Immunotoxicology of Environmental and Occupational Metals
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Immunotoxicology of Environmental and Occupational Metals Edited by JUDITH T.ZELIKOFF New York University School of Medicine and PETER T.THOMAS Covance Laboratories Inc. UK Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1 Gunpowder Square, London EC4A 3DE USA Taylor & Francis Inc., 1900 Frost Road, Suite 101, Bristol, PA 19007 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Copyright © Taylor & Francis Ltd 1998 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-203-21187-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-26930-6 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-7484-0390-6 (Print Edition) Library of Congress Cataloging Publication Data are available Cover design by Contents Preface v Acknowledgment vii List of contributors viii Chapter 1 Arsenic 1 Leigh Ann Burns Chapter 2 Beryllium 27 Lee S.Newman Chapter 3 Cadmium 41 Loren D.Koller Chapter 4 Chromium 63 Darryl P.Arfsten, Lesa L.Aylward, and Nathan J.Karch Chapter 5 Indium 93 Mark E.Blazka Chapter 6 Lead 111 Michael J.McCabe, Jr Chapter 7 Mercury 131 Pierluigi E.Bigazzi Chapter 8 Nickel 161 Ralph J.Smialowicz Chapter 9 Platinum 193 Kathleen Rodgers Chapter 10 Vanadium 205 Mitchell D.Cohen Chapter 11 Iron, Zinc, and Copper 229 Felix Olima Omara, Pauline Brousseau, Barry Raymond Blakley, and Michel Fournier iv Appendix Immunotoxicology Summary Tables 261 Mitchell D.Cohen Index 359 Preface Heavy metals are ubiquitous in the biosphere, where they occur as part of the natural background of chemicals to which human beings are constantly exposed. However, industrial uses of metals and other industrial and domestic processes have introduced substantial amounts of potentially toxic heavy metals into the atmosphere and into the aquatic and terrestrial environment. The toxicological effects associated with high-dose exposure to many metals including arsenic, cadmium, and mercury are well known. However, adverse effects resulting from long-term subclinical levels of exposure, comparable with environmental conditions, are less clear. Within the last few decades, experimental data have shown that low-level exposure to certain metals induces subtle changes within a host, including altered immunological competence. Environmental stressors such as metals may act directly to kill the exposed organisms or indirectly to exacerbate disease states by lowering resistance and allowing the invasion of infectious pathogens or the progression of nascent tumors. Although effects of metals are dependent upon such variables as host species and exposure parameters, including route, dose, and duration, the conclusion reached in most immunotoxicological studies is that heavy metals act to suppress immunocompetence. The most consistent finding in experimental and epidemiological studies evaluating the effects of metals on immune functions is a decreased host resistance to infectious agents. Immunotoxicity of metals may occur via direct effects upon a specific immune system component or, alternatively, via inhibition of immunoregulation, which can result in immunosuppression, hypersensitivity reactions, or autoimmune disorders. It has been postulated that metal toxicity may, at least in part, be due to autoimmunity, since an autoimmune disorder exists for all of the major target organs affected by heavy metals. The purpose of this book is to provide information on the immunotoxicological effects of important environmentally and occupationally encountered metals, for investigators in the field and those interested in expanding their knowledge in this rapidly growing area. The chapters focus on the immunotoxicological effects from highly toxic, commonly encountered metals such as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, and vanadium, while others review the effects from vi the less well-studied metals indium and platinum. The final chapter reviews the immunotoxicological effects of the major essential metals: iron, zinc, and copper. In order to better understand the overall effects associated with each particular metal, individual chapters also review their history, use, occurrence, biology, and general toxicological properties. Lastly, a series of tables have been included to provide the reader with a comprehensive summary of the immunotoxicological effects associated with the most commonly encountered environmental/occupational metals. This book, as written, should serve as an important reference source for academics, policy makers, and regulators involved with matters related to the immunotoxicology of metals. Judith T.Zelikoff Peter T.Thomas Acknowledgment We would like to thank the individual authors for their time and effort on this project. We also gratefully acknowledge Dr Mitchell Cohen for his editorial comments and preparation of the immunotoxicology tables. viii List of Contributors LEIGH ANN BURNS Dow Corning PIERLUIGI E.BIGAZZI Department of Corporation Mail No. CO3101 2200 Pathology University of Connecticut West Salzburg Road Midland, MI 48686 Health Center Farmington, CT 06030 USA USA LEE S.NEWMAN Division of RALPH J.SMIALOWICZ National Environmental and Occupational Health Health and Environmental Effects Sciences National Jewish Medical and Research Laboratory US Environmental Research Center; and Department of Protection Agency MD-92 Research Medicine and Department of Triangle Park, NC 27711 USA Preventative Medicine and Biometrics KATHLEEN RODGERS Livingston University of Colorado School of Research Center University of Southern Medicine 1400 Jackson Street Denver, California 1321 North Mission Road Los CO 80206 USA Angeles, CA 90033 USA LOREN D.KOLLER College of MITCHELL D.COHEN Institute of Veterinary Medicine Oregon State Environmental Medicine New York University Corvallis, OR 97331–4801 University Medical Center Long USA Meadow Road Tuxedo, NY 10987 USA DARRYL P.ARFSTEN Karch & FELIX OMILA OMARA TOXEN Associates Inc. 1701 K Street N.W., University of Quebec at Montreal Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006 USA Montreal, Quebec Canada H3C 3P8 LESA L.AYLWARD Karch & PAULINE BROUSSEAU Concordia Associates Inc. 1701 K Street N.W., University Montreal, Quebec Canada Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006 USA H3G 1M8 NATHAN J.KARCH Karch & BARRY RAYMOND BLAKLEY Associates Inc. 1701 K Street N.W., Department of Veterinary Physiological Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006 USA Sciences University of Saskatchewan MARK E.BLAZKA Colgate Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada S7N E.Palmolive 909 River Road 0W0 Piscataway, NJ 08855–1343 USA MICHEL FOURNIER TOXEN University of Quebec at Montreal Montreal, Quebec Canada H3C 3P8 MICHAEL J.McCABE, J.R. Institute of Chemical Toxicology Wayne State University 2727 Second Avenue Detroit, MI 48201–2654 USA 1 Arsenic LEIGH ANN BURNS Dow Corning Corporation, Mail No. CO3101, 2200 West Salzburg Road, Midland, MI 48686, USA 1.1 Introduction This chapter will briefly review the history of arsenic as a medicinal and toxic compound, its exposure, disposition, mechanism of action, toxicology, and immunotoxicology in mammalian systems. It is, however, impossible to review in depth all of these components within the confines of this chapter. This review is intended to provide the reader enough information with which to comprehend the more extensive review of the immunotoxicology of arsenic. For more detailed information, the reader is referred to the following references (Squibb and Fowler, 1983; Dickerson, 1994; Burns et al., 1995; Goyer, 1996) which were used to compile the material presented herein: Occupational Medicine 3rd Edition, Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons 5th Edition, and Biological and Environmental Effects of Arsenic. In addition, the following may be used interchangeably throughout this chapter: arsenite and inorganic trivalent arsenic (As3 +); arsenate and inorganic pentavalent arsenic (As5+). 1.2 History Arsenic has held the attention of scientists and authors (e.g. Arsenic and Old Lace) for hundreds of years due to its use as both a medicinal agent and a poison. Thus, its history is rather complex. The use of arsenic compounds as medicinal agents can be traced back to the time of Hippocrates (460–377 BC) when realgar (AsS) was used to treat ulcers. In the Middle Ages arsenicals possessed popularity as medicinal, suicidal, and homicidal agents. It was during this time that arsenous oxide (white arsenic) became recognized by many as an effective poisoning agent. By the 1800s, arsenicals were widely used in prescribed tonics, with the therapeutic dosage for these tonics being determined by establishing a NOEL (no observable effect level) for toxic symptoms. It has been suggested by some scholars that instead of being 2 IMMUNOTOXICOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND OCCUPATIONAL METALS deliberately poisoned by arsenic (as many historians have postulated), the French leader Napoleon was actually being treated with arsenical compounds. Arsenic compounds, particularly the sulfides, have also been used commercially in the production of dyes and pigments. Realgar and orpiment possess orange-red and bright yellow pigments and were extensively employed in