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Major Steps of the European History Since 1815

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Major Steps of the European History Since 1815 Major steps of the European History since 1815 1815 : The congress of Vienna - a new organization of Europe. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich. Metternich firmly believed that liberalism and nationalism were dangerous and that led to the Congress of Vienna which restored monarchy in every states won by France during the French Revolutionary Wars or the Napoleonic Wars. The following topics were dealt with by the Congress : the restauration and the come back of the political situation of 1789; legitimity (Bourbon’s claims) and solidarity of legitimate princes facing revolutionary uprisings. The ‘Four Great Powers’ were : Austria, represented by Prince Metternich, the United Kingdom, represented by Viscount Castlereagh, Russia's official delegation was led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode, Prussia represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt, France, the "fifth" power, represented by her foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord. The Final Act of the Treaty of Vienna, embodying a balance between the ‘Four Great Powers’, was signed on June 1815. The Congress reduced France to its 1791 borders and the country was surrounded by a belt of small States (the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and Piedmont-Sardinia enlarged of Savoy). Hanover and the United Kingdom had the same sovereign. The United Kingdom was confirmed in control of Malta, Ceylon and the Cape Colony in Southern Africa. They are the real winners of the negociations. Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) with its own institutions. REPERES – module 1-0 - explanatory notes – Major steps of the European History since 1815 – EN Auteur & © : Nadège Mougel, CVCE, 2011 English translation: Julie Gratz, Centre européen Robert Schuman 1/12 Austria gave up the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) but received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Dubrovnik in Dalmatia. Austria tried to extend its political power on Italy. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden. Prussia was given two fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (the Grand Duchy of Posen), Danzig, and the Rhineland/Westphalia. Prussia was split up into two parts - socially, economically and religiously different. Its role was to protect the Rhin river and also gained territory inside Germany. The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed. 1830 : national and liberal uprisings in Europe. Some political movements from the French Revolution such as liberalism and nationalism were getting more and more popular. The July Revolution saw the hegemony of the bourgeoisie in constitutional monarchies in Western Europe. In Central and Southern Europe, some national and liberal movements knew a rapid development. The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X of France, who departed for Great Britain after barricades had been erected throughout the city of Paris. In his place Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans was placed on the throne and he agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch. In Belgium, riots erupted in Brussels. The town of Antwerp was bombarded. The Provisional Government and a National Congress recognized Belgian independence. Greece also became independent. In Italy, riots burst in Modena, Parma and Romagna in 1831, but the French army did not show up. The national revolution intensified and finally ended with the idea of a unification. In Poland, in 1830-1831, the uprising began in Warsaw. Large segments of Polish society revolted against the Russian Army. In 1832, Poland became a russian territory. In Austria and Hungary, both a national and social revolution was born, abolishing the seigneurial system. REPERES – module 1-0 - explanatory notes – Major steps of the European History since 1815 – EN Auteur & © : Nadège Mougel, CVCE, 2011 English translation: Julie Gratz, Centre européen Robert Schuman 2/12 European Revolutions of 1848 also known in some countries as the ‘Spring of Nations’, a series of political upheavals throughout Europe and collapse of traditional authority (Metternich). In 1848, it was the first (and only) Europe-wide collapse of traditional authority, but within a year reactionary forces had won out and the revolutions collapsed. These revolutions led to new revolutions and to the end of the unity of a country. In Germany for example, the revolution failed in 1849 but will lead to the unification in 1871. In Italy, the major outbreaks came in Palerma, Naples and Toscany, in the Papal States and also in Milan. Many political leaders proposed constitutions. Thanks to french and austrian inerventions, peace is maintained almost everywhere. This is the beginning of the unification of the country through the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia. In France, on the 23, 24 and 25 February, the citizens of Paris turned their back on Louis- Philippe. During the "June Days", the petite bourgeoisie repressed the new social measures. The government was then headed by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. Because of the French coup d'état in 1851, staged by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the Second Republic was transformed into the Second Empire and monarchy was definitively abolished. In Austria, street demonstrations broke out in Vienna on March. Bohemia was besieged in June and the capital in October. After the Austrian revolution in Vienna was beaten down, Ferdinand was forced to abdicate in favour of his nephew Franz Joseph. Austria being diminished, this encouraged Hungary and Germany to launch a revolution. The Hungarian Diet (English: Parliament) abolished serfdom. The independence was proclaimed on April 1849, but Austria and Russia crushed the revolution. In Germany, street demonstrations broke out in Berlin. The Frankfurt National Assembly proposed a constitution with Friedrich Wilhelhm of Prussia as monarch and facing Austria’s pressure, the previous situation came back on November 1850. 1870-1871 : The Franco-Prussian War, the complete Prussian and German victory over France and the annexion of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Causes : France feared the hegemonic power of Germany. Bismarck wanted to reinforce the cohesion with the states of south Germany in a war and in a context of victory, four years after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The unification of Germany had to be led through and around Prussia for the ‘Little Germany’ partisans without Austria. REPERES – module 1-0 - explanatory notes – Major steps of the European History since 1815 – EN Auteur & © : Nadège Mougel, CVCE, 2011 English translation: Julie Gratz, Centre européen Robert Schuman 3/12 Pretext : The conflict was a culmination of years of tension between the two nations (Prussia and France), which finally came to a head over the issue of a Hohenzollern candidate for the vacant Spanish throne. The public release of the Ems Dispatch, which played up alleged insults between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, inflamed public opinion on both sides. France mobilized, and on 19 July 1870 declared war to Prussia. Bismarck was assured of Great Britain’s neutrality. The Prussian General Staff developed by Helmuth von Moltke proved to be extremely effective. The armies of France which avoided to be trapped in Metz rushed to the North. On 1 September 1870, during the Battle of Sedan, MacMahon capitulated and Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner. On 4 September 1870, headed by Gambetta, the republic was proclaimed led by a Government of National Defence. In September, the Germans began to besiege Paris. Léon Gambetta organized new French armies - the so-called Francs-tireurs - in the countryside after escaping from besieged Paris in a balloon. Gambetta turned to General Faidherbe's Army of the North and Chanzy of the West, and both failed. Paris surrendered on January 1871. On February 1871, in national elections, Adolphe Thiers was elected ‘head of the executive power of the Republic’ and a preliminary treaty of Versailles was signed on 26 February 1871. The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed on 10 Mayand gave Germany the possession of Alsace and the northern portion of Lorraine (Moselle), both of which contained 80% of French iron ore and machine shops. France agreed to pay five-billion francs in war indemnity and areas were occupied (6 departments of the North East and Belfort) for 3 years until the war repartitions were paid. 1904-1905 : Russo-Japanese War and Russia’s come back to a European politic. The Russians sought a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Japanese military attained victory over the Russian forces. REPERES – module 1-0 - explanatory notes – Major steps of the European History since 1815 – EN Auteur & © : Nadège Mougel, CVCE, 2011 English translation: Julie Gratz, Centre européen Robert Schuman 4/12 At the military level, this conflict prefigured of the wars in the 20th century by its length (one year in a half), by the use of infantry in offensive campaigns, by the number of casualties, and by the modern military technology used. This war grew out of two rival imperial ambitions. 1912 : The First Balkan War pitted the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman offensive plan failed completely and was forced to abandon Kirk Kilisse, Lüle Burgas and Adrianople (besieged by the Bulgarian Second Army), in Kumanovo (victory of Serbia). The international context : Serbia, encouraged by Russia, struggled for an exit from the Adriatic. Italy protested. Italy wanted the annexion of Albania and the gathering of the Great Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy). Greece protested againt Italy’s occupation of the Dodecanese Islands (1912). Austria-Hungary didn’t want Serbia or Italy to get more power and thus backed-up Bulgaria. Russia felt theatened by Bulgaria’s pressure upon Serbia and Turkey tended to protect its last friend state in the Balkan and follow its plan in the straits.
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