologies see the websites of the Web 3D Consortium [36] or 3dsite, inc. [37]. • 3D delivery – VRML (Virtual Reality Markup Language) and X3D [38] are the main standards used for virtual tours and 3D models. An alternative is shockwave 3D [39]. This allows content to be viewable by anybody with the latest version of the free shockwave viewer plug-in, but as yet it does not have the capabilities of VRML.
IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) (see also the guideline on Legal and rights issues). The importance of this issue cannot be over-emphasised, since if the right to copy cannot be obtained, digitisation of the item cannot go ahead. Back to Scope
There are two aspects to this: • Establishing copyright. Does the institution hold the rights to make digital copies? It will be necessary to secure the rights to the material, especially if it is intended to publish on the web, and this can potentially be a long drawn out and costly process. It is a factor in the selection process, and must be considered from the planning stage onwards. • Security copyright. What rights to the digitised images does the institution intend to impose? Will all images be made freely available, or will thumbnails be displayed on the web and a charge made for higher definition copies? This must be considered in the planning stage. Income generation can be a factor with policy makers and funding bodies. The copyright of material placed on the internet can be protected by technical means such as: Calimera Guidelines 193 Digitisation • visible watermarks; • invisible digital watermarks [40]; • encryption of images; • restriction of publication to low-resolution images; • restriction of publication to small parts of an image only; • restriction of display to registered authorised users. All these methods have pros and cons and must be considered in relation to the aims and objectives of the project and the institution.
The website of the University of New York, Buffalo, contains links to many useful pages [41] and for advice see the TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) copyright page. [42].
In addition, organisations may wish to encourage the re-use of their content, particularly in the context of promoting teaching and learning. This can be achieved by the use of a Creative Commons licence [43] (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues). Creative Commons licence explicitly state the ways in which digital items may be re-used, and the chart in the Appendix demonstrates how this could be applied in conjunction with the publication on the internet of low-resolution images.
Design and presentation (see also the guidelines on Interactivity and Multimedia services). Back to Scope Many digitisation projects in the cultural area will lead to the creation of web sites [44] although some will be for in-house use only.
Examples of in-house use include:- • interactive displays in museums; • digital display of fragile documents or books in archives and libraries; • digital display of objects in museums either to protect fragile items from exposure to light or to display an object form multiple angles; • catalogues, indexes and guides for use by visitors to the institution, including audio guides; • digitisation in order to improve accessibility for disabled people (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people).
For publication on the web the following points should be borne in mind: • ease of navigation e.g. links to the front page, site map or table of contents available on every page; • accessibility by disabled people (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people); • very careful use of animations, pop-ups, Flash etc, with possibilities for bypassing these; • multilingual access (see the guideline on Multilingualism). Preparation for publication on the internet involves processing the master files to fit the operational requirements of the internet, which usually means reducing the file size and quality to enable short download times. Where larger images are published, this should be via a link from the web page, with a warning that download time may be slow.
Calimera Guidelines 194 Digitisation Image processing and audio and video editing software is readily available on hire or supplied with hardware. Viewers for 3D and virtual reality materials are not so widely available, although PCs with a focus on games will often have hardware accelerators and increased graphics memory which can improve the situation.
Other delivery systems include CD and DVD.
Storage (see also the guideline on Digital preservation) Back to Scope CDs and DVDs can also be used to store digital collections. Digital material will be held on server machines, and these must be backed up, ideally onto at least two types of media separately stored. CD-Rs were until recently a common back-up media, but have now been replaced by DVDs which can store larger files. Digital Linear Tape is however still in use, so the two types could be DLT and DVD. However, there is an increasing trend to store data on mobile hard drive units, and to transfer it to new servers over time, so reducing the risks of media obsolescence.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Digitisation enables museums, libraries and archives to reach out to new users, and to serve traditional users in new ways. Digitisation can transform the way in which collections are used and also the way institutions themselves are organised. Digital technology offers new ways of fulfilling core missions such as education, research, and cultural enrichment. Museums, libraries and archives should consider creating new business models to ensure sustainability without conflicting with core missions and objectives (see the guideline on Business models).
In the future there should be widespread adoption of technical standards leading to interoperability between collections.
Policy makers need to work towards the reconciliation of rights issues in order to enable straightforward access to digital resources.
At present media is likely to become obsolescent within about 5 years, so institutions need to have rigorous back-up and migration policies in place.
The increasing trend to store data “on the internet” on large server machines and as data on mobile hard drive units facilitates the migration of data from medium to medium. Once servers are backed up and migrated to new servers over time, the dependence on removable media as back up storage will decrease. In the longer term it is hoped that media will be developed which is suitable for more permanent preservation of digital collections.
Collaboration among institutions could lead to the development of community repositories, and, linked to that, collaboration in the preservation of digital objects. [45]
Calimera Guidelines 195 Digitisation Increasingly material will be created in digital form. Institutions will need to have policies in place to ensure that “born digital” material is preserved and made accessible (see the guidelines on Resource Description and Digital preservation).
In future new search methods should enable users to search for any digital object or image, view it and download it, without needing to know where the original is held or having to make adjustments on their PCs. (See the guideline on Discovery and retrieval.)
For a vision of the future see The Digicult Report: Technical Landscapes for tomorrow’s cultural economy: unlocking the value of cultural heritage European Commission, 2002. ISBN 9282862658. [46]
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Lund Principles http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/digicult/lund_principles.htm
[2] Lund Action Plan http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_e/digicult/lund_ap_browse.htm
[3] Minerva Project http://www.minervaeurope.org/
[4] Good Practices Handbook, edited by the Minerva Working Group 6. Version 1.3. 3 March 2004. http://www.minervaeurope.org/structure/workinggroups/goodpract/document/goodp ractices1_3.htm
[5] Minerva Technical Guidelines for Digital Cultural Content Creation Programmes. Version 1.0. 8 April 2004. http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/technicalguidelines.htm
[6] Europa: Grants and loans http://europa.eu.int/grants/
[7] TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images): Image Capture: Hardware and Software http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/creating/hwandsw.html
[8] Jukka Korpela: A tutorial on character code issues. http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/chars.html
[9] AHDS Guide to good practice: creating and documenting electronic texts. http://ota.ahds.ac.uk/documents/creating/
[10] HTML 4.01 HyperText Markup Language http://www.w3.org/TR/html401
[11] XHTML 1.0 Extensible HyperText Markup Language http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/
Calimera Guidelines 196 Digitisation [12] Portable Document Format (PDF) http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/adobepdf.html
[13] TASI: Advice: Creating digital images http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/creating/creating.html
[14] TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/com16/tiff- fx/docs/tiff6.pdf
[15] SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG
[16] Macromedia Flash http://www.macromedia.com
[17] PNG (Portable Network Graphics) http://www.w3.org/TR/PNG/
[18] JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group) format http://www.w3.org/Graphics/JPEG
[19] JPEG/SPIFF (JPEG Still Picture Interchange File Format) http://www.jpeg.org/public/spiff.pdf
[20] More information on JPEG is available at http://www.jpeg.org or http://www.faqs.org/faqs/jpeg-faq/
[21] The JPEG 2000 standard can be found at http://www.jpeg.org/jpeg2000/index.html
[22] ISO/IEC 15444
[23] GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/dataformats/gif/
[24] PNG (Portable Network Graphics) format http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-png- multi.html
[25] SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) format (as of May 2004 specification still in draft format at http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG12/ )
[26] AVI (Audio Video Interleave) format http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=kb;en-us;Q316992
[27] MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group) format http://www.chiariglione.org/mpeg/
[28] Microsoft http://www.microsoft.com/ ; Apple http://www.apple.com/
[29] MPEG standards http://www.chiariglione.org/mpeg/standards.htm
Calimera Guidelines 197 Digitisation [30] MPEG-1 format http://www.chiariglione.org/mpeg/standards/mpeg-1/mpeg- 1.htm
[31] MP3 format http://www.mp3-tech.org
[32] Real Audio http://www.real.com
[33] Sun AU http://www.sun.com/
[34] Audio Engineering Society (AES) http://www.aes.org/
[35] International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA) http://www.iasa-web.org/
[36] Web 3D Consortium http://www.web3d.org
[37] 3dsite, inc http://www.3dsite.com
[38] VRML (Virtual Reality Markup Language) and X3D http://www.web3d.org
[39] shockwave 3D http://www.macromedia.com
[40] For an overview of watermarking see http://www.webreference.com/content/watermarks/
[41] The website of the University of New York, Buffalo, http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/units/cts/preservation/digires.html
[42] TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) copyright page http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/managing/copyright.html
[43] Creative Commons http://www.creativecommons.org
[44] There are literally thousands of websites dealing with the design and creation of web sites including: http://www.essdack.org/webdesign/ http://www.htmlgoodies.com http://www.iasl-slo.org/creatingweb.html
[45] See the Digital Preservation Coalition website at http://www.dpconline.org/text/index.html.
[46] The Digicult Report: Technical Landscapes for tomorrow’s cultural economy: unlocking the value of cultural heritage. European Commission, 2002. Full report ISBN 92-828-5189-3. Executive summary ISBN 92-828-6265-8. http://www.digicult.info/pages/report.php
LINKS Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 198 Digitisation International
Google digitisation project The collections of five of the world's important academic institutions are to be digitised by Google. Scanned pages from books in the public domain will then be made available for search and reading online. The libraries that have teamed up with Google are Oxford University Library, the libraries at Michigan, Harvard, and Stanford universities in the U.S.A., and the New York Public Library. http://business.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,9075-1403143,00.html
Armenia
Digital Library of Classical Armenian Literature from the Vth to the XVIIIth Centuries This project digitises various types of Armenian literature: legal, economic, geographical, historical, philosophical, theological, medical etc., and is working on a database of museum objects to create a virtual version of the museum with its three- dimensional classification. http://www.digilib.am
Bulgaria
Old Varna Project Aims to preserve Varna history in photos and text for future generations, and popularise it among Varna citizens. Exhibition pieces and photos are collected, restored by special technology, and saved on “talking” CDs and on the web. CDs are available in English. Website is in Bulgarian only. http://www.libvar.bg/old-varna/
Euxinograd Palace Project Photos of the palace, the park and archived documents are being collected, digitised and systematically arranged in six main topics. 3-D simulations of the Palace halls or a simulated trip in the park are planned at the next stage of the project. Available only in Bulgarian on CD-ROM. Web version planned.
Croatia
Digital collection “Silvije Strahimir Kranjcevic” Collection of digitised materials (full text poetry collection, manuscripts, family history, family archive, correspondence, photographs) referring to this famous Croatian 19th century poet. Includes a detailed inventory and database of all items to facilitate further research. Available online and on CD-ROM. http://www.sskranjcevic.hr
Czech Republic
Archbishop chateau and gardens in Kroměříž Example of book digitisation in a local institution http://digi.azz.cz Also digitised coin collection http://coins.azz.cz
Database of seals in Czech archives
Calimera Guidelines 199 Digitisation Project of the Archives Direction Division of the Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic and AiP Beroun s.r.o. http://database.aipberoun.cz/pecete
Digitisation of regional documents (DRD) The aim is to digitise regional sources from archives such as newspapers and periodicals, club and parish chronicles, family and personal chronicles, plus significant documents form the District Archive and other collections. http://www.soka-cr.cz; http://www.knihovna-cr.cz
Memoria Project Provides access to the full set of digitised documents and the detailed descriptions of historical documents, and also to bibliographical data from a range of sources in the Memoria database. The project accepts data of all kinds. http://www.memoria.cz
France
Valenciennes library Provides access to digitised microfilm of old manuscripts. http://www.ville-valenciennes.fr/bib/fondsvirtuels/microfilms/accueil.asp
Iceland
Maps of Iceland on the Internet All antique maps of Iceland (older than 1900) that are in the collection of the National and University Library of Iceland and the Central Bank of Iceland have been converted to a digital format and are accessible on the Internet. http://www.bok.hi.is/kort
Ireland
Ask About Ireland This is the pilot portal site for access to local cultural content in libraries, museums and archives in Ireland. Several pilot digitisation projects are available from here, including the Waterford Museum of Treasures (3D objects), the Cork Archives Institute, the Waterford City Library (Optical Character Recognition) and Mayo County Library (audio and video material). http://www.askaboutireland.com/bestpractice.html
Luxembourg
Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg The national library is carrying out a major digitsation project. http://www.bnl.lu/
Poland
Cieszyńska Biblioteka Wirtualna (CBW) / Cieszyn Virtual Library (CVL) Internet access to digitised library materials connected to Śląsk Cieszyński (multicultural region on the border between Poland and the Czech Republic). http://www.ata.com.pl/kcc/biblioteka/
Calimera Guidelines 200 Digitisation Treasures of Polish Archives Digital pictures supplemented with archival description, note on context and bibliographical notes. Documents are scanned or a photo made by digital camera (resolution up to 600 dpi), saved in “tiff” format and presented on the Internet in “jpg” format. http://www.poland.pl/articles/?c=421
Romania
Digitization of Dobrudjean old press (DPDV) - Project of “Ioan N. Roman” Constanta County Library Digitisation of Dobrudjean old press (1889-1940) which was on microfilm and in printed format. http://www.biblioteca.ct.ro
Monuments From the Open-Air Museums In Romania Electronic forms of monuments of folk architecture preserved in Romanian museums or “in situ”. http://www.cimec.ro/aer/aeretn.htm
Russia
Pushkin Museum collections Various collections at the Pushkin Museum and other places digitised using the highly precise EPOS system and “flying lens" scanning technology which does not damage originals. http://www.eposgroup.ru
Memory of Karelia The National Library of the Republic of Karelia has developed and implemented this project as part of the Federal program “Memory of Russia”. The goal is to conserve rare and unique book stocks covering local studies while at the same time providing wide access to them through the Internet. Digitisation will also enable additional possibilities of work with rare publications (context search, document spelling-based description search, import of texts in different formats, etc.). http://library.karelia.ru/rus/prog/pamyat2002.shtml
Serbia and Montenegro
Digitization of handwritten and early printed fragments from the Library of the Franciscan monastery of Santa Clara at Kotor; CD-ROM “Archives, libraries and monuments of Kotor” These projects of the Centre for the Preservation and Presentation of Kotor's Documentary Heritage “Notar” are related to the preservation, appraisal, description and presentation of historic collections. http://www.cdknotar.cg.yu; http://www.matf.bg.ac.yu/iak
National Center for Digitization (NCD) This is a consortium consisting of leading cultural and research institutions involved in digitisation, including the Mathematical Institute SANU and the Mathematical Faculty Belgrade (which provide technical support), the National Library of Serbia, the National Museum Belgrade, the Archaeological Institute Belgrade, the Archive of Republic Serbia, the Serbian Institute for Monument Protection, and the Yugoslav
Calimera Guidelines 201 Digitisation Film Archive. Collaboration with other cultural and research institutions from Serbia and Montenegro, as well as with the similar projects from abroad, is being set up. Several projects are in progress. http://www.ncd.matf.bg.ac.yu
Slovakia
CEMUZ - Central Register of Museum Objects in Slovakia In 2002 the Slovak National Museum set up the CEMUZ Project to digitise museum objects (estimated total 8 million), and build a database to be used as a part of the Register of Culture and to form part of joint portal and of the state information system. http://www.cemuz.sk
Spain
Archivo De La Ciudad Online access to digital images of the Arganda Archives collection, mainly for educational purposes. The website of this local archive is one of the best examples of the use of the new technologies in Spain. http://www.ayto-arganda.es/archivo
Digitisation of Historic Newspapers in Spanish Public Libraries The digitisation is being done using up-to-the-minute technology. The resulting database will include bibliographical descriptions of the original items (according to Dublin Core Metadata Initiative) and metadata of file structures (according to Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard). http://www.digibis.com/prensahis
Documentos Virtuales del Archivo Histórico de Sueca. All documents from 1264 to 1954 are being digitised and will be accessible on the Web. http://sapiens.ya.com/webarchivo/
Patrimonio.es (2004-2008) Digitisation Programme of the Spanish Cultural, Scientific and Natural Heritage whose aim is preservation, cataloguing and dissemination. It includes a list of several initiatives for digitisation in the cultural heritage sector. http://patrimonio.red.es/
Virtual Library of Andalusia Digitised documents can be accessed via the virtual library catalogue which allows searching by authors, titles or subjects, or by subdivisions, such as Map Library, Graphic Library, Andalusian Reference Library, Newspaper Library, Film Library, etc. Includes additional cultural and learning resources aimed at school children such as: “Today in the history of Andalusia” and “Study and learn with the Virtual Library of Andalusía”. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/bibliotecavirtualandalucia/
Virtual Library of the Spanish Bibliographical Heritage Prototype for the Virtual Library of the Spanish Bibliographical Heritage, developed by the Sub directorate General for Library Co-ordination. http://www.digibis.com/digibib
Sweden
Calimera Guidelines 202 Digitisation Digitaliseringsprojekt inom arkiv, bibliotek och museer Joint digitisation project. http://www.kultur.nu/rapporter/digitaliseringsprojekt.html
Turkey
Akdas – Atatürk Kitaplığı Dijital Arşiv Sistemi (Atatürk Library Digitized Archive System, Istanbul Greater City Municipality) Works from the Ottoman Empire period such as journals and newspapers, manuscripts, books, postcards, maps etc. have been digitised and the project is in progress of adopting new technologies to speed up digitisation. Works digitised are put into service immediately for in-house use. http://www.ibb.gov.tr/minisite/kutuphaneler/
Calimera Guidelines 203 Digitisation APPENDIX Back to Scope
Creative Commons [43] licence explicitly state the ways in which digital items may be re-used, and this chart (produced by Minerva [3]) demonstrates how this could be applied in conjunction with the publication on the internet of low-resolution images.
Image Technical Typical uses Licence Type informati conditions on Thumbnail • JPG educational: • Attribution • 72 dpi inclusion in a • Non-commercial, montage • bit depth of 24 • No derivative works bit colour or 8-bit commercial: [optional] greyscale none • 120 pixels for the longest dimension Low • JPG educational: • Attribution resolution • 150 dpi use in a • Non-commercial presentation • bit depth of 24 • No derivate works or essay bit colour or 8-bit [optional] greyscale commercial: • maximum of 600 image pixels for the selection and longest initial layout, dimension potential for licensing for use on websites and in presentations High • TIFF educational: • Copyright resolution • 600 dpi viewing details, • bit depth of 24 archival copy bit colour or 8-bit greyscale commercial: multimedia production, print reproduction, broadcasting Back to contents Calimera Guidelines 204 Digitisation Calimera Guidelines Digital preservation
SCOPE
This guideline deals with: Selection Technology preservation Technology emulation Data migration Authenticity Storage Conservation Disaster recovery procedures Formats Media Standards Web archiving and domain archiving Staffing implications Administrative and legal implications
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
‘The volume of information is growing at an unprecedented pace. We already produce more information per year than we did in the whole period since we descended from the trees. A lot of this information is digital only, meaning it has no physical representation. That makes it much more volatile. An XML-document for instance is created while you view it. So how do you keep it?’ (Ulrich Kampffmeyer, director of PROJECT CONSULT, Germany) [1].
The EU recognises that long-term access to digital as well as analogue resources is crucial to delivering the objective of making Europe “the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world” [2]. ERPANET (Electronic Resource Preservation and Access Network) was set up to address digital preservation issues [3].
Digital materials, whether “born digital” or converted to digital form, are at risk from technology obsolescence and physical deterioration. The objective of preserving resources is to ensure that they remain accessible for current and future generations. In the case of digital resources additional considerations (as compared with the preservation of traditional analogue materials) include: • technological obsolescence, generally regarded as the greatest technical threat to ensuring continued access. The speed of changes in technology means that the
Calimera Guidelines 205 Digital preservation timeframe during which action must be taken is measured in a few years, perhaps only 2 to 5, as opposed to decades or even centuries for traditional materials; • the fragility of some storage media used for digital resources. These can deteriorate quickly although externally no damage may be visible; • the ease with which changes can be made. This means that there can be challenges associated with ensuring continued authenticity; • the dynamic nature of some “born digital” materials. This means that they are intended to be continually updated. This use of technology is very effective for providing up-to-date reference information, maps, etc., but poses challenges in terms of the ability to compare data at different points in time; • the lifecycle of a website. The average lifespan of a website is estimated to be about 44 days. This is similar to the problem of ephemera in the analogue world. Ways need to be found to collect and preserve important websites and selected examples of all other websites; • the question of originals. With digitised materials, care must be taken to preserve analogue originals. However, with “born digital” materials there is no analogue equivalent to fall back on – once they are lost they are gone forever. For example, the first telegram ever sent, in 1844, has been preserved in analogue format and has been digitised; the first e-mail, sent in 1971, has been lost.
Preservation issues must be considered an integral part of the digital creation process, whether making a digital copy of an analogue item or creating a “born digital” item. It is essential to document and record all the technological procedures that led to the creation of the digital object, and much critical information can be captured only at the point of creation. The costs and implications of not having a preservation strategy can be high. Retrospective preservation, if possible at all, is likely to be expensive. Although techniques such as digital archaeology (rescuing digital resources which have become inaccessible) exist, they are not always successful. Loss of access to the growing body of material only available in digital form could have serious implications for future generations. Precautions can be taken which will reduce the danger of loss such as: • storage in a stable controlled environment; • implementing regular refreshment cycles; • making preservation copies (subject to licensing/copyright permission); • establishing appropriate handling procedures; • using standard storage formats and media.
As well as a technical strategy, an organisational strategy is useful in order to ensure budgets, staff and time are available for what should be an ongoing procedure. ERPANET has published a useful policy tool [4].
Some institutions, especially smaller ones, might consider contracting out either the whole preservation process, or the storage of digital materials, to a third party. This too will require careful planning. For guidance on the issues which need to be considered see Simpson, Duncan: Contracting out for digital preservation services: information leaflet and checklist. Digital Preservation Coalition, October 2004. [5]
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 206 Digital preservation How to provide for long-term access should be considered from the planning stage when resources are being digitised (see the guideline on Digitisation), or from the creation stage in the case of “born digital” resources. It is useful to have a “life cycle” strategy which takes into account data creation, access policies and preservation procedures, and which is in place and ready to be applied before any images are captured.
Selection Back to Scope A key initial decision which needs to be made concerns selection, i.e. which resources justify preservation. Not all resources can be or need to be preserved for ever; some will not need to be preserved at all, some for a defined period of time, and some indefinitely. With traditional collections, lack of selection for preservation may not necessarily mean that the item will be lost, but in the digital environment it almost certainly will be, so such decisions are crucial. In the case of “born digital” materials it is advisable wherever possible to involve the creators in the selection decision. In cases where there are multiple versions, a decision must be made as to which version is the best one for preservation, or whether more than one should be selected. Sampling dynamic resources as opposed to attempting to save every change, may be the most practical option. Making such decisions as early as possible helps to target resources towards preserving the most valuable assets.
Once the selection of material has been made, an appropriate technical strategy must be chosen, e.g. technology preservation, technology emulation, or data migration.
Technology preservation Back to Scope This is a very high risk strategy. It involves preserving the original software (and possibly hardware) that was used to create and access the information. It also involves preserving and maintaining both the original operating system and hardware on which to run the resource, and continuing to train staff so that they have the skills needed to keep the systems running. Long-term costs are impossible to estimate. It is likely to be too expensive and impractical for individual institutions (except very large ones with very important collections), although co-operation with other institutions to keep a “pool” of such equipment could be considered. The disadvantages to this strategy include obsolescence, software and hardware eventually wearing out, technical support disappearing over time, and the “pool” equipment being in a location at some distance from the digital material making access for local users difficult. Technology preservation is not really an option for small local institutions.
Technologyemulation Back to Scope This involves developing techniques for imitating obsolete systems on future generations of computers. At the present time this tends to be expensive and technically complex. Also it will have to be re-done each time a new technological platform appears. It can thus only be regarded as a solution for long-term preservation of perhaps globally important material held in large national institutions where emulation can take place on a more-or-less continual basis. An additional
Calimera Guidelines 207 Digital preservation consideration is that software copyright issues may need to be addressed (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues).
Datamigration Back to Scope This involves copying the data from one hardware/software generation to a newer one, thus keeping it stored in an up-to-date form that continually keeps pace with changes in technology. This is perhaps the simplest and most commonly used method, despite the possibility of data being lost or changed in the migration process. It preserves the intellectual content of the original data but may lose original features and appearance. If these are important then technology preservation or emulation may have to be used. The capture of metadata is a critical part of a migration strategy in order to ensure continued use of the resource if any change in, or loss of, functionality occurs, as it probably will over successive migrations. In this case preservation metadata - describing the software, hardware and management requirements of the digital material - will provide essential information.
Data refreshing is associated with migration. It is the process of copying data from one set or copy of the digital media to another of the same kind and helps to keep the data in good condition until it is migrated to a new media.
Consideration might also be given to copying data to an older generation of media, namely analogue format. With resources which are digitised from analogue originals it is of course sensible to preserve the originals. It is also possible to preserve “born digital” resources in an analogue format such as permanent paper, preservation microfilm or nickel disk, but this is only suitable in a limited number of cases such as a print-out of a digital document. It is inappropriate for increasingly complex websites etc., where loss of functionality would diminish the usefulness of the resource.
Another possibility which might be considered is preserving screen shots of systems, virtual exhibitions or creative works (particularly those which are “born digital”). This provides a record of the system in the form of a digital image file which is likely to be suitable for long-term preservation.
Authenticity (see also the guideline on Security) Back to Scope The choice of preservation strategy will be influenced by how authentic the preserved item needs to be. There is no universally accepted definition of authenticity, but it broadly means that the preserved copy should be as much like the original as possible, and the connections between documents and objects should be preserved to assist with interpretation. With analogue records, it is possible for example to trace how decisions were reached by examining the relationships between documents; historians are concerned that, with the proliferation of records only available in digital format, this ability might be lost to future generations.
In the analogue world, the preserved item usually is the original, although copies may be made for use in order to prevent damage from handling etc. In the digital world the preserved item will be a copy of some sort since there is no physical artefact. As it is dependent on technology for access, over time this copy will be Calimera Guidelines 208 Digital preservation subject to many changes in order to ensure that it is still accessible on new technologies. It is therefore crucial that metadata is preserved with it to define its authenticity, and ideally this should be created simultaneously with the information. For discussions on the challenges posed by authenticity and preservation see Integrity and authenticity of digital cultural heritage objects. Digicult Thematic Issue 1, August 2002. [6]
Storage (see also the guideline on Digitisation) Back to Scope Strategies for both online and offline storage will be needed. Delivery files in continual use will need to be stored online, on servers. Master files are best stored offline since they are less frequently accessed. Storage of the original analogue objects or source texts is also important and links need to be made to these. • Online storage – it is easy to allow storage space to become cluttered with several versions of documents and other unnecessary resources. It would be useful to have a plan which: ° clarifies which resources need to be accessible online, nearline and offline; ° sets times for removing certain categories of material from online storage; ° sets times for reviewing online storage. • Offline storage must take into account the problem of media degradation. However, despite its fragility as compared for example with paper, most storage media will outlive the hardware and software needed to use it. Over the last 30 years storage media has moved from punch cards to DVDs via cassettes, floppy disks and CD-ROMs, but the technology to retrieve data stored on the early media is difficult to find. Storage cannot therefore be a once-for-all task but must be part of an ongoing regime. Points to consider include: ° environmental conditions – good environmental conditions will increase the longevity of digital storage media and help prevent damage to data. Large fluctuations in temperature and humidity are generally thought to be more damaging than constant levels, even when these are slightly less than ideal. BS 4783 Storage, transportation and maintenance of media for use in data processing and information storage [7] contains guidance; ° archival media – it is advisable to select the best quality archival media affordable. A variety of digital storage media is available, including CD-R, DVD R, DAT (Digital Audio Tape) and DLT (Digital Linear Tape). Digital images should be preserved on Write Once Read Many (WORM) drives which enable the files to be viewed frequently without being overwritten. TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) gives advice on CD-R and DVD-R [8]. The Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI) gives advice on standards for archival media [9]; ° archival copies – at least two archival copies should always be made and stored in different locations. If possible multiple copies should be made on different storage media. Copies made using different software, and/or comparable software purchased from different suppliers, will help to protect data against corruption from malfunctioning software or viruses; ° media refreshing – it is useful to have a plan for refreshing or transferring archive copies to new media at specified times, e.g. − within the minimum time specified by the supplier for the media's viability; − when new storage devices are installed;
Calimera Guidelines 209 Digital preservation − when a quality control check discloses significant temporary or read "errors" in a data resource; ° quality control – consider having a quality control procedure involving: − checking all media periodically for readability; − using bit/byte or other checksum comparisons with originals to ensure the authenticity and integrity of items after media refreshing; − recording all actions taken.
Conservation Back to Scope In the analogue world, preservation is the term used for activities which generally ensure the safekeeping and survival of resources (careful handling, secure packaging during transport, controlled environment etc.), and conservation is that particular aspect of those activities which involve some kind of active intervention with the object, i.e. repair or restoration. In the field of digital resources, the term preservation is more often used, although active conservation measures might be needed at times; some damaged media can be repaired for example.
Disaster recovery procedures and risk management Back to Scope It is always sensible to have a plan in case of disasters. It should include such considerations as: • creating archive copies of all important digital resources as soon as they are acquired or created; • using standard storage media and formats; • storing archive copies on and off site - in areas in danger of natural disasters such as flooding, off site copies should be at a safe distance away; • ensuring that all staff are trained in what to do in the event of a disaster; • having a risk management policy. ERPANET has published a risk communication toolkit. [10]
Formats Back to Scope The requirements of a file format for archiving are broadly the same as for creation (see the guideline on Digitisation). It is preferable: • to use an open standard file format rather than a proprietary format to guard against obsolescence; • to use a file format that can support the embedding of metadata; • not to use any compression to guard against losing data - a lossless format such as TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) [11] is preferable, but if there is real pressure on space, the PNG (Portable Network Graphic) file format [12] can provide an alternative lossless format.
The same general rules apply to the preservation of audiovisual formats (see also the guideline on Multimedia services), but digital broadcasting media present enormous challenges. Most television is now produced in digital format. It is imperative to involve the programme makers and journalists who create the programmes in the preservation strategy. TV companies such as the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision [13] are working on strategies to preserve hundreds of thousands of hours of broadcast material in authentic ways.
ERPANET suggests the following file formats for preservation [14]: Calimera Guidelines 210 Digital preservation • Text documents: plain ASCII [15], PDF [16], XML [17], TIFF [11]; • Image documents: TIFF [11], JPEG2000 [18]; • Audiovisual documents: WAV [19], BWF [20], MPEG [21].
Because of the number and variety of formats available, information about them is being collected in file format registries such as the UK National Archives’ PRONOM [22]. Local institutions may need to seek advice from regional or national professional associations as to which one is suitable for their requirements.
Media (see also storage) Back to Scope As already mentioned, it is advisable to select the best quality archival media affordable. A variety of digital storage media is available, including CD-R, DVD-R, DAT (Digital Audio Tape) and DLT (Digital Linear Tape). Digital images should be preserved on Write Once Read Many (WORM) drives which enable the files to be viewed frequently without being overwritten. TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) gives advice [8].
Standards (see also the guideline on Digitisation) Back to Scope It is advisable to adhere to open standards when archiving digital resources. As these are not tied to specific hardware/software they help to guard against the dangers of technological obsolescence. There are standards for the different aspects of storing digital information. Some examples include: • interoperability standards - these allow communication between different systems. Examples include ISO 23950:1998 Information and documentation - Information retrieval (Z39.50) - Application service definition and protocol specification [23] and the CIMI (Consortium for the Computer Interchange of Museum Information) Profile: Z39.50 Application Profile for Cultural Heritage Information [24]; • resource encoding standards (see also the guidelines on Resource description and Discovery and retrieval) - these define formats for different types of digital information. Adherence to this type of standard allows data compatibility across a wide range of systems. Examples include standards for: • page description formats e.g. PostScript [25], Portable Document Format (PDF) [16]; • graphics formats e.g. Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) [11], Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) [26]; • structured information formats e.g. Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) [27], Extensible Markup Language (XML) [17]; • moving images and audio formats e.g. WAV [19], Broadcast Wave Format (BWF) [20], MPEG [21]; • resource identification standards (see also the guidelines on Resource description and Discovery and retrieval) – these provide a way of uniquely identifying digital resources in order to ensure long-term and reliable access to resources while they are available over the Internet even when their location changes. URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) can change. Examples of permanent identifiers include URNs (Universal Resource Names) [28], DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) [29], PURLs (Persistent Uniform Resource Locators) [30], Handles [31] and ARKs (Archival Resource Keys) [32];
Calimera Guidelines 211 Digital preservation • resource description standards (see also the guideline on Discovery and retrieval) – these can facilitate effective resource discovery. Examples include AACR2 [33] and Dublin Core [34]. There are also a group of standards which relate to metadata syntax, such as MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloguing) [35] and the EAD (Encoded Archival Description) [36]. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) [37] is currently involved in developing the Resource Description Framework (RDF) [38] which will provide the infrastructure to support the coexistence of many different metadata sets, or "schemas", of which the Dublin Core will be one example; • data archiving standards – these provide for the long-term preservation of and access to digital information. The Open Archival Information System (OAIS) Reference Model (ISO 14721:2003 Space data and information transfer systems - Open archival information system -- Reference model) is an example. [39]; • records management standards – these provide guidance on how to implement records management strategies, procedures and practices. The main examples are ISO 15489 Information and documentation -- Records management [40] and ISO/TS 23081-1:2004 Information and documentation - Records management processes - Metadata for records -- Part 1: Principles [41].
It is also advisable to adhere to standard formats and media. Simply using standard file formats and standard media will go a long way towards ensuring the safety of a digital collection. The Technical Advisory Service for Images (TASI) [42] and the Digital Preservation Coalition [43] both give valuable advice on both topics, and see also the guideline on Digitisation. The Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI) gives advice on standards for archival media [9].
Various projects are working on standards for digital archiving including: InterPARES [44], Project Prism [45], DAVID [46] and VERS [47].
In 2003 the International Internet Preservation Consortium [48] was set up by the national libraries of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Sweden, the UK and the USA, with the aim of preserving Internet content for future generations. In order to do this it aims to develop common tools, techniques and standards, and working groups have been set up to work on these.
Web archiving and domain archiving Back to Scope The ever-expanding size of the World Wide Web and its dynamic and ephemeral nature pose special challenges for projects aiming to capture, store and make it accessible for the long term. Several countries, including Canada, Denmark, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa and the UK have enacted legislation to extend legal deposit to digital publications. Some national libraries, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the UK, are beginning to build national web archives using a variety of approaches, e.g. • selective archiving of static web resources, i.e. resources that do not change or contain inter-active or dynamic elements are archived on a selective basis. Denmark, Canada and Japan are the principal exponents of this approach; • selective archiving of static and dynamic web resources. Australia is one country archiving in this way; Calimera Guidelines 212 Digital preservation • whole of domain harvesting, i.e. attempting to harvest automatically the entire web domain of a country using harvesting robots and a minimum of human intervention. Sweden, Finland, Iceland and Norway are pursuing this approach; • a combination of the selective and whole of domain approaches. The Bibliothèque Nationale de France is attempting to program a robot to archive both automatically and selectively those resources likely to be of research value; • archiving based on collaborative agreements with commercial publishers. The National Library of the Netherlands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek) has developed technical infrastructure and organisational relationships with commercial publishers, including Elsevier Science and Blackwell Publishing, to archive, preserve and provide limited access to the whole digital output of the publishers concerned. The Bibliothèque Nationale has also recognised the need to work with publishers for deposit of the ‘deep web’, which is out of reach of crawlers, and includes a large amount of rich web content.
Much web archiving activity is still at the experimental stage. A list of organisations which have conducted pilot projects and experiments is included on the Austrian On- Line Archive’s website [49]. The USA’s Internet Archive [see Links] website and the National Library of Australia’s website [50] also contain information about other projects. A recent project started in June 2004 is the UK Web Archiving Consortium http://www.webarchive.org.uk/ (see Links) which is working on a project to develop a test-bed for selective archiving of UK websites using PANDAS (PANDORA Digital Archiving System) developed by PANDORA (Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia) (see Links). For a detailed feasibility study see Day, Michael: Collecting and preserving the World Wide Web. 2003. [51]
Staffingimplications Back to Scope Because of the rapid changes in technology staff skills will need to be continually updated and a certain amount of learning by doing will often be the most practical approach when new software and hardware is acquired. Staff may need to work with personnel from other departments such as corporate IT departments. Collaboration with other institutions, including secondments, might be a good way of sharing skills.
Administrative and legal implications Back to Scope Digital records and documents require management in the same way as analogue resources to ensure they are put into the correct level of storage at specified times and can be retrieved on demand. An electronic records management system is advisable (see the guideline on Content and context management).
Many countries have Freedom of Information legislation giving people the right to see information from any date, making it even more necessary to have good records management practices and procedures in place. Public bodies may be statutorily obliged to publish certain classes of information, but individual requests for other information will need to be dealt with usually within a short time period (20 days in the UK.) In the light of this legislation, digital preservation is very important and must be managed carefully to ensure that any disposal or alteration of records is within the law. (See the guideline on Legal and rights issues.)
Calimera Guidelines 213 Digital preservation Rights issues will need to be addressed before copies for preservation can be made (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues).
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
More and more information, including government information and academic research, is being created in digital format. Unless significant effort is put into preserving and securing long-term access to these digital resources much of our heritage and intellectual assets from the late 20th century onwards will be lost. International and national strategies and funding are needed to address this issue.
Also, unless there is confidence that preservation strategies will work, then growth in digital services could slow down, and all the economic, social and educational benefits be lost.
Governments need to establish national strategies linking legislation and funding to enable deposit libraries and national archives to collect digital resources as well as traditional material.
Copyright and licensing laws need to allow for preservation copies to be made.
No matter how carefully digital material is stored, changes in technology can render it useless. Research into preservation strategies must keep pace with the rapid change in technology. Ideally preservation considerations should run in parallel to the creation of new media and formats.
Museums, libraries and archives need to allocate budgets and apply their expertise to the preservation of digital resources just as they would with regard to traditional materials. However, they need to get involved at a much earlier stage in the process. Conservation of analogue resources can usually be dealt with long after their creation, but this does not apply to digital resources. Collaboration with inventors and writers is needed to ensure the brief time slot when action can be taken is not missed.
Research such as that on Persistent Object Preservation (a technique to ensure electronic records remain accessible by making them self-describing in a way that is independent of specific hardware and software which is being worked on by the US National Archives and Records Administration’s Electronic Records Archives (ERA) program) may eventually come up with a system which will last for hundreds of years [52].
International standards and specifications, predefined structures, metadata and interchangeable formats are needed to ensure interoperability and long-term use.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Only co-operation can prevent us from drowning. Interview with Ulrich Kampffmeyer, PROJECT CONSULT, Germany by Joost van Kasteren in Integrity and Calimera Guidelines 214 Digital preservation authenticity of digital cultural heritage objects. Digicult Thematic Issue 1, August 2002, p.20. http://www.digicult.info/downloads/thematic_issue_1_final.pdf
[2] Lisbon European Council 23 and 24 March 2000 http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/00100-r1.en0.htm
[3] Ross, Seamus: The Role of ERPANET in Supporting Digital Curation and Preservation in Europe in D-Lib Magazine, vol. 10.no. 7/8, July/August 2004. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july04/ross/07ross.html#3
[4] ERPANET Digital Preservation Policy Tool. 2003. http://www.erpanet.org/guidance/docs/ERPANETPolicyTool.pdf
[5] For guidance on the issues which need to be considered if contracting out the preservation process see Simpson, Duncan: Contracting out for digital preservation services: information leaflet and checklist. Digital Preservation Coalition, October 2004. http://www.dpconline.org/graphics/guides/index.html#outsourcing
[6] Integrity and authenticity of digital cultural heritage objects. Digicult Thematic Issue 1, August 2002. http://www.digicult.info/downloads/thematic_issue_1_final.pdf
[7] BS 4783, parts 1 - 8: Storage, transportation and maintenance of media for use in data processing and information storage. British Standards institution, 1988-94. http://bsonline.techindex.co.uk/BSI2/Dir1/SitePage.asp?LS=&PgID=0080&LR=&LD= &Src=&Dest=&Last=&SessID=L7DJXCTA2DNQ9P5136AP3DQLQB1587G2&MSCSID= &ErrID=&SessStat=&Parent=&Child=&PCount=0&LogStat=&URLData=&SEARCH_ID =MMKD47V26JXN9HPLP0494ULBXK6GC735&SEARCH_TYPE=SRCH_TYP_QCK
[8] TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images): Using CD-R and DVD-R for Digital Preservation http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/delivering/cdr-dvdr.html
[9] Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik: S 4.169 Use of appropriate archival media. October 2003. http://www.bsi.de/gshb/english/s/s04169.html
[10] ERPANET Risk Communication Tool. 2003. http://www.erpanet.org/guidance/docs/ERPANETRiskTool.pdf
[11] TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/com16/tiff-fx/docs/tiff6.pdf
[12] PNG (Portable Network Graphics) http://www.w3.org/TR/PNG/
[13] Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision
Calimera Guidelines 215 Digital preservation http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/gvnNL/handler.cfm/event/onpage/pageID/8FA E9963-0FAB-4112-BF19-325991A23477/collectionid/A1C3C760-1070-49C8-9257- A9AF9FB858BB
[14] ERPANET: File Formats for Preservation, Austrian National Library, Vienna, 10 11 May 2004. Briefing Paper http://www.erpanet.org/events/2004/vienna/erpaTrainingWien_BriefingPaper_v02.p df
[15] ASCII http://www.asciitable.com/
[16] Adobe Portable Document Format http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/adobepdf.html
[17] Extensible Markup Language (XML) http://www.w3.org/XML/
[18] JPEG 2000 http://www.jpeg.org/jpeg2000/
[19] WAV information available on Microsoft website http://www.microsoft.com
[20] BWF (Broadcast Wave Format) http://www.sr.se/utveckling/tu/bwf/
[21] MPEG http://www.sr.se/utveckling/tu/bwf/
[22] The National Archives. PRONOM http://www.records.pro.gov.uk/pronom
[23] ISO 23950:1998 Information and documentation -- Information retrieval (Z39.50) - Application service definition and protocol specification http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=27446
[24] The CIMI Profile: Z39.50 Application Profile for Cultural Heritage Information. Release 1.0, March 1, 1998 http://www.cimi.org/old_site/downloads/ProfileFinalMar98/cimiprofile1.htm#Forewar d
[25] Adobe PostScript 3 http://www.adobe.com/products/postscript/main.html
[26] GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/dataformats/gif/
[27] ISO 8879:1986 Information processing -- Text and office systems -- Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=16387
[28] URNs (Universal Resource Names) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1737.txt
[29] DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) http://www.doi.org/hb.html Calimera Guidelines 216 Digital preservation [30] PURLs (Persistent Uniform Resource Locators) http://purl.oclc.org/
[31] Handles http://www.handle.net/introduction.html
[32] ARKs (Archival Resource Keys) http://www.cdlib.org/inside/diglib/ark/
[33] Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules http://www.aacr2.org/
[34] Dublin Core Metadata Initiative http://dublincore.org/
[35] MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloguing) http://www.loc.gov/marc/index.html
[36] EAD (Encoded Archival Description) http://www.loc.gov/ead/
[37] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) http://www.w3.org/
[38] Resource Description Framework (RDF) http://www.w3.org/RDF/
[39] ISO Archiving Standards – Overview http://ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.gov/nost/isoas/ ISO 14721:2003 Space data and information transfer systems -- Open archival information system -- Reference model http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=24683& ICS1=49&ICS2=140&ICS3 For a review of the model see Trusted Digital Repositories: Attributes and Responsibilities. An RLG-OCLC Report. RLG, May 2002. http://www.rlg.org/longterm/repositories.pdf
[40] ISO 15489 Information and documentation -- Records management http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=31908& ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=20 and http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=35845& ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=20
[41] ISO/TS 23081-1:2004 Information and documentation - Records management processes - Metadata for records -- Part 1: Principles http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36627& ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=20
[42] The Technical Advisory Service for Images (TASI) http://www.tasi.ac.uk/index.html
[43] Digital Preservation Coalition http://www.dpconline.org/graphics/
[44] InterPARES (The International Research on Permanent Authentic Records in Electronic Systems) http://www.interpares.org Calimera Guidelines 217 Digital preservation [45] Cornell University Project Prism: Information integrity in distributed digital libraries http://www.prism.cornell.edu/Default.htm
[46] DAVID (Digitale Archivering in Vlaamse Instellingen en Diensten) http://www.antwerpen.be/david/website/nl/index2.htm
[47] VERS (Victoria Electronic Recordkeeping System) http://www.prov.vic.gov.au/vers/standards/pros9907/99-7-2s2.htm
[48] International Internet Preservation Consortium (IIPC) http://netpreserve.org/about/mission.php
[49] Austrian On-line Archive: Web Archiving – Bibliography http://www.ifs.tuwien.ac.at/~aola/links/WebArchiving.html
[50] National Library of Australia http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/topics/92.html
[51] Day, Michael: Collecting and preserving the World Wide Web. 2003. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/archiving_feasibility.pdf
[52] Building the archives of the future: advances in preserving electronic records at the National Archives and Records Administration [by] Kenneth Thibodeau in D-Lib Magazine, February 2001, Volume 7 Number 2. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february01/thibodeau/02thibodeau.html
LINKS Back to Scope
International
International Internet Preservation Consortium The national libraries of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Sweden, the British Library (UK), the Library of Congress (USA) and the Internet Archive (USA) are collaborating to find ways of collecting and preserving global Internet. They are doing research into challenging problems such as Deep Web searching, e.g. Internet newspapers, streaming media, documents from web cameras, interactive media and e-materials of all types stored in databases. http://netpreserve.org/about/mission.php
SEPIA (Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access) This EU-funded project is doing research focusing on the digital preservation of photographic materials. http://www.knaw.nl/ecpa/sepia/workinggroups/wp4/digitisation.html
Armenia
Gladzor Management University
Calimera Guidelines 218 Digital preservation Conservation and preservation of digital content, including systems to provide long term preservation (archival storage), support user queries, and publish content in new ways e.g. on demand, tailored for individual users or groups, and creation of CD series. http://www.gladzor.am
Australia
PANDORA (Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia). A selective archive, developed at the National Library of Australia, publicly available free of charge via the Web. http://pandora.nla.gov.au/index.html/
Austria
Austrian On-Line Archive (AOLA) Project initiated by the Austrian National Library (OeNB) and the Department of Software Technology (IFS) at the Technical University of Vienna to build an archive of the Austrian Webspace. Documents will be harvested at certain time intervals to produce snapshots of the Austrian Webspace. http://www.ifs.tuwien.ac.at/~aola/
Croatia
Digital Local History Collection at Slavonski Brod City Library This was a pilot project whose main aim was to contribute to the preservation of the local history collection at Slavonski Brod City Library. It uses Greenstone Digital Library Software (http://www.greenstone.org), an open-source software. http://www.gksb.hr/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe?a=p&p=about&c=brod&l=hr&w=iso- 8859-2
Teuta Several integrated cultural heritage databases containing an inventory of monuments, historic buildings and sites in Croatia, provided with appropriate documentation and digital collections of images so as to enable full protection and preservation. Interoperability has been ensured by the application of international standards and guidelines. Currently its primary users are cultural heritage professionals but soon it will be available on the Internet for the public. It will also be integrated with the BREUH database (Croatian Restoration Record of Works of Art and Monuments), maintained by the Croatian Restoration Institute (http://www.h-r- z.hr/).
Czech Republic
National Archives (formerly the State Central Archives) Research into storage, processing and access to digitised documents is carried out by specialists of the Archives Direction Division of the Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic and by the Czech Technical University in Prague (Faculty of Electrical Engineering). A working place for statewide activity will be built up at the National Archives. http://www.mvcr.cz/archivy; http://www.nacr.cz
Calimera Guidelines 219 Digital preservation Slovacke muzeum, Uherske Hradiste Every object is described and photographed before and after conservation to establish a digital photo archive, and has a memo card and a digital card on computer with the photo, which is very useful for research workers. http://www.slovackemuzeum.cz
WebArchiv Project conducted by the National Library of the Czech Republic in cooperation with Masaryk University in Brno, and with financial support from the Ministry of Culture, to catalogue online publications and integrate these records into the Czech National Bibliography database, and to store the publications in a deposit system in order to ensure long-term access. http://www.webarchiv.cz/index-e.html
Denmark
Netarchive.dk This collaborative pilot project involving the Royal Library, the State and University Library and the Centre for Internet Research is now in its second phase. Three methods of harvesting material have been trialled: automatic "snapshot" harvesting, "selective" harvesting, and "event-based" harvesting. http://www.netarchive.dk/index-en.htm
Finland
SÄHKE-project Focuses on the long-term preservation of material produced by records management systems. http://www.narc.fi/sahke/
Germany
DEPOSIT.DDB.DE Die Deutsche Bibliothek (DDB) stores online publications and digitised publications on this archive server, which is part of the deposit system for long-term availability of digital publications. http://deposit.ddb.de/index_e.htm
Macedonia
MAIIS - Macedonian Archival Integrated Information Systems One part of the digitisation programme is concerned with conservation. The system for automatic regulation of the atmosphere consists of 3 subsystems: heating and cooling, drying and humidifying of the air and a complex system for automatic regulation of the atmosphere. http://www.arhiv.gov.mk
The Netherlands
Archipol project Involves the archiving of web sites produced by political parties in the Netherlands and aims to make the digital archive available on-line. http://www.archipol.nl/project/ Calimera Guidelines 220 Digital preservation e-Depot Koninklijke Bibliotheek (National Library of the Netherlands) has developed e-Depot to archive publications by Dutch publishers and is carrying out research into methods to ensure long-term access. http://www.kb.nl/kb/resources/frameset_kb.html?/kb/pr/pers/pers2002/elsevier- en.html
New Zealand
National Library of New Zealand Digital Repository. The New Zealand National Library Act 2003 extends legal deposit provisions to cover electronic material. The digital repository of the National Library will collect and preserve digital objects both online and offline, including websites, published works, images, and material on CDs, floppy disks etc. http://www.natlib.govt.nz/
Norway
Digitalt radioarkiv (Digital Radio Archive) Collaborative effort between the National Library of Norway and the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) to digitise the historical radio archive of NRK with the aim of long-term preservation. http://www.nb.no/html/radioarkiv_nordland.html
Digital Repository of the National Library of Norway The NLN holds a large collection of digital documents, both digitised and born-digital, for which it has a responsibility for long-term preservation. In order to maintain the digital collection over time the NLN has established the Digital Repository (DR). The core of the DR is a disk and tape-storing system, which has a capacity of 100 TB. The NLN has developed a generalised input/output service for the DR. All objects are identified by a URN (Uniform Resource Locator) and must have metadata for search, retrieval and preservation purposes. Formats are chosen to facilitate long-term preservation. (Still under development so no website yet.)
Paradigma Project Project of the National Library of Norway to investigate ways of collecting and preserving Norway's digital cultural heritage for future generations. http://www.nb.no/paradigma/eng_index.html
Russia
Project for Conservation of Unique Photo Documents and Broader Access to Original Sources of CSACPPD in St. Petersburg Project to preserve photographic resources in the Central State Archive of Cinema, Photographic, and Phonographic Documents. http://www.photoarchive.spb.ru
Serbia
Realisation of multimedia databases for Historical Museum of Serbia – IMUS
Calimera Guidelines 221 Digital preservation Multimedia database (digital images, animations, videos and sound clips) is mainly targeted to museum experts and associates with the aim of providing complex information about conservation and restoration procedures. http://www.nasasrbija.co.yu/esnaf/esnaf_3.htm
Sweden
Kulturarw3 A project of the Royal Library (the National Library of Sweden), the Swedish Web Archive of electronic documents covers periodicals, electronic magazines and newspapers, static documents such as texts in electronic archives and dynamic documents with links. http://www.kb.se/kw3/ENG/Default.htm
United Kingdom
Arts and Humanities Data Service This centre for digital archiving for the arts and humanities in UK higher and further education has developed advice and guidance on preservation issues. http://ahds.ac.uk
UK Web Archiving Consortium Six UK institutions are collaborating on a project to develop a test-bed for selective archiving of UK websites. http://www.webarchive.org.uk/
USA
Internet Archive The Internet Archive is building a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artefacts in digital form. http://www.archive.org/about/about.php
Minerva (Mapping the Internet Electronic Resources Virtual Archive) Library of Congress project focusing on the harvesting of topic-based public Web content. http://www.loc.gov/minerva/
National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) The Library of Congress is leading this cross-sector co-operative online archiving venture which will co-ordinate existing digital archiving research programmes across the public and private sectors in the United States to minimise replication, allocate responsibilities and share knowledge and experience. http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 222 Digital preservation Calimera Guidelines Resource description
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Interoperability Metadata Domain-specific metadata standards Collection level descriptions Terminology Ontologies Object identification
Note: It is anticipated that institutions will be approaching resource description from different starting positions and that many, if not most, may need to adopt a staged approach to implementation. It is also anticipated that these guidelines may be used to support procurement – either of integrated management systems or to aid the appointment of contractors or consultants. Some of the technologies involved in resource description are described in the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure.
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Libraries have long operated in a networked information environment, and increasingly archives and museums do too. The advent of the Internet means that even the smallest museum, branch library or branch of a record office can now have access to an ever increasing amount of distributed digital information available over the web. The knowledge society, lifelong learning and the growing impetus towards interaction with central government by electronic means make easy access to information of increasing importance for all citizens.
Many institutions are also creating new digital content themselves, be it their own web pages or new multimedia content, sometimes funded by specific digitisation programmes (see the guideline on Digitisation). They need to understand how to describe this new content such that it is both easily retrieved by users and interoperable with other digital content.
The technologies and standards in this area are still emerging and will continue to change and develop over time. Institutions need to be aware of the current state of the art so as to avoid the adoption of inappropriate or obsolescent technology and standards.
Institutions need an understanding of these issues in order to plan and prioritise their
Calimera Guidelines 223 Resource description work and particularly when they are procuring new systems or commissioning development work from outside consultants/contractors.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Many of the technologies used in resource description are described in the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure.
Interoperability Back to Scope In relation to digital content interoperability means that it should be as widely reusable, portable across different networks, systems and organisations, and as long lasting as possible. The key to achieving this is through standards - codified rules and guidelines for the creation, description and management of digital resources (see Reinventing the Wheel in D-Lib Magazine, Jan 2002, for more information [1]). It is important to use standards for description purposes so that users can more easily search and retrieve information from different sources - across different catalogues, across different domains (museums, libraries and archives), across different resource types (books, documents, museum artefacts, audio-visual media), via different delivery channels (PCs, interactive TV, mobile phones, handheld devices), and in different languages. (See the guideline on Discovery and retrieval.)
Metadata Back to Scope Metadata has sometimes been defined as “structured data about data”, but the term is now often used to refer to machine-processable data that describes resources of many types and that is used to support a range of different operations.
Cultural heritage and information professionals have been creating metadata for as long as they have been managing collections. A library catalogue record, for example, is metadata which describes a particular book, so the metadata elements associated with a book might include: author, title, publisher, date, ISBN, classification number etc. Those associated with an object in a museum might include the object name, brief physical description, acquisition method, date, location etc. Those associated with an archival document might include reference code, title, creator, date, etc. , and of a radio programme might include title, description of content, creator, broadcaster, language, date, and so on. Libraries, museums and archives all have catalogues, but these can be structurally different, because the nature and significance of the relationships between the resources described is different. e.g. in a library catalogue, the title level record is usually the main one, with linked records for copies of the title in the library’s branches; an archive catalogue rarely describes multiple copies of items, and is concerned with different types of relationships between resources (e.g. a box may be recorded at one level, and the contents of the box individually described and linked back to the box record in a hierarchical structure); a museum catalogue may describe individual or multipart objects, but the data recorded is usually very different from the data in library and archive catalogues.
Increasingly such metadata are being incorporated into digital systems, so metadata associated with a webpage might include title, creator, subject, description etc.
Calimera Guidelines 224 Resource description Metadata has come to the fore as a means of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of finding digital resources on the Web by adopting a consistent structure for describing websites and other digital resources. There is a helpful introduction, with examples, on the TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) website [2].
Metadata is sometimes classified according to the functions it is intended to support. In practice, individual metadata schemas often support multiple functions and overlap the categories below: • Descriptive metadata – to describe resources and facilitate retrieval. It may be necessary for cultural institutions to create metadata describing several classes of resource, including: ° the physical objects that have been digitised; ° the digital objects created during the digitisation process and stored as “digital masters”; ° the digital objects derived from these “digital masters” for networked delivery to users; ° new resources created using these digital objects; ° collections of any of the above. There are a number of different types of descriptive metadata of which Marc and Dublin Core are perhaps the most well known: ° Marc, or Machine Readable Cataloguing [3], is a bibliographic metadata schema, managed by the Library of Congress. The current version is MARC 21; ° The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set [4] is a simple metadata standard designed to support resource discovery. Historically, it was described as applicable to the description of “document like objects”, but its use has been extended to include other classes of resource. For guidance on Dublin Core see Using Dublin Core by Diane Hillmann [5]. See also Online Archive of California Best Practice Guidelines for Digital Objects (OAC BPG DO), Version 1.1. [6].
• Preservation Metadata (see also the guideline on Digital preservation) – to support preservation and archiving activities. In June 2003, OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) and RLG (Research Libraries Group) convened a Working Group, Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies (PREMIS), to focus on the practical aspects of implementing preservation metadata in digital preservation systems [7]. Most projects use: ° the RLG set of 16 basic metadata elements to support preservation [8]; ° the Reference Model for an Open Archival Information Service (OAIS), a high- level framework which describes the functions involved in the preservation process and the information required to support those functions [9]. ° For guidance on preservation metadata see Implementing Metadata in Digital Preservation Systems by Brian F. Lavoie [10]; and Preservation Metadata by Michael Day [11].
• Administrative Metadata – to manage the digital resource and provide information about its creation and any constraints governing its use. This might include:
Calimera Guidelines 225 Resource description ° technical metadata describing technical characteristics including hardware/software used in its creation, formats, standards etc. (See for example the NISO (National Information Standards Organization [of the USA](: Data Dictionary - Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images [12]); ° source metadata describing the original object from which the digital object was produced; ° digital provenance metadata describing the history of the operations performed on a digital object since it was created or digitised; ° rights metadata describing intellectual property rights in a resource and any use restrictions or licensing agreements. (See the Indecs Project for instance [13].)
• Structural Metadata – to describe the logical or physical relationships between the parts of a compound object. For example a physical book is one object consisting of a sequence of pages. A digitised book may consist of one digital image per page making the digitised book a compound object, and clearly information about the sequence of pages is essential for use: ° the Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS) [14] provides an encoding format for descriptive, administrative and structural metadata, and is designed to support both the management of digital objects and the delivery and exchange of digital objects across systems; ° the IMS Content Packaging Specification [15] describes a means of describing the structure and organising of composite learning resources.
• Other categories of metadata include: ° Education Metadata - to help with the resource retrieval tasks of educational institutions and managed or virtual learning environments e.g. students records and descriptions of courses. The primary standard for describing learning resources is the IEEE Learning Object Metadata standard [16]. See the IMS website [17] and the CETIS website [18] for more information; ° Geospatial Metadata for use with digital maps and Geographical Information Systems. ISO 19115:2003 [19] standard for geographic information metadata was released in January 2003.
Domain-specific metadata standards Back to Scope These have been developed to cater for the specific requirements of particular areas, for example: • Archives commonly use ISAD(G) (the General International Standard Archival Description) [20] for the metadata describing archive materials and ISAAR (CPF) (International Standard Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families), 2nd ed. 2004 [21], for metadata describing the context of the creation of those materials. To render such descriptions electronically there are the Document Type Definitions (DTDs) EAD (Encoded Archival Description) [22], which is now being used widely all over Europe, and EAC (Encoded Archival Context) [23], which is still in development http://www.library.yale.edu/eac/. The EAD help pages [24] include links to further information. • Museums – the International Committee for Documentation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM-CIDOC) [25] produces information on standards and metadata for museums, including links to, for example, the CIDOC-CRM Calimera Guidelines 226 Resource description (Conceptual Reference Model), the model of choice for many museums. The museum community has created SPECTRUM [26] and CDWA (Categories for the Description of Works of Art) standards [27]. SPECTRUM is not available free of charge on the Internet, but the UK mda (Museums Documentation Association) website contains some useful factsheets summarising chapters from SPECTRUM [28]. • Libraries – IFLA has produced a comprehensive index on metadata resources for digital libraries [29]. • Government – GILS or Government Information Locator Service/Global Information Locator [30] is used for government information although recently many governments seem to be moving to Dublin Core in preference. The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) has established a Government Working Group [31]. Many governments, e.g. Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand and the UK, have produced guidelines which may be mandatory on public sector organisations. (See the e-gif (Electronic Government Interoperability Framework [32] and e-gms (Electronic Government Metadata Standard) [33] produced by the e-Government Unit in the UK [34] ). The first version of the e- gms was based on simple Dublin Core whilst the second and third moved to qualified Dublin Core with some additional document management elements.
Cultural institutions should be aware of the requirements of community-/domain- specific metadata standards. The metadata schema(s) that are adopted should be fully documented for all projects. This documentation should include detailed cataloguing guidelines listing the metadata elements and describing how those elements are to be used to describe the types of resource created and managed by the project. Such guidelines are necessary even when a standard metadata schema is used in order to explain how that schema is to be applied in the specific context of the project.
To support the discovery of their resources by a wide range of other applications and services, cultural institutions should be able to generate a metadata description for each item using the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) [35] in its simple/unqualified form. The DCMES defines fifteen elements to support simple cross-domain resource discovery: Title, Creator, Subject, Description, Publisher, Contributor, Date, Type, Format, Identifier, Source, Language, Relation, Coverage and Rights. This is the minimum requirement, in practice simple DC metadata will probably be a subset of a richer set of metadata.
To support discovery within the cultural heritage sector, projects should also consider providing a metadata description for each item conforming to the DC.Culture schema [36]. Projects should show awareness of any additional requirements for descriptive metadata, and may need to capture and store additional descriptive metadata to meet those requirements.
Collection Level Descriptions (CLDs) Back to Scope In collaborative projects it may also be appropriate to consider the use of collection level description metadata to describe the holdings of participating organisations (scope, level, depth, language etc.). For guidance see, for example, the UKOLN Collection Description Focus [37] for information on the use of CLDs in the UK, and Calimera Guidelines 227 Resource description Minerva: Deliverable D3.1: Inventories, discovery of digitised content & multilingual issues: Report analysing existing content [38].
Collection level description need not be limited to collaborative projects however. The description of aggregations of items may be useful in many different contexts. Even within the resources of a single institution or project, it may turn out to be useful. (See the approach to resource discovery described in the JISC Information Environment Architecture Functional Model [39].) A digital resource is created not in isolation but as part of a digital collection, and should be considered within the context of that collection and the development of the collection. Indeed, collections themselves are seen as components around which many different types of digital services might be constructed.
Collections should be described so that a user can discover the important characteristics of the collection and so that collections can be integrated into the wider body of existing digital collections and into digital services operating across these collections.
Museums, libraries and archives should be aware of initiatives to enhance the disclosure and discovery of collections, such as programme-, community-, sector- or domain-wide, national, or international inventories of digitisation activities and of digital cultural content, and should be prepared to contribute metadata to such services where appropriate.
In describing collections it is usually necessary to map to an appropriate metadata schema. Good examples are: • the Research Support Libraries Programme (RSLP) Collection Description schema [40]; • the collection-level description schema defined by Minerva D3.2 [41]; • the emerging Dublin Core Collection Description Application Profile [42].
Terminology Back to Scope If users are to be able to carry out useful searches across distributed data sets then the producers of those data sets need to be entering values into the metadata elements in a consistent way.
Recognised multilingual terminological sources should be used to provide values for metadata elements where possible. Only if no standard terminology is available, should local terminologies be considered. Where local terminologies are deployed, information about the terminology and its constituent terms and their meaning must be made publicly available.
The use of a terminology in metadata records, either standard or project-specific, must be indicated unambiguously in the metadata records.
Collection-level metadata records could make use of the terminologies recommended for use with the Minerva collection-level description schema [41].
Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and authority files Calimera Guidelines 228 Resource description To ensure consistency it is best to adopt and use identifiable encoding schemes or controlled vocabularies for indexing. A good example is the Library of Congress Subject Headings [43].
A thesaurus is a controlled vocabulary where the terms are arranged in hierarchies which show relationships such as broader or narrower terms, equivalence or part equivalence, and where terms are designated preferred terms or non-preferred terms (for synonym control). They also typically include scope notes and other useful information.
There are two ISO standards for thesauri: ISO 2788, 1986 Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri [44], and ISO 5964, 1985 Guide to the establishment and development of multi-lingual thesauri [45]. Work is underway to revise both these standards. A new standard, BS 8723: Structured vocabularies for information retrieval - guide, is planned (see the guideline on Multilingualism.)
The Getty Museum site makes available a number of thesauri including: The Getty Art and Architecture Thesaurus [46] and the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names [47].
An example of an authority file is ISAAR (CPF) International Standard Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families, 2nd edition, 2004 [21] published by the International Council on Archives.
Traugott Koch has compiled a good list of controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification schemes [48]. TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) Controlling your language - links to metadata vocabularies [49] provides links to more than 60 vocabulary sources.
Ontologies Back to Scope An ontology may be described as a formal description of objects and their inter relationships. (See the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure, where the Semantic Web and RDF are also covered.)
Object identification Back to Scope The primary reason why people assign unique identifiers to resources is so that they, and others, can refer to the resources unambiguously. So they need to be able to rely on their identifiers being unique (i.e. the same identifier is not assigned to another resource) and persistent (i.e. it continues to identify this resource – how long it should continue may be dependent on the context and the nature of the resource). It may also be a requirement that the identifier can be used to access the resource i.e. the identifier can be “resolved” by means of a service to a current location of the resource.
Examples of unique persistent identifiers include: • DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) [50]; • URNs (Universal Resource Names) [51]; • PURLs (Persistent Uniform Resource Locators) [52]; • Handles [53]; Calimera Guidelines 229 Resource description • ARKs (Archival Resource Keys) [54].
Paul Miller has written an easy to understand article explaining about unique identifiers (Miller, Paul: I am a name and a number. Ariadne, issue 24, 21st June 2000 [55]. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) published International Guidelines for Museum Object Information : the CIDOC Information Categories [56] in 1995. (See also the guideline on Digital preservation.)
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
In the future people will be surrounded by intelligent, responsive and reliable machines capable of reacting to them as individuals. The range of technologies described in this guideline exist now but their mature interaction is still only imaginable. It will affect homes, schools, hotels, cars, aircraft – in short every aspect of life. Its effects on cultural institutions will be very far-reaching.
As the power of computing systems grows, more information can be stored, e.g. the metadata to describe several million objects. This will enable huge collaborative catalogues to be made available.
It will also be possible to store more complex descriptions to accommodate for example the 2nd edition of the Museum Documentation Association Spectrum standard for museum data which lists hundreds of fields. Metadata in the cultural sector is likely to develop from static structured catalogue data to complex free-text descriptions including interpretations or responses to objects.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Gill, Tony and Miller, Paul: Re-inventing the Wheel? Standards, Interoperability and Digital Cultural Content . D-Lib Magazine, Volume 8 Number 1, January 2002. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january02/gill/01gill.html
[2] TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images): Metadata and Digital Images. 2002-2004. http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/delivering/metadata.html
[3] Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC): MARC 21 http://www.loc.gov/marc/
[4] Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1 http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/
[5] Hillman, Diane: Using Dublin Core. 2003. http://dublincore.org/documents/usageguide/
[6] Online Archive of California Best Practice Guidelines for Digital Objects (OAC BPG DO), Version 1.0, prepared and maintained by the Online Archive of California Working Group, January 2004. Calimera Guidelines 230 Resource description http://www.cdlib.org/inside/projects/oac/bpgdo/
[7] PREMIS (PREservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies) http://www.oclc.org/research/projects/pmwg/
[8] RLG set of 16 basic metadata elements to support preservation; http://www.rlg.org/preserv/presmeta.html
[9] Reference Model for an Open Archival Information Service (OAIS) http://ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.gov/nost/isoas/
[10] Lavoie, Brian F.: Implementing Metadata in Digital Preservation Systems: the PREMIS Activity in D-Lib Magazine, April 2004, Volume 10 Number 4. ISSN 1082 9873. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/april04/lavoie/04lavoie.html
[11] Day, Michael: Preservation Metadata. Prepublication draft of chapter published in: G. E. Gorman and Daniel G. Dorner (eds.), Metadata applications and management, International Yearbook of Library and Information Management, 2003 2004, London: Facet Publishing, 2004, pp. 253-273. ISBN 1-85604-474-2 (Facet Publishing); ISBN 0-8108-4980-1 (Scarecrow Press). http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/publications/iylim-2003/
[12] NISO Z39.87-2002 AIIM 20-2002 Data Dictionary -- Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images http://www.niso.org/standards/resources/Z39_87_trial_use.pdf
[13] Indecs Project http://www.indecs.org/
[14] Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS) http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/
[15] IMS Content Packaging Specification http://www.imsproject.org/content/packaging/
[16] IEEE Learning Object Metadata standard http://ltsc.ieee.org/wg12/par1484-12-1.html
[17] IMS Global Learning Consortium http://www.imsproject.org/
[18] CETIS (Centre for Educational Technology Interoperability Standards http://www.cetis.ac.uk/
[19] ISO 19115:2003 Geographic information – Metadata http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=26020&I CS1=35&ICS2=240&ICS3=70
[20] International Standard for Archival Description (General) (ISAD(G). Second Edition. http://www.ica.org/biblio/isad_g_2e.pdf Calimera Guidelines 231 Resource description [21] ISAAR (CPF) (International Standard Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families), 2nd ed. 2004 http://www.ica.org/biblio.php?pdocid=144
[22] EAD (Encoded Archival Description) http://www.loc.gov/ead/
[23] EAC (Encoded Archival Context) http://www.library.yale.edu/eac/
[24] EAD Help Pages – Metadata http://www.iath.virginia.edu/ead/metadata.html
[25] International Committee for Documentation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM-CIDOC): Museum documentation : standards and guidelines http://www.willpowerinfo.myby.co.uk/cidoc/stand3st.htm CIDOC CRM (CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model) http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/index.html
[26] SPECTRUM, the UK Museum Documentation Standard, 2nd Edition http://www.mda.org.uk/spectrum.htm
[27] Getty Research Institute, Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA) http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/cdwa/
[28] UK mda (Museums Documentation Association) factsheets http://www.mda.org.uk/facts.htm
[29] IFLA Digital Libraries: Metadata Resources http://www.ifla.org/II/metadata.htm
[30] GILS (Government Information Locator Service/Global Information Locator) http://www.gils.net/about.html
[31] Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI): Government Working Group. http://dublincore.org/groups/government/
[32] e-gif (Electronic Government Interoperability Framework) http://www.govtalk.gov.uk/schemasstandards/egif.asp
[33] e-gms (Electronic Government Metadata Standard) http://www.govtalk.gov.uk/schemasstandards/metadata.asp
[34] UK e-Government Unit http://e-government.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/Home/Homepage/fs/en
[35] Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/
[36] DC.Culture http://www.minervaeurope.org/DC.Culture.htm Calimera Guidelines 232 Resource description [37] UKOLN Collection Description Focus http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/cd-focus/
[38] Minerva: Deliverable D3.1: Inventories, discovery of digitised content & multilingual issues: Report analysing existing content http://www.minervaeurope.org/intranet/reports/D3_1.pdf;
[39] JISC Information Environment Architecture Functional Model http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/distributed-systems/jisc-ie/arch/functional-model/.
[40] Research Support Libraries Programme (RSLP) Collection Description schema http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/rslp/
[41] Minerva: Deliverable D3.2: Inventories, discovery of digitised content & multilingual issues: Feasibility survey of the common platform http://www.minervaeurope.org/intranet/reports/D3_2.pdf
[42] Dublin Core Collection Description Application Profile http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/dcmi/collection-application-profile/2004-08-20/
[43] Library of Congress Subject Headings http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco.html
[44] ISO 2788, 1986 Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=7776
[45] ISO 5964, 1985 Guide to the establishment and development of multi-lingual thesauri http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=12159
[46] Getty Art and Architecture Thesaurus http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/aat/
[47] Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/tgn/
[48] Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject. Compiled by Traugott Koch. http://www.lub.lu.se/metadata/subject-help.html.
[49] TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images): Controlling your language - links to metadata vocabularies. http://www.tasi.ac.uk/resources/vocabs.html
[50] DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) http://www.doi.org/
[51] URNs (Universal Resource Names) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1737.txt
[52] PURLs (Persistent Uniform Resource Locators) http://purl.oclc.org/ Calimera Guidelines 233 Resource description [53] Handles http://www.handle.net/introduction.html
[54] ARKs (Archival Resource Keys) http://www.cdlib.org/inside/diglib/ark/
[55] Miller, Paul: I am a name and a number. In Ariadne, issue 24, 21st June 2000. http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue24/metadata/intro.html
[56] International Committee for Documentation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM-CIDOC): International Guidelines for Museum Object Information : the CIDOC Information Categories http://www.willpowerinfo.myby.co.uk/cidoc/guide/
LINKS Back to Scope
International
SEPIA (Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access) This EU funded project has developed a model and open source software tool (SEPIADES) for describing and cataloguing analogue and digital photographs. http://www.knaw.nl/ecpa/sepia/workinggroups/wp5/cataloguing.html
MICHAEL (Multilingual Cultural Inventory of Europe) This project is defining standards for collection level description of digital cultural heritage resources. It will provide an online resource discovery service which will become available in 2005-6. http://www.michael-culture.irg/index.html
Czech Republic
ProMuS (Prohlizec muzejnich sbirek) ProMuS is being developed for presentation of museum and other collections on the Internet. It is based on PHP scripts and SQL database. The institution can define the way the data is presented to the user. Very little knowledge of html/programming is needed. Data and table structure is imported via text files, and it is therefore possible to import data from almost any source. Images can be added. http://www.mzm.cz/promus
Norway
Detektor Searchable, annotated subject directory of Internet resources, selected and evaluated by librarians at Oslo Public Library. The technical solution is developed by Linux Communications AS, a MySQL database running on a Linux server. Detektor contains Internet resources in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, English and other languages. Dublin Core elements are used to describe the resources, but with local adjustments. http://detektor.deichman.no/
Samkatalog for privatarkiv
Calimera Guidelines 234 Resource description A database on the web, giving users access to information about non-public records in archival institutions throughout the country. Made possible by the Norwegian standard for archival description defined by the software Asta. http://www.riksarkivet.no/samkat/
URN-generator Delivering unique Norwegian URNs is a new service from the National Library of Norway. URNs (Uniform Resource Names) make the identification of Internet documents possible. A URN allocated to a document is persistent and unique, will never change as long as the intellectual content remains the same, and will never be recycled by being given to another document. URNs can be utilised in Internet information retrieval in many different ways. A URN resolution service will enable users to resolve URNs into URLs or metadata related to the document. http://www.nb.no/html/standardnummerering.html
Poland
MONA 725,000 museum objects (art items) from antiquity to contemporary art described according to CIMI description standards. The standard file also contains the results of research using special (chemical, biological, biophysical) conservation techniques on the museum items. http://www.mnw.art.pl
Russia
Russian museum collections The uniqueness of this project lies in the complex approach to the creation of a museum multipurpose information system. The presence of a network provides opportunities for staff to exchange information and collaborate on the creation of thesauri, etc. http://www.collections.spb.ru
Serbia and Montenegro
CKP - The Central Maritime Catalogue of Montenegro Contemporary database of library and archival material relating to marine affairs in general, and Boka Kotorska Bay in particular, from the oldest written documents to the most recent official material and publications, located in all types of libraries and archives in Montenegro (state, church and private). http://www.dacg.cg.yu; http://www.matf.bg.ac.yu/iak
Spain
Census of Archives and Fonds of Andalusia : CENSARA and CENFOCOA Information about local archives and heritage collections is submitted by the archivists themselves using web templates and can be accessed on the Internet. This novel use of technology is the first project in the region that has been adapted to the international standard ISAD-G. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/aga
Fichero de Autoridades de Aragón Calimera Guidelines 235 Resource description The aim of this collaborative archival project is the creation of an authority file including persons, families, corporate bodies and places. Partners can load and update authority records using connected databases. http://www.anabad.org/gtaa/
Ukraine
Kirovohrad Regional Universal Research Library named after D.Chizhevsky: Dublin Core Metadata Project Free online application which can convert general html metadata to the correct Dublin Core metadata, and then, using an online EDITOR-Converter, to the bibliographic exchange format UNIMARC. It can then be saved on the local hard drive as a file ISO-2709 for future exporting to the bibliographic database. http://www.library.kr.ua/dc/dcproje.html; http://www.library.kr.ua/dc/dceditunie.html
Mental Tree: Ukrainian Information Resources for Education and Science This is a universal hierarchic database developed in the Institute of Cultural Memory Protection Studies in the Ministry of Culture and Arts of Ukraine. The programme supports visual representation of data on top of which RTF, bitmap and vector images, sound and video files can be preserved. The project preserves and operates with data in different multimedia formats (text, graphic, video, audio, visual) online. The most important feature of the database is that users can visually operate the data sets. http://www.myslenedrevo.com.ua
United Kingdom
Access to Archives The A2A database contains catalogues describing archives collections held throughout England by 352 record offices and other archive repositories. http://www.a2a.org.uk/default.asp
SEAX SEAX has been developed at the Essex Record Office (ERO). It is divided into two parts - Explorer and the Public Access Module (PAM). Using Explorer archivists can accession, catalogue, index and store documents. Explorer also gives the ability to manage index entries and create and link terms together using a thesaurus. The cataloguing part is ISAD(G) compatible. Explorer enables staff to save an image or images for any catalogue reference which can then be viewed via PAM. SEAX allows the management of various processes - accessioning, cataloguing, indexing, thesaurus, document storage, ordering and production, as well as producing a searchable database with the facility to add images to documents which can then be viewed. http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 236 Resource description Calimera Guidelines Discovery and retrieval
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Interoperability Search engines Lists of recommended sites Gateways, hubs and portals Cross-searching Clumps Image retrieval Harvesting The Semantic Web
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Libraries have long operated in a networked information environment, and increasingly archives and museums do too. The advent of the Internet means that even the smallest museum, branch library or branch of a record office can now have access to an ever increasing amount of distributed digital information available over the web. The knowledge society, lifelong learning and the growing impetus towards interaction with central government by electronic means make easy access to information increasingly important for all citizens.
Many institutions are also creating new digital content themselves – be it their own web pages or new multimedia content, sometimes funded by specific digitisation programmes (see the guidelines on Digitisation and Business models). They need to understand how to make this new content searchable and retrievable by users and interoperable with other digital content. This is heavily dependent on how the content is described in the first place, so this guideline should be read together with the guideline on Resource description.
Research and anecdotal evidence show that most people use search engines such as Google to look for information, and so miss the huge amounts of information known as the “Deep Web” which includes the databases of libraries, archives and museums. Search engines are now beginning to address this problem and museums, libraries and archives need to keep watch on developments.
The Calimera Project is funded The technologies and standards in this area are still emerging and will continue to The Calimeraunder the Project European is funded change and develop over time. Institutions need to be aware ofunder theCommission, current the European state of the art so as to avoid the adoption of inappropriate or obsolescentISTCommission, technologyProgramme and standards. IST Programme
Calimera Guidelines 237 Discovery and retrieval Institutions need an understanding of these issues in order to plan and prioritise their work and particularly when they are procuring new systems or commissioning development work from outside consultants/contractors. For an overview of information retrieval see Challenges in information retrieval and language modelling, edited by James Allen [1].
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Discovery and retrieval of information depends on how it is described. This guideline should therefore be read in conjunction with the guideline on Resource description, where topics such as metadata, terminology (controlled vocabularies and thesauri), and object identifiers are described. Many of the technologies used in discovery and retrieval are described in the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure.
Interoperability Back to Scope In relation to digital content interoperability means that it should be as widely reusable, portable i.e. across different networks, systems and organisations, and as long lasting as possible. The key to achieving this is through standards - codified rules and guidelines for the creation, description and management of digital resources (see Re-inventing the Wheel? Standards, Interoperability and Digital Cultural Content by Tony Gill and Paul Miller [2] for more information.) The ability to search and retrieve information from different sources - across different catalogues, across different domains (museums, libraries and archives) and across different resource types (books, documents, museum artefacts) is dependent on interoperability. This is an area in which there are opportunities to work with other organisations, for example colleges, universities etc., to provide better access to resources. (See the guideline on Co-operation and partnership). Typically the partners may agree to open their services to each other’s users, to provide joint access to their catalogues, to produce union catalogues, etc. (Catalogue is used here in its widest sense to include descriptions of the contents of museums and archives.)
There are broadly two approaches to discovery: indexing of the content of a resource, and indexing of metadata that describes the resource (metadata may be human-created or auto-generated or a mix of the two). The requirements for interoperability, and hence the recommendations for best practice, may be different depending on which mechanism a content provider is seeking to use/exploit.
Searchengines Back to Scope The catalogue is the key to the holdings of an individual library or archive, and museums too document their holdings although their catalogues may not be available to users in the same way as those of libraries and archives. However, most libraries and some archives now offer Internet access to their users, and many museums have a presence on the Internet. They need to find ways to help open up these networked resources for their users. The easiest way to do this is simply to point users to one of the many search engines available. The main types are: • Free text search engines which search for keywords e.g. Altavista [3], Google [4];
Calimera Guidelines 238 Discovery and retrieval • Index/directory based search engines in which the user works his way through a series of menus continually narrowing his search e.g. Yahoo [5]; • Meta/Multi search-engines which run one search on more than one search engine e.g. ixquick [6];. • Natural language search engines in which the search can be entered as a question e.g. Ask Jeeves [7]. There are also subject specific search and personalised search engines.
Google (and other free text search engines) operate by employing a “robot” that follows hyperlinks in Web pages and retrieves the full text of those pages. They then build indexes of that text, and provide search services based on those indexes. The value of these search services comes mainly from the ranking algorithms used to order the items within search result sets, Google’s famously successful Page Rank algorithm being based on the number of links to a page. So to ensure that their resources are discoverable in Google, a content provider might need to consider factors like (not an exhaustive list): • the robot needs a “starting point” from which it can follow links; • the robot must be able to access the pages to be indexed - either the resource itself or a document describing the resource – over HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) [8], so the pages to be indexed shouldn’t be hidden behind authentication challenges etc. Also some robots don’t follow URLs containing parameters etc. so “search-engine friendly” URLs may need to be constructed; • the URLs of the pages indexed must de-reference reliably and persistently so that when a searcher follows a link in a result set they obtain the same page that was indexed; • pages should contain the sort of simple embedded metadata that is used by the search engine in its result set displays (title, description, keywords (sometimes), etc.); • even if the page is available for indexing, its ranking in result sets is subject to algorithms such as Google’s Page Rank [9] – and if there are few links to the page it will not be highly ranked.
Metadata-based discovery, on the other hand, relies on the content provider exposing metadata records either for harvesting or real-time cross-searching by the provider of the discovery service, and a different set of considerations might apply. The content provider and service provider need to agree on (not an exhaustive list): • the use of a transport protocol for exchange of messages; • a query language; • metadata schemas; • intellectual property rights issues (how a service provider uses/presents metadata records); • authentication/authorisation issues. Also the quality of service provided may depend heavily on the quality and consistency of the metadata records from multiple content providers.
Some search engines also provide alternative ways of searching including “simple searching” where the user enters key words, and “advanced searching” where Boolean logic, truncation etc. can be used. The latter usually produces better results. Other examples of search engine tools include Google Directory [4], which allows Calimera Guidelines 239 Discovery and retrieval searching by topic, and Google Local [4], which allows searching for local information (currently only in the USA and Canada, but there are plans to extend the service).
For a comprehensive list of search engines of all kinds and more information about search engines, including how to search, see Phil Bradley's Website [10] and Search Engine Watch [11]. These sites give information about searching the web, analysis of the search engine industry and help to site-owners trying to improve their abilities to be found on the web.
Lists of recommended sites Back to Scope Institutions might consider assisting their users further through the creation of lists of useful websites. Typically these will have been assessed against some sort of quality criteria (the Desire project created a useful chapter on quality and assessment in its Information Gateways Handbook [12]) and will often be categorised by subject. RDN (Resource Discovery Network) [13] is a good example of this. However, maintaining and updating such a list can be time consuming. Institutions may wish to consider co-operating with one another in the creation and maintenance of such lists. Connexion, the Integrated Cataloging Service from OCLC [14], is a good example of a co-operative initiative for the creation of descriptions of webpages. (See also portals.)
Gateways, hubs and portals Back to Scope The distinction between gateways, hubs and portals is rather blurred but typically a gateway or hub will consist of sets of annotated links to other websites which have been vetted by the compilers of the gateway. The user may be presented with a series of menus which take them from general terms to more specific terms. Such sites are enormously useful to the researcher as they save the work of looking at web site after web site on a particular subject in search of one or two which are of decent quality. Portals however usually bring together the actual content from distributed sources using technology such as harvesting, cross-searching or metasearching and present it in an amalgamated form to the user. They may also deliver other services such as online shopping.
It is not possible to list all gateways and portals but the following are examples: • General – Yahoo [15], a series of menus covering the World Wide Web as a whole; • Government - Directgov [16], a list of websites of UK government and local government websites thematically and alphabetically arranged; Premier Ministre [17], a gateway to agencies of the French government; • Academic - the Resource Discovery Network (RDN) [13] established to support the needs of the Higher and Further Education sectors in the UK. The RDN is in fact a network of individual subject gateways, or hubs, each covering a particular subject. It is being developed further by the Subject Portals Project (SPP) [18]; the ARL Scholars Portal Project [19], which seeks to provide software tools for an academic community to have a single point of access on the Web to find high- quality information resources and, to the greatest extent possible, to deliver the information and related services directly to the user's desktop; Infomine: Scholarly Internet Resource Collections [20];
Calimera Guidelines 240 Discovery and retrieval • Museums - the 24 Hour Museum [21]; the Dutch Museums Portal [22]; Latvian Museum Portal [23]; • Libraries - the UNESCO libraries portal [24]; the Librarians’ Index to the Internet [25]; • Archives - the UNESCO archives portal [26]; the UK National Archives Portal [27]; A2A (Access to Archives) [28], the English strand of the UK Archives Network; • Culture [29], the European Commission culture portal; • Other - Infobel [30], a set of links to on-line telephone directories.
Specialised software to support the development and maintenance of subject gateways is available, for example, ROADS (Resource Organisation And Discovery in Subject-based services) [31]. Commercial companies also offer portal software, e.g. Vignette [32], SAP Portal [33], Plumtree [34], ZPORTAL [35] etc. Some cultural heritage institutions have set up their own gateways and portals – for example to support “clumps”, community information services, and to provide learning support.
Cross-searching Back to Scope Cross-searching enables searching across a number of databases at the same time. With cross-domain cross-searching users can gain access to a rich selection of information resources through one search interface. For example, a user can retrieve books, archival records, and information about societies and museum objects in one search on a topic of interest. Ways of doing this include: • exporting all the information into a new database using e.g. SOAP [36] or Harvest. This would involve exporting all the existing information in some defined format so that it could be loaded into one central database. There can be difficulties with this e.g. ° getting agreement from each data source owner/manager; ° dealing with several different systems suppliers; ° dealing with differences in data structure, especially when dealing with sources from different domains (see the guideline on Resource description); ° organising regular updating. • distributed searching. This involves leaving the databases as they are and providing a single search engine to search them by for example using the Z39.50 search and retrieval protocol. Difficulties with this system mainly stem from different data structures, fields etc. especially if locally created community information databases etc. are involved; • linking databases together for cross-searching through a common portal. Problems with this again stem from data structures in that there are seldom many search fields in common.
Cross-searching will be facilitated when: • all providers of Z39.50 server implement a common profile (e.g. the Bath Profile [37]); • all domains use Dublin Core to map their differing metadata standards to a common structure (including for locally created community information databases where there is not as yet an accepted standard for data description and storage; Marc 21 [38] has one but it is not widely used; the CASP (Community Advice, Seamless Portals) project [39] recommends Dublin Core).
Calimera Guidelines 241 Discovery and retrieval Z39.50 is an international search and retrieve protocol (ISO 23950:1998 [40]) which allows searching of (usually remote) heterogeneous databases and retrieval of data, via one user interface. Z39.50 defines a standard way for two computers to communicate and share information. Designed to support searching and information retrieval - full-text documents, bibliographic data, images and multimedia – it is based on client-server architecture and is fully operational over the Internet. It allows users to search several catalogues, or other databases, in a single integrated search. Note: Until XML query languages evolve further Z39.50 may still be the preferred search and retrieve protocol for systems offering complex distributed searching.
SRW (Search/Retrieve Web Service) defines a web service for searching databases containing metadata and objects, both text and non-text. The SRW Initiative builds on Z39.50 along with web technologies [41].
Clumps Back to Scope A clump is a group of databases that share common features e.g. a group of cross- searchable Z39.50 catalogues of the resources of a group of organisations, typically a group of museums, libraries and/or archives. An important element of such clumps is a gateway or portal which includes a facility for users to carry out simultaneous searches across the catalogues and/or databases of all the participating organisations. Dynamic clumping is a means of automatically generating different mini-clumps for cross-searching, in other words a mechanism to aid user navigation in a large distributed clump. For example only those catalogues strong in a specific subject might be searched. In order to achieve this the clump has to adopt a common profile, to which the various profiles in use amongst consortium members can be mapped. A number of profiles have been developed specifically to support this kind of activity, for example the Bath Profile [37] and the ONE-2 Profile [42]. Licensing and copyright of the various electronic resources made available via the clump may be problematic.
Gateways, portals and clumps can all be used to support learning services and information services such as community information.
Image retrieval Back to Scope At one time images had to be searched for by text descriptors or classification codes supported in some cases by text retrieval packages designed or adapted specially to handle images. The Getty’s AAT (Art and Architecture Thesaurus) [43] consists of 120,000 terms for describing objects, textural materials, images, architecture, and cultural heritage material. Images can also be classified using systems such as ICONCLASS [44] for works of art and museum exhibits, and the Social History and Industrial Classification for museum objects [45].
More modern systems can now retrieve images which have not been verbally described. CBIR (Content Based Image Retrieval) does not use keyword indexing. Rather the image is retrieved using inherent characteristics of the image itself such as colour, texture or shape e.g. a beach scene would be blue at the top and yellow at the bottom. For a technical discussion of the different types of CBIR see Eakins, John P. and Graham, Margaret E.: Content-based Image Retrieval: a report to the Calimera Guidelines 242 Discovery and retrieval JISC Technology Applications Programme [46]. There are commercial systems of CBIR, for example IBM’s QBIC (Query by Image Content) system [47] in which the image is described in terms of areas of colour and shape and the retrieval software executes the search for images matching the description. It is not necessary to say what the subject of the image is. For a demonstration of QBIC see the website of the Hermitage Museum (see Links.) BT Exact has developed a prototype system called Shopping Garden [48] which uses interactive browsing techniques, showing the user a selection of images and tracking the preferences indicated by the user to find the required image.
For advice on image retrieval see Searching for and Retrieving Digital Images. TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) Advice Paper, 2002 [49].
Harvesting Back to Scope Harvesting software is a means of harvesting, or gathering, metadata information from a list of pre-determined web sources, for example the webpages of participating organisations. In the Seamless project (see Links), Harvest creates an index file which the system searches in response to a user query. The results are then integrated with the results of the Z39.50 searches and are presented to the user as a single “hit list”. Clicking on any of the results either opens the webpage (for harvested records) or the database record (for Z39.50 records).
The Open Archives Initiative (OAI) [50] is a co-operative venture aimed at making it easier to find information over the web through the development and application of interoperability standards. The OAI has developed a simple protocol (the OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting, OAI-PMH [51]) that supports the regular gathering of metadata records from one service by a second service. The strong uptake of OAI-PMH by the cultural sector is being successful in enhancing resource discovery through subject gateways and resource discovery networks such as the RDN (Resource Discovery Network) in the UK. One reason for the success is that OAI-PMH is fairly easy for cultural institutions running web servers to implement as it is based on common underlying Web standards (HTTP, XML and XML schemas). The operations that OAI-PMH support allow a cultural institution to act as a data provider and to enable a service provider to ask for a copy of all of its metadata records, or for some of its metadata records such as records that were modified since a particular date. Cultural institutions may consider making their metadata available for harvesting by setting up OAI compliant metadata repositories. The mandatory minimal requirement for OAI-PMH is unqualified Dublin Core but cultural institutions should consider implementing the DC.Culture schema to support resource discovery. Institutions that establish an OAI metadata repository should consider inclusion of a statement of the rights held in their metadata to ensure they retain ownership rights in their metadata. For more information see Foulonneau, Muriel (ed.): Open Archives Initiative – Protocol for Metadata Harvesting: practices of cultural heritage actors. September 2003 [52], and UKOLN’s FAQ website [53].
The Open Archive Initiative will facilitate the development of digital libraries for the cultural heritage, which aggregate cultural content from memory institutions and add services to new audiences. It is likely to lead to the development of communities of data providers that share standards, terminology resources, content and services. Calimera Guidelines 243 Discovery and retrieval The Semantic Web (see the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure) Back to Scope The Semantic Web is a vision described in a Scientific American magazine cover story in May 2001 [54]. According to Tim Berners-Lee, Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), “The Semantic Web is a web of data, in some ways like a global database. This builds on the idea that ‘a goal of the WWW is that it should be useful not only for human-human communication, but also that machines would be able to participate and help”. But the Semantic Web has a long way to go before this dream is realised. It will be built in parts, by people with varied interests. The real power of the Semantic Web will be realised when people create many programs that collect Web content from diverse sources, process the information and exchange the results with other programs. The Semantic Web enables descriptive information to be expressed or represented in a form that software applications can exploit more effectively than at present. In particular it allows the types of relationships that exist between resources to be expressed/represented in a form that software applications can process. For example, if someone is planning a holiday, they might search for and collect together maps, timetables, lists of hotels, weather forecasts, places to visit etc. Then they would work out an itinerary, choose a hotel, and make all the necessary bookings. A Semantic Web application would be able to make the connections between all the disparate pieces of information and put together the whole package, rather as a human travel agent would do. This depends on the further development of ontologies such as RDF [55], DAML+OIL [56] and OWL [57]. A detailed description and discussion of the Semantic Web can be found in the DigiCULT paper Towards a Semantic Web for Heritage Resources [58].
In its envisaged next step, the Semantic Web will break out of the virtual realm and extend into the physical world. The vision of the Web-enabled microwave oven consulting the frozen-food manufacturer's Web site for the best cooking instructions can be extended to the services provided by public libraries, archives and museums. The virtual picture frame might for example, consult the local museum or art gallery for an ideal picture to display and the local virtual public library for an ideal e-book biography to download to accompany it, in response to a simple voice request.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope Research and anecdotal evidence show that most people use search engines such as Google to look for information, and so miss the huge amounts of information known as the “Deep Web” which includes the databases of libraries, archives and museums. It is estimated that the “Deep Web” is 500 times bigger than the surface web. Heritage institutions need to find a way of working with major search engines to index, or “mine”, these resources so that such information will be more easily retrievable. Search engines are now beginning to address this problem – see for example Yahoo’s Content Acquisition Program [59] which allows content providers, for a subscription, to make their own databases available for searching; and Google Search Appliance [60] which is available on licence to institutions to enable their websites and intranets to be searched using Google search technology. Google Public Search Service [61] allows educational institutions and non-profit organizations worldwide free “SiteSearch”, which enables users to search the institution’s website,
Calimera Guidelines 244 Discovery and retrieval and free “WebSearch”, which enables users to search the Internet from the institution’s website.
It is unlikely that people who have got used to searching the Internet for information will return to visiting museums, libraries and archives to ask questions face to face, though of course they may visit for other purposes. Ways therefore need to be found to use the skills of heritage sector professionals to add value to information retrieval in the digital age. Librarians, archivists and curators are skilled in reference work and in tailoring answers to enquiries to users’ specific needs, and also crucially in ensuring users are supplied with authoritative information. Research is needed into developing technologies which will enable these professionals to become online information brokers.
The future will see the fruits of innumerable developments in the field of information retrieval, which will make the present systems seem primitive. Sophisticated personalised robotic agents will continuously search an Internet which has been specially designed to be easy for them to search by means of metadata, controlled vocabulary and unique identifiers. They will retrieve precisely what their users want, because they know their searching habits, and they will do this while they are otherwise occupied. They will retrieve no redundant information and miss nothing relevant no matter where it may be.
Portable wireless devices are becoming ubiquitous. In future people will expect to be able to ask for information using free text, maybe even popular texting language, and to have the answers delivered to their mobile device wherever they are in the world. For example, someone arriving in a foreign airport might request unspecified useful information, and based on their user profile be sent details of public transport, taxis or car rental, suitable accommodation, restaurants, places to visit and entertainment etc.
Cross-Lingual Information Retrieval should become a reality so that a query asked in one language will search collections in other languages and present the answer in the language of the question.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Allen, James, ed.: Challenges in information retrieval and language modeling. Report of a Workshop held at the Center for Intelligent Information Retrieval, University of Massachusetts Amherst, September 2002. In SIGIR Forum, Spring 2003, vol. 37, no. 1. http://www.sigir.org/
[2] Gill, Tony and Miller, Paul: Re-inventing the Wheel? Standards, Interoperability and Digital Cultural Content. In D-Lib Magazine, vol. 8, no. 1, January 2002. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january02/gill/01gill.html
[3] Altavista http://www.altavista.com/
Calimera Guidelines 245 Discovery and retrieval [4] Google http://www.google.com/ For information about search tools including Google Directory and Google Local see Google Guide http://www.googleguide.com/index.html
[5] Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com/
[6] ixquick http://www.ixquick.com/
[7] Ask Jeeves http://www.ask.co.uk/
[8] HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) http://www.w3.org/Protocols/
[9] Google’s Page Rank http://www.google.com/technology/
[10] Phil Bradley's Website http://www.philb.com/
[11] Search Engine Watch http://searchenginewatch.com.
[12] Information Gateways Handbook http://www.desire.org/handbook/2-1.html)
[13] RDN (Resource Discovery Network) http://www.rdn.ac.uk/
[14] Connexion: Integrated Cataloging Service http://www.oclc.org/connexion/
[15] Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com/
[16] Directgov http://www.direct.gov.uk/
[17] Premier Ministre http://www.premier-ministre.gouv.fr/
[18] Subject Portals Project (SPP) http://www.portal.ac.uk/spp
[19] ARL (Association of Research Libraries) Scholars Portal Project http://www.arl.org/access/scholarsportal/
[20] Infomine: Scholarly Internet Resource Collections http://infomine.ucr.edu/
[21] The 24 Hour Museum http://www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/
[22] The Dutch Museums Portal http://museum.klup.nl/
[23] The Latvian Museum Portal http://www.muzeji.lv/guide/links_e.html
[24] UNESCO libraries portal http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=6513&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTI ON=201&reload=1094470296
Calimera Guidelines 246 Discovery and retrieval [25] The Librarians’ Index to the Internet http://lii.org/
[26] UNESCO archives portal http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=5761&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTI ON=201&reload=1036514637
[27] The UK National Archives Portal http://www.portal.nationalarchives.gov.uk/portal/
[28] A2A (Access to Archives) http://www.a2a.org.uk/
[29] Culture - the European Commission European culture portal http://europa.eu.int/comm/culture/index_en.htm
[30] Infobel http://www.infobel.com/teldir/
[31] ROADS (Resource Organisation And Discovery in Subject-based services) http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/roads/what/
[32] Vignette http://www.vignette.com/
[33] SAP Portal http://www.sapportals.com/index.aspx
[34] Plumtree http://www.plumtree.com/,
[35] ZPORTAL http://www.fdusa.com/products/zportal.html
[36] SOAP http://www.ws-i.org/Profiles/SimpleSoapBindingProfile-1.0-2004-08-24.html
[37] Bath profile http://www.collectionscanada.ca/bath/tp-bath2-e.htm
[38] Marc 21 http://www.loc.gov/marc/community/eccihome.html
[39] CASP (Community Advice, Seamless Portals) project http://egov.vic.gov.au/pdfs/casp-v1.0-draft-Feb2002.pdf
[40] ISO 23950:1998 Information and documentation - Information retrieval (Z39.50) - Application service definition and protocol specification http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=27446
[41] SRW (Search/Retrieve Web Service) defines a web service for searching databases containing metadata and objects, both text and non-text. The SRW Initiative builds on Z39.50 along with web technologies. http://www.loc.gov/z3950/agency/zing/srw/
[42] ONE-2 Profile http://www.one-2.org/
[43] The Getty’s AAT (Art and Architecture Thesaurus) Calimera Guidelines 247 Discovery and retrieval http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/aat/
[44] ICONCLASS http://www.iconclass.nl/index.html
[45] The Social History and Industrial Classification for museum objects. Social History and Industrial Classification (SHIC2) (2nd ed). mda (UK Museum Documentation Association). (See http://www.mda.org.uk/keytexts.htm for details.)
[46] Eakins, John P. and Graham, Margaret E.: Content-based Image Retrieval: a report to the JISC Technology Applications Programme. January 1999. http://www.unn.ac.uk/iidr/report.html
[47] QBIC (Query by Image Content) http://wwwqbic.almaden.ibm.com/
[48] ShoppingGarden http://www.btexact.com/whatsnew/newsreleases?doc=42974)
[49] Searching for and Retrieving Digital Images. TASI (Technical Advisory Service for Images) Advice Paper, 2002. http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/using/srchandret.html
[50] Open Archives Initiative (OAI) http://www.openarchives.org/
[51] OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html
[52] Foulonneau, Muriel (ed.): Open Archives Initiative – Protocol For Metadata Harvesting. Practices of cultural heritage actors. September 2003. http://www.oaforum.org/otherfiles/oaf_d48_cser3_foullonneau.pdf
[53] JISC Information Environment Architecture: OAI FAQ. UKOLN. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/distributed-systems/jisc-ie/arch/faq/oai/
[54] Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James and Lassila, Ora: The Semantic Web: a new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities. In Scientific American, May 2001. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00048144-10D2-1C70- 84A9809EC588EF21
[55] Resource Description Framework (RDF) http://www.w3.org/RDF/
[56] DAML+OIL http://www.daml.org/about.html
[57] OWL Web Ontology Language Overview http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/
[58] Towards a Semantic Web for Heritage Resources. DigiCULT Thematic Issue 3, May 2003. ISBN 3-902448-008. Calimera Guidelines 248 Discovery and retrieval http://www.digicult.info/pages/Themiss.php
[59] Yahoo: Content Acquisition Program http://docs.yahoo.com/docs/pr/release1144.html
[60] Google Search Appliance http://www.google.com/appliance/features.html
[61] Google Public Search Service http://www.google.com/services/websearch.html
LINKS Back to Scope
Belgium
Webwijzer (Web Guide) This project guides the library user to quality websites. The broader scope of Webwijzer is the development of a Virtual Information Helpdesk. http://www.vcob.be/servlet/be.coi.gw.servlet.MainServlet/standard/?toDo=open&id= 2158
Croatia
Culturenet.hr Cultural portal initiated in 2003 by Croatian Ministry for Culture and Open Society Institute Croatia to bring together all available resources on Croatian culture (organisations, associations, institutions, projects, etc.), encourage their development and implementation, and provide the Croatian cultural sector with a reliable access point with relevant information. http://www.culturenet.hr/v1/english/index.asp
Czech Republic
CES (Centralni evidence sbirek) The CES is the only catalogue of all museum collections and sub- collections in the Czech Republic. The system enables users to discover and locate collections using full-text searches based on the content description of each collection. Free database system PostgreSQL, WWW interface, is used for data management. http://www.mkcr.cz/ces/
Slovacke muzeum Using the online catalogue users from anywhere in the world can access the holdings of this small specialised museum’s library, and reserve books, order copies, etc. http://knihovna.slovackemuzeum.cz
Denmark
Aarhus Public Libraries, The Digital Library
Calimera Guidelines 249 Discovery and retrieval Bibliographic database on the Internet offers free access to the nine million books, CDs, videos, CD-Roms and talking books which are available in the Danish Public Libraries. Materials can be ordered online to be delivered to the nearest public library. http://www.bibliotek.dk
Finland
ELEF: Southern Savo This project aims to promote and simplify data searches by creating a regional data service network. It will provide a multi-search facility with access to all Internet data concerning the Southern Savo Province. The project's first stage involves Mikkeli City Library, Mikkeli City Museums, Central Archives for Finnish Business Records and, as experts, Provincial Archives of Mikkeli. http://www.elka.fi/
Germany
Virtuelles Bücherregal NRW (Virtual Book Shelve North Rhineland- Westphalia) Converts the entries in the North Rhineland-Westphalia Union Catalogue into HTML pages and places them on a server so that they can be retrieved by queries in a search engine. http://kirke.hbz-nrw.de/dcb/virkiv/
Greece
Argo Facilitates open access to bibliographical information resources which are available in Greece as well as abroad, using simple, medium and advanced searches. Gives access to databases produced or hosted by the EKT (National Documentation Centre), the library catalogues of historical research centres and foreign archaeological schools and institutes based in Greece, library catalogues from Hellenic universities and Technological Education Institutes, the catalogues of Hellenic public libraries, and catalogues and union catalogues from libraries all over the world. http://argo.ekt.gr
Electronic Online Access Showroom for the new acquisitions of the Library of the University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece) Includes a specially designed digital exhibition area which is accessible via the Internet and which is periodically updated with new book acquisitions. From the catalogue, or from their "search-results" list, users can retrieve more information concerning a specific book, such as the table of contents, the front and back cover, and basic bibliographic information. http://www3.lib.uom.gr/new_material/
Ireland
Ask About Ireland Portal giving access to information, images and documents from Irish public libraries, museums and archives. http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_homepage.do Calimera Guidelines 250 Discovery and retrieval Lithuania
MetaLib - Virtual Library Portal Provides users with unified friendly interface and enables them to search across diverse resources (e.g. library catalogues, databases, subject gateways, newspapers, images, etc.). It also offers personalisation tools such as the ability to save search results, track the history of searches and set display options. http://www.library.lt
Utena Land Internet portal created by Utena A. and M. Miskiniai Public Library with the support of the Open Society Fund, Lithuania. The aim of the project is to create a community information system on the Internet to ensure public access to the information of different local institutions: library, local lore museum, local press, NGO, schools and others. http://www.utena-on.lt
Macedonia
Macedonian Archival Integrated Information Systems Unique information system for the State Archives of Macedonia. http://www.arhiv.gov.mk
Malta
Heritage Malta A portal to various Maltese museums and heritage sites. http://www.heritagemalta.org/museums.html
Libraries and Archives Department Website A gateway to libraries and archives, including public libraries, and access to the online public library catalogue. http://www.libraries-archives.gov.mt/
Norway
Kulturnett Norge Official gateway to Norwegian culture on the web. Services include an extensive database containing links to various Norwegian culture sites, a cultural calendar of events across the country and an online magazine about culture and information technology. Represents a new form of portal using Topic Maps. http://www.kulturnett.no
Kulturminne Ekofisk (Cultural Heritage Ekofisk) Systems enable users to discover, locate and request items from a range of different collections. The project uses the OAI-protocol to harvest metadata from the partners, a common metadata element set in Dublin Core and the FAST Search & Transfer ASA search engine to enable a cross-database search. Digital objects will be identified with a URN and referenced via the National Library URN:NBN resolution service. (Website forthcoming.) Calimera Guidelines 251 Discovery and retrieval Trondheimsbilder (Photos from Trondheim) The goal of this project is to enable cross database searching in three different database systems, each of them containing digital photos. It focuses on the use of new technology like SRW 1.1 (http://www.loc.gov/z3950/agency/zing/srw/). http://trhweb.trondheim.folkebibl.no/bildeprosjekt/
Poland
SEZAM, IZA and PRADZIAD A search engine has been created to enable access via the Internet to the SEZAM (System of Record of Archival Holdings), IZA (Inventory of Archival Fonds) and PRADZIAD (Program of Register of Birth, Marriages and Death Registers) databases. http://www.archiwa.gov.pl
SSWIM - The Museum Information Exchange Network Designed as a minimalist information programme. Its authors (National Museum in Warsaw and State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw) intend it to be used in conjunction with existing collection management programmes, to enable some of the information stored in museum databases to be exchanged via an external network. Also accessible by institutions and individuals outside the museums (e.g. tourist offices, publishing houses, educational establishments). http://www.pma.pl
Portugal
MatrizNet A web search engine which enables users to discover, locate and request items from the collections of the 29 Museums co-ordinated by the Portuguese Institute of Museums (IPM). http://www.matriznet.ipmuseus.pt
Romania
Dinicu Golescu, Arges County Library This is an example of cross-searching over a wide geographical network. It is possible to search several public libraries’ catalogues by using multiple criteria combined with Boolean operators. http://bjarges.adisan.ro
Russia
Hermitage Museum This site contains a demonstration of image retrieval using the QBIC scheme (http://www.qbic.almaden.ibm.com/). http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/07/hm7_41_1.html
Museums of Russia The aim of this award-winning portal is the promulgation of Russian cultural heritage. The target audience ranges from the general public to museum professionals, and its contents include general information about Russian museums, an exhaustive guide to cultural websites and CDs, thematic electronic conferences, Calimera Guidelines 252 Discovery and retrieval an information section for museum professionals, and over 300 weekly web- magazines. http://www.museum.ru/
Slovakia
VIKS - Virtual Library of Slovakia Project of the Slovak National Library. http://www.snk.sk
Spain
AbsysNET - Catalogo de la Red de Bibliotecas Públicas de Andalucía Can work as a resource discovery portal which can search library catalogues and other data sources simultaneously, and provide users with information taken from a wide variety of sources. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/rbpa/
Directory of Spanish and Latin American Public Libraries This directory will include all the Spanish and Latin American Public Libraries and will allow the exchange of information among them. Information will be retrievable via the PICBIP (Programa Iberoamericano de Cooperación en materia de Bibliotecas Públicas= Latin American Program of Cooperation for Public Libraries) website. It uses the newest international standard, LDAP, which replaces the X500 structures. http:// www.picbip.org
Pacifico II Describes content using novel approaches to metadata to enable users to discover, locate and request items from a range of different collections held in libraries, archives and scientific institutions. The innovative Web design portal offers some added value services including a virtual shop to buy surrogates of the different materials using an e-commerce system, access to the web contents using WAP access, and a “remote assistance and consultancy” service based on voice-over IP systems. http://www.pacifico.csic.es/
Portal de Documentación Ferroviaria “Docutren” This is an application which enables the user to carry out separate or simultaneous searches in all the databases belonging to the Fundación de los Ferrocarriles Espańoles’ Railway Documentation Historical Archive Department. The user can access and consult the bibliographical and document references in the three main areas: the Railway Library, the Historic Railway Archive and the Documentation and Translation Centre. It aims to become the essential reference point for all railway enthusiasts and researchers. http://www.docutren.com
United Kingdom
Joint Information Services Committee (JISC) JISC is developing an “Information Environment”, a set of networked services that allows people within the UK higher and further education community to discover, access, use and publish a range of resources.
Calimera Guidelines 253 Discovery and retrieval http://www.jisc.ac.uk/ie; http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/distributed-systems/jisc-ie/arch/. seamlessUK SeamlessUK is developing a one-stop citizen's gateway which integrates local and national information from many sources. The service operates in such a way that a single search produces an integrated results 'hit' list. The system conforms to government standards and uses SOAP, XML query, Z39.50 and Harvest. The project team have developed a number of tools and services including a cross-sectoral citizens' information taxonomy, a metadata tagging tool, and a 'geocoder' integrating various sources of geographic information. The team are also producing a mapping taxonomy and other key controlled vocabularies such as the Government Category list and partners' own vocabularies. http://www.seamlessuk.info/
SEAX Developed at the Essex Record office (ERO), this is in two parts – Explorer (which enables description) and the Public Access Module (PAM). Using PAM members of the public are able to search for documents using various types of search - index searches, with thesaurus links, free text searches, advanced searching, accession searching and image searching. Having located the required documents, they can save favourite documents or favourite searches for indefinite periods. Orders can then be placed via SEAX, either immediately if the member of the public is in the ERO or for a future date if they are using SEAX over the internet. http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/
The Tate Gallery The Tate gallery permits subject browsing of its images in broad categories e.g. Groups and Movements, Abstraction, Architecture, Emotions and Concepts, History, Interiors, Leisure and Pastimes, Literature and Fiction, Nature, Objects, People, Places, Religion and Belief, Society, Symbols, Work and Occupations. These broad categories are then broken into further, narrower, sub-categories. http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/SubjectSearch
24 hour museum The UK’s national virtual museum, a gateway to over 2,500 museums, galleries and heritage attractions. http://www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 254 Discovery and retrieval Calimera Guidelines Content and context management
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: Contextualisation CMS (Content Management Systems) ERM (Electronic Records Management) DAM (Digital Asset Management) Collections Management Systems Integrated museum, library and archive systems GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Content management underlies the whole raison d’être of museums, libraries and archives. Resources must be managed, organised and described in order for them to be retrieved and used. In the digital world, resources are not restricted by physical location and can be combined in many different ways so that they can be used and re-used for whatever purpose is required.
Content consists of many different pieces of information. For a search to produce a meaningful response, these pieces of information need to be set in context. This idea of contextualisation has formed the basis of classification schemes from earliest times. With digitisation the problem has become at once easier and more difficult – easier because computers can search millions of pieces of information extremely rapidly, and more difficult because these pieces of information can be presented as raw data unrelated to any other information and of limited value without interpretation. The challenge is to create computer systems which can present contextualised, meaningful information.
Many different projects have worked and are working on this issue, many supported by the European Union.
The issues for local museums, libraries and archives include whether to buy in systems (Content Management Systems, Digital Asset Management Systems, etc.), singly or in partnership with other organisations, or whether to manage their own collections using standard resource description and discovery and retrieval schemes. Such systems can be complex and the challenge for local museums, libraries and archives will be to implement potentially complex systems when the staff of the organisation are already undertaking a wide range of other tasks. The staff choosing a system will need support, and examples to identify the key requirements. The system chosen may be in use for many years. However, at the same time, there is a
Calimera Guidelines 255 Content and context management very real danger of over-specification, regarding a large number of features as being essential that are unlikely ever to be used.
Many institutions will begin with a collections management system, and use this to record catalogues of their collections. They will then use a Content Management System to develop their website, and use this to develop the contextual information, learning resources and user-focused services. Over time they will then link their content and collections management systems to develop a powerful website.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Contextualisation Back to Scope According to the Society of American Archivists Glossary, content is “The intellectual substance of a document – the text, data, symbols, numerals, images, sound and vision”; and context is “The organizational, functional, and operational circumstances surrounding materials’ creation, receipt, storage, or use, and its relationship to other materials”, and also “The circumstances that a user may bring to a document that influences that user’s understanding of the document”. [1]
Context is very important, particularly in museums and archives, where it is the information on the people, places and events connected with the object or document that gives it cultural value. It is important for a museum to know, for example, where an object was discovered, when and by whom. Archives also need to preserve the original order of a collection. For example the sequence of documents produced in the formulation of a policy may be crucial to understanding what actually happened, and in certain cases may even be needed as evidence in a court of law.
In a museum or gallery objects or pictures can be displayed in different ways in order to illustrate a particular theme. For example, a gallery could display all the paintings of a particular artist together for one exhibition; and display the same pictures together with others from the same time or place or subject matter for another exhibition. A birth certificate in an archive might be needed together with a marriage and death certificate of the same person by someone studying their family history; a collection of birth certificates from the same time or place might be needed by a historian studying infant mortality. These examples illustrate the need for metadata which will describe both the content and context of resources. Management systems are also needed so that resources can be used and re-used for any purpose but still retain their original “position” within a collection.
Cultural heritage institutions can add value to contextualisation by using enhanced interpretation techniques, which use additional objects, information and activities to improve visitors’ understanding and enjoyment. If an exhibition is regarded as a story, then the story needs to be made more meaningful by the addition of illustrations. Museums and heritage sites in particular are increasingly bringing these ideas together into what is called an “interpretive plan”. Enhanced interpretation can be used on web sites as well as in physical places, or digital resources can be used to enhance visitor’s experiences to a physical place. Local museums, libraries and archives could co-operate to add enhanced interpretation to exhibitions, events etc.
Calimera Guidelines 256 Content and context management For a guide to interpretative planning see A sense of place: an interpretative planning handbook [2].
Content Management Systems (CMS) Back to Scope Document management and records management systems are systems for managing content and as such could be described as Content Management Systems. However the term is usually applied to the management of digital content on intranets, extranets and websites. A CMS manages the way content is added to a website. A CMS typically consists of software to manage the various processes of creating and delivering content over the Web, plus the database of resources (text, images, video, audio etc.) held on a server and from which information is drawn to the website in response to user input. A CMS: • enables large amounts of information to be dealt with; • enables content to be re-used in different parts of a website without the need for re-keying of data; • makes changes made to the database on the server instantly available to users via the website; • allows control over the creation of content e.g. by defining who is allowed to add or edit content, etc.; • allows automation of some processes such as archiving at specific times, etc.
The main components of a CMS are: • templates to control the design of the webpages. Those authorised to contribute content will use these templates. It is useful if they can also be used to add metadata, date of addition, date for review, etc.; • workflow processes to check automatically that everything is “correct” before going live on the website; • version management software which enables changes to be made to a document; • a repository for storing content, i.e. a database, most commonly in XML, from which content is drawn in response to searches by users; • software to alert contributors when content needs reviewing.
The technologies involved include: • a scripting language to extract data from the database and display it on the web. Examples include: ° Microsoft’s ASP (Active Server Pages); ° PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor); ° ColdFusion; ° Perl (Practical Extraction and Reporting Language); ° Python; • a relational database server such as MySQL ; • standards to manage the transfer of information between systems on the Internet, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). XML (Extensible Markup Language) is increasingly used to transfer information between databases and systems via the Internet. The World Wide Web Consortium website contains online tutorials for some of these technologies [3].
Calimera Guidelines 257 Content and context management When choosing a CMS, institutions will need to consider whether to buy one, use an open source system, or design their own. This will depend on the skills and budget available. There are several free open source systems available, but the skills to use them will be required, e.g. the skills to implement, configure and sustain the system, and train other staff in its use. Also there will be no back-up from a supplier, although there may be very active developer communities that can provide support. The cost of a commercial CMS can vary according to the number of contributors authorised to use it and whether any specialised modules are required. There may also be licence fees for the underlying database. Local institutions might be interested in a distributed CMS approach where the CMS is run by one institution and other institutions add content (see the guideline on Co-operation and partnership). For example a CMS could be run by a local authority, or by a group of local institutions.
Irrespective of the software solution chosen, an information audit is useful to determine the extent of the content to be managed. The present and possible future uses for the website must also be considered. As with all projects a plan should be drawn up (see the guideline on Strategic planning) and all such issues considered at the outset. One of the best European sources of information on CMS is the German site Content Manager [4]. For a technical overview see the JISC TechWatch report by Paul Browning and Mike Lowndes [5].
As well as being used by staff, a CMS can be used by members of the community who are trained and authorised to add content to a community website (see the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion).
Electronic Records Management (ERM) Back to Scope Information in a document can be described as: • content - the subject matter of the document; • structure – in paper documents this will be the physical structure, number of pages etc.; in digital documents it will be design elements such as headings, fonts etc.; • context – when, how, by whom and why the document was created, and its relationship to other documents. If any of these are missing then the meaning of the document could be misinterpreted.
The underlying principle of records management is the lifecycle of a document or record from the time it is created until it is disposed of or selected for permanent archiving. Decisions on the way in which an individual document is managed are taken on the basis of a variety of considerations including legal requirements such as data protection legislation and statutory retention periods.
A records management system enabled the implementation of agreed time scales and review periods for each type of record. An ERM will manage this automatically, alerting staff when the next stage is reached for each record. Records should be reviewed at each stage.
Calimera Guidelines 258 Content and context management An ERM should be able to manage both “born digital” records and existing physical documents which may be scanned into the system. “Born digital” electronic records are just as important as paper records, particularly where many decisions are taken through email exchanges. Records of meetings held through video-conferencing or instant messaging systems need managing just as much as do the minutes of conventional meetings. A culture of best practice record-keeping among managers and staff is helpful, but ideally the ERM should be able to capture records by a process built in to the electronic systems which produce the records. Hybrid records, consisting for example of paper documents and e-mails referring to those documents, will also need managing. It is also important that records provide evidence of: • authenticity (as an accurate account of an activity, transaction, or decision); • integrity (an assurance that the data has not been changed subsequently); • non-repudiation (preventing the originator from disowning the record). For retrieval purposes metadata describing the content, structure and context will be needed.
Digital Asset Management Systems (DAMS) Back to Scope DAMS can support digital assets throughout their lifespan from acquisition or creation to archival preservation. They aim to control a digital resource, particularly digital images or video, allowing location and retrieval without losing the context of the original. They can track all the possible different versions, preserving a record of all changes, and linking back all copies to the original. A DAMS will contain the tools to describe, search and export or distribute content in whatever forms are required. It will enable the use of digital resources over and over again without the need for finding, using or amending, and then re-filing the resource.
This is done by storing information about the content together with the content itself. This includes the descriptive metadata which contains information about the content, and the contextual, or structural metadata, which is concerned with the relationship of each resource with other resources. For example a document may be linked to other documents in a chronological sequence; a drawing may be number 3 of a series of 10, the whole set together forming a strip cartoon; or an object may be part of a collection found together in a tomb during an archaeological dig.
When information about rights issues and user authentication is included, a DAMS can control access and usage. (See the guideline on Security.) User information can also enable personalised information to be provided (see the guideline on Personalisation). Statistics of usage can also be collected.
Smaller local institutions need to consider their needs and whether it will be necessary and/or cost-effective to introduce a DAMS. If the have a Collections Management System this may well be sufficient.
For a detailed discussion of DAMS, together with technical details, and a list of commercial systems, see the DigiCULT Technology Watch Report 1 and Thematic Issue 2. [6]
Collections Management Systems Back to Scope Calimera Guidelines 259 Content and context management A collections management system is used to store cataloguing information about the collections of an institution. This will typically implement a recognised professional cataloguing standard, such as MARC [7], EAD [8], SPECTRUM [9] or MIDAS [10]. If an institution has museum, library and archive collections, the same software may enable it to record information using a variety of professional data standards. In addition the Collections Management System may also be used to manage digital images of items in the collection, and therefore also act as a Digital Asset Management System.
The use of appropriate metadata is very important if searches are to be carried out and content retrieved from multiple collections. Local institutions may be making their collections available via a portal, or national virtual museum site for example, and must follow the guidelines for that site. Collection level descriptions can be used to answer questions not confined to one institution or format. Often users do not care where the information they need is physically located or whether is comes in the form of a book, picture, document or video, and this is where interoperable standard descriptive metadata is essential.
At one time systems were mainly purchased to manage the cataloguing of items in the collections, but Collections Management Systems increasingly manage a range of resources, services and administrative procedures. For example, a typical system might manage; • accessions (covering depositors, terms and conditions, insurance and audit requirements); • cataloguing; • location control; • conservation; • enquiries; • loans or movement control; • management information. A system should support: • relevant national and international standards, such as ISAD(G) [11], ISAAR(CPF) [12] and EAD [8] for archives, MARC [7] for libraries and SPECTRUM [9] for museums; • security rights and permissions; • a wide range of file formats; • terminology control through term lists or thesauri. Although the cataloguing standards for the different domains may differ, the basic functional requirements are often similar, and software suppliers have created a number of systems that can be used to manage museum, library and archive collections. For more information see the mda Software Survey [13] and CHIN Collections Management Software Review [14].
Integrated museum, library and archive systems Back to Scope At one time systems were mainly purchased to manage administrative functions. Collection Management Systems can increasingly manage a range of resources, services and administrative procedures so filling the role of integrated systems.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Back to Scope Calimera Guidelines 260 Content and context management Much cultural content has an association with a place. This may be where an item was found or collected, where it was manufactured or used or the geographic location depicted in an image. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are systems that are designed to store, check, manipulate, analyse, retrieve and display place- based information.
GIS are widely used across Europe at government level for policy making, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. They are particularly important for environmental issues and interactions between citizens and their locality. GIS are also widely used in the commercial and industrial sectors for market research, strategic planning and management. Convergence between mobile communications, global positioning systems (GPS) and navigation are opening up scope for commercial products such as in-car navigation systems and activities in distribution, logistics and transportation. A significant level of economic activity in Europe involves the collection, provision and use of geographic information.
Large quantities of spatial information are available in Europe, but it tends to be fragmented and there are gaps in some areas making it difficult to use. At national and EU level there is growing awareness of the need for both quality spatial information and metadata to support its retrieval for users. The INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe) initiative [15] aims to trigger the creation of a European infrastructure to deliver geographic information to support a variety of policies and uses.
GIS software has been developed both by commercial companies and by large agencies for their own use. A difficulty for users has been the inability to share spatial information between systems. The Open Geospatial Consortium [16], an association with members from industry, government and academia, is leading the development of interoperable standards (OpenGIS).
A GIS comprises of a map-based graphical interface and a database system together with tools for data input, analysis, visualisation and reporting. GIS may be off-line or on-line. In recent years light weight, easy-to-use versions of GIS software have become available for use on the Internet. Web-based GIS may be accessed via PDAs that incorporate GPS receivers to provide a mobile map-based guide or navigation system.
GIS are useful for researching and visualising data. Local cultural institutions can use GIS systems to record and access information about items in their collections or about their audiences. For example they could: • produce distribution maps or three-dimensional models, capture them as images and then use them on web-sites or in exhibitions about the human history or natural environment of an area; • include GIS functionality on their web-sites, allowing users to interact with place- based information, searching databases and producing their own distribution maps; • conduct audience research, reviewing geographic trends in visitor patterns to plan promotional activities or future exhibitions.
Calimera Guidelines 261 Content and context management Local institutions that wish to store place-based information, or to include a location map on their web site do not necessarily need to install and maintain a GIS. Place- based information may be stored within a traditional database and images of location maps may be created by traditional means. Where place-based information is maintained by local institutions, it is good practice to ensure that a GIS could be implemented in the future by following standard guidelines for spatial information. This practice allows for OAI-PMH [17] harvesting of metadata and the presentation of data through an external GIS system in future projects.
GIS software may be available to local cultural institutions under licence from their parent body (such as a local authority, national agency or educational institution) or it may be purchased from mapping agencies or created through digitisation programmes. Issues to be aware of include: • there may be significant costs associated with purchasing map data and the rights to disseminate it online; • appropriate permissions must be obtained for use of any map data from third parties, ensuring that licences extend to delivering services to defined audiences via selected delivery channels; • data sets intended to be combined for the purposes of delivering services should be of similar scale and resolution, and appropriate for being used together; • an appropriate standard co-ordinate reference system must be used and declared when recording spatial data; • appropriate national standards for the recording of street addresses must be used and declared.
Early mobile access devices have been developed for use in some museums and open-air archaeological sites.
For a detailed guide to GIS see the GIS Guide to Good Practice edited by Mark Gillings and Alicia Wise. [18]
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope As small-scale, off the shelf systems become available and affordable, they will become more widespread among the cultural heritage sector. Open source software and systems which can be readily implemented by institutions with access to some technical expertise are already having an impact. Over time, tools managed and developed by central authorities may enable smaller organisations to implement increasingly sophisticated applications without specialist knowledge.
GIS systems are widely used for archaeological and environmental research and for conservation management, and early mobile access devices have been developed for use in some museums and open-air archaeological sites, but take-up by local cultural institutions has been limited to date. GIS tends to be perceived as being expensive, difficult to use and offering functionality that may be beyond current needs. However, new mobile access technologies such as PDAs, mobile phones, wireless networking and GPS will change the way in which information is presented encouraging the use of GIS. Visitors will benefit from map-based guides that provide
Calimera Guidelines 262 Content and context management access to cultural information relevant to their location and interests, and from being able to select places of interest and to plan their own routes.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Society of American Archivists: A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology [by] Richard Pearce-Moses. http://www.archivists.org/glossary/term_details.asp?DefinitionKey=103
[2] A sense of place: an interpretative planning handbook. Editor: James Carter. 2nd ed. Second edition with revisions published in electronic format on the website of the Scottish Interpretation Network, 2001. http://www.scotinterpnet.org.uk
[3] The World Wide Web Consortium’s website contains tutorials for: • ASP http://www.w3schools.com/asp/default.asp • PHP http://www.w3schools.com/php/default.asp • SOAP http://www.w3schools.com/soap/default.asp • XML http://www.w3schools.com/xml/default.asp.
[4] Content Manager http://www.contentmanager.de
[5] Browning, Paul and Lowndes, Mike. Content Management Systems. JISC TechWatch Report, Sept. 2001. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/tsw_01-02.pdf
[6] New technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. DigiCULT Technology Watch Report 1. European Commission, February 2003. ISBN 9289452757; and Digital Asset Management systems for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. DigiCULT Thematic Issue 2. European Commission, December 2002. ISSN 17263484. http://www.digicult.info/
[7] MARC http://www.loc.gov/marc/
[8] EAD http://www.loc.gov/ead/
[9] SPECTRUM http://www.mda.org.uk/spectrum.htm
[10] MIDAS http://www.mda.org.uk/fish/
[11] ISAD(G) http://www.ica.org/biblio/cds/isad_g_2e.pdf
[12] ISAAR(CPF) http://www.ica.org/biblio.php?pdocid=144
[13] mda Software Survey http://www.mda.org.uk/software.htm
[14] CHIN Collections Management Software Review
Calimera Guidelines 263 Content and context management http://www.chin.gc.ca/English/Collections_Management/Software_Review/index.html (also available in French http://www.rcip.gc.ca/Francais/Gestion_Collections/Evaluation_Logiciels/index.html)
[15] The INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe) initiative http://inspire.jrc.it/home.html,
[16] Open Geospatial Consortium http://www.opengis.org/
[17] The Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html
[18] Archaeology Data Service: GIS Guide to Good Practice, edited by Mark Gillings and Alicia Wise. http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/project/goodguides/gis/
LINKS Back to Scope
Croatia
M++ Integrated museum information system which includes effective ways of managing, searching and printing museum documentation. It offers full integration of information about museum objects and their surrogates. It also provides a module for public access to museum information on the Web (as in bilingual Croatian/English example: http://donacijegz.mdc.hr/kovacic-introEN.html). http://www.link2.hr
Finland
The War History of Ilomantsi Using a tourist map users can visit the scenes of the latest wars in Ilomantsi and see the fields where Finland fought its last major battle. http://www.joensuu.fi/mekri/sotahistoria/warhistory.htm#sarkka
Greece
Electronic Online Access Showroom for the new acquisitions of the Library of the University of Macedonia (Thessalonica, Greece) The online showroom includes a specially designed digital "exhibition area", which is accessible via the Internet. Users can retrieve extra information concerning a specific book, such as the table of contents and the front and back cover in the form of JPEG images. In addition, the online showroom comes with a separate online database management environment, which allows the management of the book records, including insertion, deletion and editing. http://www3.lib.uom.gr/new_material/
Infolibraries This project will enable libraries to create and update pages on the web without the need for expert help by using a commercial Content Management Tool. Veria Public Library will work together with a private company to develop the interface of the Calimera Guidelines 264 Content and context management portal and the various templates for the public libraries to choose from. Local libraries will be responsible for collecting and inputting data into the database. http://www.infolibraries.gr
Hungary
Scriptum Concept Store The Concept Store technology enables users to create new online content where the content elements are systematically classified, are put into different, multilateral concept areas and include comments and annotations by the author, and also by users with access rights. http://www.fogalom.hu
Norway
Arkivplan.no A web-based application for storing, structuring and presenting record management plans from local municipalities, thus also creating a nationwide professional community on the web. This is not an end user service, but a very important strategic initiative for better records management in local municipalities, and aims to increase awareness about the context in which public records are created. A potential next step is to connect this service with catalogues and other finding aids for the end user. http://www.arkivplan.no
Digitalarkivet (The Digital Archive) The archive contains nationwide databases with censuses, church records, emigration records, etc., thus allowing users to search and analyse such data for many different purposes. It also offers digital copies of rare and important old books, and presents several interesting web exhibitions. http://digitalarkivet.uib.no/
Fjellatlas (mountain atlas) This service provides schools/pupils with tools to present information about cultural and natural assets on the Internet by combining a CMS, dynamic maps, multimedia etc. under the supervision of a teacher and the County archive. http://www.fjellatlas.no
Fylkesatlas Web service demonstrating a GIS solution. Uses a Content Management System with dynamic maps/aerial photos as the user interface. Integrates information from archives and museums in a seamless way, and combines information from the heritage sector with information about transport and tourist services. Offers a vast amount of information ranging from museum pieces, place names, photos, videos, music, sound, transportation services, tourist services, censuses, land records, articles about attractions, etc. from every small corner of the region. http://www.fylkesatlas.no
Oppslagsverket From carefully defined key words the user is guided in the direction of archival records and other information connected to the chosen keyword. Through the use of digital copies, links to additional web resources, library resources, etc., users are Calimera Guidelines 265 Content and context management given a better understanding of how records are created, their historical context and their importance as historical sources and documentation. http://www.oppslagsverket.no
Poland
Fibula In collaboration with the Gdańsk Archaeological Museum, the State Archaeological Museum is developing this database management system, an Oracle-based application which has been designed to facilitate the cataloguing and accessing of data gleaned from archaeological fieldwork. It is planned to further develop Fibula with the inclusion of a photographic database and the incorporation of a GIS module which will provide spatial information relating to archaeological sites. http://www.pma.pl
Slovakia
AIS OP, GIS OP Automated information system of Slovak monuments preservation, and geographic information system of Slovak monuments - project of the Slovak Monuments Board. http://www.heritage.sk; http://www.pamiatky.sk
Slovenia
Virtual guide to Slovene museums and galleries This virtual guide contains interactive maps, presenting selected museum objects or locations. http://www.burger.si/SLOMuseums.htm
Spain
Domus Project This is an information and management support system for museums developed by the Ministry of Culture. It is an application for the cataloguing and management of museum collections and documents, and it computerises all the daily routine functions of museums. http://www.mcu.es/museos/jsp/plantilla.jsp?id=613
Generador de Sedes Web : GSW Platform developed to foster the visibility and accessibility of Spanish Public Libraries on the Internet. It is a web-based tool which allows the generation of web contents, together with maintenance and website administration by the library itself. http://www.bibliotecaspublicas.es
Historical Sights and Museums Portal of Andalusia Provides detailed information and virtual visits. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/museos
Turkey
Calimera Guidelines 266 Content and context management Door Number, Online Map of Istanbul, Municipality of Greater City and other GIS Applications It is possible to locate an address on this map right up to the door number. This interactive map can also be used to identify community service points, to find the best route between two points, and to research public transportation facilities. This is only one example of GIS applications used by municipalities among their online services for their communities in Turkey. Firms such as NETCAD provide creative solutions for municipalities. http://www.ibb.gov.tr/index.htm (“Kent haritası” is to be clicked for the map) http://www.netcad.com.tr/default.asp
Ukraine
Flying Island The aim of this project is to create a country wide database devoted to cultural heritage in the regions of the Ukraine. Expeditions are made to regional heritage sites to record objects, phenomena and events using digitising, scanning and video/audio equipment. After processing the data, these digitised works of art, pictures, etc. are added to the database that places them in the context of the cultural life of Ukraine. http://museum.iatp.org.ua/UIC/ACTIVITY/FLYER/INDEX.HTM
United Kingdom
NEMLAC, the regional strategic development body for Museums, Libraries and Archives in the North East of England Includes an interactive map which will locate the nearest museums, libraries and archives and link to the region's electronic catalogues and virtual collections. http://www.nemlac.co.uk/
Secret Shropshire This site is a good example of a use of GIS by a local authority museum service to develop an educational resource. The site enables users to explore the local history, natural environment and archaeology of a local area using web-based GIS and an image rich database. http://www.secretshropshire.org.uk/
Windows on Warwickshire This is an interactive website that enables users to explore local areas using web- based GIS. http://www.windowsonwarwickshire.org.uk/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 267 Content and context management Calimera Guidelines Multimedia services
SCOPE
This guideline covers: Infrastructure Multimedia formats - e-books and e-serials - Streaming media - Music and sound - Digital photography - Broadcast material - Standards and interoperability Geographic Information Systems Virtual reality Visualisation Haptics Delivery channels - The Internet - Digital TV - Kiosks - Video conferencing - Mobile services - Tour guides
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
Digital multimedia can be described as a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation and video delivered by some form of computer hardware. When the user has some control over what is presented it becomes interactive multimedia (see the guideline on Interactivity).
The EU IST programme explicitly supports movement towards the future generation of technologies in which computers and networks will be integrated into the everyday environment, and defines multimedia as “Using computers and/or digital features to present visual and audio content in a meaningful context. Elements include: animation, audio components, CD-ROM, computer entertainment, convergence media, data compression, DVD, graphics and graphics interfaces, hypermedia, text, video, videoconferencing, virtual reality, … and an ever expanding list of technologies in this growth area” [1].
The balance between print, multimedia holdings and access to Internet resources has changed rapidly over the last few years in heritage institutions and it is now
Calimera Guidelines 268 Multimedia services accepted that they have a role to play in providing and managing ‘virtual’ as well as physical resources. The move towards digital content is also having an impact on space allocation as users require PCs and other equipment in order to be able to make use of digital resources on the premises.
More and more cultural resources in diverse formats are becoming available electronically and online. Libraries in particular are purchasing or subscribing to licences for digital materials (e-books, e-serials, audio-visual media) for use by their members. Museums, libraries and archives themselves hold and create digital or multimedia content, often in special local collections which may include newspapers, photographs, maps manuscripts, sound recordings (e.g. oral history), local art collections and film or video. (See the guideline on Digitisation). Collections of ‘virtual’ Internet (e.g. local or thematic) resources can be created and packaged at little cost and are a way of extending conventional services.
The challenge for museums, libraries and archives is how to integrate new formats into the traditional service model where they do not involve physical items and so, for example, do not fit into existing acquisition or circulation models. Staff will require additional training and new resource management models will need to be developed.
The provision of audiovisual materials and their associated equipment can be useful for young children, people with low levels of literacy, and those who use another language, who might find oral and visual communication easier than the printed word.
The assurance of accessibility for all users, including disabled people, to multimedia resources is of key importance (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people).
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Infrastructure Back to Scope The delivery of effective multimedia services requires bandwidth. The EU is committed to ensuring that all museums, libraries, archives and similar institutions have broadband connections. In some remote areas this might be provided via satellite or wireless technology (see the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure). It might be possible to apply for EU structural funds for the purpose of connecting rural areas [2]. Adequate numbers of PCs, printers and other equipment to enable users to access multimedia resources within the building will also be needed.
Multimedia formats Back to Scope Content exists in a variety of forms including text, still images (e.g. photographs, slides, microform), moving images (e.g. film, video), sound (e.g. music, spoken word, sound effects), and a combination e.g. audio visual media. The need for text, pictures, films, sound, music, etc. in non-electronic formats still exists and equipment
Calimera Guidelines 269 Multimedia services for viewing and listening should be provided for every type of format held by the institution.
Museums, libraries and archives have experience of adapting to new technologies. Over the last few decades vinyl records, audio cassettes, CDs, DVDs, cine film, slides, videocassettes, audio books, etc. have all been used in cultural institutions.
Sound, image and multimedia may exist in analogue and digital formats on a range of carriers including mechanical carriers (e.g. vinyl records), magnetic tape carriers (e.g. audio and video cassettes), magnetic disk carriers (e.g. floppy disks and hard disks), photochemical carriers (e.g. reel film formats) and optical carriers (e.g. CDs, DVDs).
However there has been an explosion of computer-based multimedia content which modern cultural institutions need to get to grips with. e-books Back to Scope e-books and e-serials are a way of delivering text electronically. An e-book is a text or monograph which is available in an electronic form, and which can be downloaded from the Internet and read on a variety of hardware platforms such as a computer (desktop, laptop, note-book or tablet) or a handheld device (e.g. a PDA such as a Pocket PC or Palm device, or a 3rd Generation (3G) mobile phone).
Reading software compatible with the hardware and linked to the e-book format is also required. e-books are published in a number of different formats; the Open eBook Forum [3] is attempting to develop a universal e-book standard. E-book readers and formats include: • Adobe Reader - for e-books in PDF format; • Microsoft Reader - for e-books in Microsoft format; • Palm Reader - compatible with any PDA device running the Palm Operating System, and also for use with PCs with Windows; • MobiPocket Reader - a universal e-book and e-text reader for PDAs that is also compatible with some brands of 3G phones; • various proprietary readers e.g. netLibrary. There are also some readers [4] which will read aloud e.g. • Audible.com; • Microsoft Windows Media Audio (WMA); • MP3; • Adobe 6 (the 'Read out loud' feature which has to be enabled by the publisher). Despite what people might think, Digital Talking Books (DTBs) are not always accessible to print-disabled people, often because of rights issues. Digital Rights Management Systems (DRMs) often disable screen readers as part of a security feature. The Daisy Consortium [5] has developed a standard for Digital Talking Books (DTBs) (Specifications for the Digital Talking Book - ANSI/NISO Z39.86-2002) [6] with the aim of making talking books accessible to people with print disabilities. e-books are perhaps most associated with libraries, though archives and museums might use the technology for delivering text electronically, or in special libraries
Calimera Guidelines 270 Multimedia services attached to them or incorporated within them. Libraries can make e-books available for loan in a number of ways, e.g.: • by lending e-book readers loaded with texts. The e-book reader has a loan period and must be returned; • by circulating e-books for users to read on their own e-book readers. Users do not need to physically visit a library service point to borrow or return the books. There are two models for circulating e-books: • the one book, one user access model: an e-book can be reissued many times but only one reader can borrow one ‘copy’ at any one time; • the multi-user, simultaneous access model: bring e-books into line with other forms of digital content where several people can read the same text at the same time. However, e-books are usually obtained on a publisher-library licensing basis, and publishers prefer the one book one user model, whereas libraries prefer the multi user simultaneous access model. This issue has yet to be resolved. There are also rights issues to be considered in connection with e-books. Free e-books available to download tend to be out of copyright classics (see Project Gutenberg [7] for example.) For a discussion of e-books in libraries see E-books in UK Public Libraries: where we are now and the way ahead by Penny Garrod [8]. e-serials Back to Scope Electronic serials may be defined very broadly as any journal, magazine, e'zine, Webzine, newsletter or electronic serial publication which is available over the Internet. Free access to some web-based newspapers and journals is available; others are only available as fee-based, full-text CD-ROM and web publications. There are currently two main formats: • e-mail based e-serials typically use plain text and are more commonly described as newsletters. Users 'subscribe' through an e-mail message, and the newsletter is delivered straight to their e-mailboxes; • web-based. Currently, most e-serials are made available via web pages using either HTML or PDF. These include electronic daily newspapers. A growing number do not have a print equivalent. e-serials are either supplied directly by the publishers themselves or via aggregator services such as OCLC or EBSCO which provide access to and manage a large selection of e-serials on the institution’s (usually library’s) behalf, removing the need to negotiate a set of individual licences and prices with a number of different journal publishers. Where an e-journal is held on the suppliers' servers, copyright agreements with publishers may restrict access and use. It is important to consider the payment model involved: some suppliers require both a print and electronic subscription. Model licences are available which can be used as a starting point for negotiation (see also the guideline on Legal and rights issues).
The move to e-serials may cause preservation problems. With hard copy serials libraries are generally entitled to retain back issues. This is not usually the case with e-serials and libraries should ensure that their licence covers them to retain ‘old’ editions if they wish to maintain a backrun.
Some libraries are starting to make multimedia content (e-books, e-serials etc.) available to remote users via their websites. In order to meet licence restrictions Calimera Guidelines 271 Multimedia services users usually have to be library members and to authenticate themselves in some way, perhaps by means of a PIN code, to access the materials. (See the guideline on Security.)
Streaming media Back to Scope Streaming media, a sequence of moving images and/or sounds sent in compressed form over the Internet, has facilitated the viewing and listening of films, music etc. With streaming media, the user does not have to wait to download a large file before seeing the video or hearing the sound. Instead, the media is sent in a continuous stream and is played as it arrives.. A great many streaming media resources are available via the Internet from Europe and all over the world, including community webradios, broadcast news bulletins, drama, music, television and radio (both live and archived programmes), educational resources, parliamentary and court TV, financial and business services, religious broadcasting and full-length commercial movies and shorter clips. In order to play streaming’ media, special software e.g. RealAudio, MS Media Server, Shoutcast [9] is needed, which can usually be downloaded free from the Internet. Some commercial services, such as Groovy Gecko [10], offer additional services such as the ability to monitor the number and frequency of hits. For an introduction to the technology of streaming media see Streaming media: introduction. [11]
Music and sound Back to Scope Music was a pioneer in using ICT to distribute and access cultural artefacts. The recording of music has long since moved from analogue to digital and the technology is now available in domestic equipment. Digital technology and the Internet are providing new means of distribution. Music files are readily downloadable in MP3 format [12] and producers have started to distribute in this or similar formats themselves, although Internet security and e-commerce models remain major issues. The EU project MUSICNETWORK [13] was established in order to help bring music into the interactive multimedia era. Its Working Group Music Libraries exists to help music libraries (including music documentation centres, broadcasting and orchestra archives, music-related museums and archives, and other collections) keep pace with technological, legal and standardisation developments. It addresses topics like metadata, information retrieval and digital library developments in a series of workshops and meetings, provides state-of-the-art analyses, and disseminates information about new developments and tools. Its website contains information on, for example: • notation – including issues relating to the accessing of notation via electronic devices; • standards – proprietary and non-proprietary; • protection – copyright, IPR, content protection mechanisms e.g. encryption and watermarking (see also the guidelines on Legal and rights issues and Security); • distribution – including business models (see also the guideline on Business models), new technologies and distribution media (mobile environments, Web services, XML, Web-TV and streaming), content protection aspects applied to on line distribution systems, content information retrieval (metadata management), legal issues, and the quality and accessibility of music distribution services; • imaging – covering the digitisation, representation, restoration, image processing and automatic transcription of music documents, i.e. digitising paper-based music Calimera Guidelines 272 Multimedia services scores and manuscripts. The digitisation of music manuscripts requires Optical Music Recognition (OMR) technology [14]; • accessibility - provision of music for the print impaired in the digital age.
Digitalphotography Back to Scope Digital cameras have revolutionised the way photographs are taken and used. It is now very easy to add photographs to websites etc., but there is a threat from the fact that photographs have become ephemeral and disposable. The possible shortage of physical photographs in the future would be a loss to historical archives.
Broadcastmaterial Back to Scope Broadcasting is of course a delivery channel, but the content contained in programmes is material in a multimedia format. Cultural heritage institutions need to co-operate with audiovisual concerns such as film producers and broadcasting companies to ensure that films and radio and TV programmes can be digitised, preserved and made available for future use. Most television and radio is now actually produced in digital format. TV companies such as the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision [15] are working on strategies to preserve hundreds of thousands of hours of broadcast material in authentic ways.
Standards and interoperability Back to Scope Because of the variety of formats available, standards are needed to ensure interoperability and to combat obsolescence. (See the guidelines on Digitisation and Digital preservation for information on format and media standards.) The existence of an international professional association is generally acknowledged as important at both international and national levels, serving as a focus for setting standards, as well as for co-operation and professional development. Examples in the audio-visual field include: • IAML, the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres [16]; • IAMIC, the International Association of Music Information Centres [17]; • FIAT/IFTA, the International Federation of Television Archives [18]; • EBU, the European Broadcasting Union [19]; • IASA, the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives [20]; • FIAF, the International Federation of Film Archives [21]; • AMIA, the Association of Moving Image Archivists [22].
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (see also the guideline on Content and context management) Back to Scope Much cultural content has an association with a place. This association may be where an item was found or collected, where it was manufactured or used, or the geographic location depicted in an image. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are systems that are designed to store, check, manipulate, analyse, retrieve and display place-based information. They consist of hardware, software, and data that can be combined to create a relational database to be used for the retrieval and analysis of any information with a spatial component. Although GIS is sometimes thought of simply as a map-making tool, it is the capacity of a GIS to store and link to information behind a point on a map that makes it so powerful.
Calimera Guidelines 273 Multimedia services The full analytical capabilities of GIS are only available off-line as these demand high levels of both computing resources and operator skill. In recent years light weight, easy-to-use versions of GIS software have become available for use on the Internet. Web-based GIS may be accessed via PDAs that incorporate GPS receivers to provide a mobile map-based guide or navigation system.
Many online or Internet resources have searchable GIS interfaces. Although the building blocks for public museums, libraries and archives to develop their own local GIS-based services are still relatively complex, it is becoming more feasible to do so, especially in the context of the wider service, technological and licensing environment of a whole local authority.
GIS software may be available to local cultural institutions under licence from their parent body (such as a local authority, national agency or educational institution). It should comply with emerging industry standards from the Open GIS Consortium. [23]
Map and other spatial data is created by taking measurements on the ground with a global positioning system survey, by using photography or satellite images, or by digitising existing maps. It may already be held by local cultural institutions or their parent bodies, or it may be purchased from mapping agencies or created through digitisation programmes:
The construction of a fully functional GIS interface requires attention to the control of terminology for place names (e.g. a gazetteer) and linkage to a controlled set of keys (post codes, grid references etc.) for those places.
As more and more geographic and cartographic data goes over to a primarily digital form museums, libraries and archives will have to grasp the nettle of providing GIS and its supporting hardware to the public. There are however a number of issues that need to be taken into account: • the hardware for running GIS needs to be powerful because GIS datasets tend to be large and the faster the computer the less time it takes to do the computing and display the results; • high bandwidth network and Internet connections will be required for the same reasons. Large monitors are desirable, plotters and printers need to be acquired; • staff will have to be trained or special staff recruited, as most members of the public will not be able to use any but the most basic GIS applications without help. There are some helpful sites available on the Web which staff could use. [24]
Virtual reality (See also the guideline on Interactivity) Back to Scope Virtual reality (VR) is the simulation of a real or imagined environment that can be experienced visually in three dimensions. It differs from other three-dimensional graphics media in that it is interactive, enabling the user to move around within the space e.g. to tour a virtual exhibition. Three-dimensional virtual reality ‘fly through’ models are used, for example, in the reconstruction of vanished or ruined monuments or in simulating whole areas of an ancient landscape. The Web3D Consortium [25] is working towards creating interoperable standards for 3D Calimera Guidelines 274 Multimedia services technologies: the current standard is VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) (ISO/IEC 14772) [26] and the emerging one is X3D (Extensible 3D) [27].
Visualisation Back to Scope Visualisation is the term used to describe the use of computer graphics to present and analyse information. Two-dimensional (2D) visualisation includes charts and graphs e.g. pie-charts, histograms, line-graphs, contour plots and scatter plots. Three-dimensional (3D) visualisation uses techniques such as iso-surfaces, 3D vector plots, volume rendering techniques, etc. or a combination of these.
The use of animation adds movement to 3D visualization. For example, “flybys” allow the viewer to see all sides of a static object e.g. a vase, and “motion observation” allows the viewer to watch the object itself move e.g. a machine in action.
Visualisation techniques have all sorts of potential applications. For example they can be used to create visual reconstructions of people or objects from excavated remains, or to see what effect a volcano erupting would have on a landscape.
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) [28] is currently the established software interface for graphics hardware.
Haptics Back to Scope Haptics enables users to “touch” and “feel” objects via a computer by using special input/output devices (e.g. data gloves). This adds another dimension to the experience of virtual reality and can be useful for visually disabled people (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people). For a discussion of haptics see DigiCULT Technology Watch Briefing no. 13: Telepresence, Haptics, Robotics, April 2004. [29]
Deliverychannels Back to Scope The range of devices, or delivery channels, which can be used to access multimedia services is increasing, and includes 3G mobile phones, PDAs, kiosks, digital and interactive TV and digital media players. Small, often portable devices, can now deliver information and integrate personal services in an electronic format.
Digitisation and the Internet have revolutionised the delivery of multimedia content. Newly emerging technologies now offer museums, libraries and archives opportunities to extend and improve services and to reach wider population groups. It is now possible to deliver services direct to the end user, placing the individual at the centre of current and future developments.
TheInternet Back to Scope Internet penetration in Europe continues to grow rapidly, driven by ambitious European and national targets to deliver all services electronically. Between 2000 and 2004 Internet penetration in the EU grew by 44% to 204 million, almost half the population. However it varies greatly across the EU, from 15% at the lower end (Greece) to 74% at the higher end (Sweden) (September 2004 figures [30]).
Calimera Guidelines 275 Multimedia services The Internet provides a multimedia environment for the enjoyment of entertainment, recreation and the arts, the exercise of imagination and the exploration of ideas as well as for the use of information, news and educational resources. The provision of access to the Internet in rural areas and deprived neighbourhoods in towns will contribute to the fight against social exclusion and create conditions for both economic and social development.
Providing public access to the Internet poses a number of operational issues including: • filtering or blocking to prevent access to unsuitable sites, particularly for children (see the guideline on Learning); • downloading material from the web to the computer’s hard drive, or allowing users to use their own floppy disks, raises security issues e.g. the danger of viruses (see the guideline on Security); • printing – many organisations charge for printouts from publicly available computers. The easiest way to control printing and collect the fees due is to adopt some sort of printserver software and centralise printing to printers under staff control; • additional software may be required for some services such as downloading and games. Such plug-ins may include Acrobat, Flash, Macromedia, VRML and Real Audio. Some of these need very frequent updating, and some, particularly those used to download audio and video, are bandwidth-heavy and may involve long download times. Headphones need to be provided if downloading of sound files is permitted; • a booking system may be needed to control the use of computers. Consideration needs to be given to the length of sessions, the number of sessions per day/week which can be booked by the same person, advance reservation systems and who is eligible to make bookings; • a policy may be needed regarding the level of assistance which will be provided to computer users. E-learning packs could be provided, online tutorials signposted, staff could give introductory help just to get people started, or run full-scale training courses either free or for a fee; • e-mail is an important means of seeking information and making contacts e.g. for lifelong learners. Allowing users to set up personal e-mail accounts raises administrative and financial issues. However, access to free web-based e-mail such as Hotmail could be allowed; • chat lines can also be a very useful source of information although they are sometimes associated with potentially harmful material and “computer addiction”, raising a need for quality control or mediation of the chat lines made available. Similar considerations apply to access to computer games on the Internet.
The Internet can be delivered via a variety of channels including telephone, cable, satellite, wireless and “Web on TV” (or MSN TV - a system that allows users to surf the Internet and send e-mails using their television and a set-top box) (see the guideline on Underlying technologies and infrastructure). Satellite and wireless are connecting users in rural and isolated areas, as well as mobile users who can now get access through mobile phones and other portable devices.
Calimera Guidelines 276 Multimedia services There is increasing scope for cultural institutions to develop personalised digital services to extend their informational, educational, social and recreational roles using delivery channels like mobile phones, PDAs, and digital or interactive TV.
DigitalTV Back to Scope Television is a technology familiar to everyone and presents no problems for technophobes. Digital TV provides access to many more channels than earlier systems and thus offers an opportunity to deliver more local services directly into homes. Interactive TV allows the viewer to interact directly with TV broadcasts, to play games, or send messages. Although digital TV is still very new, there are estimated to be over 32 million digital receivers in use in Europe, of which at least 25 million have interactive capability. Digital TV is expected to continue to develop over the next few years. Decoding boxes for analogue TVs are now relatively cheap, making access to digital services easier and cheaper.
The European Commission is supporting the use of open and interoperable standards for interactive digital TV, including the Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) standard [31]. Launching the communication [32] on this, Enterprise and Information Society Commissioner Olli Rehn said “Digital television networks (satellite, terrestrial and cable) have the potential to offer delivery of multi-media information Society services, alongside 3G mobile and other networks, and we welcome all future investment in this important technology”.
Cultural heritage institutions should be aware of the possibilities of taking advantage of the medium, perhaps by broadcasting information appearing on their authority's existing websites e.g. details of local public services, councillors and MPs, learning, health and care, leisure and sport and local organisations.
With hundreds of television channels broadcasting all hours of the day, there is a demand for material. The extensive collections of art, documents, film, photographs, printed material and sound held in museums, libraries and archives make them major potential content providers to the media. Raw content in a digital form can be made available, but also the added value of subject expertise needed to present and interpret it. Digital TV can be used to reach wider audiences, develop niche markets, and potentially bring financial returns.
It is possible that digital TV may become the most popular method of accessing the Internet. A new user community could come into being, such as home users who are unwilling or unable to invest in computer technologies, but do wish to watch the TV. Also the TV tends to be available in the living room and more readily accessible than a PC. New 3G mobile phones can also support broadcasting.
At present web surfing on a TV is possible but in a more limited fashion. For example, the input device is not usually a mouse; the tab key on a key board may have to be used, or some kind of remote control. Therefore information designed for this type of access may need to be more like text TV services, where users scroll through a selection of menus until the desired page is reached.
Calimera Guidelines 277 Multimedia services Television tends to be a watch-only medium. However, technologies are emerging which allow writing to the web, which will transform web-enabled television. It will be possible for museums, libraries and archives to write directly to the web using TTW (Through-the-Web) editors or other content creation tools such as Wiki or Blog. A Content Management System (CMS) combined with a TTW authoring tool allows users to edit content on the web without the need for complex technical skills. For a description of TTW technology see Through the Web Authoring Tools by Paul Browning [33].
Kiosks Back to Scope Public access online and Internet kiosks have been available for several years and now form an important part of local authority information and service access strategy in many European towns and cities.
However, like telephone kiosks, they are facing competition from PDAs, laptops and mobile phones. If they are to be successful they need to: • be strategically placed where people have free time and may need information, such as shopping centres, cafes, railway and bus stations, and airports; • be multi-functional e.g. offer Internet access, e-mail facilities and facilities to conduct transactions such as making reservations and paying bills.
Nevertheless, within a building a well-designed kiosk can deal with a number of routine tasks such as membership applications, frequently asked questions, directions to areas of the building, book requests, ticket purchase, as well as provide access to the Internet and to sites such as online citizens’ information systems.
Important decisions in kiosk design include whether the data is loaded locally on a PC at each kiosk or updated remotely, whether the kiosk is offline or connected to a network and/or the Internet, whether it has telephone access to a helpdesk; and methods of anti-vandalism security.
Videoconferencing Back to Scope This enables two or more people in different places to see and hear each other, and sometimes share work together on their computers. It already makes important contributions in areas such as e-learning and staff training, and can be used as a tool for branch/agency communication and community outreach. Multi-site video conferencing is possible, linking several sites together in a simultaneous conference.
Video conferences take place over telephone networks so high bandwidth is important. The basic ingredients for a video conference system are transmitting and receiving equipment at each site and an intervening network to carry the signals. Input devices could be microphones, television cameras, white boards, etc.; and output devices could be loudspeakers, television picture monitors, data screens, white boards, etc.
For video conferencing to become really successful interoperability of equipment is essential. The main standards are H.320 and H.323 [34].
Mobile services Back to Scope Calimera Guidelines 278 Multimedia services Mobile handheld devices are becoming increasingly small and multifunctional. Mobile phones can now act as telephones, calculators, personal organisers, calendars, cameras, Internet servers, e-mail senders and receivers, e-book readers, enable users to play games, etc. PDAs can play music and show video films.
The delivery of digital multimedia content to handheld devices is already possible therefore, in that anything which can be accessed via the Internet will be accessible on a PDA.
Ways in which cultural heritage institutions can utilise mobile technology might include: • promoting services; • advertising exhibitions and events; • sending personalised messages such as information about events of interest to a particular individual, or reminders of overdues books or reservations ready to be collected; • answering enquiries. Useful advice on developing content for mobile devices can be found on the Canadian Heritage Information Network website. [35]
However, using the positioning potential of mobile access via wireless communication technology, cultural institutions can also offer services such as personalised tour guides.
Tourguides Back to Scope Audio guides are now very common in museums and heritage sites to guide people round an exhibition or outdoor attraction, but can also be used in museums, libraries and archives as an alternative to printed guides to explain systems or services. They are often available in more than one language.
Audio guides are increasingly being replaced by handheld wireless devices, which are much more flexible. They can for example be personalised to a group or individual, and can contain interactive features. In addition to audio, images, text, graphics and video can be delivered to the PDA. Content can be stored on a central computer server and relayed to visitors via a wireless local area network (WLAN) when and where they need it. Visitors can borrow PDAs or use their own, downloading maps or floor plans and other information at the start of the visit. (See the guidelines on Personalisation and Interactivity.)
This technology offers a number of advantages including: • accessibility – it can be tailored to the special needs of visitors; • flexibility – it enables users to make their own way around and access information in greater or lesser detail as they wish; • convenience – it can be easier to read or listen to information from a handheld device than from a printed label or guidebook; • personalisation – information can be delivered in different languages, or aimed at different audiences e.g. children or experts.
Calimera Guidelines 279 Multimedia services FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
It may be attractive in countries with a large, long and rich legacy of documented cultural history, to concentrate on such out-of-copyright collections as a way of minimising the need to deal with IPR problems. However, if museums, libraries and archives are to compete in the longer term as content providers supplying services over wide networks, they will need to engage fully with the rights-holding community about licensing the re-use and repackaging of in-copyright content (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues).
Institutions may find that increasingly their users are no longer visiting service points or interacting with staff. Some services may become automated and take place only electronically, which will bring a need for rationalisation and re-engineering.
Multimedia resources will be integrated into catalogues and will be searchable and retrievable regardless of format.
Some resources such as e-books, e-serials, music, film etc., will be downloadable direct from suppliers’ systems on a “just-in-time” basis. They will either be purchased or supplied on a licensed subscription model.
Similarly such resources will be delivered on demand direct to users’ own computers or PDAs without the need to visit the institution for access.
Visitors to cultural institutions will enjoy a personalised experience enhanced by virtual reality techniques.
In the future it is likely that most people will access the internet in ways other than a PC, e.g. through digital television, through a wireless-connected mobile phone, even through a games console or DVD player. It is estimated that 80% of the European population already have access to mobile handsets. The growth in the mobile communications and interactive television sectors is likely to be driven by the offering of innovative multimedia. The challenge for cultural heritage institutions will be to deliver services that bring real value-added to individuals, the education sector and businesses.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Information Society Technologies: Multimedia in modern society. http://www.cordis.lu/ist/ka3/home.html
[2] European Union's action in support of regional development. http://europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy/ns_en.htm
[3] The Open eBook Forum http://www.openebook.org/
[4] Audible.com; http://www.audible.com/ Microsoft Windows Media Audio (WMA);
Calimera Guidelines 280 Multimedia services http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windowsmedia/default.aspx MP3; http://www.mp3.com/ Adobe 6 http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html
[5] The Daisy Consortium http://www.daisy.org/
[6] Specifications for the Digital Talking Book (ANSI/NISO Z39.86-2002 http://www.loc.gov/nls/z3986/v100/
[7] Project Gutenberg http://promo.net/pg/
[8] Garrod, Penny: E-books in UK Public Libraries: where we are now and the way ahead. UKOLN, July 2004. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/nsptg/e-books/#10
[9] RealAudio http://uk.real.com/ MS Media Server http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windowsmedia/default.aspx Shoutcast http://www.shoutcast.com/
[10] Groovy Gecko http://www.groovygecko.com/
[11] Streaming media: introduction. University of Tasmania, 2003. http://www.utas.edu.au/teachingonline/develop/multimedia/streaming/introduction.h tml
[12] MP3 http://www.mp3.com/
[13] MUSICNETWORK http://www.interactivemusicnetwork.org/
[14] OMR Bibliography http://www.interactivemusicnetwork.org/wg_imaging/upload/omrbib-20040128e.htm
[15] Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/gvnNL/handler.cfm/event/onpage/pageID/8FA E9963-0FAB-4112-BF19-325991A23477/collectionid/A1C3C760-1070-49C8-9257- A9AF9FB858BB
[16] IAML, the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres http://www.iaml.info/
[17] IAMIC, the International Association of Music Information Centres http://www.iamic.net/
[18] FIAT/IFTA, the International Federation of Television Archives http://www.fiatifta.org/
[19] EBU, the European Broadcasting Union http://www.ebu.ch/en/index.php Calimera Guidelines 281 Multimedia services [20] IASA, the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives http://www.iasa-web.org/
[21] FIAF, the International Federation of Film Archives http://www.fiafnet.org/
[22] AMIA, the Association of Moving Image Archivists http://www.amianet.org/home/about/mission.html
[23] Open GIS Consortium http://www.opengis.org/
[24] ESRI GIS and mapping Software http://www.esri.com The GIS Data Depot http://www.gisdatadepot.com/ http://www.gisnet.com/note-book/GIS_Resources.htm The Geospatial Resource Portal tutorial http://www.gisdevelopment.net/tutorials/ ARL GIS Literacy Project http://www.arl.org/info/gis/index.html
[25] Web3D Consortium http://www.web3d.org
[26] VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language) (ISO/IEC 14772) http://www.iso.org/iso/en/StandardsQueryFormHandler.StandardsQueryFormHandler ?scope=CATALOGUE&keyword=&isoNumber=14772&sortOrder=ISO&title=true&sear ch_type=ISO&search_term=14772&languageCode=en
[27] X3D (Extensible 3D) http://www.web3d.org/x3d/specifications/x3d_specification.html
[28] OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) http://www.opengl.org/
[29] DigiCULT Technology Watch Briefing no. 13: Telepresence, Haptics, Robotics, April 2004. http://www.digicult.info/downloads/DigiCULT_TWB13_Haptics_1.pdf
[30] Internet World Statistics. http://www.internetworldstats.com/
[31] Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) http://www.mhp.org/
[32] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on interoperability of digital interactive television services [SEC(2004)1028]. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/ecomm/doc/useful_information/librar y/communic_reports/interoperability_idtv/com_2004_541_en.pdf
[33] Browning, Paul: Through the Web Authoring Tools. In Ariadne, Issue 39, 30th April 2004. http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue39/browning/intro.html (For more technical details see the JISC TechWatch report by the same author at http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/tsw_03-08.pdf) Calimera Guidelines 282 Multimedia services [34] Video Technology Advisory Service: Videoconferencing standards. 2003. http://www.video.ja.net/stan/
[35] Canadian Heritage Information Network. Mobile Technologies and Interactive Applications: Developing Content for Mobile Phones. June 2004. http://www.chin.gc.ca/English/Digital_Content/Tip_Sheets/Wireless/dev_content.htm l
LINKS Back to Scope
Croatia
Interactive CD-ROM "Insects" Two Croatian museums (Varazdin City Museum and Museum of Natural History in Rijeka) have produced, in co-operation with several institutions from Croatia and abroad, an interactive educational CD-ROM as a supplement for their permanent exhibitions on insects. The material from the CD-ROM (audio and video recordings, animation and graphic presentation) will soon be mounted on the museums' websites. Awarded a special award for richness of documentary material and originality of pedagogical approach in Taiwan in May 2004 at the International Audiovisual Festival on Museums and Heritage (FAIMP). There is an English version of the CD-ROM.
SMS in Medvescak Public Library Medvescak Public Library initiated, in collaboration with a Croatian GSM operator VIP, a system which uses SMS to communicate with its users e.g. for making reservations. It has proved to be both efficient and effective, reaching new users and saving money and time of library staff. http://www.knjizmed.hr
Zadar City Library website Together with the LIS software manufacturer Unibis, new and significant enhancements in the Music collection OPAC search options have been developed. http://www.gkzd.hr
Cyprus
Limassol District Archaeological Museum The website contains many photographs of artefacts etc. http://www.limassolmunicipal.com.cy/museum
Museum of Kykkos Monastery Contains a virtual tour of the museum with indexes of pictures, documents, manuscripts etc. http://www.kykkos-museum.cy.net
France
Guide des documents multimédias en bibliothèques Guideline for multimedia documents and contents within libraries.
Calimera Guidelines 283 Multimedia services http://www.addnb.org/fr/guide/index.htm
Germany
Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online (LeMO) (Living Virtual Museum Online) A joint broadband project of the Deutsches Historisches Museums (DHM) [German Historical Museum], the Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (HdG) [House of the History of the Federal Republic of Germany] as well as the Fraunhofer- Institut für Software- und Systemtechnik (ISST) [Fraunhofer Institute for Software and Systems Technology]. A virtual tour through the 20th century which mixes 3D Animation (VRML) and film and sound documents with museum objects and information texts (HTML) to provide a comprehensive picture of history. LeMO is only part of a variety of multimedia projects which the museum is using. Included on the website are 360° panoramas (which can also be downloaded and used as screen savers), sound and video presentations and webcams. http://www.dhm.de/lemo/ (LEMO) http://www.dhm.de/mm/index.html (multimedia in the museum)
Multimedia Online Archive Chemnitz (MONARCH), Technische Universität Chemnitz Uses client-server technology for long-term archiving and making multimedia resources accessible. http://www.bsz-bw.de/diglib/agmm/
Museum Multimedial, Deutsches Museum Munich Uses a combination of numerous multimedia technologies (digitisation, live cameras, panorama pictures, video clips, audio clips and interactive demonstrations) to illustrate the development of technology. http://www.deutsches-museum.de/mum/index.htm
Projekt Multimedia, Bibliotheksservice-Zentrum Baden-Württemberg An extensive project to co-ordinate various multimedia projects within a larger framework of a digital library. Among the projects are: portal for libraries, museums and archives (cross-searching across holdings); music libraries; audio-visual archives; meta-data project; electronic reserve shelf for teaching. http://www.bsz-bw.de/diglib/
Lithuania
MUSICALIA Provides access to the digital archive of multimedia musical heritage items stored at the Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. PHP, mySQL and XML technologies are used for presenting medieval musical manuscripts. http://www.musicalia.lt
Luxembourg
Musée National d'Histoire et d'Art Includes a virtual tour of the exhibitions. http://www.mnha.public.lu/index.html
Norway
Calimera Guidelines 284 Multimedia services Johan Nygaardsvold Museum A very extensive website with animated characters in flash and a wide use of multimedia. Also intended as content for kiosks in the museum. Schoolchildren are the main target audience. http://www.gubben.no
Låtlån This is a project where two libraries and a couple of copyright organisations co operate. Through this library service users can register and get access to 48,000 sound tracks on the Internet. Chosen sound tracks are streamed to the user, and not downloaded. The system also stores personal preferences. http://www.nettbiblioteket.no/llaatlaan.htm
Map and database services for PDA/Mobile phones Provides wireless access to information about cultural heritage, using dynamic maps as user interface. http://www.geoshare.net/prototypes/tourism/
Oslo City Archive This website is an interesting example of how to present an archive and its services on the Internet. It focuses both on professional services and on services developed for certain user groups. The website offers a vast amount of information ranging from photos, web galleries, web exhibitions, and soon also videos telling the recent history of Oslo. http://www.byarkivet.oslo.kommune.no
Russia
The Mythology Time Electronic museum exhibition at the Khanty-Mansiysk City Museum of Nature and Man. A set of multimedia informational kiosks supplements the permanent exhibition dedicated to folk culture and mythology of the Ob’ Ugrians. Uses collections management database KAMIS 2000. http://www.kamis.ru
Kaluga Regional Art Museum The project ”Creation and accommodation on the Internet of the Kaluga Regional Art Museum informational resources” has led to the computerisation of the museum, the generation of an electronic catalogue and the creation of a website using circular panorama IPIX viewing technology. http://artmuseum.okclub.org/
The Virtual World of the Russian Museum A polyfunctional computer centre (PCC) is being established as a state-of-the-art museum applying the latest IT achievements, the technologies of virtual reality and multimedia. The project concept involves creating three functional areas: Virtual Reality Centre, Modern Technologies Centre, and Centre of Digital Communications. http://www.rusmuseum.rii/rii/museum/net/vwrm/
Spain
Historical Sights and Museums Portal of Andalusia Provides detailed information and virtual visits. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/museos Calimera Guidelines 285 Multimedia services Mobile Library Service Garrigues-Segrià (Culture Department of the Regional Government of Catalonia) Mobile library equipped with broadband access to the Internet, and to the library website and all its functions, by satellite channel. It also provides accessibility to people with reduced mobility. http://cultura.gencat.net/biblio/busgs.htm
Sweden
Swedish National Archive for Recorded Sound and Moving Images (SLBA) Collects the Swedish output of audiovisual media: broadcast radio and TV, film, video, records, CDs, multimedia. Databases are made available on the Internet, and it is possible to watch short films etc. http://www.ljudochbildarkivet.se/slba/PSUser/servlet/com.ausys.ps.web.user.servlet. AuthorizedPageServlet?nodeid=101&pageversion=2
Virtual Museum of Vikings in east Södermanland and Nyköping Sweden's biggest Virtual Reality-site, about Vikings, east Sörmland and the medieval town and castle of Nyköping. http://www.illustrata.com/pages/ny.html
Turkey
Topkapi Palace Museum Holds documents of the Palace and Sultans' household. The website contains articles, a great many images, floorplan and virtual tours. http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/topkapi.html
Ukraine
Kirovohrad Regional Universal Research Library named after D.Chizhevsky Fully functioning library WAP site giving mobile users access to all library services and information. http://wap.library.kr.ua/
Back to contents
Calimera Guidelines 286 Multimedia services Calimera Guidelines Interactivity
SCOPE
This guideline deals with interactive multimedia resources in museums, libraries and archives, and also the applications of interactivity for and by users. Virtual reality Human-computer interaction Games technology Content creation Interaction with users Enquiry services Interactive displays
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The European Union is committed to a Europe in which all citizens will have access to and be able to use interactive multimedia IST services. “Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is a key tool to address the policy priorities of the European Union” [1]. eGovernment for example is not seen as a one way process. Interactive services such as Europe Direct [2], Dialogue with Citizens [3], Your Voice in Europe [4] and Citizens’ Portal [5] have been set up to enable EU citizens to find out about and contribute to decision making. The EU is also committed to raising ICT skills among its citizens and supports interactive e-learning as an educational tool [6]. The EU e-inclusion [7] and e-accessibility [8] programmes also aim to make it possible for every citizen to get involved.
Local cultural heritage institutions have a role to play in all these agenda (see the guidelines on eGovernment, Learning, Social inclusion and Accessibility for disabled people). Interactive services involve and engage people. Interactive exhibits in museums for example are very popular. When delivered through familiar technology such as interactive TV, e-services are expected to reach many more people. (See the guideline on Multimedia services).
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Interactive programs allow non-linear navigation through multimedia content which may contain text, still images, animated images, sound and video. Users are given the opportunity to interact with the program by answering questions, making choices, etc.
Interactivity can be used to: • enhance gallery displays in museums; • present information in exciting and engaging ways; Calimera Guidelines 287 Interactivity • be an attraction for children, young people, families and schools; • be used as a marketing tool to encourage visitors to visit the real site; • make displays and websites more accessible for people with disabilities, including print disabilities; • present interactive e-learning tutorials which “test” the learner; • enable users to create and contribute content; • enable users to interact with virtual communities of interest; • enable consultation with users through online surveys, questionnaires, voting, etc.
It is worth considering the aims, objectives and audience of the organisation and whether the introduction of interactive displays or websites will contribute positively to the service offered. The content is the important thing; interactivity and presentation are delivery channels and should not distract from the content offered. Issues which need considering include: • the skills needed to produce interactive displays and websites – it may be necessary to buy these in; • the cost – interactive displays tend to be more expensive than static ones; • software and hardware – software and hardware is needed for both editing and presentation; • equipment – extra equipment may be needed to produce and use the programs, including speakers, video recorders and players, CD-ROM recorders and players, touchscreens, mouse alternatives, etc.; • the audience – it is difficult to produce interactive programs which will appeal to all ages and types of user; • whether the system will be a standalone interactive model in a kiosk or cabinet, or accessible over the web.
The websites of museums, unless they are exclusively virtual museums, should aim to complement rather than replace traditional visits. They can contain for example information and services not easily provided on the physical site such as press cuttings, details of educational services to schools, etc. There should be sufficient content for those unable to visit, but presented in such a way that it will attract visitors to the physical site. This also applies to galleries and heritage sites, but perhaps not to the same extent to archives and libraries.
As with all projects, a plan should be made (see the guideline on Strategic planning) and the desired end-result should be decided on at the outset bearing in mind the staff skills, budget, time etc. available. It may be possible to produce a useful interactive or Virtual Reality system comparatively cheaply and with a small team if the technology is chosen carefully. There are often free tutorials in the use of software available on the web. For a useful beginners guide to installing interactives in museums see So you want to put a computer interactive in your museum? - A beginner’s guide [9].
Virtual reality (See also the guideline on Multimedia services) Back to Scope Virtual reality (VR) is the simulation of a real or imagined environment that can be experienced visually in three dimensions. It can be used to great effect to give virtual tours of real places - museums, galleries, archaeological sites, heritage sites such as
Calimera Guidelines 288 Interactivity stately homes and gardens, etc. - and to guide people round a library or record office.
For simulated environments, three-dimensional virtual reality ‘fly through’ models can be used, for example, in the reconstruction of vanished or ruined monuments or in simulating whole areas of an ancient landscape.
VR can also allow the manipulation of objects, and can show how machines work; so in a museum of industrial archaeology users could see how an early printing press worked.
VR can be very useful for increasing accessibility for disabled people. For example, in an old historic building it may be impractical to fit ramps etc. to enable wheelchair users to access all floors. A really good VR system can enable them to see rooms which they cannot physically go into [10]. (See also the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people.)
In the education field, VR can enhance e-learning opportunities for students isolated by geography or circumstance e.g. they may be housebound because of disability or ill health, or because they are caring for children or elderly people. VR is often used to demonstrate operations in medical training. This could be transferred to the cultural world to demonstrate a procedure involving an object or document when to use the original might damage it.
VR can be enhanced by technology such as Flash and Shockwave, multimedia technology developed by Macromedia [11].
Avatars, or virtual representations of human beings, can be used in VR settings (they are based on shapes and supported by VRML) for a number of applications, such as: • to guide people through an exhibition, library etc., • to instruct people how to use a catalogue or piece of equipment such as a self- service issue system or an audio player; • to read aloud a document; • to encourage communication among a group of geographically scattered users with similar interests; They can be personalised to resemble a type of user, such as a child (boy or girl), or even to resemble the user him/herself. (See the guideline on Personalisation.)
The Web3D Consortium [12] is working towards creating interoperable standards for 3D technologies: • VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language) (ISO/IEC 14772) [13] is the current standard. It is a file format for 3D objects and scenes. Objects can be made to move either independently or as a result of user input. They can be solid as in walls, or can allow things to pass through, as through water or smoke. Sounds can be added, and also the appearance of time passing. VRML supports the creation of avatars which can move about in the virtual environment. • X3D (Extensible 3D) [14] is the emerging successor to VRML. It is open source so there are no licensing issues, is incorporated within the MPEG-4 [15] multimedia
Calimera Guidelines 289 Interactivity standard, is compatible with Scalable Vector Graphics etc., and is backwards compatible with VRML.
Other technologies include: • QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) [16]. This Apple product is not strictly a VR technology, but can be used to surround VR models with realistic photographic backgrounds or features. It can also be used for virtual tours by linking a series of views through which users can navigate by clicking on spots on the screen, and can be used to show objects from a variety of angles. • Java3D [17]is an Application Programmer Interface (API) which is primarily used for standalone applications such as museum interactives. It is not really suitable for web delivery. • Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) [18] is perhaps the most widely used graphics API which can be delivered across all popular platforms.
Human- computer interaction (HCI) Back to Scope The traditional method of interacting with a computer is by a keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, or other, usually hand-operated, input device, and a visual output device such as a screen or printer. Other input and output devices exist, and new ones are now emerging, which allow the user to concentrate on the content with less distraction. Many of these devices have been developed for disabled users (see the guideline on Accessibility for disabled people) but they also have advantages for young children and elderly people who have little experience of computers, and can give any user a more realistic, more immersive virtual experience.
One familiar example already in common use is touchscreens, which have many advantages in standalone situations, including: • no training or skill is required for use; • input errors are reduced; • no space is needed for keyboards, mouse mats etc.; • there is less to be damaged, lost or stolen; • less text and more pictures and symbols can be used, so facilitating multilingual use and use by people with few literacy skills. Typical uses include: • information kiosks; • kiosks or cabinets giving additional information on objects in an exhibition, or displaying items not on display for reasons of space or conservation of originals; • to display documents in an archive which are too fragile for public handling. Viewing can also be enhanced by enlargement etc.; • self-service issue and discharge machines in libraries; • touchscreen catalogues.
New and emerging technologies include for example voice input, eye tracking, pressure and motion tracking devices, and devices such as shutterglasses (which allow the wearer to see enhanced 3D images on a screen) and head-mounted displays (where the wearer sees the images inside the “helmet” itself). Some head- mounted displays can see both the virtual image and the surrounding real environment simultaneously, allowing the virtual image to be seen in context. Sound can be added via headphones. For a detailed discussion of these and similar Calimera Guidelines 290 Interactivity technologies see the DigiCULT report New technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector [19].
International standards [20]for HCI technology include: • ISO 13406: Ergonomic requirements for work with visual displays based on flat panels • ISO 18789: Ergonomic requirements and measurement techniques for electronic visual displays • ISO 9241: Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals • IEC TR 61997: Guidelines for the user interfaces in multimedia equipment for general-purpose use • ISO 14915: Software ergonomics for multimedia user interfaces • ISO 13407: Human-centred design processes for interactive systems • ISO TR 16982: Usability methods supporting human centred design • ISO TR 18529: Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions • ISO/IEC 10741-1: Dialogue interaction - Cursor control for text editing • ISO/IEC 11581: Icon symbols and functions • ISO/IEC 14754: Pen-based interfaces - Common Gestures for text editing with pen-based systems • ISO/IEC 18021: Information Technology - User interface for mobile tools • ISO DTS 16071: Guidance on accessibility for human-computer interfaces.
The World Wide Web Consortium is developing specifications to support multiple modes of interaction (or multimodal interaction) with the web [21].
Gamestechnology Back to Scope Technology designed for games is used in a number of other sectors. In the education sector, the value of computer games has been recognised for some time. They can be useful as a source of ideas for controls and interfaces of new software, or of techniques to engage and motivate users. The underlying technology of products used to create games (such as 3D engines) are also used in educational and training products, for example in flight simulation systems for training pilots. Games technology is used to make learning more exciting and engaging. When using games, learning takes place unobtrusively. People don’t really think that they are learning, just that they are doing something interesting.
In the cultural sector games can be used to involve users in learning about historical artefacts, heritage sites, local history, scientific experiments, etc. Interactive models can be actual games, or they can utilise the technology normally associated with games. Games make use of easy-to-use human-computer interfaces, real or imagined virtual environments, character animation, etc., all of which have applications transferable to the cultural sector. The websites of many virtual museums can be used as a source of ideas [22].
Games do not have to be played alone. There are many examples of multi-player games, and if used on a website this technology could be used in creating and sustaining virtual communities of interest.
Calimera Guidelines 291 Interactivity Contentcreation Back to Scope Content can be created by the museum, library or archive, and it can also be created by users. People can interact with the institution or with other people using technology such as TTW, Blogs and Wiki [23]. The Wikipedia [24] is a good example – anyone can contribute information or edit an article. (The original articles are not lost as they are saved in the history section.) The community portal section of Wikipedia explains how to contribute. Using this technology cultural institutions could encourage interactive worldwide virtual communities of interest to flourish.
Interaction with the local community can also encourage and facilitate content creation. Local groups, schools or individuals can be provided with the tools and assistance to produce content (photographs, videos, audio resources, etc.) about local events, people, history etc. which then becomes part of the museum, archive or library collection. (See also the guideline on Cultural identity and cohesion.)
Interaction with users Back to Scope Interaction with users can take many forms, including: • online enquiry services; • user surveys; • user consultation; • registration and form filling; • ordering and purchasing goods; • dialogue with users, etc. Such interaction will help to familiarise people with online communication and encourage take-up of eGovernment.
Mobile phones and PDAs are now available which support multimedia messaging. Museums, libraries and archives could use SMS (Short Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) technology to communicate with users and promote their services. MMS allows compatible cell phone users to exchange multimedia messages, such as colour pictures, animations, video clips and music. MMS technology could be used by museums, libraries and archives to communicate with users for informational and promotional purposes. Such communications could be personalised to users who have registered an interest (see the guideline on Personalisation).
Enquiryservices Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives can provide interactive enquiry, and associated, services. For example: • "Ask a Librarian" services (this type of service could also be used by archives or museums) - these are now available in many countries. Libraries throughout the country work together to provide the service usually on a rota basis. Questions are placed on an enquiry page which is automatically routed to one of the participating reference libraries which receives it as an e-mail message. Librarians respond by e-mail to the enquirer as soon as possible. This type of shared service is perhaps not so applicable to museums and archives where enquiries tend to be specific to the institution, but there is no reason why a single institution could not run a similar service even if it were for less hours;
Calimera Guidelines 292 Interactivity • "Talk-to-a-person" services - these use chat line technology to allow enquirers to talk to a member of staff in real time. • co-browsing techniques - these enable staff to assist in searching databases or the Internet; • access to catalogues through the website, with facilities for placing requests, making bookings, etc.; • access to databases such as community information databases; • the ability to view, read or listen to digitised materials of all types; • links to other relevant web sites; • FAQ services; • bulletin boards with news of coming events.
Interactivedisplays Back to Scope MMS technology can be used to provide visitors with media rich, interactive content to accompany exhibits. The content can be information linked to a particular object, or a game, quiz or tutorial, or a video clip about a particular aspect of what is on display. Visitors could also send digital pictures from the exhibition to their home computer for future use. Images and files could also be made available on websites which could be downloaded for mobile delivery.
Audio tour guides are now commonplace in museums. Interactive multimedia tour guides are now possible which can use GIS technology to give information when the visitor reaches a particular location (see the guideline on Content and context management). Tour guides can also be personalised to the user (see the guideline on Personalisation). This technology could be equally useful to guide people round a library or archive, and could be adapted to give instructions on the use of equipment, catalogues etc.
Standalone interactive displays are very popular in museums. Hands-on activities can be used to complement and contextualise exhibitions. Low-tech examples might include discovery trails, peep-holes, clay modelling, dressing up, and going down a “coal mine”. Most standard desktop PCs are now capable of running multimedia interactive functions, so computer interactives are becoming affordable for even small institutions. These can enable people to engage with objects on display in a new way, by viewing the object from all sides, “feeling” its weight, seeing how it works if it has moveable parts, etc. Larger interactives can even “immerse” the user in a whole new experience. (See the guideline on Multimedia services.)
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Efforts need to be made to exploit gaming technology as a means of simulating, storing, testing, and transmitting content and ideas.
Mobile phones are already available with access to interactive technology on which users can watch TV, listen to music, play games, etc. Museums, libraries and archives will need to take advantage of this technology.
Calimera Guidelines 293 Interactivity With the trend to ever smaller devices, alternative input and output methods will be needed such as handwriting, small alphanumeric keypads, virtual keyboards which can be projected onto any flat surface, wearable keypads, eye tracking, voice input, haptic input devices based on pressure and movement, etc.
As standard desktop computers become powerful enough to handle video images, computer animations, and digital sound reproductions, it is increasingly possible for local institutions to create and provide interactive multimedia programs for their users.
There are new technologies emerging constantly, including for example new imaging and modelling techniques, large scale terrain modelling, geo-temporal 3D databases, remote sensing, laser scanning, etc. The cultural heritage sector should be encouraged to explore uses for these techniques for example in object and image restoration, virtual reality, historical re-enactment, storytelling, site reconstruction, etc.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Strengthening Competitiveness Through Co-operation. European Research in Information and Communication Technologies. Brussels, September 2004. ftp://ftp.cordis.lu/pub/ist/docs/strengthening-european-research-in-ict.pdf
[2] Europe Direct http://europa.eu.int/europedirect/about_en.htm
[3] Dialogue with Citizens http://europa.eu.int/citizensrights/index_en.cfm
[4] Your Voice in Europe http://europa.eu.int/yourvoice/index_en.htm
[5] Citizens’ Portal http://www.europarl.eu.int/opengov/default_en.htm
[6] eLearning Programme: a programme for the effective integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in education and training systems in Europe (2004 – 2006). http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/elearning/programme_en.html
[7] e-inclusion http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/all_about/einclusion/index_e n.htm
[8] e-accessibility http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/citizens/accessibility/index_en.htm
[9] Cutting, Joe: So you want to put a computer interactive in your museum? - A beginner’s guide. (This site also contains useful articles on commissioning and buying museum computer exhibits, software, technology, evaluation, etc., and links to other sites of interest. http://www.joecutting.com/beginnersguide.html
Calimera Guidelines 294 Interactivity [10] See The Virtual Experience Company: Disabled Access at Shakespeare's Birthplace. http://www.virtualexperience.co.uk/disabled.htm
[11] Macromedia http://www.macromedia.com/
[12] Web3D Consortium http://www.web3d.org/
[13] VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language) (ISO/IEC 14772) http://www.iso.org/iso/en/StandardsQueryFormHandler.StandardsQueryFormHandler ?scope=CATALOGUE&keyword=&isoNumber=14772&sortOrder=ISO&title=true&sear ch_type=ISO&search_term=14772&languageCode=en
[14] X3D (Extensible 3D) http://www.web3d.org/x3d/specifications/x3d_specification.html
[15] MPEG-4 http://www.mpeg.org/MPEG/starting-points.html
[16] QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) http://www.apple.com/quicktime/qtvr/
[17] Java3D http://java.sun.com/products/java-media/3D/
[18] Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) http://www.opengl.org/
[19] New technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. DigiCULT Technology Watch Report 1. European Commission, February 2003. ISBN 9289452757. http://www.digicult.info/pages/techwatch.php
[20] International standards http://www.standardsinfo.net/isoiec/stdcat.html
[21] World Wide Web Consortium: Multimodal Interaction Activity http://www.w3.org/2002/mmi/intro
[22] For a list of virtual museums see the ICOM’s Virtual Library Museums Pages http://icom.museum/vlmp/; or Musée http://www.musee-online.org/
[23] Browning, Paul: Through the Web Authoring Tools. In Ariadne, Issue 39, 30th April 2004. http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue39/browning/intro.html (For more technical details see the JISC TechWatch report by the same author at http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/tsw_03-08.pdf)
[24] Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
LINKS Back to Scope
International
NEDLIB (Networked European Deposit Library)
Calimera Guidelines 295 Interactivity Nedlib has produced several interactive models including a workflow model for digital preservation. http://www.kb.nl/coop/nedlib/
Theatron Produced by the Theatron Consortium and part-funded by the European Commission, Theatron features interactive real time walkthroughs of highly accurate 3D models of present and past theatres. The user can not only see what, for example, the Theatre of Epidauros looked like when new, but can also walk and fly around it, and try the view from different seats. Some of the theatre sites featured even have audio reconstructions, enabling the user to hear what the audience would have heard from different parts of the theatre. http://www.theatron.org/index.html
Virtual Heritage Network An international organisation designed to promote the utilisation of technology for the education, interpretation, conservation and preservation of natural and cultural heritage. http://www.virtualheritage.net/
Belgium
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences: Museum of Natural Sciences Interactive site containing children’s games, a multimedia section, science on line, a site for teachers, etc., and links to two European virtual museums: Europ@ncestors and 300 Pearls. http://www.naturalsciences.be/
Croatia
Croatian Museums on the Internet Directory of and links to Croatian museums. Many of the museums listed use new technology e.g. VR presentations of exhibitions. http://www.mdc.hr/www-MDC-eng/4.html
Finland
Conversations with Angels 3D virtual world in which users can chat with a variety of different avatars in real time. http://angels.kiasma.fng.fi/
France
The Louvre The virtual tour of the Louvre uses QTVR (QuickTime Virtual Reality). http://www.louvre.or.jp/louvre/QTVR/anglais/index.htm
Greece
Archeoguide This project is developing a system based on advanced IT including augmented reality, 3D-visualisation, mobile computing, and multi-modal interaction techniques to
Calimera Guidelines 296 Interactivity virtually reconstruct archaeological remains so that the user can see what they would have looked like originally. http://archeoguide.intranet.gr/
Immersive Virtual Reality (FHW) FHW is a cultural heritage institution working to preserve and disseminate Hellenic culture, historical memory and tradition through the creative use of state-of-the-art multimedia and technology. It uses the best of contemporary museum theory, developments in computer science and audiovisual media for interactive exhibits, including a virtual journey through the ancient city of Miletus, the reconstruction of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, an interactive educational environment that brings to life Byzantine and Classical costume, an interactive exhibit about pottery depicting the Olympic games, and several of Archimedes’ experiments. http://www.fhw.gr/
Italy
Institute and Museum of History of Science, Florence Interactive website where people can learn about the works of early Italian scientists including Galileo and Leonardo da Vinci or take a virtual tour of some of the exhibits. In Italian and English. http://www.imss.fi.it/
Luxembourg
Musée national d'histoire naturelle An interactive multimedia system supplies knowledge relating to natural science. http://www.mnhn.lu/
Norway
Lesehulen The main goals are to motivate children to read books by introducing Norwegian authors through sound, images and interactivity, presented on the Internet via broadband technology. The application uses Flash-animation, voice-over, music and real-time audio. http://www.lesehulen.no
Portugal
Museu Nacional de Arqueologia (MNA), Lisboa The National Archaeological Museum has an award-winning interactive website. It is currently undergoing an ambitious remodelling project (for details see http://www.ipmuseus.pt/cgi-bin/ipmuseus_en/fs_inici_proj.html) aimed at turning it into a new portal for archaeology. http://www.mnarqueologia-ipmuseus.pt http://biblioteca.mnarqueologia-ipmuseus.pt (museum library)
Portuguese Institute of Museums (IPM) The IPM co-ordinates documentation for museums within Portugal, including standards in use, projects, usage statistics, links to museums etc. http://www.ipmuseus.pt/
Calimera Guidelines 297 Interactivity Romania
Electronic Visit to a Museum Enables users to make virtual contact with traditional craftsmen and learn about the museum’s major projects. It uses digital tools to animate the museum tour, promote architectural monuments and traditional culture and heritage, publicise museum activities, and work with children to help them learn traditional crafts. http://www.itcnet.ro/sibiu/rom/dumbra_r.htm
Spain
Group ÒLIBA The initial proposal was simply to experiment with how virtual exhibitions may improve the potential of real exhibitions in terms of information access, public knowledge and visits to museums. This has now developed to include evaluation of how people interact with features such as 3-D reconstructions, games, etc. http://oliba.uoc.edu
Sweden Torsby Finnkulturcentrum Research and information centre about the Forest-Finns of northern Värmland. Photographs, maps, stories etc., and an opportunity to play the kantele, an ancient Karelian stringed instrument. http://www.finnkulturcentrum.com/
UK
Ask Chris An online and interactive source of reading advice, launched by Essex County Council Libraries. It combines the reading interests of library staff, reading groups and individual readers to provide personal reading recommendations. It uniquely makes provision for adults learning to read through the “Quick Reads” selection, and also supports readers needing large print and audiobooks. A children’s section has recently been developed. Many public library websites now include some reader reviews but Ask Chris was the first to move beyond static pages. Interactive elements include the “Have Your Say”, “Booktalk” and “Reading Lives” sections, and readers can contribute their own reviews and contact “Chris” direct. http://www.essexxcc.gov.uk/askchris
CRUMB (Curatorial Resource for Upstart Media Bliss) Research programme supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Board. It has set up a very useful website containing articles and advice aiming to help curators, producers, technicians, and commissioners using new media and technologies. http://www.crumbweb.org/
Tudor Hackney Developed by a partnership involving Hackney Archives, the National Archives Learning Curve Team and Hackney theatre group “Immediate Theatre”, this site enables the user to enter a virtual reality world, exploring a house and watching video drama. Links take users to the documents which helped Hackney Archives Calimera Guidelines 298 Interactivity Department and the Tudor Hackney team reconstruct the house. Viscape 3d viewer, available via the Tudor Hackney site, must be downloaded. http://www.hackney.gov.uk/index/council/departments/communityleisure/community -culture-leisure/archives/tudorhackney.htm
Tyne & Wear Museums Interactive access to several local museums, galleries and heritage sites, with games, educational sites, and accessibility for disabled people. http://www.twmuseums.org.uk/
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Calimera Guidelines 299 Interactivity Calimera Guidelines Multilingualism
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: European la ngua ges Social inclusion Sign languages Information retrieval Multilingual thesauri Multilingual websites Scripts Fonts and keyboard s Transliteration, tran scrip t io n and au tho r ity f iles Machine translation Voice to voice translation
POLICY ISSUES Back to S cope
“Language is the foundation of communication between people and is also part of their cultural heritage. For many, language has far-reaching emotive and cultural associations and values rooted in their literary, historical, philosophical and educational heritage. For this reason the users’ language should not be an obstacle to accessing the multicultural heritage available in cyberspace. The harmonious development of the information society is therefore only possible if the availability of multilingual and multicultural information is encouraged.” [1]
Article 12 of the European Charter fo r Region al or Minority Langua ges [2] deals specifically with cultural activities and facilities – “especially libraries, video libraries, cultural centres, museums, archives, academies, theatres and cinemas, as well as literary work and film production, vernacular forms of cultural expression, festivals and the culture industries, including inter alia the use of new technologies” . The signatories to this (i.e. the member st a t e s of th e Co u n cil of Eu r o p e ) “undertake to make appropriate provision… for regional or minority languages and the cultures they reflect”.
Cultural in stitutio ns sh oul d aim to reach as wide an audience as possible. Websites can reach a global audience, and there are estimated to be over 6,000 languages in the world. The EU is committed to integrat ion among its member states but also promotes the linguistic and cultural diversit y of its peoples by promoting th e teaching and learning of lang uages, in cludi n g minority an d re gional languages. Th e Action Plan on Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity for 2004 – 2006 [3], states that “language learning is for all citizens, throughout their lives. Being aware of other languages, hearing other languages, teaching and learning other languages: these
Calimera Guidelines 300 Multilingualism things need to happen in every home and every street, every library and cultural centre, as well as in every education or training institution and every business”. 2001 was designated the European Year of Languages [4] and its activities continue annually through the celebration of the European Day of Languages on 26 September [5].
Museums, libraries and archives will need to consider providing services in • the official EU languages; • minority indigenous languages; • the languages of immigrants; • non-European languages – to some extent this will depend on the nature of their collections and whether there is likely to be interest outside Europe; • sign languages.
Europeanlanguages Back to Scope There are 20 official languages in the EU – Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. The term “official language” is defined as a language that can be used in dealings with public authorities and in official documents, including commercial documents. A citizen may write to an EU institution in any of these languages and must receive a reply in the same language.
Information about the regional and/or minority languages of the European Union can be found on the website of Mercator [6], a research network and information service set up with the support of the European Commission. It is estimated that there are over 150 minority indigenous or autochthonous languages within the EU, not including dialects of any of the official languages, or any of the languages spoken by immigrant communities. The European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages (EBLUL) [7]estimates that over 40 million people in the EU speak a language which is not the official language of their country of origin.
Some minority languages are afforded some sort of recognition in Europe, or within the country where they are spoken, but not all. The official status of the minority languages of Europe can be found on the Mercator website [6]. There are three accepted categories of regional and minority languages: • languages specific to a region which may be wholly or partially in one or more member states. This would cover languages like Basque, Breton, Catalan, Frisian, Sardinian, Welsh and so on; • languages spoken by a minority in one state but which are official languages in another EU country. This definition covers, for example, German in southern Denmark, French in the Val d’Aoste in northern Italy, Hungarian in Slovakia, etc.; • non-territorial languages such as those of Roma or Jewish communities (Romany and Yiddish), or Armenian.
Some minority languages are fully developed languages of culture taught in schools, with established orthographies, extensive literatures and a considerable amount of publishing. Others may lack some or even all of such attributes and it may be difficult
Calimera Guidelines 301 Multilingualism to make provision for them. Indigenous linguistic minorities however tend not to present the same challenges as do immigrants. For example: • they are often fully bilingual and do not require instruction in the majority language or culture; • there is no doubt about their numbers or permanence or socio-economic circumstances.
There are also many non-indigenous languages spoken in Europe mainly by immigrants. These include: • Turkish (mainly in Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands); • Maghreb Arabic (mainly in France and Belgium); • Urdu, Bengali and Hindi (mainly in the United Kingdom; • Balkan languages (spoken in many parts of the EU by migrants and refugees who have left the region as a result of recent wars and unrest).
Socialinclusion Back to Scope No official EU protection is afforded these languages, but heritage institutions will need to be socially inclusive (see the guidelines on Social inclusion and Cultural identity and cohesion) and so will need to consider the language issue. Established ethnic minorities may well be bi-lingual, or even, in the case of second and third generations, monolingual in the majority language. Recent immigrants pose more of a problem. Museums, libraries and archives must be aware of the languages used in their communities. In some large cities with a rapidly changing population this might involve regular monitoring of the linguistic profile. As well as providing a service in any relevant minority languages, they must also recognise their responsibility to document and preserve the cultural identity of all members of their communities, which could involve collecting materials and creating content in several languages. Services to immigrants could involve: • recruiting staff who speak the language(s), preferably as native speakers; • ensuring all leaflets, signs and publicity are available in all relevant languages; • providing reading materials and audio-visual materials in all relevant languages; • providing word processing facilities in all relevant languages; • providing a translation service; • designing websites in more than one language.
Signlanguages Back to Scope These must not be overlooked. There are many different versions of sign language and although not recognised as official EU languages, the Council of Europe's Recommendation 1598 (2003) Protection of sign languages in the member states of the Council of Europe encourages member states "to give the sign languages used in their territory formal recognition” [8]. Some countries, including Denmark, Finland, Portugal, Sweden and the UK, do afford official recognition to a sign language.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
These guidelines focus on multilingualism in the digital arena. In practice organisations have faced a number of difficulties in creating and maintaining multi lingual digital content and pan-European products and services for the global
Calimera Guidelines 302 Multilingualism networks. Some of these difficulties are technical and some relate to the costs and difficulties of translation. In recognition of this the EC has created an action line to address multilingual issues under the strategically important e-Content programme [9].
Information retrieval Back to Scope As more and more cultural resources are digitised access is extended to a global audience. The challenge for museums, libraries and archives is to ensure access to these resources while at the same time respecting cultural and linguistic diversity. Various projects have been set up to work in this area, including MACS (Multilingual Access to Subjects) [10].
Multilingual thesauri Back to Scope A thesaurus is a set of controlled terms for the detailed subject indexing of (originally) printed documents. A thesaurus will show relationships such as hierarchy and equivalence between the terms it uses. A major problem in the construction of thesauri in more than one language is that terms in one language may not cover the same semantic fields as terms in another, for example the English term “teenager” covers a narrower semantic field than the French “adolescent”.
There are standards for the compilation of thesauri and equivalent terms across languages (see ISO 5964:1985 Guidelines for the establishment and development of multilingual thesauri” [11].) This standard is an adjunct to ISO 2788:1986 [12] which covers monolingual thesauri and so is not complete in itself, many of the problems in the construction of thesauri being common to the construction of monolingual and multilingual thesauri. A revision of both standards is currently in progress. A new standard, BS 8723: Structured vocabularies for information retrieval - guide, is planned, to cover both monolingual and multilingual thesauri. It will be in five parts, as follows: Part 1: Definitions, symbols and abbreviations (draft published Nov. 2004); Part 2: Thesauri (draft published Nov. 2004); Part 3: Vocabularies other than thesauri; Part 4: Interoperation between multiple vocabularies; Part 5: Interoperation between vocabularies and other components of information storage and retrieval systems. [13]. The Getty Information Institute has produced Guidelines for Forming Language Equivalents: A Model based on the Art and Architecture Thesaurus [14] (http://www.chin.gc.ca/Resources/Publications/Guidelines/English/). The chapter on multilingual thesaurus construction in Jean Aitchison, Alan Gilchrist [and] David Bawden: Thesaurus construction and use: a practical manual. 4th ed. ASLIB: London, 2000. ISBN 0-85142-446-5 [15] is also very useful.
Multilingual websites Back to Scope ”A quality website must be aware of the importance of multilinguality by providing a minimum level of access in more than one language.”[16] The structure of a multilingual or bilingual website should be carefully considered from the outset so that multilingualism is an essential part of it and not just an afterthought. The MINERVA Project has suggested some criteria to define a multilingual website [17],
Calimera Guidelines 303 Multilingualism the degree of multilinguality being dependent on the number of these which are met. They are: • some content should be available in more than one language; • some content should be available in sign language; • some content should be available in non-EU immigrant languages; • site identity and profile should be available in more than one language; • core functionality of the site (searching, navigation) should be available in more than one language; • static content (images, descriptions etc.) should be available in more than one language; • switching between languages should be easy; • site structure and user interface language should be logically separate so that layout does not vary with the language; • multilinguality should be driven by a formal multilinguality policy; • the website should be reviewed against this policy.
In some cases a bilingual, as opposed to a multilingual, website will be appropriate. Bilingual websites may be used: • in countries or regions where there is one main minority language, e.g. Wales; • to address a readership which can be expected to consist of bilingual individuals; • to address individuals who may speak one or other of two languages; • to make a social or political point by reminding members of the majority community of the existence of a minority. Multilingual websites will be needed: • in countries where there are a number of minority indigenous languages; • to address ethnic minorities, including immigrants and asylum seekers, in their own languages; • if the content of the website is likely to be of interest to a pan-European or global audience.
There are various policy decisions to be made which have far-reaching effects on the appearance of the website: • frames may be difficult in a multilingual context; • multilingual pages are likely to have a lot of text on them and may have a formidable appearance; • some fonts are more appropriate for one language than another, and it is preferable to use the same font throughout rather than to appear to make one language more legible than others; • the language of logos must be sensitively chosen. The use of a majority language in a logo can alienate minority language users; • there may be a role for touchscreen technology in the design of multilingual websites. Remember also that a multilingual website is not a cheap option and that, like other websites, it will require updating and this will not be such a simple matter as updating a monolingual site.
There are a number of ways in which a multilingual website may be arranged: • users may be offered a once and for all choice of which language they wish to use on the first page, and if they want to change, may be forced to return to that Calimera Guidelines 304 Multilingualism page. This may be appropriate in certain settings e.g. in a country in which two languages are used but by no means everyone is bilingual, for example Belgium and Switzerland; • they may be offered a choice of language on each page of the site. This may be by means of a button or filing tab, conventions familiar to most Internet users. Language links should be at the top of the page rather than at the bottom, as that is the part of the page displayed by default, and the link should take the user to exactly the same page but in the other language - not to another part of the site. The language should be given its native name e.g. French should be called Français; • all pages may offer the same text in all languages. Be aware that the same text in different languages may take up different amounts of space; typically an original text will be shorter than a translation; • sites may be asymmetrical, for example some information may be relevant to speakers of only one language e.g. a social club for Welsh people may have its membership form in Welsh only but in other respects may be bilingual.
The choice of arrangement may be affected by: • which type of audience being addressed - individuals speaking more than one language or individuals speaking only one language. Bilingual individuals may want to be able to see two languages much of the time as a means of double- checking that they understand the text correctly; • on a bilingual site, how different from each other the two languages are. Some languages are mutually comprehensible to a degree e.g. Spanish and Catalan, whereas some are not e.g. English and Welsh. Also some concepts do not appear at all in some languages;
The website of the Welsh Language Board [18] contains advice from the School of Education, University of Wales, Bangor and Escola Superior Politecnica, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona on the design of bilingual websites, including recommendations as to the best ways of incorporating bilingualism into the design of a website without giving undue prominence to one language over another, and avoiding giving offence by the use of emotive or politically charged symbols such as flags to represent languages as many languages are spoken in more than one country and many countries are bilingual.
Scripts Back to Scope Computers store letters and other characters by assigning a number for each one. The enormous diversity of languages and scripts led to hundreds of different encoding systems for assigning these numbers. Then in the mid-1980s Unicode [19] began to be developed. It assigns a unique binary code number to every character in every language, no matter what the platform, program or language. The Unicode Consortium is a non-profit making organisation founded to develop, extend and promote the use of the standard. Unicode is continually being expanded, nowadays even to include such things as archaic alphabets like Ogham (an ancient Celtic script) and cuneiform, and can cope with numbers, symbols, punctuation and Braille patterns etc. Although Unicode Standard Version 4.0. [20] and ISO/IEC 10646:2003 [21] are not the same thing, the sets of characters, names, and coded representations they contain are identical. Unicode Version 4.0 covers over 96,000 Calimera Guidelines 305 Multilingualism characters from the world's scripts. Although by no means the only standard in the field, it is favoured by the IT industry, as the adoption of one method has obvious advantages for worldwide communication, software availability, data interchange and publishing. ISO/IEC 10646:2003 has been widely adopted in new Internet and W3C protocols and mark up languages such as XML and HTML, and implemented in modern operating systems and computer programming languages.
Fontsandkeyboards Back to Scope Small caps can be bought which cover the keys of a normal keyboard to aid in the typing of languages using extended versions of the Roman script e.g. ð å þ ñ ç æ ć ł etc. This simple method can even enable the Kanji script of Japanese to be word- processed.
Soft keyboards, or keyboards displayed on a touch screen, may be a flexible way of dealing with some of the problems of non-Roman or exotic scripts.
Languages with thousands of characters, like Chinese, require special software before they can benefit from electronic word-processing. For Chinese, a normal keyboard is used to enter a phonetic spelling of a Chinese word according to the Pinyin system of transliteration and the software displays those characters which are pronounced in that way – there may be as many as ten or so. The correct character or characters are chosen and entered in the document. The wrong choice would be the Chinese equivalent of a spelling mistake. This system is very adaptable, enabling the traditional and the simplified Chinese characters to be word-processed. The use of the Pinyin system does however mean that the operator needs to know the Mandarin or Pekingese pronunciation of Chinese, which it is not necessary to know in order to write Chinese by hand. It is however possible to buy software based on the Cantonese pronunciation [22]. The software takes up more space on the PC’s memory than the word-processing of a language written in the Roman alphabet but in cities where there are considerable numbers of Chinese people it could be justifiable to buy this software and make it available on a dedicated machine. Arabic scripts present less of a problem as specially adapted keyboards are available.
It is worth considering commercial fonts, software, and keyboards for multilingual computing such as those sold by Fingertip Software [23] which are based on Unicode.
Transliteration, transcription and authority files Back to Scope In many cases e.g. for the production of catalogues, indexes, toponymic lists and other works of a bibliographic nature which are meant to be used by people who can only be expected to be familiar with the Latin alphabet, or for typographical reasons, it will not be possible or practical to use the characters of a non-Latin script. In that case, transcription or transliteration will be necessary.
Transliteration is the process by which the letters of an alphabetic writing system are converted into the symbols of another alphabetic system e.g. Cyrillic or Greek into the Latin alphabet. There are problems caused by alternative systems of transliteration e.g. Чехов can be transliterated Tchehov or Chekhov.
Calimera Guidelines 306 Multilingualism Transcription is the process by which the sounds of a language are converted into the symbols of another language. Transcription may in principle be used for the sounds of any language, but it is the only system which can be used to convert the sounds of non-alphabetic languages such as Chinese into the symbols of the Latin or some other alphabetic system.
Clearly there are problems of standardisation as a result of transliteration and transcription. Different systems or variation in practice would cause difficulties in searching databases. At the moment there is no standardised name record format relevant to the needs of European cultural institutions but a prototype has been developed by the LEAF project (Linking and Exploring Authority Files) [24] funded by the EC from March 2001 to 2004. The project results will be implemented by extending MALVINE, an online search service for post-medieval manuscripts, into a global multilingual information service about persons and corporate bodies [25].
International standards are being developed for the transliteration of a variety of languages. For example there is a standard for the transliteration of Indic scripts ISO 15919:2001, Transliteration of Devanagari and related Indic scripts into Latin characters [26].
Machine Translation (MT) Back to Scope At one time great hopes were entertained of MT but in view of the effort expended on it over the last fifty years the results may be seen as disappointing. The kind of problems which are encountered and which have so far proved impossible to solve are, for example: • ambiguities in the meanings of words; • differences in word order; • as yet no way has been found to give computers any knowledge of the real world or context or readership.
The effectiveness of MT systems is dependent on a number of factors e.g. documents must be free of any typographic or grammatical errors, words not in the dictionary of the system, or complex sentence structures.
MT is the application of computers to the task of translating texts from one natural language to another and nowadays includes software ranging from simple dictionary lookup programs used as word-processor add-ons to sophisticated batch-translation systems. Viable applications for MT include: • content scanning, that is using a translation system simply to obtain a rough draft so as to be able to get the general gist of a text; • screening large numbers of documents to identify those warranting human translation; • assisting human translators - computer-aided translation (CAT) software uses a variety of linguistic tools to improve the productivity of translators, particularly when translating highly repetitive texts such as technical documentation.
There are a number of websites offering both free and charged translation services on the World Wide Web. If a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is entered MT software Calimera Guidelines 307 Multilingualism can translate a webpage and documents can be translated automatically. These sites also often offer translation by human beings, for example AltaVista Babelfish, Google Language Tools, World Lingo, Free Translation, and Systran. The Yahoo Language Translation and Interpretation Resources page is a useful source of information about MT sites [27]. A gateway to a number of web-based translation services, including Internet search engines, is Babblefish [28].
For more information about MT see the website of the European Association for Machine Translation [29].
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Work is already underway to establish a multilingual portal to the cultural heritage of Europe. MICHAEL, the Multilingual Inventory of Cultural Heritage in Europe [30], is a spin-off from the MINERVA project [31]. It will develop a trans-European inventory of the digital cultural heritage of Italy, France and the UK which will be made available to the public, utilising an open source platform which will allow extension to other countries.
The European Library [32], developed by the TEL project, will be launched in 2005 as a portal offering access to the combined resources of the 43 national libraries of Europe. It will use MACS to allow cross-language retrieval. This type of service provides a platform for research into multilingual access issues.
It would be useful to have more central resources of materials in minority languages along the lines of Denmark’s Indvandrerbiblioteket, a national resource centre for books and other media in foreign languages for ethnic minorities in Denmark. A central resource is especially useful where the minority language speakers are well dispersed throughout society and not concentrated in particular places, making local provision uneconomic.
The EC Joint Interpreting and Conference Service (SCIC - from the French acronym) [33] has as one of its objectives to exploit the possibilities offered by new technologies. It has set up a unit consisting of members of staff who test new communication tools and search for ways of bringing multilingualism to channels of communication such as multilingual chats on Internet, multilingual communication in the media, and multilingual virtual conferences.
The Cross-Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF) and CLEF 2004 [34] have done a lot of research into multilingual information retrieval. It is to be hoped that such work will form the basis for future developments.
Although imperfect in many ways, it would be useful to have some form of machine translation for minority languages, especially those spoken by minorities, not just the major languages of Europe.
Voice-to-voice translation Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 308 Multilingualism Voice-to-voice translation, that is a machine which translates spoken language from one language to another, is still science fiction but might be developed in the comparatively distant future. Such a device would involve the perfection of a number of complex technologies, each of which at present has many shortcomings, including: • voice recognition i.e. a machine which accurately converts spoken language to written text; • machine translation i.e. a machine which translates text from one language to another; • text back to speech. Commercial speech recognition software which converts speech to text is available but the results are not yet satisfactory. 95% accurate means 5% inaccurate or 5 mistakes in every 100 words (e.g. 20 in this paragraph). The shortcomings of text-to- text machine translation have already been discussed. For machine translation to have any chance of working, input to it must be perfect and all voice recognition software generates errors. Text can be converted to speech with some success; this is the only part of the requisite technology which is as yet in an adequate condition.
Future developments should see improvements in multilingual access to our common heritage through, for example, multilingual inventories of digitised content, multilingual authority files, online automatic translation, and standards for multilingual websites.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/148.htm
[2] Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in the Information Society. UNESCO, 2003. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001329/132965e.pdf
[3] Action Plan on Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity for 2004 – 2006 http://ww2.eblul.org:8080/eblul/Public/le_bureau/press_releases/european_commissi on/view
[4] European Year of Languages http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/actions/year2001_en.h tml
[5] European Day of Languages http://www.ecml.at/edl/default.asp?t=start
[6] Mercator http://www.mercator-central.org
[7] European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages (EBLUL) http://ww2.eblul.org:8080/eblul/
Calimera Guidelines 309 Multilingualism [8] Council of Europe's Recommendation 1598 (2003) Protection of sign languages in the member states of the Council of Europe. http://assembly.coe.int/documents/AdoptedText/TA03/EREC1598.htm
[9] e-Content programme http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/call4.htm
[10] MACS (Multilingual Access to Subjects) http://infolab.kub.nl/prj/macs/
[11] ISO 5964:1985 Guidelines for the establishment and development of multilingual thesauri http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=12159
[12] ISO 2788:1986 Guidelines for the establishment and development of monolingual thesauri http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=7776
[13] BS 9723: a new British Standard for structured vocabularies [by] Stella G. Dextre Clarke. http://www.glam.ac.uk/soc/research/hypermedia/NKOS- workshop%20Folder/dextre_clarke.ppt
[14] Guidelines for Forming Language Equivalents: A Model based on the Art and Architecture Thesaurus. Getty Information Institute. http://www.chin.gc.ca/Resources/Publications/Guidelines/English/
[15] Jean Aitchison, Alan Gilchrist [and] David Bawden: Thesaurus construction and use: a practical manual. 4th ed. ASLIB: London, 2000. ISBN 0-85142-446-5
[16] Cultural Website Quality Principles. Minerva Project, 2003. http://www.minervaeurope.org/structure/workinggroups/userneeds/documents/cwqp -uk.htm
[17] Commentary and exploration of the ten ‘quality principles’ published by the Minerva Project and agreed at the 5th NRG meeting in Parma. Draft version 11. Minerva, 2004. http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycommentary/qualitycommentary0 40622draft.pdf
[18] Welsh Language Board http://www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org.uk/
[19] Unicode http://www.unicode.org [20] The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0. Boston, MA, Addison-Wesley, 2003. ISBN 0- 321-18578-1. http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.0/
[21] ISO/IEC 10646:2003 Information technology -- Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS) http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=39921
[22] AsiaSoft http://www.asiasoft.com/ Calimera Guidelines 310 Multilingualism [23] Fingertip Software http://www.fingertipsoft.com/
[24] LEAF project (Linking and Exploring Authority Files) http://www.crxnet.com/leaf/
[25] MALVINE (Manuscripts and Letters via Integrated Networks in Europe) http://www.malvine.org/,
[26] ISO 15919:2001, Transliteration of Devanagari and related Indic scripts into Latin characters. http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=28333& ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=10
[27] AltaVista Babelfish http://babelfish.altavista.com/; Google Language Tools http://www.google.com/language_tools?hl=en; World Lingo http://www.worldlingo.com/products_services/worldlingo_translator.htm;l Free Translation http://www.freetranslation.com/; Systran http://www.systransoft.com/; Yahoo Language Translation and Interpretation Resources http://dir.yahoo.com/Social_Science/Linguistics_and_Human_Languages/Translation _and_Interpretation/
[28] Babblefish http://www.babblefish.com/babblefish/
[29] European Association for Machine Translation http://www.eamt.org/index.html
[30] MICHAEL, the Multilingual Inventory of Cultural Heritage in Europe http://66.102.9.104/custom?q=cache:4y19yGtoMJUJ:www.minervaeurope.org/event s/documents/piccininno040413.ppt+michael&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
[31] MINERVA project http://www.minervaeurope.org/
[32] The European Library http://www.europeanlibrary.org/
[33] The EC Joint Interpreting and Conference Service (SCIC) http://europa.eu.int/comm/scic/newtechnology/technology_en.htm#1
[34] The Cross-Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF) http://clef.iei.pi.cnr.it/ and CLEF 2004 http://www.delos.info/eventlist/CLEF2004.html
LINKS Back to Scope
Denmark
Danish Central Library for Immigrant Literature (Indvandrerbiblioteket)
Calimera Guidelines 311 Multilingualism Set up to deal with the cultural needs of recent immigrants and contains over 146,000 items in about 100 languages. Collections are maintained in about 50 languages. http://www.indvandrerbiblioteket.dk
FINFO - Information for Ethnic Minorities in Denmark The overall aim of FINFO is to provide representatives of ethnic minorities with better access to information in their own languages about their rights, obligations and opportunities in Danish society. http://www.finfo.dk/
Germany
Online-Auskunft The Zentral- und Landesbibliothek Berlin is the first German-language library to use QuestionPoint for virtual reference (it translated the interface into German). The user can choose between several different languages (English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Slovak, Chinese, Japanese and Korean) to ask a question. http://www.zlb.de/fragen_sie_uns/ask_a_librarian
Norway
BAZAR A multilingual portal to information about Norwegian society and culture aimed at ethnic minorities living in Norway. The website also gives links to newspapers in different languages. BAZAR is available in 14 languages. http://www.bazar.deichman.no
Detektor Searchable, annotated subject directory of Internet resources in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, English and other languages. Dublin Core elements are used to describe the resources, but with local adjustments. http://detektor.deichman.no/
United Kingdom
Multikulti Joint project set up by the London Advice Services Alliance and the London Libraries Development Agency to provide information on welfare issues in a wide variety of languages. Awarded the “Communications Social Innovations” award for 2004 by the Global Ideas Bank (Institute for Social Inventions) (http://www.globalideasbank.org/site/news/). The website is based on the MKDoc Content Management System (http://mkdoc.com/) which allows websites to be created that meet current accessibility standards. Due to the use of Unicode in the website it is possible for it to be viewed on all browsers and on all computing platforms. http://www.multikulti.org.uk/
Norfolk County Council @ your service Foreign language welcome leaflets are available online in 33 languages. http://www.norfolk.gov.uk/leisure/libraries/welcome.htm
Back to contents Calimera Guidelines 312 Multilingualism Calimera Guidelines Personalisation
SCOPE
Issues dealt with in this guideline include: User authentication Privacy Smartcards and swipe cards Payment systems Personalisation Recommender systems Personalised information retrieval Portals Interactive fora and online communities Virtual museums, libraries and archives Smart labels and tags Agent technology Mobile access Lifelong learning Implications for staff roles and training
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The EU is supporting research into knowledge technologies and the KTWeb project has recognised that “more research should be undertaken specifically focusing on contextual retrieval, personalisation and user profiling”. [1]
Sophisticated forms of personalised services are already common in the financial and commercial worlds, where they are regarded as valuable tools in marketing and to retain customer loyalty. They are becoming increasingly popular in other sectors such as education and tourism, and offer exciting possibilities for the cultural sector to add value to services by taking into account the specific interests and characteristics of users. The more collections are digitised, the more opportunities there are for personalisation.
Personalisation should not be introduced for its own sake however, but only when it brings added value to a good proportion of users. Complex personalisation systems may not be good value as compared with good basic web navigation facilities and access for groups such as disabled people from the home page. Personalisation systems should be simple to operate or people will not take the time or make the effort to use them.
Personalisation could lead to changes in the way museums, libraries and archives operate. For example, there will be an impact on performance measurement, with
Calimera Guidelines 313 Personalisation opportunities to obtain more detailed management information. Also the change from "product push" to "user pull" will impact on the role of staff, and the implications for staff training will need to be addressed.
Because of the level of complexity and expense of personalisation systems, institutions will probably need to co-operate with other organisations to provide personalised access across a range of different museums, libraries, archives and other services.
Many personalisation systems use smartcard technology, requiring increasingly sophisticated authentication techniques. Museums, libraries and archives must be aware of the coming changes to systems of authentication and the possibility of this process either becoming more complex and expensive or being taken out of their control. This is an area where co-operation may be necessary or desirable, but institutions will need to decide whether to undertake their own authentication procedures or rely on those of third parties.
Ethical issues such as protection of privacy will need to be addressed, perhaps through a code of conduct. The issue of integrating user databases with content databases will also need to be dealt with.
For a discussion of the issues to be considered in setting up a personalisation system see "The personalization challenge in public libraries: perspectives and prospects" by Christopher Chia and June Garcia [1], and “Personalisation and the web from a museum perspective” by Jonathan P. Bowen and Sylvia Filippini-Fantoni [2].
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
A personalised system is one which responds differently to different people, either because of their response (explicit or implicit) to questions asked by the system at the time, or because of their previous interaction with the system. In order to provide a personalised service the system must be able to identify the person, which involves user authentication.
User authentication (see also the guideline on Security) Back to Scope Authentication is the process by which the electronic identity of a client is asserted to, and validated by, an information system, using a credential issued following a registration process. It may involve establishing that the client is the true holder of that credential by means of a password or biometric. A biometric authentication involves the identification of fingerprints, facial features, voiceprints or retinal patterns. The registration process will have involved the production of some real- world identification process such as a driver’s licence, passport, or birth-certificate etc. There are different levels of authentication; the following are listed in order of the degree of security they provide: • obscurity is based on the assumption that only authorised users will know the name of a file or database and that the databases are sufficiently protected by this alone;
Calimera Guidelines 314 Personalisation • simple authentication uses shared secrets (passwords) which are exchanged as clear text and which provide very little assurance of the identity of the sender of the message. For example passwords can be lost or stolen; users tend to choose obvious words to be their passwords; they often have to remember a number of them and are tempted to make notes of them so undermining their usefulness as guarantors of identity. A single password may even be shared by a group of people. There exist types of software designed to “sniff” or observe the use or exchange of passwords and intercept them; • protected authentication is similar but does not rely on clear text exchange of the passwords and therefore protects against interception and replay of communication; • strong authentication uses an encrypted secret known only to the sender of the message to guarantee his identity. This type of authentication may be needed for purposes of non-repudiation, i.e. the authenticated sender of the message cannot later deny having sent it if, for example, he orders some goods or services.
Identification systems can be bought off the peg e.g. the Athens Access Management System [3], an access management system controlling access to online databases, and Kerberos [4], a network authentication protocol which uses secret key cryptography.
Authentication in the near future will probably be done by local or central government agencies which will issue members of the public with an all-purpose form of identification, probably some kind of smartcard, which will give holders access to a range of services including museums, libraries and archives.
Privacy Back to Scope The coming age of personalisation systems will end the relative anonymity of users and pose an ethical dilemma to cultural heritage institutions. When people identify themselves to an electronic information system they have made it easy for their activities to be monitored in a way which it is impossible for them to deny. Policies must allow people to opt out of some of the electronic systems which track usage and must give them the guarantee that data of this kind will remain private and never divulged.
Biometric authentication systems such as fingerprinting have advantages such as the elimination of the problem of lost tickets. However people must individually agree to such a system and alternatives made available for those who do not wish to take part.
The EU Data Protection Directive [5] requires all organisations making use of user profiling to declare explicitly to the user what they will use the data for. (See also the guideline on Legal and rights issues.)
Smartcards and swipe cards Back to Scope These are not technical terms and are sometimes not used with precision, but the following distinction is usually observed: • Swipe cards: plastic cards with a magnetic strip on them which, on being swiped through a groove or slot, identify a user and permit them to access certain Calimera Guidelines 315 Personalisation facilities. They may, for example, open a door or let them use a computer terminal. They do not contain any more information than is necessary to identify the individual, the real information about them being held on a database. • Smartcards may be physically identical to swipe cards and work in the same way but unlike swipe cards they contain a microchip which can contain information about a particular individual and can carry out calculations. This information will not be stored on any other database. Contactless smartcards are now becoming more common. These have an embedded inductive loop aerial which allows them to work in proximity to a contactless card reader without physically making contact. These types of cards are already used by several toll systems and mass transit operators including the London Underground.
Swipe cards are cheap but smartcards are fairly expensive to issue and uneconomic for most museums, libraries and archives as a stand-alone application. However, some local authorities use them to provide access to a range of services including libraries, museums and archives as well as car parks, swimming pools etc. Several European cities have introduced multipurpose cards under the Multi-application SmartCities project [6]. There are a large number of standards relevant to smartcards - also called identification cards and financial transaction cards [7].
Smartcards are a potential way of providing or controlling access to a range of services without time-consuming staff involvement other than that involved in updating, personalising and issuing the card, e.g.: • as a way of charging for goods and services such as photocopies, print-outs, subscription online databases, e-books, or items from a gift shop, either on site or remotely; • to restrict access to predetermined web sites e.g. for children (a basic list of sites could be provided with parents able to modify it if they wish); • to provide access to subscription-based services e.g. for business users; • to provide access to the personalised choices of the user of a network e.g. show on the screen the services that user has chosen and no others, or their favoured fonts, templates, language and other settings; • to regulate the time spent by users of certain services such as the Internet, which it is difficult for staff to supervise.
Paymentsystems Back to Scope Museums, libraries and archives may wish to charge users for some services, or may sell goods, or they may wish to charge users who make use of their facilities from remote locations, or to charge other organisations (e.g. for interlibrary loans). They will need a higher level of security for functions involving payment than for others. There are electronic systems of payment involving the use of smartcards and PCs, or substitutes for PCs such as digital televisions. Points to note include: • value may be held in an encrypted file on a PC or equivalent and protected by a password. It may be transferable to another PC using currently available technology; • smartcards are hard to counterfeit, though they can be stolen and their loss is the equivalent to losing cash as the value cannot be refunded; • several different payment mechanisms can be combined on the same smartcard e.g. Visa, MasterCard etc.; Calimera Guidelines 316 Personalisation • money can be transferred over the telephone and from one card to another; • payment using a smartcard will be quick, as validation is not necessary, and anonymous as information about the buyer is not transferred with the payment. In this it resembles the use of cash; • smartcards may be reloadable i.e. value can be uploaded and the card can be reused indefinitely.
There are standards on electronic transactions e.g. CEPS (Common Electronic Purse Specifications) [8] and EEP (European Electronic Purse) [9]. In general a number of conditions for electronic charging systems are required: • there must be some evidence that the apparent originator of an electronic transaction is the authenticated user associated with that ID (non-repudiation); • there must be evidence that the intended recipient of a message really got it (evidence of receipt); • there must be evidence that an electronic communication was not tampered with in transit.
Personalisation Back to Scope Personalisation functions could include: • enabling institutions to: ° treat users as individuals – greet them by name, avoid asking them twice for the same information, etc.; ° provide users with information on new materials, web sites, etc. based on their stated areas of interest. This could be done by means of alerts sent by e-mail or SMS (Short Message Service). Users could have more than one identity for this purpose e.g. a work identity, a learning identity and a leisure identity; ° provide users with personalised search results in response to queries. • enabling users to: ° manage their own library transactions; ° order up books, documents etc. which they wish to see on their next visit to the archive or library; ° reserve computers, microfilm readers etc. to be used on their next visit; ° book visits to exhibitions, buy tickets to events, order items from gift shops, order print-outs, copies etc.; ° build their own personal museum, library or archive by saving URLs, bibliographical details, etc.; ° design their own web page - especially useful for those requiring special access facilities such as print impaired people or those using a different language - and select which services they want to receive; ° personalise their visits to a museum; ° create a visit plan prior to a visit, taking into account personal interests and such things as whether children will be included in the group; ° create their own virtual exhibitions; ° interact with others with similar interests so building virtual communities of interest.
Personalisation can take place on 2 levels: • aimed at individuals;
Calimera Guidelines 317 Personalisation • aimed at groups e.g. children, business users. When aimed at groups, requirements specific to those groups can be incorporated e.g. filtering of websites for children, service in a minority language for linguistic minorities.
Personalisation can be brought about in two ways: • implicit personalisation (computer driven) - the system tracks usage patterns and preferences and adapts systems and interfaces accordingly (e.g. Amazon [10], A9 [11], and eurekster [12]; • explicit personalisation (under user control) - systems which can hold data about users with their full knowledge and which can enable users to identify themselves and so gain access to services which they have customised deliberately (e.g. most Internet portals such as My Yahoo [13]). This type of personalisation has enormous potential in the cultural sector. Applications can include alerts, newsletters, calendars, etc. Institutions can also offer on their websites tools to allow users to save images, articles, links, search results etc. during navigation, and so create a personal environment within the website to which they can return and find information of interest and to which they can continuously add new items. So far only a few large museums have been able to put such ideas into practice, e.g. the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the Louvre, Paris, and the UK National Museum of Science and Industry (see links).
Recommendersystems Back to Scope These are systems which take input directly from the user, and based on user needs, preferences and known usage patterns built up over time, make recommendations of products and services e.g. collections to browse, books to buy/read, websites to visit. The idea is that the user can get what they want without having to ask. The technologies involved in recommender systems are information filtering, collaborated filtering, user profiling, machine learning, case based retrieval, data mining, and similarity-based retrieval. For example a user who visits sites on Monet and Renoir could be directed to sites on French impressionism in general. Examples include Amazon [10] (available on several country-specific sites and Whichbook.net [14], a site which recommends books to read.
Personalised information retrieval Back to Scope Information retrieval using popular search engines can result in millions of documents being retrieved. Searchers typically will only look at the first page or two of results and so may miss relevant information.
Relevance feedback systems work towards overcoming this problem. There are two types of relevance feedback system – explicit and implicit. • Explicit relevance feedback relies on the searcher indicating which documents contain relevant information. The system then creates a revised query based on the documents indicated. This can go on until the searcher is happy with the results. There are various drawbacks to this system, e.g.; ° it is very time consuming for the searcher; ° there is no middle ground - the searcher must indicate that the document is either relevant or not relevant. • Implicit relevance feedback infers which pages are relevant by analysing user actions such as time taken to read a page, links followed, scrollbar activities, Calimera Guidelines 318 Personalisation mouseovers, etc. The system then generates successively expanded queries based on an estimate of the user’s needs. Over time the user is exposed to more relevant information. Two different responses to the same initial query can develop: ° the user’s information need becomes more crystallised and the results more targeted; ° the user’s information need changes in the light of new information received. Over time the system will look at any new search terms inserted by the user, or new links followed, and develop new queries based on these, so finding different results.
Image retrieval is another way of personalising information retrieval which is particularly relevant to the museum and art gallery domain. Users start by browsing a set of images. Based on their selection, new images are presented and a search path develops. This allows for direct searching without the need for formal description of the information need.
Portals Back to Scope Portals too can offer searchers something more targeted than a search-engine result set. A portal brings together content from diverse distributed resources, collates it into an amalgamated form, and presents it to the user, usually via a web browser, though other means are also possible such as via alerting services. Many organisations are now developing portal-type access to their services for their customers. Banks are encouraging their customers to manipulate their own bank accounts on-line and supermarkets are providing automated shopping facilities which have a memory of the customer’s previous choices. The purpose of the customised portal is to save information for customers and avoid presenting them with information they do not need: a potential solution to the problem of information overload. Portals can: • enable users to create their own information and research environments. This could be particularly useful to people without Internet access at home or at work; • be customised to specific user groups such as students. Portals, or subject gateways, are often useful for educational purposes.
Interactive fora and online communities Back to Scope A number of institutions now offer interactive fora to their users to enable them to review or discuss exhibitions, books, films, music etc. Such sites can be a good way of communicating with users, especially special groups of users, and of keeping them up to date with events, recent acquisitions etc. It is possible for this kind of site to be customised so that readers can elect to be notified only about news of interest to them. Once people have applied for personalised alerts etc, it is possible to identify communities of users with similar interests and to enable them to interact with each other, if they wish to do so (see privacy). Online forums can be created to facilitate discussion and debate and the sharing of news, etc., particularly valuable for teachers and students who can set up virtual learning environments (see lifelong learning).
Virtual museums, libraries and archives Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 319 Personalisation A virtual museum, library or archive can either be linked to one physical institution, or it can exist only as a virtual institution. In the latter case it will usually have been created by a consortium drawing on the contents of many institutions.
Museums and heritage sites are increasingly setting up websites which are essentially virtual museums. These enable users to create their own virtual visits according to their interests, rearrange the exhibits, learn about specific items at a level of detail which they can choose, use virtual tour guides, etc.
Virtual archives can enable users to examine archives according to a theme or subject regardless of their physical arrangement or geographical location.
Libraries and archives can offer their users virtual enquiry services. These can be, for example: • e-mail and phone based services which connect with the institution’s website, collection of Internet links, computerised catalogue etc. Systems of this kind are often connected with an enquiry management system, which records details of enquiries and enquirers. Essex Libraries Answers Direct service is an example of this type of service (see Links). • e-mail enquiry services making use of “chat” or live-interaction software, enabling the user to communicate directly with a member of staff. Gateshead Libraries' Live Help is an example (see Links). This type of service is ideally suited to explaining to people about the use of digital resources such as on-line databases and websites which can be explored together and transferred directly to the user without having to be described in words. Enquiries can be transferred live, while the user is still on-line, to another institution which has similar software. There are some commercially produced examples of this type of software [15]. For a discussion of “virtual libraries” see Digital Reference Overview: an issue paper from the Networked Services Policy Task Group. UKOLN, February 2003. [16].
Smart labels and tags Back to Scope RFID (radio frequency identification) labels or tags have considerable advantages over barcodes. For example: • as they use radio frequencies to transmit data to a reader, they do not require line of sight or close proximity to the reader in order to be read; • they are (re)programmable and so can be used more than once and for more than one function; • they are physically durable and not susceptible to damage from dirt, grease or water, and so can be used outside on heritage sites etc.; • they can be fixed to or embedded unobtrusively in virtually any object, which is important given the variety of objects and media held in heritage institutions; Smart tags can be used for work processes such as inventory management, check-in and check-out of library books, and anti-theft control. However they can also be used to provide innovative guiding services and to study visitor behaviour. Possibilities for personalising visits could include: • issuing visitors with a smart tag which they can take round an exhibition and use to get information about particular objects. At the end of the visit the data collected on the tag can be downloaded and a printout of pictures of the objects they were particularly interested in can be given to them to take away; Calimera Guidelines 320 Personalisation • combined with headphones or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), visitors to a heritage site could wander around at will listening to or reading information about features as they approach them. The language in which the information is given, and the level of information, can be tailored to the visitors’ needs; • used with avatars or robots they can guide people round an exhibition, focussing on items of interest to the person or group. This could be especially useful for groups of children. There are some disadvantages associated with smart tags, e.g. • they are comparatively expensive as compared with barcodes; • they have a fairly short lifespan, not important in a retail setting but very important in the heritage sector; • standards have not yet been defined. - JTC1/SC31 19762 Part 2 [17] is still under development.
For a description of this technology and examples of applications see New Technologies for the Cultural and Scientific Heritage Sector. Digicult Technology Watch Report 1, February 2003. ISBN 92-894-5275-7. pp. 63-93. [18]
AgentTechnology Back to Scope The term “agent” has no clear or settled definition at the moment but it seems to be most often used to refer to a program that gathers information or performs some other service without the immediate presence of the user. By means of algorithms, an agent learns about its user’s habits and preferences over time and becomes more useful the more it is used. Agents can also take the form of avatars (human or animal substitutes) or robots (physical mobile agents). Applications for agents could include: • Internet searching. The role of the face-to-face interview with the user will always be important but the process of guiding people to suitable websites and other types of high quality information can be automated by agent technology. An agent compares favourably with a search engine. It could for example: ° not confine its search to the World Wide Web; ° use controlled vocabulary to search the World Wide Web more intelligently; ° remember where it has searched successfully in the past. It can update its own knowledge and find particular documents even if they move; ° search the Internet continuously and automatically, during times when it is quiet; ° tell users about new information in which they might be interested. It could have a memory of the uses to which the user has put its previous findings. Avatars are currently most often used in games software, but applications in the cultural sector could include: • acting as tour guides in virtual exhibitions; • presenting or teaching performance arts e.g. dance; • acting as “talking heads” to communicate information, news, or stories. Robots could be used: • as tour guides in actual exhibitions. Agent technology can be personalised: • by designing the appearance of an avatar; • by tailoring it to the user’s interests, language, abilities or disabilities.
Calimera Guidelines 321 Personalisation One way of personalising is by using “skin technology”, which controls the delivery of standard content according to the “skin” chosen by the user. “Skins” can be designed for different groups of user, can present content in chosen fonts and languages, and can filter out content which the user has indicated no wish to see.
Examples (see links) of agent technology include: • SEONAID - to present government information in a user-friendly way (see the guideline on eGovernment and citizenship); • the Peranakans Project – a compelling learning environment (see lifelong learning); • the TOURBOT project – a robotic tour guide.
For a description of agent technology and a discussion of its possible uses in the cultural sector, see Digicult Technology Watch Report 2: Emerging technologies for the cultural and scientific sector. February 2004. ISBN 9289452765. [19].
Mobile access Back to Scope People now expect services to be available whenever and wherever they need them. Cellular ‘phones, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), and wireless communication protocols such as Bluetooth [20], WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) [21] and GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) [22] are making this possible. In combination with RFID tagging of objects, museums, libraries and archives can assist the location of specific books or items with a mobile device which directs the visitor towards particular objects or shelves. When a mobile device is integrated with the web or the institution’s own intranet then visitors can personalise their visit by accessing different levels of information. In the case of outdoor heritage sites, the ubiquitous connection offered by wireless networks makes visitors independent of human tour guides. All this has implications for lifelong learning.
Lifelong learning (see also the guideline on Learning) Back to Scope Personalised systems have the potential to facilitate the learning process. Learning is stimulated when the information is described in terms the user can understand and if it makes reference to their interests. The use of personalisation systems in university libraries has shown that they can be of great use to learners by selecting and filtering information and tailoring it to their course requirements. Similarly in the archives domain personalisation systems can direct learners to related collections of interest. Personalised museum tours can increase the enjoyment of the learner and stimulate post-visit study, particularly if it refers back to and builds on concepts the learner has encountered during the visit. An example of such a service is the GettyGuide (see links). Online communities of interest are particularly useful in the education sector as they enable discussion and the exchange of ideas between teachers and students and among learners themselves. It is also possible to create personalised portals where teachers can give access to specific resources tailored to coursework or curricula. However, systems must be chosen that do not narrow people's access to information; they must still be exposed to new ideas.
Implications for staff roles and training (see also the guideline on Staffing) Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 322 Personalisation The change from "product push" to "user pull" will impact on the role of staff, and the implications for staff training will need to be addressed. Their role will be transformed from simply providing access to managing multiple channels of access and fostering co-creation of content. If smart tags are introduced there may well be a move away from traditional duties such as check-in/out services in libraries, which could lead to staff being employed in more user-focussed work, or even to job cuts. Staff will need to be very aware of the different needs of individuals or groups. There will also be a need for more technical skills.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
Smartcards can be expected to become the standard way of gaining access to local authority and other services. Portals, intelligent agents and filtered Internet environments can all be activated by the use of smartcards and they can be used in user-authentication much more effectively than the existing password based systems. It is likely that citizens in the future will be able, or even required, to possess a single smartcard which will identify and authenticate them to all central and local government organisations. Smartcards may well become the normal way of paying even quite small debts to local authorities and their agencies and it is even possible that this method of payment may become the preferred way because it may reduce costs. Cash does not have to be handled, counted or banked, bank charges may be smaller, mistakes will be fewer etc. Use of biometric methods of user authentication may become normal in the public services generally. Future systems of authentication may have several layers; e.g. a person may be entitled to borrow items from a library, but not entitled to use a portal, personalised OPAC, or fee- based service.
Much personalisation is currently at the experimental stage and only available as prototypes. Costs of personalisation systems are likely to decrease and could increasingly be packaged with standard web software and management systems as experience of what is useful is gained.
Smart tags are likely to come down in price, to become more durable, and, standards should be finalised in the near future. As more and more commercial industries use smart tags the technology will be developed and improvements in read range, read rate and memory capacity can be expected. This will lead to wider use in museums, libraries and archives both for better housekeeping systems and also for exciting and innovative personalised services.
The development of agent technology is progressing rapidly and different types are being integrated to create highly sophisticated robots which will perform several complex tasks simultaneously and relieve the user of much routine work. Currently expensive, this technology should become cheaper as it becomes more pervasive. Meanwhile institutions should introduce agent technology in conjunction with an already existing virtual exhibition, and should consider consortiums to share the costs.
Calimera Guidelines 323 Personalisation Future research needs to focus on developing user-driven research tools and services able to integrate the learning and research behaviours of users.
Interactive television may eventually take over from the Internet as the information- seeking or “edutainment” tool of choice. Home media systems already exist which bring together the features of TV, video and computer to personalise the use of TV. People can already choose which programme to watch, vote online, take part in online quizzes, organise their own TV schedule etc. It is likely that niche TV markets will develop and cultural heritage institutions will need to use these new channels of communication as well as or instead of websites.
People on the move will increasingly expect services such as personalised alerts to be delivered to their mobile ‘phone using WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) technology. They will also expect to take their PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) to a museum, library or archive and save personalised information to it for later use etc. Wireless connectivity, global positioning systems, and mobile computing are likely to be integrated into PDAs within about five years. The conjunction of mobile technologies and digital museums, libraries and archives will eventually enable ‘on demand’ delivery of textual and other content to PDAs, regardless of location. Museums will be able to revolutionise the ways in which secondary resources are presented to visitors in relation to artefacts: exhibitions can be arranged according to entirely new themes, not necessarily arranged in traditional chronological patterns, and visitors will be empowered to create virtual exhibitions using their own portable devices.
The challenge for cultural heritage institutions is to develop personalisation systems which users can access form anywhere at any time containing their own unique identity, operating environment, and with content and services customised to their needs. This will give them a competitive edge and retain loyal users.
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] Raising awareness for knowledge technologies. http://istresults.cordis.lu/index.cfm/section/news/Tpl/article/BrowsingType/Short%20 Feature/ID/58935/highlights/personalisation
[1] The personalization challenge in public libraries: perspectives and prospects by Christopher Chia and June Garcia. http://stiftung.bertelsmann.de/documents/Personalisation_engl.pdf
[2] Personalisation and the web from a museum perspective by Jonathan P. Bowen and Sylvia Filippini-Fantoni. http://my.museophile.net
[3] Athens Access Management System http://www.athens.ac.uk/
[4] Kerberos http://web.mit.edu/kerberos/www/
[5] The EU Data Protection Directive (EU Directive 95/46/EC
Calimera Guidelines 324 Personalisation http://www.dataprivacy.ie/6aii.htm
[6] SmartCities project http://dbs.cordis.lu/fep- cgi/srchidadb?ACTION=D&CALLER=PROJ_IST&QF_EP_RPG=IST-1999-12252 For a list of the cities involved see http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/smartcard/index.html. For a description of the Dundee Discovery Card see The smart city by Sid Bulloch in Journal of the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals in Scotland, June 2004 Volume 2 (3). http://www.slainte.org.uk/publications/serials/infoscot/vol2(3)/vol2(3)article2.html
[7] ICS field 35.240.15: Identification cards and related devices http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueListPage.CatalogueList?ICS1=35&ICS2=240&IC S3=15
[8] CEPS (Common Electronic Purse Specifications) http://www.cepsco.org/
[9] EEP (European Electronic Purse) http://www.ecbs.org/
[10] Amazon http://www.amazon.com .
[11] A9 http://a9.com/
[12] eurekster http://home.eurekster.com/
[13] My Yahoo http://my.yahoo.com
[14] Whichbook.net http://www.whichbook.net
[15] For reviews of some commercially produced examples of this software see Live, Digital Reference Marketplace by Buff Hirko in Library Journal 15th October 2002. http://www.libraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA251679&publica tion=libraryjournal
[16] Digital Reference Overview: an issue paper from the Networked Services Policy Task Group. UKOLN, February 2003. http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/nsptg/virtual/.
[17] JTC1/SC31 19762 Part 2; Information technology -- Automatic identification and data capture techniques -- Harmonized vocabulary -- Part 2: Optically readable media (ORM) http://www.iso.org/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/techprog/workprog/TechnicalProgramme ProjectDetailPage.TechnicalProgrammeProjectDetail?csnumber=37433
[18] New Technologies for the Cultural and Scientific Heritage Sector. Digicult Technology Watch Report 1, February 2003. ISBN 92-894-5275-7. pp. 63-93. http://www.digicult.info/pages/techwatch.php
Calimera Guidelines 325 Personalisation [19] Digicult Technology Watch Report 2: Emerging technologies for the cultural and scientific sector. February 2004. ISBN 9289452765. http://www.digicult.info/pages/techwatch.php
[20] Bluetooth http://www.bluetooth.com/
[21] WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/wap/
[22] GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml
LINKS Back to Scope
Europe
The PAST project This was a prototype exploiting a number of key technologies (handheld PCs, wireless networks, dynamic user profiling techniques, dynamic scheduling and planning techniques, and XML technologies) to create a wireless e-guide for archaeological sites. A demo is available at http://www.beta80group.it/past/
Belgium
The "Brussels Card" This card entitles the holder to free access to nearly all the museums in Brussels. The Brussels Card is valid for three days and contains a chip card, a ticket for public transport and an illustrated guide. http://www.brusselsmuseums.be/fr/brusscard/index.php
Czech Republic
Information services of the Masaryk public library (MVK) Online bulletin about MVK news and activities (new library acquisitions, writer/reader meetings, information about regional cultural life, etc.). It consists of links to specific web pages which are selected by topic and changed monthly. Readers can choose to have it delivered by e-mail or traditional methods. http://www.mvk.cz/index.php?page=infoservis&menu=z
France
The Louvre, Paris A customised alert system is planned which will allow visitors to complete a profile detailing their interests and whenever an event of interest is due they will be automatically informed by e-mail or text message. http://www.louvre.fr/
Germany
Calimera Guidelines 326 Personalisation TOURBOT TOURBOT, an EU funded project, developed an interactive museum robot for the Beethoven-Haus, Bonn. For a description see Reitelmann, A.: The TOURBOT Project in Ecsite-Newsletter, vol. 53, 2002, p.8. http://www.ecsite-uk.net/news/ecsite/ecsite_newsletter_53_winter_2002.pdf
Greece
Archeoguide Provides personalised and thematic navigation aids around heritage sites taking into account cultural and linguistic background, age and skills. http://archeoguide.intranet.gr/project.htm
Italy
Carrara Marble Museum Users can select a predefined profile (tourist, student or expert), or define their own profile, and access to the web site will be customised. http://giove.cnuce.cnr.it/Museoeng.html
Lithuania
MetaLib - Virtual Library Portal This portal offers personalisation tools such as the ability to save search results and track the history of searches, and set display options. http://www.library.lt
The Netherlands
Tour of the world in 80 questions The National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden allows children to print out a personalised tour plan based on their choice of subjects and places. It includes maps, descriptions of artefacts, and related questions to answer. http://www.rmv.nl
Singapore
The Peranakans Project This project deals with culture, history and education, with an avatar being used as an immediate, visual and identifiable conduit for learning about different ways of life. http://www.inigraphics.net/press/topics/index.html
Spain
AbsysNET - Catalogo de la Red de Bibliotecas Públicas de Andalucía Integrated library system with new information retrieval functions complemented by personalised services. Users are offered a series of links, recommended bibliographies and other customised services catering to their specific requirements and geared to their preferences. The personalised OPAC takes into account previous interaction with users, thus identifying searching habits. Once users connect to the Calimera Guidelines 327 Personalisation system they are notified about material awaiting collection, overdue items, new acquisitions of interest to them, etc. Users can also store their favourite links on the Internet, update membership details, etc. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/rbpa/
Pacifico II This innovative web design portal has developed novel “middleware” systems which enable the delivery of new applications including: user authentication and authorisation systems, personal preferences handling and e-payment systems. There is a virtual shop to buy surrogates of the different materials, access to the web contents using WAP access, and a service of “remote assistance and consultancy” based on voice-over IP systems. http://www.pacifico.csic.es/
United Kingdom
Essex Libraries Answers Direct An online and telephone enquiry service, connected with an enquiry management system. http://www.essexcc.gov.uk/vip8/ecc/ECCWebsite/display/guideContents/index.jsp?oi d=15545
Gateshead Libraries' Live Help This service uses chat and page push technology to help people to find information by “talking” directly to a librarian. http://www.gateshead.gov.uk/livehelp.htm
Science Museum, London - In Touch project Allows users of interactive exhibits to e-mail them to their home computer for later use. http://www.sciencemuseum-in-touch.org.uk
SEAX SEAX, developed at the Essex record Office (ERO), has a reader management feature which enables the ERO to log on all users, recording the details required by the County Archive Readers Network (CARN). Members of the public can search for documents and then save favourite documents or favourite searches for indefinite periods, and orders for retrieved documents can be placed via SEAX. SEAX tells staff where the documents are stored, alerts users when their documents are ready, allows public and staff to monitor the progress of orders and record issues and returns. Members of the public can also apply for a reader's ticket in advance via the Internet. When logging on to SEAX members of the public can specify the nature and purpose of their research, and can change this if required. They can also view all their orders for the last 2-3 months and cancel orders placed in advance if their plans change. http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/
SEONAID Scotland used this avatar to present government information initially to children in a user-friendly way. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/pages/news/2002/07/SENW058.aspx
UK National Museum of Science and Industry’s Ingenious project Calimera Guidelines 328 Personalisation Registered users have access to personalised pages and are invited to join in live debates and create content. http://www.ingenious.org.uk/
USA
Getty Museum The GettyGuide (http://www.triplecode.com/projects/getty.html) is a PDA which allows visitors to “bookmark” objects during their visit, download them onto the museum kiosk, and then either e-mail them home, or save for future visits where they can be accessed in the kiosk on the MyGetty page. (See also The role of museums in online teaching, learning, and research by Kenneth Hamma, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. 2004. http://www.imls.gov/pubs/webwise2004/wbws04cp4a.htm, and J. Paul Getty Museum Re-Architects Technology to Enhance Visitors' Experience: Sun Consultants and Java Technology Keys to Next-Generation Architecture by David S. Marshak, Patricia Seybold Group. Prepared for Sun Microsystems, Inc., June 2003. http://www.sun.com/service/about/success/recent/getty.html.)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York On the My Met Museum section of the website users can get access to features such as My Met Gallery (gathers user’s favourite works of art from the Museum's online collection), and My Met Calendar (allows users to customise the online calendar so it displays only those events that interest them). They can also register to receive automatic weekly calendar reminders). http://www.metmuseum.org/
San Francisco Museum of Modern Art The “Make your own gallery” kiosk allows visitors to rearrange the pictures in an exhibition and add their own commentary. http://www.sfmoma.org/exhibitions/exhib_detail.asp?id=58
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Calimera Guidelines 329 Personalisation Calimera Guidelines Accessibility for disabled people
SCOPE
The guideline on Social inclusion deals with the need to make services accessible to everyone, including disabled people, and with the management, planning, financial and staffing issues; and the guideline on Multilingualism deals with access in different languages.
This guideline deals with the technological aspects of making services accessible to disabled people, and includes: Disabled people and their needs Physical access Access to information Intellectual access Virtual access Web accessibility Legislation and guidelines
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
There are estimated to be 37 million people with disabilities in the EU, and the number of older Europeans is steadily increasing. Disabled people are people who have difficulty using facilities provided for the general public because of physical or sensory impairments, print disabilities, or learning difficulties. This includes people who are temporarily disabled through accident or illness, those with long-term disabling illnesses such as arthritis, those with age-related disabilities, and learning disabled people. The term physical impairments refers to reduced mobility, reach, balance, stamina and/or height. Sensory impairments include reduced vision and/or hearing. The term “print disabled” covers people with a visual, mental or physical impairment which makes it difficult for them to read conventional print, and includes dyslexic persons.
The EU is committed to making all services available to disabled people (see the European Union Disability Strategy [1]) and accessibility has been included in EU research programmes for more than ten years: • in the TIDE initiative (“Technology Initiative for Disabled and Elderly”, 1991 1997); • in the 4th Framework Programme of the Information Society Technology Programme (“Disabled & Elderly Sector” of the Technology Application Programme – TAP); • in the 5th Framework Programme (“Applications for Persons with Special Needs including the Disabled and Elderly”); • in the 6th Framework Programme, under the Strategic Objective “e-inclusion”;
Calimera Guidelines 330 Accessibility for diasabled people • in the Leonardo da Vinci Programme (ACCELERATE - Access to the Modern Library Services for the Blind and Partially Sighted People was a project involving 2 academic libraries in Greece and Cyprus. A very useful handbook was published. [3] • in the Culture 2000 Programme (“Access to Cultural Heritage: Policies of Presentation and Use” (ACCU) is a three-year international project which started on 1 September 2004. It will promote co-operation between operators in the field of heritage management and offer new tools for accessibility issues. Cultural institutions from six European countries are participating in the project, led by the Finnish National Board of Antiquities (Helsinki, Finland).
Many member states have national legislation and/or guidelines regarding accessibility and these are noted in the Appendix to this guideline.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Services provided can be categorised in three main areas: • physical access (to buildings, service counters, workstations, exhibition areas, display cases, reading rooms, shelves, etc); • access to information (e.g. the availability of accessible formats, adapted workstations, assistive and inclusive technology and web accessibility); • intellectual access (to the content of collections).
Physicalaccess Back to Scope Most issues concerning physical access apply equally to museums, libraries and archives. In many cases removing all physical and structural obstacles is difficult if not impossible, but it is essential that the environment is made as barrier-free as is reasonably achievable. This includes, for example: • clear signs outside the building; • well marked and lit reception areas, with desk space available at a suitable height for wheelchair users; • entrances with suitable, clear openings or automatic doors (preferred door width 900mm); • ramps outside and within building; • stairs: no open treads, handrails on both sides, tactile markers; ideally: speaking elevators; • barrier-free hallways (no floor mats or furniture); • colour contrast in carpets and on walls (also to function as warnings near stairs and doorways; textures, smells, vibration, movement or air currents can also be used for this purpose); • effective lighting; • accessible tables, computer stations and public service desks (table height and width, turning spaces, ergonomic chairs, lighting); • accessible public areas such as toilets and public telephone; • shelving and display cases: should ideally fall within 750-2000mm from floor level; • clear and consistent signage throughout using plain typeface (sans serif such as Helvetica, Univers or Arial) on spaces and websites; • accessible parking;
Calimera Guidelines 331 Accessibility for disabled people • visually cued alarm systems.
Access to information Back to Scope Access to information can be facilitated on a variety of levels requiring both technical and human solutions. The following are examples of what should be considered, and is not an exhaustive list. Institutions should consult their national organisations for the disabled for further advice. Human solutions: • bold felt-tip pen and notepad at enquiry points; • staff available to read aloud from written materials; • staff trained in helping disabled people. Ideally this could include staff trained in lip reading, sign language, the deaf blind alphabet, finger spelling etc.; • information in plain language and/or symbol systems e.g. Blissymbolics [4], Picture Communication Symbols [5]; • accessible formats e.g. large print, Braille [6], audio formats, subtitled and signed videotapes; • information in clear print using suitable fonts; • events, videos and websites with sign language using professional interpreters and training deaf people to become guides. Technical solutions: • textphones • telephone amplifiers; • induction loops; • print magnification devices; • accessible catalogues; • alternative input devices (adapted keyboards e.g. touch sensitive overlays, large- size keys and special function keys, touch pads, adapted mouse devices such as trackerballs, joysticks, datagloves which are used to gesture commands to the computer, sensory input devices including speech); • text-reader (text-to-speech) equipment; • glare protective screens and high resolution, large-screen monitors; • system options that allow the user to alter screen contrast, font size and colours; • screen reader software; • optical character recognition systems with read-back capabilities; • Braille input hardware and software and Braille translation software; • websites which meet worldwide web accessibility standards; • haptic devices which allow virtual holding of objects giving tactile and weight sensations, and which can incidentally be used to protect fragile items; • shutterglasses, which transform the way the user sees the image on a standard monitor; • portable and wearable computers.
Intellectualaccess Back to Scope Organisations which aim to be inclusive tailor their services to diverse groups of users and audiences and develop strategies to provide intellectual access to the content of collections, through, for example: • guided tours, activities, audio guides, slide shows, websites etc which describe objects and exhibitions for visually impaired people, in addition to standard
Calimera Guidelines 332 Accessibility for disabled people background information; and in plain language and using image support for people with learning difficulties; • multi-sensory events and exhibitions; • tactile exhibitions e.g. using 3-dimensional models and maps and tactile drawings; • gallery interactives designed with disabled people in mind; • head mounted displays; • virtual environments.
People who are prevented from getting to a library, museum or record office because of a disability should not be denied access to these services. Museums, libraries and archives should consider outreach services ranging from mobile vehicles and services for people who are housebound to activities and portable collections for use in a variety of locations which are used by disabled people.
Virtual access Back to Scope Digitisation enables services to be delivered using laptop computers with Internet access, televisions, and CD-ROMs or DVDs. It has also opened up exciting possibilities for virtual access. Museums can make exhibitions available on web sites, with the facility to move objects around and see them from all angles which is an improvement on a static display. Libraries can provide opportunities for searching catalogues, requesting and renewing books, and asking for information via the Internet and e-mail. Archives can make documents, photographs, films, and sound archives available over the Internet. What can be offered is limited only by the imagination. The links at the end of this guideline illustrate some imaginative virtual services which enhance the experience of everyone, not only disabled people. For a description of virtual reality and human interface technologies see New technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. DigiCULT Technology Watch Report 1, February 2003, chapters 4 and 5. [7]
Web accessibility Back to Scope However virtual access via the Internet is subject to web accessibility considerations. The “Charter of Parma” document, presented in 2003 to the Committee for Cultural Affairs of the Council of Ministers of the European Union, encourages the application of ten “quality principles” for cultural websites, one of which is that websites should be “accessible to all users, irrespective of the technology they use or their disabilities, including navigation, content, and interactive elements” [8]. The EU is committed to the WAI (Web Accessibility Initiative) guidelines produced by the World Wide Web Consortium [9]. These guidelines provide clear and straightforward guidance and cover issues from basic requirements such as colour contrast, to more complex requirements about how the information is structured and set out on the page, and how the site is navigated. It is recommended that the content of web pages is always separated from the presentation so that if users remove the layout and design elements they can still access the information.
User interfaces including websites should be checked for accessibility. Again, the standard against which European sites are checked is usually the one set by the WAI. The “Commentary and exploration of the ten ‘quality principles’ published by the Minerva Project and agreed at the 5th NRG meeting in Parma, draft version 11”
Calimera Guidelines 333 Accessibility for disabled people contains a checklist and practical tests for assessing a website [8]. There are several automated tools available for checking websites, including: • Bobby [10], which tests against the WA1 standard. This has recently become a commercial product and the free version is limited to checking one page per minute. • HTML-kit [11], which can be used to enhance the accessibility of a website, and correct errors and inaccessible features. This is a free website. A list of similar tools is available on the WAI site [12]. Such tools however only check the technology of the website; they do not evaluate the content for accessibility. The World Wide Web Consortium has however also developed content accessibility guidelines [13].
There is no substitute however for user testing with disabled people. However, as not all disabled people are the same, it is preferable to make it possible for the style to be over-ridden and the content accessible using any preferred style or via any device. People with different access needs should be asked to carry out and report on tasks which they need to perform. User testing can be done in-house, or contracted out to an organisation or specialist company. Ideally users should be involved from the design stage.
In addition, websites should be: • accessible by different browsers (e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator); • accessible by different hardware devices (e.g. Personal Digital Assistants, PCs); • usable by browsers that support HTML/XHTML, Cascading Style Sheets and the Document Object Model [14]; • usable by browsers that do not have plug-ins, so technologies such as Javascript and Macromedia Flash must be considered carefully before being used; • ideally usable by screen readers (talking browsers). PDF (Portable Document Format) should therefore be avoided. Although PDF is becoming more accessible now due to development work undertaken by Adobe, it is still recommended that an alternative HTML version of a PDF file is provided. With the advent of Acrobat Reader 6.0 (full version), Adobe has embedded a scaled-down version of a "screen reader" (more accurately referred to as a "text-to-speech synthesizer" in this instance) into the Reader software itself. This can read aloud the text in nearly all PDF files, even older files that were not created with accessibility in mind. However not everyone has the latest full version of the Acrobat Reader with the embedded speech synthesizer, the embedded speech synthesizer is not as good as the full-featured screen readers that most visually impaired people use (e.g. JAWS [15], Window Eyes [16]), the existence of the embedded speech synthesizer is not well known even among visually impaired people, and new skills need to be learned to use it. There is a useful article about this on the WebAIM website [17]. See also the Daisy Consortium website [18] for information about screen readers and Digital Talking Books (DTBs).
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope Genuine e-accessibility will only come about when mainstream products are designed to be accessible by as broad a range of users as possible. The EU is supporting a
Calimera Guidelines 334 Accessibility for disabled people “Design for All” approach [2], which will lead to IST products, services and applications being suitable for most potential users without the need for further modifications.
The European Institute for Design and Disability [19] is also working to enhance barrier-free design.
A new European communication on e-accessibility [20] is expected to address two major challenges relating to the inclusion of all in the information society: the problems associated with the ageing population and the specific problems of disabled people.
New technologies are likely to emerge which will improve the experience of disabled people. Examples of existing technologies which illustrate the direction things may go include: • systems which provide people with hearing impairments with written word-for- word captions, or text, on a PC or laptop screen during face-to-face conversations and at conferences. Text appears virtually simultaneously with the speaker’s words and fonts can be enlarged to suit the user’s needs. The user can take the equipment anywhere where there is a telephone socket or mobile phone connection. In the cultural heritage sector this sort of equipment would be useful in face-to-face dealings with staff, in discussion groups or lectures, and when listening to sound archives; • handheld computers, or Personal Digital Assistants, which are tailored to the needs of different groups e.g. for hearing impaired people, video clips of an interpreter using sign language to describe works or objects in an exhibition; for visually impaired people, audio descriptions can be played together with commentary; and for those with learning difficulties, a specially designed sound track can be used. For people requiring more in-depth information, PDAs can be linked through a wireless network to a central server so that more information can be requested at any time during a visit (see Poole, Nick: The future in the palm of your hand. In Museums Computer Group Newsletter, Sept 2002 [21]); • computers which make use of all human senses as input devices.
In the future visitors will increasingly take their own handheld PC and wireless networking card into museums, galleries, libraries and record offices and access a whole range of resources through always-on internet connections.
E-books, music, illustrations, video etc. are already downloadable on to home PCs, televisions and mobile phones. Disabled people will benefit from having requested material delivered directly to their own PCs at home or elsewhere.
There is scope to research smaller and more portable devices, datagloves, agents, avatars, robots, haptic devices, etc. (See the guideline on Personalisation for more information.) It is of vital importance that real users are involved from the very beginning and consideration is given to real applications, numbers of beneficiaries and economic viability.
Calimera Guidelines 335 Accessibility for disabled people REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] European Union Disability Strategy http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/disability/strategy_en.html
[2] European Design for All e-Accessibility Network http://www.e-accessibility.org/
[3] Development of Library Services to Visually Impaired People: guide for Hellenic libraries [by] Bruno Sperl. July 2001. Initially developed as a handbook "Train the trainers", a deliverable of Action 3 of the ACCELERATE project. http://www.lib.uom.gr/accelerate/deliverables/Ttt_en.doc);
[4] Blissymbolics http://www.symbols.net/blissre.htm
[5] Picture Communication Symbols http://www.mayer-johnson.com/
[6] Braille http://www.braille.org/
[7] New technologies for the cultural and scientific heritage sector. DigiCULT Technology Watch Report 1, February 2003, chapters 4 and 5. http://www.digicult.info
[8] Work programme to define the quality guidelines for cultural Websites. Minerva WP5 Italian Working Group. http://www.minervaeurope.org/structure/workinggroups/userneeds/docindex.htm
[9] WAI (Web Accessibility Initiative) guidelines produced by the World Wide Web Consortium http://www.w3c.org/WAI
[10] Bobby http://bobby.watchfire.com
[11] HTML-kit http://www.chami.com/html-kit/
[12] Web Accessibility Initiative: Evaluation, Repair, and Transformation Tools for Web Content Accessibility http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/existingtools.html
[13] World Wide Web Consortium: Web Content Accessibility Guidelines http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/
[14] World Wide Web Consortium: Cascading Style Sheets, level 2. CSS2 Specification. W3C Recommendation, 12 May 1998 http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-CSS2
[15] JAWS http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws.asp
[16] Window Eyes http://www.gwmicro.com/products/
Calimera Guidelines 336 Accessibility for disabled people [17] WebAIM: Adobe Acrobat Accessibility Techniques http://www.webaim.org/techniques/acrobat/
[18] Daisy Consortium http://www.daisy.org/default.asp
[19] The European Institute for Design and Disability http://www.design-for-all.org/
[20] Commission Communication on eAccessibility in 2005 http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/citizens/accessibility/com_ea_2005/in dex_en.htm
[21] Poole, Nick: The future in the palm of your hand. In Museums Computer Group Newsletter, Sept 2002. http://www.museumscomputergroup.org.uk/newsletters/sept2002.htm
LINKS Back to Scope
International
Daisy Consortium The DAISY Consortium has developed a Digital Talking Book standard (ANSI/NISO Z39.86, Specifications for the Digital Talking Book http://www.loc.gov/nls/niso/) to ensure access to information for people with print disabilities. http://www.daisy.org/
Australia
Web Accessibility Toolbar Free software for checking web site accessibility provided by the Accessible Information Solutions (AIS) team at the National Information and Library Service (NILS) , Australia. Available in English, French, Italian, Spanish and Japanese. http://www.nils.org.au/ais/web/resources/toolbar/
Czech Republic
Education and Research Library of Pilsener Region There is a Library for the Blind on this website. http://www.svkpl.cz/
Handy Database for disabled people containing information about health care, therapy, etc., prepared by a disabled member of staff. The website has a “Blind Friendly” certificate. http://www.knihkm.cz
National Archives (formerly the State Central Archives) As from 1st January 2005 the National Archives is housed in newly built facilities which meet the requirements for access without barriers. http://www.nacr.cz.
Calimera Guidelines 337 Accessibility for disabled people Information is also available via Archives Direction Division of the Ministry of Interior of the Czech republic http://www.mvcr.cz
Ireland
Making Access Happen Booklet exploring practical initiatives to accommodate library users with disabilities. It is based on four pilot projects in Cavan, Dublin City, Kildare and Mayo public library services which tested out new approaches to ensuring accessibility. The booklet is available free or can be downloaded from the website. http://www.librarycouncil.ie/policies/making_access.shtml
Norway
Fetsund Lenser (Fetsund Timber Boom Museum) Content-rich website with text and multimedia elements with a strong focus on accessibility. The website is in conformance with Level A of the W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines. Users are presented with a choice of different user interfaces, e.g. a choice between sound- and text-based information. http://www.fetsundlenser.no/
Slovenia
Državni portal Republike Slovenije (State Portal of the Republic of Slovenia) This portal provides a single access point to many government services online, and provides user friendly access to visually impaired people, enabling them to fill in various forms and make transactions like completing a tax return, applying for a passport, etc. http://euprava.gov.si/e-uprava/en/portalPage.euprava?pageid=34
Turkey
Braille Teknik This company brings the latest technology devices and products to Turkey for the use of visually impaired people, making it possible for a visually impaired person to work as a sighted person does, and provides solutions in Turkish for a large number of products. http://www.brailleteknik.com/ingdefault.htm
UK
Ask Chris An online and interactive source of reading advice, launched by Essex County Council Libraries. There is an option to select reviews of books available in Large Print or audiobook format, which significantly extends reading choice for visually impaired readers and removes the frustration experienced with other sites where books actively promoted are not then available in the required format. The site has been built to be compatible with screen readers. http://www.essexxcc.gov.uk/askchris
RNIB (Royal National Institute of the Blind) Web Access Centre
Calimera Guidelines 338 Accessibility for disabled people The Web Access Centre site has been developed as a free online resource centre for designers and managers. http://www.rnib.org.uk/xpedio/groups/public/documents/code/public_rnib008789.hc sp
Talking Newspaper Association of the UK (TNAUK) TNAUK has developed a program which can convert a newspaper into electronic format and e-mail it to users in about 6 minutes. http://www.tnauk.org.uk/Pages/digital_service.html
Calimera Guidelines 339 Accessibility for disabled people APPENDIX Back to Scope
Legislation and guidelines
The following documents are particularly relevant to cultural heritage institutions: • COM650 final of 30 Oct 2003 – Equal opportunities for people with disabilities: a European Action Plan • http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2003/oct/com650_final_en.h tml • Council resolution of 6 May 2003 on accessibility of cultural infrastructure and cultural activities for people with disabilities (2003/C134/05) http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2003/oct/crs_134_05_en.ht ml • Council resolution of 6 Feb 2003 – “e-Accessibility” – improving the access of people with disabilities to the knowledge based society (2003/C39/03) http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2003/oct/crs_175_01_en.ht ml • A review of legislation relevant to accessibility in Europe. Final draft. [By] André Gubbels and Erkki Kemppainen. eAccessibility expert group, November 15, 2002. http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/knowledge_society/eacc_rev_leg.p df
Policies Relating to Web Accessibility Published by the Web Accessibility Initiative of the Worldwide Web Consortium, this gives information on the European Union and the following European countries: Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain and the UK, as well as Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, India, Japan, New Zealand and the USA. http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/
Handbook for quality in cultural Web sites: improving quality for citizens. Directory of European and national rules on Web Applications, edited by Chiara De Vecchis. Published by the Minerva Project, this covers the European Union and the following member states: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK. It also includes international guidelines. http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Austria See http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Belarus Information in English regarding the law: On Prevention of Disablement and Rehabilitation of Invalids No. 3317-XII of October 17, 1994 [Last amendments and alterations: Law of the Republic of Belarus of November 28, 2003 No. 249-Z]. Chapter 1, article 1 contains a provision for social rehabilitation – a system of
Calimera Guidelines 340 Accessibility for disabled people measures ensuring improvement of the standard of living of invalids, creation of equal capabilities for them for full participation in the life of the society. http://law.by/work/EnglPortal.nsf/6e1a652fbefce34ac2256d910056d559/ccda93eeae 3e0c5bc2256dee00530679?OpenDocument
Belgium See http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Bulgaria Legislation: • Act for Protection, Rehabilitation and Social Integration of Disabled People, 1995, updated 2001. http://www.mlsp.government.bg/bg/law/law/index.htm • Regulation N1 for creation of appropriate conditions for disabled people in built- up areas in towns and villages, 1995. Guidelines: • Petkov, Krasimir: Tърсене на информация в Интернет (Searching for information on the Internet), 2001. These guidelines, in Bulgarian only, are addressed to librarians and information specialists. • Petkov, Krasimir: Интернет - ключ към безграничната информация (Internet - key to the unlimited information), 1998. Also in Bulgarian. http://www.lib.bg/LTsvetkova.htm Article: • Web accessibility in Bulgaria: conclusion from the research, by Mathieu Lutfy. In Social Rights Bulgaria, 24th September 2004. http://www.socialrights.org/spip/article729.html
Croatia Legislation: • The Croatian Constitution prescribes equal rights/access for all. http://www.usud.hr/htdocs/en/the_constitution.htm • National program for the improvement of the quality of life of the disabled. The Government of the Republic of Croatia, 1999. http://www.croatia.ch/veleposlanstvo/dom/programi_vlade_rh.php • National strategy for integrated policy for disabled persons from 2003 to 2006. Government of the Republic of Croatia. (Explicitly states that for example ICT should be accessible to disabled people, and that all international legislation/guidelines of importance for disabled people will be translated and published in Braille or as audio recording by the end of 2004.) Available, but only in Croatian, at http://www.vlada.hr/Download/2003/01/30/Nacionalna_strategija_jedinstvene_po litike_za_osobe_s_invaliditetom • Copyright and Related Rights Act, 2003. (Article 86 defines the use of copyright works by disabled people.) http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/file_download.php/79dc0882ffde967a0a20982 2dfe3c567Copyright+and+Related+Rights+Act2003.pdf Guidelines: • IFLA Guidelines for Library Service to Braille Users http://www.ifla.org/VII/s31/pub/guide.htm and IFLA Guidelines for Library Calimera Guidelines 341 Accessibility for disabled people Services to Persons with Dyslexia http://www.ifla.org/VII/s9/nd1/iflapr-70e.pdf have been translated into Croatian and are implemented in Croatian libraries. • Within the Croatian Library Association there is a special section for library services for disabled people, founded in 2000, which deals with relevant issues and is undertaking studies and research into the matter of accessibility for disabled people. http://www.hkdrustvo.hr/ • W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 (http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG10) have also been translated into Croatian and are available at http://www.ffzg.hr/infoz/dzs/smjer/. • Internet Support For Blind Internet User - IPSIS is a non-formal organization which deals with development and application of communication and computer technologies aimed to provide assistance to the blind and visually impaired people. With the assistance of collaborators and donors IPSIS currently develops: linux distribution for the blind, web portal for the blind, digital collection of textbooks, literary works and other written material, free Internet access for blind and visually impaired people. http://www.ipsis.hr
Denmark See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Cyprus Development of Library Services to Visually Impaired People: guide for Hellenic libraries [by] Bruno Sperl. July 2001. Initially developed as a handbook "Train the trainers", a deliverable of Action 3 of the European Commission Leonardo da Vinci programme ACCELERATE project. http://www.lib.uom.gr/accelerate/deliverables/Ttt_en.doc
Czech Republic Legislation: • Law No. 257/2001 Coll. of 29 June 2001 on Libraries and Terms of Operating Public Library and Information Services (Library Act). http://knihovnam.nkp.cz/sekce.php3?page=03_Leg/01_LegPod/Zakon257.htm • State Information and Communications Policy e-Czech 2006. (States that Public administration services must be user-friendly and available to all, that is also to the handicapped or otherwise disadvantaged population groups.) http://www.micr.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=1288 • Electronic Communications Act (Draft), March 2004 (Section 43 deals with Special Measures for Disabled Persons) http://www.micr.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=1282 • White Paper on electronic commerce, May 2003 (States that the Government must support accessibility of the Internet to handicapped citizens.) http://www.micr.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=1105 • Law No.29/1984 Coll. (Section 3 guarantees the right to education for deaf and blind people in sign language and Braille.) http://mvcr.iol.cz/sbirka/1988/sb04- 88.pdf • Act no. 155/1998 , section 54, Act on sign language and on the amendment of further acts. http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/dee/docs/surveys/1998/chronological.html
Calimera Guidelines 342 Accessibility for disabled people • Law No. 121/2000 Coll. of 7 April 2000 on Copyright, Rights Related to Copyright and on the Amendment of Certain Laws (Copyright Act). (Article 38 (2) enables the lending of computer programs and to copies of audio or audiovisual fixations …for exclusive use by persons with health disabilities in connection with their disability.) http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/file_download.php/2ebab9db3c6aab04f0f99f9 d6be4dd9dCopyright_Act.pdf • CR Government's resolutions concerning the Board for People with Disabilities http://wtd.vlada.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=3934 • National Plan on Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities,1998. http://www.vlada.cz/1250/eng/vrk/vybory/vvzpo/dokument/narplan.eng.htm • National Development Programme Mobility for All, 2004. http://www.mobilityforall.cz/index_eng.htm Guidelines: • Muzea pro všechny CV ICOM 2003 (Museums for everybody.) http://www.cz- icom.cz/plan_english04.html Other: • Useful websites: http://www.helpnet.cz, http://www.blindfriendly.cz, http://pristupnostnawebu.cz, http://www.dobryweb.cz.
Estonia • Online accessible Estonian legal acts regulating librarianship http://www.nlib.ee/inglise/lib/lib2_acts.html • Social Benefits for Disabled Persons Act (consolidated text July 2002) http://www.legaltext.ee/en/andmebaas/ava.asp?m=022 • Social Welfare Act (consolidated text Dec 2003) http://www.legaltext.ee/en/andmebaas/ava.asp?m=022 • Sotsiaalministeerium (Ministry of Social Affairs) is drawing up a development strategy for the welfare sector, organising the provision of welfare services and the work of welfare institutions, and preparing welfare-related legislation - Towards a human-centered society. Special care development programme: People with disabilities. http://www.sm.ee/engtxt/pages/goproweb0425
Finland See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
France See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Germany See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/
Greece • Development of Library Services to Visually Impaired People: guide for Hellenic libraries [by] Bruno Sperl. July 2001. Initially developed as a handbook "Train the Calimera Guidelines 343 Accessibility for disabled people trainers", a deliverable of Action 3 of the European Commission Leonardo da Vinci programme ACCELERATE project. http://www.lib.uom.gr/accelerate/deliverables/Ttt_en.doc • See also http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.ht m#4
Hungary Disabled people - Legislation: • Az 1998. évi 26. sz. törvény a fogyatékos személyek jogairól és esélyegyenlőségük biztosításáról. • Disabled people - Information • Egyészségügyi Szociális és Családügyi Minisztérium http://www.eszcsm.hu • Siketek és Nagyothallók Országos Szövetsége http://www.sinosz.hu/ • Magyar Vakok és Gyengénlátók Országos Szövetsége http://www.mvgyosz.hu/ • Mozgáskorlátozottak Egyesületeinek Országos Szövetsége http://www.meosz.hu • Értelmi Fogyatékosok és Segítőik Országos Érdekvédelmi Szövetsége http://www.c3.hu/~efoesz/ • Autisták Érdekvédelmi Egyesülete http://www.esoember.hu/ • A krónikus betegek és fogyatékkal élők országos szervezetei • http://www.disability.hu/adatok_gyujtemenyek/index.html#kbefeoesz • Országos Fogyatékosügyi Tanács http://www.szikoraweb.hu/fogyatekos/ • Fogyatékosok Esélye Közalapítvány http://www.fogyatekosok-eselye.hu/ Libraries, museums, archives - Legislation: • 1997. évi CXL. törvény a muzeális intézményekről, a nyilvános könyvtári ellátásról és a közművelődésről. Libraries, museums, archives - Information: • Közgyűjteményi adatok http://www.neumann-haz.hu • Könyvtári Intézet http://www.ki.oszk.hu • Múzeumok ország- és világszerte http://muzeum.lap.hu • Múzeumok adatbázisa http://www.museum.com/jb/start.html • Magyar Országos Levéltár http://www.natarch.hu
Ireland See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Italy See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Luxembourg See http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
The Netherlands See Calimera Guidelines 344 Accessibility for disabled people http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Norway • A committee has been appointed by the government to discuss and outline a separate antidiscrimination act for disabled people. The committee will complete their report by the end of this year (2004). • The parliamentary committee on social affairs reviewed the white paper on reducing barriers for disabled people (St.meld. nr. 40 (2002-2003). . In their review the committee emphasised the need to strengthen the legal rights of disabled persons, but that a separate antidiscrimination act and/or changes in the existing legislation should be reviewed. (English summary http://odin.dep.no/sos/engelsk/news/publ/bn.html) • The Delta Centre - The National Resource Centre for Participation and Accessibility, has formulated guidelines in connection with the project "Internet for all". These are general guidelines but relevant to the archive, library and museum domains. http://www.shdir.no/index.db2?id=11272&PHPSESSID=397d7506dac3f186697fb8 72c7db400c • The project "The accessible library" by ABM-utvikling has also reviewed accessibility to web-based library resources, but has not formulated any separate guidelines, only used the general ones outlined by the Delta Centre for surveying and suggestions for improvement. These guidelines focus mainly on the physical localities and access to them. http://www.shdir.no/index.db2?id=3057 (Norwegian only). (For a description in English see Olsen, Aina and Roed Andersen, Randi: The public library – how to include people with disabilities. http://www.shdir.no/assets/7481/The%20public%20library.pdf)
Poland • The Charter of Rights of Disabled People, resolution of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, 1 August 1997. http://www.cirnetwork.org/idrm/reports/compendium/poland.cfm • State Fund for Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons (PFRON) http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/smie/viewmeasure.cfm?m_id=12770
Portugal See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Romania Legislation: • Ordonan^c de Urgen^c nr. 102 din 29 iunie 1999 (Government Order no. 102, June 29th 1999) about the special protection and employment of persons with disabilities. Published in Official Gazette in June 30th 1999. This order was approved by the Romanian Parliament through the Law no 519 of July 12th 2002. http://atlas.ici.ro/disability/LEGI/L519_2002.htm • There is a printed web guide containing 2,500 addresses of Romanian websites annotated and organised by subject. For more information see http://www.ghidweb.ro Calimera Guidelines 345 Accessibility for disabled people Guidelines: • Ghid de resurse Internet pentru biblioteci si bibliotecari (Guide to Internet resources for libraries and librarians), by Robert Coravu. 2002. http://www.hasdeu.md/ro/informatii/ghid.shtml
Russia On the Social Protection of Disabled Persons in the Russian Federation, 1995. (see article http://english.pravda.ru/society/2002/12/03/40288.html).
Spain Legislation: • Legislación Española sobre Accesibilidad para la Sociedad de la Información http://www.sidar.org/recur/direc/legis/espa.php Guidelines, standards, legislation (in Spanish): • Fundación Sidar - Acceso Universal http://www.sidar.org/recur/direc/norm/index.php • Information and Communication Technologies for Health http://www.cettico.fi.upm.es/aenor/indexeng.htm Other: • Social and employment policies for people with disabilities in Spain / M. A. Verdugo, A. Jiménez and F. Borja Jordan de Urries (European Journal of Social Security, vol. 2, 2000, p. 323-341). http://www3.usal.es/~inico/investigacion/invesinico/employment.pdf • Accesibility in libraries: Seminario "Bibliotecas accesibles en la web: un reto urgente" sponsored by SEDIC, the NATIONAL LIBRARY, and SIDAR http://www.sedic.es/gt_normalizacion_bibliotecas_accesibles.htm http://www.sidar.org/acti/cursos/2004/biblio/index.php#progra • Research on all the national and international guidelines for the development of national and international standards and technical documents in the areas of protocols, contents, tools, formats and languages in the Internet world - Fundación Sidar - Acceso Universal. http://www.sidar.org/ See also http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
Sweden See http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4
United Kingdom See http://www.w3.org/WAI/Policy/ and http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria1_2draft/appendix4.htm#4 Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/20020033.htm Guidelines: • Museums, Libraries and Archives Council: Disability portfolio http://www.mla.gov.uk/action/learnacc/00access_03.asp Back to contents Calimera Guidelines 346 Accessibility for disabled people Calimera Guidelines Security
SCOPE
This guideline deals with the threats to digital resources, and covers Network security Firewalls Antivirus software User authentication Licences DRM (Digital Rights Management) Cryptography Digital signatures Digital watermarks Steganography Automated Payment Systems SSL (Secured Sockets Layer) protocol Authenticity and integrity Trusted digital repositories Domain names Information security RFID
POLICY ISSUES Back to Scope
The EU recognises the importance of security. It is a key tenet of the e-Europe 2005 action plan which focuses on “the widespread availability and use of broadband networks…and the security of networks and information” [1].
In June 2001 a communication on network and information security was adopted [2] which announced that support for research and development in security would be a key element in the 6th Framework Programme. As a result several security-related research projects are being supported, including BIOSEC, INSPIRED, PRIME, SECOQC, SEINIT and ECRYPT. Details of these projects can be found on the cordis website [3].
More recently the European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) [4] has been set up to develop a culture of network and information security for the benefit of citizens, consumers, businesses and the public sector within the Community.
Security is about making resources as safe as possible from a variety of threats. Users need to have trust and confidence in public services and the information they provide, and if take-up of online services is to increase they need to be sure that
Calimera Guidelines 347 Security systems are secure. However, a balance needs to be made between security and access. Too much security can adversely affect usability and the value of the resources needs to be balanced against the costs of security measures including software etc., staff time, and the goodwill of users. Not all resources will warrant the same level of security.
Security procedures will be needed to: • safeguard against theft or loss; • protect resources from deliberate or accidental alterations, i.e. protect the authenticity and integrity of digital resources; • ensure compliance with any legal requirements, e.g. copyright, licences, data protection, privacy issues (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues); • provide an audit trail to satisfy accountability requirements; • deter potential internal security breaches.
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Back to Scope
Networksecurity Back to Scope Network security involves the use of middleware, a layer of software between the network and the applications. It provides services such as identification, authentication and authorisation, and includes encryption software etc. Much of this guideline deals with network security.
A DMZ (“demilitarised zone”) is “middleware”, usually a firewall or multiple firewalls, which adds layers of security between a trusted internal network and an untrusted external network such as the public Internet.
Firewalls Back to Scope A firewall can work two ways: it can protect the server and the resources from outside hackers and it can prevent users from inside the organisation from accessing certain sites. A decision must be made as to what traffic will be allowed through the firewall, for example only e-mail could be allowed in, and both e-mail and the results of web searches could be allowed out. Once the allowable traffic has been defined, the firewall can be set to block all undefined traffic. This will occasionally stop new, legitimate, traffic but this is preferable to allowing unknown traffic in which could cause damage to the network.
Antivirus software Back to Scope Viruses, spam etc. can still get through legitimate “holes” in a firewall, for example via e-mail. One common way of spreading viruses is through attachments to e-mails, so all staff should be trained to be suspicious of attachments sent with unsolicited e- mails or from unrecognised senders. All staff should be trained: • never to open suspicious attachments and to delete them immediately, and then empty the “trash can” to double delete them; • never to forward any spam, or junk e-mail and to delete it immediately; • always to scan floppy discs/CD-ROMs for viruses before using. Downloading material from the Internet to a computer’s hard disk can also be a source of viruses, as can floppy disks brought in by users. Many organisations which
Calimera Guidelines 348 Security provide public access to the Internet only allow downloading to floppy disks which they sell and which have been pre-formatted and checked for viruses, or else they require users to submit their disks for virus checking before use.
Anti-virus software, anti-spam software and anti-spyware software are all readily available to purchase or as freeware and should of course be installed and kept up- to-date. The EC has brought in a directive in an effort to control spam (Directive 2002/58/EC on privacy and electronic communications, 12 July 2002) [5].
User authentication (see also the guideline on Personalisation) The first step in protecting resources is knowing who the users are. CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) can be installed to keep a physical watch on users. It is possible to install a Customer Relations Management System (CRM) which can log customers, track their usage, and store details of all their interactions with the organisation whether by e-mail or telephone. Originally used for marketing purposes by commercial organisations, CRM systems have many potential uses in the cultural heritage sector including keeping track of customers for security purposes by automating registration and licensing systems etc.
A user registration system is useful to keep track of users of sensitive or valuable material or material whose use is restricted by copyright etc. An Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) can be incorporated into the registration system, which users are required to read and agree to (usually by ticking a box) before being allowed access to the network. If they accept the conditions of access they will normally be legally bound by any restrictions. If copyright or licensing is an issue it is useful to include this in the AUP. A typical AUP will include: • a description of the service provided and the resources accessible; • who is able to use the service; • information about any charges; • whether access is filtered; • ethical and legal information e.g. about copyright etc. Developing your Acceptable Use Policy [6] contains useful guidance and examples. Example policies can also be found on the SANS (SysAdmin, Audit, Network, Security) Institute web site [7].
A user registration system should be accompanied by a user authentication system which will check the user’s identity, e.g. by asking for an e-mail address and then issuing a username/ID and password which must be used to access the collection. This type of user authentication is relatively simple and cheap but is only really suitable for low level security since: • passwords may be distributed by users to their friends etc.; • passwords may be stolen or borrowed; • passwords can be guessed, particularly when users choose passwords such as birth dates; • users often write down their passwords; • some computer viruses can capture IDs and passwords; • passwords travelling over the network are becoming increasingly prone to "eavesdropping". To guard against these threats: Calimera Guidelines 349 Security • the number of times a user can attempt to login can be limited and/or the time allowed for typing in the password can be limited; • servers can be set so that the last login name is not displayed – this is important in public areas where someone could watch a user type in their password; • registered users can be required to change their passwords on a regular basis; • “guest accounts” can be disabled; • staff passwords used for administrative purposes should be changed regularly.
There are other user authentication systems which offer greater security but are more expensive, such as : • encrypted passwords; • IP (Internet Protocol) filtering, in which the server compares the IP address of the user against a list of known IP addresses and no password is required. There are disadvantages to this system as the growth of dynamic IP addressing by many Internet Service Providers is making it very difficult to manage a list of approved IP addresses, and also IP authentication is difficult to check for mobile users and users behind firewalls; • a combination of password and IP filtering; • biometric authentication systems e.g. fingerprints or iris recognition; • smartcards – user authentication in the near future will probably be done by local or central government agencies which will issue members of the public with an all-purpose form of identification, probably some kind of smartcard containing biometric information, which will give holders access to a range of services including museums, libraries and archives. Identification systems can be bought off the peg e.g. the Athens Access Management System [8], an access management system controlling access to online databases, and Kerberos [9], a network authentication protocol which uses secret key cryptography. For an overview of user authentication systems see Authentication mechanisms – which is best? by Marilyn Chun. 2002 [10], or An Overview of Different Authentication Methods and Protocols by Richard Duncan. 2001 [11].
Licences (see also the guideline on Legal and rights issues) Back to Scope Another way of controlling who uses digital resources is by having a licensing system. Licensed users will usually pay a subscription; sometimes there are different levels of subscription based on the licensed use of the resources, e.g. educational use might be cheaper than commercial use. Licensing systems can be expensive to implement so it is sensible to ascertain that there is likely to be a sufficient number of people willing to subscribe to make this level of security a worthwhile investment.
Licences might also govern access to resources not owned by the institution. For example a library might subscribe to the online versions of periodicals and reference works the use of which is controlled by a licence with the publisher. E-books could be supplied in a similar way. (See links.)
User registration and authentication systems can also help to protect digital images while they are being transmitted over the network. If an encryption system such as Public Key Cryptography [12], which employs an algorithm using two different but mathematically related "keys," one for creating a digital signature or transforming data into a seemingly unintelligible form, and another key for verifying a digital Calimera Guidelines 350 Security signature or returning the message to its original form, is used, then the images will only be accessible by users who have the right “key”.
Digital Rights Management Back to Scope DRM may be defined as the automated management of IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) and the secure delivery of digital content to users. A DRM system can: • prevent unauthorised alteration and copying; • deal with licensing arrangements; • support payment systems such as pay-per-view and subscriptions; • work effectively with all types of digital format. A DRM system may incorporate and make use of technologies such as digital watermarks, steganography, Self Protecting Documents (system owned by ContentGuard Inc.) [13], and Automated Payment Systems.
A Digital Asset Management (DAM) system (see the guideline on Content and context management) can manage the entire process from acquisition of a digital entity through to long-term preservation, including description, retrieval and all aspects of security, and so can incorporate a DRM system. However DAMs are expensive and usually only feasible for large organisations and projects.
Cryptography Back to Scope Cryptography uses mathematical techniques to scramble text or images into ciphertext (a process called encryption), then back again (known as decryption) so that: • the information cannot be understood by anyone for whom it was not intended; • the information cannot be altered in storage or transit between sender and intended receiver without the alteration being detected; • the sender of the information cannot deny at a later stage that they sent it; • the sender and receiver can confirm each other’s identity and the origin and destination of the information.
Digitalsignatures Back to Scope Digital signatures are attached to electronic messages to verify that the senders are who they say they are. They are created and verified by Public Key Cryptography. For a description of how these work see the American Bar Association’s Digital Signature Guidelines Tutorial [14]. The World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force are working on an XML digital signature [15].
Digital watermarks Back to Scope Digital watermarks cannot stop images being downloaded but they can prove ownership and provenance of the images. They can be visible or invisible or a combination of both. Visible watermarks are easier and cheaper to implement, but also tend to spoil the look of the image, so are not ideal for works of art etc. They do however eliminate the commercial value of a copy to a potential thief without preventing legitimate use. Invisible watermarks are less of a deterrent to theft but increase the likelihood of proving that an image has been stolen after the event. More advanced invisible watermarking systems will place the mark on the image at the time of access by the user. Further information can then be added to the mark such as the name and contact details of the user, time of downloading, and agreed Calimera Guidelines 351 Security copyright details etc. Similar techniques can be used on audio and video media. Another type of watermark is a 'fragile' watermark. This is embedded in the image but is so 'fragile' that it will be lost if the image is in any way changed or modified, so its presence will prove that the image is totally original and has not been tampered with in any way. For information about digital watermarks and fingerprints see Purloining and Pilfering by Linda Cole [16].
Some simple alternatives to digital watermarks include: • putting a logo or URL on a corner of an image which shows origin or ownership of the image. Removing such a mark would not be difficult, but would break the copyright agreement and render the user vulnerable to prosecution if discovered; • automatically inserting a copyright notice and other relevant information whenever an image is downloaded. Again, removing this would not be difficult but would break the image copyright agreement.
Steganography Back to Scope Literally “covered writing”, steganography in the digital arena involves hiding information inside something else, usually an image but it could be any digital format such as a piece of recorded sound. Two files are required, the cover image which will hold the hidden data, and the data to be hidden. The two files combine to make a stegoimage which requires a key to decode it. For a description of steganography see Johnson, Neil F. and Jajodia, Sushil: Exploring steganography: seeing the unseen. 1998 [17].
Other ways to protect images include: • disabling the right click mouse function or context menu, which contains a “save picture” option; • compressing the file format to reduce image quality; • using thumbnails of images which are visible to everyone, and making fullsize images available only to registered users and/or protecting the fullsize image by encryption, watermark etc.
Automated Payment Systems (see also the section on e-commerce in the guideline on Legal and rights issues) Back to Scope If the institution sells goods or services over the Internet, by telephone or mobile device then a secure system which protects the details of a customer’s credit or debit card is essential. This will involve a Payment Gateway which communicates with the customer’s bank. There are many commercial suppliers of such systems.
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) Back to Scope SSL is a protocol that transmits data over the Internet in encrypted form. It is generally used for protecting sensitive data such as credit card details so is essential if goods or services are to be sold over the Internet. For details see Introduction to SSL [18]. S-HTTP (Secure HTTP) [19] also transmits data securely over the Web, but is designed for individual messages only whereas SSL can deal with huge amounts of data. TSP (Transport Layer Security) [20] is regarded as being even more secure.
Authenticity and integrity Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 352 Security There is no universally accepted definition of authenticity, but it broadly means that the preserved copy should be as much like the original as possible. This is a particularly important issue for archives, where the connections between documents must be preserved to assist with interpretation. For example, writers and academics need to be confident that references cited will stay the same over time, lawyers need evidence which is trustworthy in a court of law, and governments need to be able to trace how decisions were made, etc. For a discussion on the importance of authenticity see Gladney, H.M. and Bennett, J.L.: What Do We Mean by Authentic? What's the Real McCoy? in D-Lib Magazine, vol. 9, no. 7/8. July/August 2003 [21].
Archivists and historians are concerned that, with the proliferation of records only available in digital format, the ability to provide authentic sources might be lost to future generations. In the analogue world, the preserved item usually is the original, although copies may be made for use in order to prevent damage from handling etc. In the digital world the preserved item will be a copy of some sort since there is no physical artefact. As it is dependent on technology for access, over time this copy will be subject to many changes in order to ensure that it is still accessible on new technologies. It is therefore crucial that metadata is preserved with it to define its authenticity, and ideally this should be created simultaneously with the information. For discussions on the challenges posed by authenticity and integrity see Integrity and authenticity of digital cultural heritage objects. Digicult Thematic Issue 1, August 2002 [22].
The British Standards Institution (BSI) has published BIP 0008:2004 Code of practice for legal admissibility and evidential weight of information stored electronically [23], which gives guidance on all aspects of Electronic Document Management (EDM) including: • whether or not to keep paper originals (where these exist); • how to ensure that all relevant evidence is captured from original documents, including metadata; • how to develop and implement a security policy; • what to do in the event of a breach of security; etc. There is a useful guide to this: Legal Admissibility and Evidential Weight of Information Stored Electronically–What are the benefits of implementing the Code of Practice? by Alan Shipman [24].
There is also an international standard ISO/TR 15801:2004: Electronic imaging -- Information stored electronically -- Recommendations for trustworthiness and reliability [25] , which describes the whole life cycle of a stored electronic document from initial capture to eventual destruction where the issues of trustworthiness, reliability, authenticity and integrity are important.
Various methods of ensuring authenticity of digital resources exist, including: • hiding data in the object to reveal its source, such as digital watermarks and digital signatures (see above); • the creation of trusted digital repositories (see below); • registration of unique document identifiers (see the guideline on Digital preservation);
Calimera Guidelines 353 Security • defining metadata structures to carry document authentication (see the guideline on Digital preservation); • registering specific domain names for websites (see below).
The International Research on Permanent Authentic Records in Electronic Systems (InterPARES) Project has produced a report on authenticity [26].
Trusted digital repositories Back to Scope These aim to provide reliable long term access. Some institutions will be in a position to build their own repositories; others may decide to deposit material with a third party, which could be a national legal deposit library or archive which has the organisational, technical, structural, legal, professional and financial resources to be able to take responsibility for the long-term maintenance of digital resources on behalf of depositors and for the benefit of current and future users. For an overview see Trusted Digital Repositories: attributes and responsibilities: an RLG-OCLC [Research Libraries Group - Online Computer Library Center] Report. RLG, 2002 [27].
Domainnames Back to Scope To help users identify the authenticity of the content being delivered on websites, domain names should be registered on the Domain Name System (DNS) [28] and should contain the name of the organisation and/or project. Museums can register with the Museum Domain Management Association (MuseDoma) [29] created by the International Council of Museums (ICOM), using “.museum” as a top level domain. Resolvers are programs that can look up IP addresses (the process is called DNS resolution).
Information security Back to Scope Any organisation dealing with information knows that it is a valuable asset. Although museums, libraries and archives are primarily interested in making information available to users, there will nevertheless be sensitive information which must be protected from misuse. This includes personal information about users which is protected under Data Protection legislation (see the guideline on Legal and rights issues).
Information systems and networks can be threatened by fraud, espionage, sabotage, vandalism, fire or flood, computer viruses, hacking etc. It is advisable for information in all formats (paper, digital, film/video, audio, transmitted by post or using electronic means, etc.) to be managed in accordance with the following international standards, which should be regarded as complementary: • BS ISO/IEC 17799:2000, BS 7799-1:2000 Information technology. Code of practice for information security management [30]; and • BS 7799-2:2002 Information security management specification for information security management systems [31].
All digital information, including system configurations, should be regularly backed-up and stored securely, preferably off-site.
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Back to Scope
Calimera Guidelines 354 Security Although this guideline deals with security of digital resources, it is worth mentioning that there are technological ways to protect physical objects. For example RFID tags and labels can be used: • to guard against theft; • to track objects in transit; • to track visitors to an exhibition or heritage site.
FUTURE AGENDA Back to Scope
The European Commission has announced that security research will be a key topic in the IST 7th Framework Programme [32].
The growth in the use of mobile devices will encourage research into the development of technology to ensure transactions can be carried out securely wherever and whenever people need them. In fact such research has already started, for example: • the IST FP6 InspireD project is carrying out research into a new generation of smartcard technology for Trusted Personal Devices (TPD) [33]. • the OCCULT project is developing a technique which employs synchronised laser emitters and receivers to encrypt information at the hardware level [34].
REFERENCES Back to Scope
[1] The eEurope 2005 Action Plan http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2005/index_en.htm
[2] Network and Information Security: Proposal for a European Policy Approach. 6 June 2001. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/2002/news_library/new_document s/index_en.htm
[3] ICT for Trust and Security. FP6 Projects. http://www.cordis.lu/ist/directorate_d/trust-security/projects.htm
[4] European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) http://www.enisa.eu.int/
[5] Directive 2002/58/EC on privacy and electronic communications, 12 July 2002. http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/ecomm/useful_information/library/leg islation/index_en.htm#dir_2002_58_ec
[6] Developing your Acceptable Use Policy. DfES (UK Department for Education and Science) and Becta (British Educational communications and Technology Agency). http://safety.ngfl.gov.uk/ukonline/document.php3?D=d6
[7] SANS (SysAdmin, Audit, Network, Security) Institute http://www.sans.org/newlook/resources/policies/policies.htm
Calimera Guidelines 355 Security [8] Athens Access Management System http://www.athens.ac.uk/
[9] Kerberos http://web.mit.edu/kerberos/www/
[10] Authentication mechanisms – which is best? by Marilyn Chun. SANS Institute, 2000-02. http://www.giac.org/practical/gsec/Marilyn_Chun_GSEC.pdf
[11] An Overview of Different Authentication Methods and Protocols by Richard Duncan. SANS Institute, 2002. http://www.sans.org/rr/papers/index.php?id=118
[12] Scottish Middleware Project: PKI Resources. http://www.gla.ac.uk/projects/scotmid/publications/pki.shtml
[13] US Patent and Trademark Office: Self-protecting documents. http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph- Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1 &f=G&l=50&s1=6763464.WKU.&OS=PN/6763464&RS=PN/6763464
[14] American Bar Association: Digital Signature Guidelines Tutorial. http://www.abanet.org/scitech/ec/isc/dsg-tutorial.html
[15] The World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force: XML digital signature http://www.w3.org/Signature/
[16] Cole, Linda: Purloining and Pilfering. http://www.wdvl.com/Authoring/Graphics/Theft/
[17] Johnson, Neil F. and Jajodia, Sushil: Exploring steganography: seeing the unseen. 1998. http://www.jjtc.com/pub/r2026.pdf
[18] Introduction to SSL. http://docs.sun.com/source/816-6156-10/contents.htm
[19] S-HTTP (Secure HTTP) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2660.txt
[20] TSP (Transport Layer Security) http://www.treese.org/ietf-tls/
[21] Gladney, H.M. and Bennett, J.L.: What Do We Mean by Authentic? What's the Real McCoy? in D-Lib Magazine, vol. 9, no. 7/8. July/August 2003. http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july03/gladney/07gladney.html
[22] Integrity and authenticity of digital cultural heritage objects. DigiCULT Thematic Issue 1, August 2002. http://www.digicult.info/pages/Themiss.php
[23] BIP 0008:2004: Code of practice for legal admissibility and evidential weight of information stored electronically. British Standards Institution (BSI), 2004. http://bsonline.techindex.co.uk/ Calimera Guidelines 356 Security [24] Shipman, Alan: Legal Admissibility and Evidential Weight of Information Stored Electronically–What are the benefits of implementing the Code of Practice? 2004. http://www.bsi-global.com/ICT/Legal/bip0008.pdf
[25] ISO/TR 15801:2004: Electronic imaging -- Information stored electronically -- Recommendations for trustworthiness and reliability http://www.iso.org/iso/en/commcentre/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUM BER=29093&ICS1=37&ICS2=80&ICS3
[26] The Long-term Preservation of Authentic Electronic Records: Findings of the InterPARES Project. Part 1: Establishing and maintaining trust in electronic records. Authenticity Task Force Report. [2001]. http://www.interpares.org/book/index.htm
[27] Trusted Digital Repositories: attributes and responsibilities: an RLG-OCLC [Research Libraries Group - Online Computer Library Center] Report. RLG, 2002. http://www.rlg.org/longterm/repositories.pdf
[28] Domain Name System (DNS) http://www.dns.net/
[29] Museum Domain Management Association (MuseDoma) http://musedoma.museum/
[30] BS ISO/IEC 17799:2000, BS 7799-1:2000: Information technology. Code of practice for information security management. http://www.bsi-global.com/ICT/Service/bsisoiec17799.xalter;
[31] BS 7799-2:2002: Information security management specification for information security management systems. http://www.bsi-global.com/Business_Information/Standards/top/bs7799-2.xalter
[32] Security research a “key topic” in next Framework Programme. 19 July 2004. http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/security/news/article_1282_en.html
[33] InspireD project http://www.inspiredproject.com
[34] OCCULT project http://istresults.cordis.lu/index.cfm/section/news/tpl/article/BrowsingType/Features/I D/70227
LINKS Back to Scope
Australia eBook Library (EBL) eBooks Corporation delivers eBooks to libraries using a DRM system and a licence arrangement. http://www.ebl.ebooks.com/
Calimera Guidelines 357 Security Macedonia
MAIIS - Macedonian Archival Integrated Information Systems The system for technical protection of archives has 6 subsystems: video supervision, access control, fire prevention, burglary protection, movement detection and intervention communications with computer output for each subsystem and server. http://www.arhiv.gov.mk
Russia d’ArtDot Uses systems to guarantee authenticity of objects, and to deter theft, counterfeiting etc. http://www.datadot.ru
Spain
Pacifico II This portal incorporates a virtual shop where users may buy surrogates of different materials using a secure payments system. http://www.pacifico.csic.es/
Software ADEA 2000 This application has been developed by archivists and combines the used of radio frequency and barcodes to provide control of over 10,000,000 archives references. http://www.adea.es
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Calimera Guidelines 358 Security