DOCUMENT RESUME AUTHOR Griffin, Robert E., Ed.; and Others

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 408 940 IR 018 353

AUTHOR Griffin, Robert E., Ed.; And Others TITLE VisionQuest: Journeys toward Visual Literacy. Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (28th, Cheyenne, Wyoming, October, 1996). INSTITUTION International Visual Literacy Association. REPORT NO ISBN-0-945829-11-6 PUB DATE Jan 97 NOTE 433p.; For individual papers, see IR 018 354-412. For the 1995 proceedings, see ED 391 476. PUB TYPE Collected Works Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC18 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Advertising; Computer Graphics; Computer Simulation; Computer Software Development; *Computer Uses in Education; Concept Mapping; Educational Technology; Elementary Secondary Education; Higher Education; Hypermedia; *Information Technology; Instructional Design; *Instructional Innovation; Internet; Learning Activities; Mass Media; Racial Discrimination; Sex Fairness; Student Projects; Teacher Attitudes; Television Viewing; Use Studies; Virtual Reality; *Visual Learning; *Visual Literacy; Visual Stimuli; World Wide Web IDENTIFIERS Digital Technology; Media Literacy

ABSTRACT This document contains 59 selected papers from the 1996 International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) conference. Topics include: learning to think visually; information design via the Internet; a program for inner-city at-risk chil'dren; dubbing versus subtitling television programs; connecting advertisements and classroom reading through visual literacy; tools for humanizing visual symbols; a review of a video on advertising and obsession with thinness; hypermedia and the _fundamentals of electronic literacy; elementary students' perceptions of visuals on the World Wide Web; stereotypes in film; teachers' perceptions of instructional design; visual learning activities; tri-coding of information; diversity in Cyborg images; concept mapping; the meaning of color in trademarks; visual literacy in elementary education; visual learning via computer-based simulations; adapting a paper-and-pencil test to the computer; representational strategies in a documentary about racial relations; studying scientific data through an aesthetic point of view; the role of the media in African American self-hatred; the need for visual literacy in higher education; imagery and synectics for modeling poetry writing; virtual courses; visual icons in myth; the development and demise of 8 millimeter film loops; women's history in visual and audiovisual education; student-developed visual productions; a cartographic interpretation of visual literacy; enabling learners through technology; a graphics systems approach in industry; the philosophy of representation; student nurses' perceptions of hospital staff modelling behaviors; deconstructing visual images of indigenous people; children's spatial visual thinking in a hypermedia environment; creating critical thinkers; perception in physics; using graphics for integrated planning; revisioning in storytelling; a local history preservation project; visual learning in biology; imagery, concept formation and creativity; visual themes +++++ ED408940 Has Multi-page SFR--- Level =l +++++ in gravestones; visual design principles in World Wide Web construction; digital camera editing; digital cinema principles and techniques for multimedia development; culture reflected in tombstones; challenges for hypermedia designers; visual literacy in Web Page creation; the potential of dynamic computer presentations; technology mass media, society and gender; obstructive interactive television designs; gender equity online; a study of intertextuality in television programming; children's understanding of visuals in television interviews; children's attention in television viewing; instructional design process models; and international use of the electronic presentation. (AEF)

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VisionQuest: ,.? Journeys Toward Visual Literacy

Selected Readings Edited by Robert E. Griffin J. Mark Hunter =IN Carole B. Schiffman William J. Gibbs

International Visual Literacy Association

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2 RESOURCES TO THE EDUCATIONAL INFORMATION CENTER(ERIC)." I I 7

VisionQuest ourneys Toward Visual Literacy

$ ' 11011211

Selected Readings Edited by Robert E. Griffin J. Mark Hunter Carole B. Schiffman William J. Gibbs

International Visual Literacy Association

Thiabbok has been compiled using a juried'preeedure to gUarantee a high quality Publication. The procedurebegan with planning of the International ViSual Literacy Association annual; conference in the early, spring. Part of the conferenceplanning procedure is to appoint a Paper Selection COnimitiee to write Call For papera for the conference and subsequently serve as a screening committee for papers to be presented at the conference. Authors that make it iiironghthis,stage of the screening are permitted to present their papers at the annual conference. All writers are then permitted to aninnittheir conference papers for possible publication in theannual book of readings. These papers are submitted to the Editor of the Readings at theannual: Meeting: :The Editor is selected by the Chairman of the International Visual Literacy Association Publications CoMinittee. Individuals who wiskto be Editor of the Readings submit a letterof request to the Chairman of the Publications Committee one yiiir in advance of the The Editor of the Readings distribrites the collected papers to the book's AssociateEditors for review and comment. The rejection rate for this year's book was 16% based on the nurnber of papers submitted at the second level screening. The rejection rate is considerably higher if you consider the level of review at the conference level. Please request further informationabout the review process from:

Robert E. Griffin Editor, Selected Readings 204 Business Administration Building Srneal College of Business Administration Penn State University University Park, PA 16802

Selected Readings of the International Visual Literacy Association © The International Visual Literacy Association, 1997

ISBN 0-945829-11-6 (January, 1997) PREFACE

of last year's Book of Selected Readingsfor the second year, I am proud As the senior editor of the This year we have included thehigh publication and am looking forward to yourapproval of this year's effort. Readings, the Editors' ChoiceAward and a new quality writing that you havelearned to expect from the Editor appointment. We hope ourefforts are of value to you. feature, the Graduate Student year's winner is Dr. DennisDake for his This is the second year for theEditors' Choice Award. This Think Like An Artist. When Itook over the job of Senior paper A PersonalVision Quest: Learning To always count previous editors, Darrell G.Beauchamp told me that I could Editor of the Readings one of the his papers rarely even need to being of high quality. Thatproved to be completely true; on Dennis's papers the paper, it is an autobiographicalstudy of the be edited. Wow...an artist that canwrite too! Be sure to read visual literacy. You will lovethe work...the editors growth of one person and how hehas developed his own did. the work of our GraduateStudent Editor, Jung Lee. TheGraduate I also hope you acknowledge talent for the this year. With this new tool,IVLA hopes to identify new Student Editor is a new addition co-authored a work of highly active graduatestudents. Ms. Lee also has organization and to highlight the acknowledge her contribution to paper that is in thisbook. When you see JungLee at a meeting, be sure to IVLA. the papers in a particularorder. The papers As was the case last year, Ihave chosen not to categorize isn't that also the personalityof IVLA? None of clearly rebel against fitting neatlyinto compact slots. But much about this organizationis that we all are engaged in our us fit into tight littlecategories. What I like so these papers reflect that quest.Let me close with the prayer own quests to expandthe nature of visual literacy, that I used in last year'spublication...

and pictures guide you to newheights. May the We hope that you enjoy thisbook and that its' words work shown here contribute tothe future.

ii 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work on another book of Selected Readings has come to a close. Boy...does it feel good to be done. It was only one year and one day ago that I sat at my computer typing a similar page announcing last year's book. I'm honored to be chosen as lead editor of the publication again this year. Adhering to a strict schedule is the only way to accomplish this task and, as many of you know, it is hard to stick to a schedule. The materials for the book must to be sent to our friend Tom Wagner at Omni Press before the Christmas holiday in order to have the publication available for distribution at the Association of Educational Communications and Technology meeting in February. With the help of authors, editors, staff and printer it all gets done on time. While I'm on the subject of editors, I want to give a big thanks to Carole Schiffman, Mark Hunter and our newest associate editor, Bill Gibbs for a great job. I received everyone's papers on the same day to send out for the final rewrites. I am lucky to be blessed with a great team.I also want to thank Jung Lee, who receives her own page in this book for her work as a graduate student editor. She did a superb great job with our new experiment and she is a great person to work with.It's good to work with dependable people. The conference planning group in Wyoming need to recognize how helpful they were to the outcome of this book. Andrew Yeaman's presentation selection committee did a solid job in sorting through many proposals to derive a great collection of presentations. The Wyoming crew made my efforts very easy. I voice the sentiments of all IVLA members when I say that we will be happy to come back to Wyoming anytime! A great deal of thanks also needs to go to my new staff assistant, Marcella Fickes. She has been the person to handle all of your panic calls.She has only been on the job for four months and had never been through the publication process before. She did a wonderful job. I want to thank the unseen person in this process, Tom Wagner from Omni Press, printer of this book for IVLA. His calm voice is always helpful in solving my printing problems. I have never met Tom in person, but I have a vision of a guy with a halo over his head sitting in an old wooden office chair solving problems. He always makes me feel like he is there just to help me. Thanks for everything Tom from all of the members of IVLA. Thank you also to my University, Penn State, and the Deans of the Smeal College of Business Administration, J.D. Hammond and Pete Bennett, for their support in making this publication possible. Their willingness to provide the time and equipment for me to complete this assignment is appreciated. Finally, I want to thank my family and the families of all the other people associated with this book. Without your help we would never be able to succeed in this type of effort. My thanks to Wheez, Rob, Bear, Big A and Little A for their help, and for letting me on the computer from time to time to finish this work.

Robert E. Griffin State College, PA December 20, 1996

iii GRADUATE STUDENT EDITOR

Jung Lee University of Wyoming Graduate Student Editor, 1997 Edition

The International Visual LiteracyAssociation launched a new project this year designed for the new members of our profession. Ourplan is that each year a graduate student will beidentified to serve as a Graduate Student Editor for the bookof Selected Readings. The Graduate Student Editorwill be selected to student will be selected represent the institution that IVLAis visiting that year for the annual conference. The by the senior editor of the Bookof Selected Readings. His or her job will be to assistthe editors in reading the papers that will be includedin the book.The Graduate Student Editor will share in all of the responsibilities of the other editors. The first recipient of the GraduateStudent Editorship is Jung Lee from the University ofWyoming. Ms. Lee, a native of Korea, is adoctoral student majoring in Instructional Technology.She is a student of media and Internet based Dr. John Cochenour and Dr.Landra Rezebek. Her research interests center on hyper interactive learning systems. After serving in her editor role Ms. Lee wasasked to comment on and evaluate the responsibility for future student editors. Shesaid, "as a graduate student it was a great honor andunique opportunity to participate in editing papers. It allowed meto prepare for my future in the professionalworld. I sincerely thank IVLA, the editors of the Bookof Selected Readings, Dr. John Cochenour and Dr.Landra Rezebek for read the papers giving me the opportunity, and I hopeit will be shared with other graduate students." As you included in this book I think you will agreethat Jung Lee has done an excellent job!

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Personal Vision Quest: Learning To Think Like An Artist (Editors' Choice Award Winner) 1 Dennis M. Dake

Information Design Via The Internet 11 Hilary McLellan

"Our Town: An Architectural Perspective": A Program For Inner-city At-risk Children 17 Claire B. Gallagher

The Effects Of Dubbing Versus Subtitling Of Television Program 23 Fattawi Mokhtar

Questing Toward Cohesion: Connecting Advertisements And Classroom Reading Through Visual Literacy 33 Ann Watts Pailliotet

Old Dad And Edna St. Vincent Mil lay: Tools For Humanizing the Visual 43 Elizabeth (Betty) Cramton Bever lee Kissick

A Review Of Slim Hopes: Advertising & The Obsession With Thinness 47 Richard Couch

Hypermedia: New Dimensions of Literacy 49 Mary L. McNabb

Perception Of Elementary Students Of Visuals On The Web 55 Manal A. El-Tigi Barbara Lewis Virginia M. Mac. Entee

The White Man's Indian: Stereotypes In Film And Beyond 63 Charalambos Vrasidas

Teachers' Perceptions Of Instructional Design 71 Ann S. Dana

Visual Exercises: A Quest For Alternative Measures Of Student Learning 81 Robert Sitz

Tri-Coding Of Information 91 Timothy Simpson

Diversity In Cyborg Images: A Case Study Of Barry Levinson's Toys 101 Linda E. Lucek 109 Linking Reading And Writing:Concept Mapping As An OrganizingTactic Rionda Osman-Jouchoux 119 The Meaning Of Color In Trademarks Ed Johnson 131 An Opportunity For Visual LiteracyIn The K-4 Classrooms OfOhio Colleen M. Sexton John C. Bel land 137 Visual Fidelity and Learning viaComputer-Based Simulations Glen A. Holmes Study The Design Issues Adapting a VisualPaper-and-Pencil Test to the Computer: A Case 141 Figure Classification Test James M. Washington Jr. 149 Representing The Ghetto Playground:From 'Be Like Mike' To Hoop Dreams Jeffrey Chown 157 Mapping The World Through ScienceAnd Art Lydia Dambekalns In The Maintenance Of Light Skinned With Good Hair: TheRole Of The Media And Christianity 161 Self-Hatred In African Americans Omowale Akintunde 169 The Growing Need For VisualLiteracy At The University Jerry T. Christopherson 175 Imagery and Synectics for ModelingPoetry Writing Jeanne L. Dykstra Frank E. Dykstra 179 Virtual Courses And Visual Media William J. Gibbs Patricia J. Fewell 185 Travellers And Cowboys: MythsOf The Irish West Gretchen Bisplinghoff

191 The Development And DemiseOf 8MM Film Loops In America Rebecca P. Butler 197 Women's History In Visual AndAudiovisual Education, Where And HowTo Find It Rebecca P. Butler

vi 8 Visual Productions And Student Learning 201 Marilyn Bazeli

A Cartographic Interpretation of Visual Literacy: A Historical Perspective 207 Cindy L. Kovalik Kim Lambdin

Visual Literacy And Just-In-Time Training: Enabling Learners ThroughTechnology 217 Terry Burton

Attaining Visual Literacy Using Simplified Graphics In Industry 225 Terry Burton

A Philosophical Discussion of Representation 235 Sandra E. Moriarity Keith Kenney

Student Nurses' Perceptions Of Hospital Staff Modeling Behaviors 243 Sherise L. Valentine

Quest of Visual Literacy: Deconstructing Visual Images of Indigenous People 247 Ladislaus Semali

Exploring Children's Spatial Visual Thinking In An HyperGami Environment 257 Patricia McClurg Jung Lee Maria Shavalier Kermit Jacobsen

Creating Critical Thinkers 267 Marilyn Bazeli Rhonda Robinson

Perception In The Invisible World Of Physics 275 Lisa Novemsky Ronald Gautreau

Using Graphics for Integrated Planning 285 Peggy A. P. Pruisner

Story Re-Visions: Tales For The Future 291 Jacqueline W. Gray

Celebrating Cody: An Opportunity To Present A Visual History 297 Carmela A. Conning Jeannie Cook

Visual Learning in Field Biology 301 Ethel D. Stanley

vii 305 Imagery, Concept Formation And Creativity -From Past To Future Asael Silverstein Ora. N 313 Grave Songs in Stone J. Mark Hunter 319 Visual Design Principles Applied To WorldWide Web Construction Donald D. Luck J. Mark Hunter 325 Vertical Hegelianism And Beyond: DigitalCamera Editing Roger B. Wyatt 329 Digital Cinema Principles and Techniquesfor Multi-Media Development Roger B. Wyatt 335 Wyoming Tombstone Symbolism: AReflection Of Western Culture John Cochenour Landra L. Rezabek 345 Hypermedia as a Distinct Medium: Challengesfor Designers Barbara Clark Nancy Nelson Knupfer 355 Creating Web Pages: Is AnyoneConsidering Visual Literacy? Barbara I. Clark Nancy Nelson Knupfer Judy Mahoney Kevin M. Kramer Hamed Ghazali Nabel Al-Ani 363 Visualizing Instructional Design: ThePotential of Dynamic ComputerPresentations Nancy Nelson Knupfer Misook Ji Theresa E. Gram Named Ghazali William J. Rust Huei Chu Chen Kevin M. Kramer Gender 373 Out of the Picture, Out of the Club:Technology Mass Media, Society and Nancy Nelson Knupfer William J. Rust Judy E. Mahoney

viii 10 Obstructive Interactive Television Designs: The Influence of Culture, Gender and Power 381 Nancy Nelson Knupfer Theresa E. Gram

Gender Equity On-line: Messages Portrayed With and About the New Technologies 391 Nancy Nelson Knupfer Kevin M. Kramer Debra Pryor

A Thinking Person's Comedy: A Study Of Intertextuality In Cheers 401 Anthony Hlynka Nancy Nelson Knupfer

A Preliminary Study on Children's Understanding of a Visual Used in Television Interviews 411 Georgette Comuntzis-Page

Factors Affecting Children's Attention on TV Viewing 421 Sophia T. Wu

Perceptions Of Instructional Design Process Models 429 Robert Maribe Branch

The Electronic Presentation: A Status Report Of International Use 435' Robert E. Griffin Rune Pettersson Ronald Johnson \ -c/ifors- Choice A Personal Vision Quest: Learning To Think Like An Artist -- by Dennis M. Dake Abstract This paper describes thirty years of visual exploration by the author, a professional artist. Using the metaphoric story device of two tribes, one that builds their culture around words and the other which depends primarily on visual perception, the paper suggests a distinctive mental paradigm at work within the society of artists, who pursue visual literacy through the experience of graphic ideation. The author's individual story of visual development and understanding is supported throughout the paper with the findings of numerous studies in psychology and neuropsychology which show a growing scientific awareness of the distinctive visual thinking style of artists.

"Each hemisphere (of the human brain) has rounding universe. With our young, we begin its own private sensations, perceptions, in the earliest years of life to stress the stan- thoughts, and ideas all of which are cut off from dardization of outcomes from our educational the corresponding experiences in the opposite factories. As our young are initiated into the hemisphere. Each left and right hemisphere has knowledge of the word, they gain in stature until its own private chain of memories and learning some few are granted the level of expertise that experiences that are inaccessible to recall by allows them to become executive controllers of the other hemisphere. In many respects each the hierarchical structure.Accountability is disconnected hemisphere appears to have a prized at all levels of our culture and the more separate 'mind' of its own."Roger Sperry, quantitatively anything can be assessed the Nobel Laureate (Sperry, 1976) richer the reward. Our culture has a special mandate from the omnipotent creator of all, for A Metaphor: The Two Tribes in the beginning was the word. There are two tribes in this world. The dominant tribe, the tribe of the This paper is report from the word, lives in a valley separated tribe of the vision, a message from the "other" tribe by a great from the other side of the moun- mountain range. Little is known tain. In this tribe dwell the hu- about the second tribe, the tribe mans who call themselves, art- of the vision, which lives in the ists. valley on the opposite side of the mountains.

There are rumors that the Figure 1 tribe of the vision is quite dif- Self Portrait ferent from our kind. Rumors Portrait Of The Artist As A Certifiable have it that they worship differ- Schizophrenic, 1980, Watercolor, ent, heathen gods and practice 23 X 29" (copyright Dennis M. Dake) strange irrational rituals. The tribe of the word, as you know, has developed a culture of sophistication and As a representative of this tribe of the vi- critical thought. Through the use of discursive sion, let me tell you that we are very suspicious symbolism, parsing all thought into numerical of the intentions of the tribe of the word. Our and written symbols, our ancestors have given leading priests have warned us repeatedly of us great precise control over knowledge con- the danger of dominance by words. Many in cerning the structure and functioning of the sur- our tribe distrust words and the misunderstand- 1

12 BEST COPY. AVAIIABLE ings they can lead to. We all use words and The Education Of A Visual Artist think we know what they mean but our ancient My life as a visual artist has been lived as stories tell us that for many people the same an interested explorer wandering between the words have different meanings. A potential for tribe of the word and the tribe of the vision. verbal misunderstanding leads to many prob- (Figure 1) While visual artists usually prefer lems for our tribe, which must have a clear and to remain on their side of the mountain, my fate creative vision in order to survive. For example, has been to try to learn from both groups and our legendary leader, Leonardo Da Vinci once explore what they have to offer to each other. wrote, "The supreme misfortune is when theory outstrips performance." For the tribe of the vi- My earliest education did not include a sion performance must come first. In modern grounding in the visual discipline of an artist. times, the warnings against over reliance on There were no art teachers to teach in my school words have grown increasingly strident. system, no artists lived in my small town, and Cezanne the father of our current social order no one attended art galleries or museums. The said,"Talking about art is almost useless." tribe of the word seemed the total focus of the While we have often received emissaries from educational system and the culture. Therefore, the tribe of the word, who talk endlessly about during college art training, I found myself with- our culture, we often wonder, "do they really out a developed understanding of the thinking understand how we think". Our tribe under- styles and disciplined visual dialog processes stands the precision and control of thought pos- characteristic of artists. There was always a sible with discursive symbolism, but we believe struggle to find visual ideas for class assign- that presentational symbolism is a superior way ments. to understand the world. The Importance of Memes Our quest, in the tribe of the vision, is to During the early 1960's, the midwest was construct visual images which are the closest being fully exposed to the influence of abstract fitting equivalent of the individual's underly- expressionism, which had flourished in New ing experience. This poetic vision of the world, York ten to twenty years earlier. Abstract Ex- we know, can resonate on multiple levels of pressionist role models, for me, from the tribe meaning simultaneously, representing so much of the vision were the artists Franz Kline and more, holistically, than words can ever hope to Wilem De Kooning. I greatly admired their free convey. In our dealings with the tribe of the word, we find them unfailingly serious in their Figure 2 obsession with converting everything into ab- Abstract Expressionist Painting stract symbols. Don't they appreciate the play- Untitled, Acrylic, 21 X 23", 1967 (copyright Dennis M. Dake) ful experimentation that leads to creativity and beauty? Our knowledge is known to us through intuition and aesthetic sensitivity without resort- ing to words. Why don't the people on the other side of the mountain see what we mean? "In the artistic process, which involves a novel arrangement of familiar elements to form an affective message, the right hemisphere may provide the neural substrate for fresh perspectives or insight, simply because of its different mental modus operandi." A. Schweiger, Neuropsychologist (Benson & Zaidel, Eds. 1993)

2 3 and expressive use of brush work with paint. The art works of Kline and De Kooning, viewed The importance for young artists of artistic in books and magazines, continued to guide my role models as vision guides was given clarity, thoughts and approaches to art well into my when during the last year, I discovered, in the graduate school years. (Figure 2) tribe of the word, the ideas of R. Dawkins. Dawkins postulates the existence of memes, the Eventually, however, the heavily introspec- smallest recognizable pieces of cultural infor- tive and idiosyncratically methods and ideol- mation. Memes are defined as closely analo- ogy of abstract expressionism, which had in- gous in cultural evolution to the role that genes trigued and captivated me for many years, be- play in biological evolution. The transmission came a dead-end path for continued visual de- of memes is said to account for the evolution- velopment. I found myself continually copy- ary continuity and on-going development of ing the solutions from my previous work. cultural information. Encounters with influen- Purely subjectively based exploration, I came tial memes which have informed the develop- to see, was primarily of individual interest and was not critically attached to the long-term, Figure 4 transpersonal discipline of art. Work Inspired By Art of Franz Kline The Poor People Next Door, Mixed Media, 18 X 24", 1969, (copyright Dennis M. Dake) While searching for new vision guides on my artistic quest, I discovered the artist Larry Rivers who became increasingly important to me. Rivers represented a bridge from the abstract expressionist immediacy of gesture and expression to the more traditional disciplined exploration with representational draftsmanship and subject matter. (Figure 3) Rivers spoke to me, in the manner of a true spirit guide, of the initiation rites in disciplined artistic thinking necessary for membership in the artistic tribe of the vision.

Figure 3 Painting Inspired By Art Of Larry Rivers ment of my art work have included those found Patriot At The Parade, Acrylic, 50 X 60", 1968 in the work of Rivers, Kline, De Kooning, (copyright Dennis M. Dake) Cezanne, Matta, and others. (Figure 4) I have come to see that much visual and structural knowledge has been transmitted to me through holistic meme units.

Holistic memes have given me a perception of the ethical values and biases of the tribe of the vision. These values have centered on the primacy of visual understanding and communication over and above verbal symbolization and expression. As an older ancestor of the tribe, Paul Cezanne, expressed it, "Talking about art is almost useless." Without consciously knowing it, this preference for visual communication, in opposition to communica- 3 tion in words and numbers, was the first of many nearly 30 years later, that I have again felt vi- clues to understanding the tribe of visual art- sually compelled to return to a deep and com- ists. pelling visual logic that shaped canvases once held for me. (Figure 6) Words can create a Laterality and Dominance in the Brain formidable barrier to visual thought. A prefer- In the years since my formal art educationence for relying on the visual over the verbal is was completed, I have discovered several fur- a major boundary between the territories of the ther explanations for the ingrained preference two tribes of the world. of the tribe of the vision for visual thought and communication over verbal discourse. The lit- Neuropsychology Of Artistic Thinking erature with the most important explanatory As my teaching career has moved from the power for me has centered around the overrid- high school to the university level, there has ing executive control and dominance of the been a greater need to continually move back parsing, linear thought processes of the left and forth between the separate worlds of the hemisphere of the human brain. This domi- two tribes. Both because I have worked in the nance has been shown by neuropsychologists area of art education, which requires clear and to have an extremely inhibitory effect on the logical explanations for artistic phenomena, and visual based, holistic thought structures of the because of youthful over immersion in the tribe visio-spatial processing right hemisphere. of the word, I have experienced an increased need to search out plausible explanations to This inhibition of one hemisphere of the explain my continuing lack of visual under- brain against the functions of the other hemi- standing. This exploration has led me to some sphere, makes, as artists have known for hun- interesting scientific explorations in psychol- dreds of years, expanded growth of visual dia- ogy and neuropsychology, from the other side log and thought difficult. For example, a chance of the mountain. comment from a painting teacher in the late 1960's, that the shaped canvases that I was Figure 6 working on were, "more sculpture than paint- Shaped Canvas - 1996 ing," (Figure 5) effectively convinced me to end Untitled, Acrylic on Canvas, 43 x 71", irregular shape that visual line of inquiry. The inhibitory ef- (copyright Dennis M. Dake) fect of this simple verbal comment was so powerful that it has only been in the past two years,

Figure 5 Shaped Canvas - 1969 Untitled, Acrylic & Sand, 45 w x 62" h, irregular shape (copyright Dennis M. Dake) Figure 7 Figure 8 Cloth Model for Tie and Die Series Painting From Cloth Model original photography, Thought Experiment # 6, Acrylic, 36 x 48", 1976 (copyright Dennis M. Dake) (copyright Dennis M. Dake)

S".

Abstract Basis Of Visual Thought An abstract basis for vision has been stud-Visual Literacy Association (Dake, 1993), I was ied for many years by the scientific community startled after finishing this series when a re- but only in recent years have studies demon- spected scientific observer suggested that these strated that artist's perceptions depend upon paintings were a cognitive exploration of the physiological processes that pull in abstract asymmetrical, mathematical functions of structures.Neuropsychologists studying the fractals. Could this series of personally derived scanpaths of saccadic eye movements in artists visual forms represent cognition without dis- and non-artists (Zangmeister, Sherman, and cursive symbolization? (Figures 9 & 10) Stark, 1995) found that professional artists and sophisticated viewers of art had significantly Allusive Thinking And Art different patterns than individuals in control Psychologists have identified additional groups from scientific fields. A demonstrated differences between the thinking of visual art- higher ratio of global scanpaths (for large ab- ists and those without artistic inclinations and/ stract structures) to smaller saccadic scans for or training. Experiments to identify and cat- details provides the artist and trained observer egorize the nature of this artistic thinking show with more awareness of the abstract structures that visual artists of acknowledged creativity underlying visual perception. Artists are then demonstrate much greater use of allusive think- better able to control and manipulate the visio- ing than non-artists.(Tucker, Rothwell, spatial abstract structure of their visions for Armstrong, and McConaghy, 1982)Allusive communicative and creative purposes. thinking is defined as loose categorical thinking based on broader attentional processes than My own studio research, indicates that critical, verbally based thought. In an age that progress in developing all types of visual ideas encourages non-representational as well as rep- requires a disciplined and conscious focus on resentational art forms, this ability for allusive the abstract properties underlying outward il- thinking patterns may even confer a competi- lusions of form. In a series of airbrushed wa- tive advantage on certain visual artists."At tercolor paintings which I titled, "Tie and Die," present, when non-representational visual art is I explored abstract forms that seemed intuitively more valued, allusive thinking artists would to be the visual equivalents of my own mental appear likely to be more successful, in view of processes. These paintings were developed their ability to produce work rich in allusions from 3-dimensional models of twisted and operating at a less conscious level and hence bundled cloth. (Figure 7 & 8) As I reported in less immediately obvious to the viewer." an earlier paper, presented to the International (Tucker, et. al, 1982) 5 16 Figure 10 Tie and Die Painting Experiment Thought Structure # 9, Watercolor, 29 x 23", 1980 (copyright Dennis M. Dake)

Figure 9 Tie and Die Painting Experiment

Thought Structure # 8, Watercolor, 23 x 29", 1979 (copyright Dennis M. Dake)

Visual Cognition The ability of humans to think by visual understand and accept the nature of visual cog- means alone has been explored within science nition. and written about in the cognitive literature from the tribe of the word. For example, in the book Psychomorphology "A Second Way of Knowing: The Riddle of Within the tribe of the vision, I have dis- Visual Perception", Edmund Bolles reexamines covered that all configuration sources are le- the "Top Down" gestalt basis of visual percep- gitimate and equally full of potential. The logic tion and contrasts its strengths with the limita- we, of the tribe, respect is purely intuitive and tions of the mechanistic "Bottom Up" approach visual. Using these mental processes, over the of much current perceptual psychology. Bolles past 10 years, the range of my visual experi- postulates that both approaches can lead to new ments has broadened to include a larger variety knowledge, although the latter usually does not of invented and discovered forms. The sources recognize the former as representative of intel- of these new design idea. s have come from both ligent thought. nature and man made forms. My visual ideation to discover evocative visual images be- A specific example documenting visual gins with the archival photographic documen- cognition was published in the neuropsychol- tation of interesting forms from nature and ran- ogy journal, Brain, (Zeki and Lamb, 1994). In dom mechanical configurations, found in such their article, The Neurology of Kinetic Art, these places as automobile junkyards. At the begin- two scientists argue that over a 40 + year pe- ning of this series of paintings, I layered sev- riod of time artists developed kinetic art forms eral photographic images on top of each other, which foreshadowed later neurological explo- using visual interest as the sole criteria for se- rations of the functions of the primary visual lection. (Figures 11 & 12) cortex of the brain. Specifically Zeki and Lamb contend that kinetic artists "unknowingly" iso- Homospatial Thinking lated and explored the functions of the V5 area After completing this series of paintings, I of the primary visual cortex which processes discovered that research by scientists interested motion to the exclusion of color, shape, or other in the creative functions of the human mind has aspects of visual experience. Converging lines suggested that the superimposition of separate of exploration and reasoning such as this give entities and phenomena in the same space hope that the tribe of the word will eventually within the human brain is the triggering mecha- 6 17 nism for creative thought. This type of think- Design Fluency & Low Spatial Frequency ing has been called homospatial thinking. Over the past 3 years, my visual research (Rothenberg 1986) Homospatial thinking is a has shifted to a series of shaped canvases that form of visual epistemology well respected in break the mold of rectangles, a painting format the tribe of the vision although it may seem ran- used almost exclusively by painters since the dom and chaotic to humans on the other side of Renaissance. Inspired by rocks from the coast the mountain. The order and pattern of this type of Maine and the crumpled scraps of metal from of thinking lies below the level of superficial destroyed automobiles, I have created a series appearances. Homospatial thinking acknowl- of shaped wood and canvas forms which I think edges that the viewer of any visual form makes of as analogous to stimuli used in a scientific an important contribution to the meaning of his/ experiment. These forms are developed by con- her perceptions. Objective sensations of visual tinual, flexible, and extended manipulation of phenomena are always filtered through a men- sections of ambiguous, out-of-focus photo- tal filter consisting of the viewer's expectations graphs to visually discover a spirit of equiva- and past experiences. Each viewer then puts lency with my life experiences. (Figure 13) together their perceptions as unique and individual constructions. Flexibility and fluency are necessary to effectively develop such effective visual stimuli. The visual art forms which I have devel- This design fluency has been identified with the oped over the past 10 years are designed as rig- right hemisphere of the brain. Two neurosci- orous experiments to explore this visual mind - entists (Jones-Gotman and Milner, 1977) have form interaction.I have on other occasions through the study of brain damaged individu- (Dake, 1995) called this original discipline, als, identified the right frontal and right fronto- psychomorphology. Psychomorphology holds central areas of brain as most implicated in de- that the mind (psycho) and the world of visual sign fluency in a non-verbal mode. Other sci- forms (morphology) are intimately and inte- entists have found that to engage the right hemi- grally intertwined. sphere it is important to draw upon the demon-

Figure 11 Figure 12 Layered Photographic Negatives As Psychomorphology Experiment Visual Inspiration For Painting Artist's Perspective, Acrylic, 40 x 60", 1989 (copyright Dennis M. Dake) (copyright Dennis M. Dake)

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EST COPY AVAILABLE Figure 13 Reconstrual and Bisociation Psychomorphology Experiment The logic of the tribe of the word relies on Out of the Blue, Acrylic, 28 x 36", 1989 the integration of similar unitsof information. (copyright Dennis M. Dake) The logic of the tribe of the visionprefers the fertile interactions of dissimilar units.The bisociation, cross fertilization within asingle human brain, of previouslyseparated "dissimilar" information sources into new combinationsis the primary mental process inhuman creativity. (Koestler,1977)

At a subconscious level allincoming visio-spatial messages are continuallycorrelated, in a rapid fire process of comparison,with other similar structural units from pastexperiences. This process has been titled,"reconstrual" by psychologists (Peterson,1993)studying the processes of creativity anddiscovery. Individuals who have been initiated into thetribe of the vision have a developed sensitivity tothe process of reconstrual.Members of the tribe of the vision are able to tap into isomorphicforms of analogical thinking which occurearly in visual processing in the righthemisphere of the strated task sensitivity of the righthemisphere to "fuzzy" visual stimuliof low spatial frequency (Semmes,1968).Diffuse representation of information in the righthemisphere contributes to an ability in creativeindividuals to integrate dissimilar units into new andprevi- ously unseen inventions. Leadersof the tribe of the vision have attested to theinventive power of low frequency,right hemispheric processes. Leonardo DaVincisaid it most eloquently:

"When you look at a wall spottedwith stains, or with a mixture of stones,if you have to devise some scene, you maydiscover a resemblance to various landscapes,beautified with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees,plains, wide valleys, and hills in varied arrangement; oragain you may see battlesand figures in action; or Figure 14 strange faces and costumes,and an endless va- Photo Collage Model riety of objects, which you could reduce to com- 6 x 8", (Upper Left) And plete and well drawn forms. And these appear like the sound of bells Psychomorphology Experiment on such walls confusedly, irregular shape word Untitled, Acrylic, 71"h x 29"w, in whose jangle you may find any name or 1995, (Right),(copyright Dennis M. Dake) you choose to imagine."(Mac Curdy,1938) 8 9 Figure 15 Psychomorphology Experiment standing of this process of visual cognition, the Untitled, Acrylic, 48"h x 32"w, irregular shape, 1996 universal birthright of every human. (copyright Dennis M. Dake) . The two tribes of this world should be equally home to all human beings. We are all on a vision quest whether or not we have ever been formally educated to "see" the true nature of our abilities. As with the traditional verbal literacy skills of the tribe of the word, visual literacy involves not only passive reading skills but the active acquisition of knowledge and understanding through the practice of ideation skills. Visual Literacy requires a deepening of visual understanding achieved through visual experience in addition to the word based study of human perception.

References

Arnheim R. (1969) Visual Thinking, Berkeley, CA, University of California Press

brain. The richness of the multiple associations Bolles, E.B. (1991) A Second Way of Know- obtained in this way lend a richness of contex- ing: The Riddle of Human Perception, New tual meanings to everything seen and created. York, Prentice Hall Press Because perception is so variable, I have begun to experiment with abandoning the rect- Changeux, J.P. (1994) Art and Neuroscience, angular, Renaissance "window on the world" Leonardo, Vol. 27, No 3, pp 189-201 that implies a stable, single one-eyed observer with a set point of view.(Figure 14)My Corballis, M. (1991) The Lopsided Ape: Evo- intention, as best I can state it to you in discur- lution of the Generative Mind. New York, Ox- sive form, is, not to convey any predetermined ford University Press message but to rather provoke the mind of the viewer to original invention and creation. (Fig- Dake, D. (1993) Visual Links: Discovery in ure 15) Psychomorphology is backed up by re- Art and Science, in:Art, Science, & Visual search from the both tribes of the world. Literacy, Braden R., Baca J., & Beauchamp D. Eds., Blacksburg, VA, International Visual Lit- The Vision Quest Goes On eracy Assoc., pp 11-21 My personal and professional, artistic vision quest goes on. My goal, is an undefinable Dake, D. (1995) Process Issues in Visual Lit- sense of beauty and order that, in the end, I can eracy, in:Imagery and Visual Literacy, not explain in words. I am challenged by the Beauchamp, D., Braden R., and Griffin R. Eds., creation of visual stimuli that can arouse in the Blacksburg, VA, International Visual Literacy viewer an abstract, allusive, and poetic percep- Assoc., pp 1-23 tion of the world. This ability, which is popularly called imagination, requires taking full Jones-Gotman, M. and Milner, B. (1977) De- responsibility for one's visions and the manner sign Fluency: The Invention of Nonsense Draw- in which they are communicated. As my re- ingsafterFocalCorticalLesions, search develops, I hope to deepen my under- Neuropsychologia, Vol. 15, pp 653 - 674 Koestler, A. (1978) The Act of Creation, Lon- Schweiger A. (1993) Quoted in: The Dual don, Pan Books, Ltd. Brain, Hemispheric Specialization in Humans, Benson D. and Zaidel E. Eds., New York, The Mac Curdy E. ed. (1938) Notebooksof Le- Guildford Press onardo Da Vinci, Vol 2., Reynal andHitchcock, New York, p. 254 Sperry, R.W. (1976) Lateral Specializationin the Surgically Separated Hemispheres. In:The Peterson M.A. ( 1993) The Ambiguityof Men- Neurosciences: Third Study Program, F.O. tal Images: Insights Regarding theStructure Schmitt and F.G. Worden, Eds., Cambridge, of Shape Memory and its Function inCreativ- Mass., MIT Press, pp 5-19 ity, in Imagery, Creativity, andDiscovery: A Cognitive Perspective, Amsterdam,Roskos- Springer S., Deutsch G. (1993) LeftBrain, Ewoldsen B., Itons-Peterson M.J., AndersonR. Right Brain, New York, W.H. Freemanand eds., The Netherlands, North-Holland Company

Rothenberg, A. (1986) Artistic Creation as Tucker P., Rothwell S., ArmstrongM., and Stimulated by Superimposed VersusCombined- McConaghy N. (1982) Creativity,divergent, Composite Visual Images, Journal ofPerson- and allusive thinking in students andvisual art- ality and Social Psychology, Vol. 50,No. 2, pp ists. Psychological Medicine, Vol 12, pp835- 370 - 381 841

Semmes, J.(1968) Hemispheric Specializa- Zangmeister, W.H. and Sherman K., andStark tion: A Possible Clue toMechanism, L.(1995) Evidence for a GlobalScanpath Neuropsychologia, Vol. 6, pp 1126 Strategy in Viewing Abstract Comparedwith Realistic Images, Neuropsychologia,Vol. 33, Smolucha L. and Smolucha F. (1985)A Fifth No. 8, pp 1009 - 1025 Piagetian Stage: The CollaborationBetween Analogical and Logical Thinking inArtistic Zeki S. and Lamb M. (1994) TheNeurology Creativity., Visual Arts Research, pp91-99 of Kinetic Art, Brain, Vol 117, pp607 636 Information Design Via The Internet by Hilary McLellan

Abstract This paper describes a course on Information Design implemented entirely via Internet. The design model of a virtual community was used, featuring thirteen design components: (1) Competence, (2) A shared, understood goal, (3) Mutual respect, tolerance, and trust, (4) Creation and manipulation of shared spaces, (5) Multiple forms of representation, (6) Playing with the representations, (7) Continuous but not continual communication, (8) Formal and informal environments, (9) Clear lines of responsibility but no restrictive boundaries, (10) Decisions do not have to be made by concensus, (11) Physical presence is not necessary, (12) Selective use of outsiders for complementary insights and information, and (13) Collaboration's end.

Introduction feud, fall in love, find friends and lose This paper will describe an experimental them, play games, flirt, create a little high course on Information Design that was art and a lot of idle talk. People in virtual implemented entirely via Internet, communities do just about everything including World Wide Web, listserv, and people do in real life, but we leave our email. Internet courses can be implemented bodies behind." (p. 3) People in virtual in several different ways, to meet the communities engage in learning, along with distinctive needs of learners. The all these other activities. Information Design class was designed and implemented as a virtual community, based Schrage's Model on a model put forward by Michael How to create a virtual community that Schrage (1991, 1995). supports learning? Michael Schrage (1991) offers a model that highlights the Virtual Learning Communities importance of collaboration. According to Just as a classroom where teacher and Schrage, the goal should he to create a students are physically present develops shared experience rather than an experience into a community, however temporary, that is shared. An experience that is shared over the course of a semester, classes is passive. A shared experience is one that is taught via the Internet become virtual participatory a conversation or a learning communities, communities discussion, as opposed to a speech, a lecture unbounded by physical space.According or a television broadcast. Schrage theorizes to Howard Rheingold (1993), "Virtual that electronic environ-ments such as the communities are social aggregations that Internet and groupware offer immense emerge from the Net when enough people potential as a context for supporting carry on those public discussions long collaboration. enough, with sufficient human feeling, to Collaboration is central to this model. form webs of personal relationships in "Collaboration is the process of shared cyberspace." (p. 9) Rheingold further creation: two or more individuals with explains that, "People in virtual complementary skills interacting to create a communities use words on screens to shared understanding that none had pre- exchange pleasantries and argue, engage in viously possessed or could have come to on intellectual discourse, conduct commerce, their own. Collaboration creates a shared exchange knowledge, share emotional meaning about a process, a product, or support, make plans, brainstorm, gossip, an event. In this sense, there is nothing routine about it. Something is therethat Students can participate in an Internet-based wasn't there before. Collaboration can class from home. They can log on to the occur by mail, over the phonelines, and in class resources and activities on the Internet person. But the truemedium of at their convenience. The studentsin the collaboration is other people." (Schrage, p. Information Design class were very 40) Schrage emphasizesthat in a enthusiastic about the convenient oppor- collaborative relationship, the creationof tunity that this course offered them. value is the central issue; communication How did this class conform to Schrage's and team-work exist to support this. model? The following discussion will Schrage presents a model of collaboration explain. composed of thirteen design themes:(1) Competence, (2) A shared, understood Competence goal, (3) Mutual respect, tolerance,and The course was based on competence trust, (4) Creation andmanipulation of with the technology underlying the course shared spaces, (5) Multiple forms of repre- delivery computers, modems, com- sentation, (6) Playing with the represen- munications software. There was a wide tations, (7) Continuous but not continual range of Internet and evenbasic computer communication, (8) Formal and informal experience among the students enrolledin environments, (9) Clear lines of respon- the class. Students who possessed more sibility but no restrictive boundaries,(10) experience, shared their expertise, raising Decisions do not have to he madeby the level of competence for all.And when concensus, (11) Physical presenceis not a technical problem,such as transferring necessary, (12) Selective useof outsiders homework file to the listsery stumped for complementary insights andinforma- everyone, students collaboratedin experi- tion, and (13) Collaboration's end. mentation until a solution was reached. Furthermore, developing competence i n Implementing Schrage's Model terms of both technical skillsand mastery of The Information Design course taughtvia the content, were central to the purposeof the Internet (including WorldWide Web, the class. In this experimental class, a listserv, and electronic mail) wasdesigned communal mind developed, with people's on the basis ofSchrage's model of competences proving highlycomplemen- collaborative communities. This course tary and synergistic. served 25 masters degree students across the western United States andCanada. The A Shared, Understood Goal students enrolled in this class were The class and its subject matter provided dispersed, but many were clusteredin the goal, which was shared byall the nodes so that in some instancesthey could students: to learn about informationdesign work together with classmates.For through a new, experimental learning example, a number of studentslived in or process that highlightedtechnology skills. near Portland, Oregon.Sometimes they got This goal encompassed all of thethemes together at someone's home oroffice to that Schrage identified:problem-solving, explore advanced Internet resourcesthat creating, discovering, creatingvalue could not he accessed on all thestudents' and developing competence, mastery. computers. This kind of Internet-based course serves Mutual Respect, Tolerance,And Trust the needs of students seeking toextend As any educator knows, thiselement of their training without having toadd too Schrage's model should hefundamental to much of an extra burden to livesalready all educational contexts andexperiences. In filled with work and familyobligations. practice, the teacher can set the tone,but 12 23 occasionally problems can arise, often due central to the content of thiscourse on to a single individual someone who is Information Design. Illustrations, charts, not listening to others or who seems to need photographs and graphic elementswere to know all the answers, to have the last featured along with text on the Webpage word, creating his or her own debilitating "Cyberlectures," providing multiple forms barriers to learning while turning off and of representation. This is something thatcan even intimidating other students. The be applied to any kind of subject matter. As Internet context can draw out these the capabilities of the World Wide Web tendencies in a few students, more so than a advance, audio and multimedia will become face-to-face learning environment. Con- widespread. However, in designing and commitently, interpersonal cues that might implementing Internet-based courses it is restrain this kind of behavior in a face-to- essential to keep in mind that students face setting are missing in the context of a accessing computers from home are less virtual classroom. In these instances, the likely to have access to the full panoply of teacher must continually reinforce the Internet capabilities than those accessible to collaborative premise of the virtual learning students on campus with access to community. university resources. In some ways, the Internet context creates a level playing field for diverse students, Playing With The Representations thereby diminishing sources of intolerance Learning activities that feature playing and mistrust. One student in the with different representations can be very Information Design class commented that valuable (McLellan, 1996a). Since the in the Internet format, topics were "distilled Internet provides information in different down to their intellectual component, with forms, it is ideal for this kind of activity. In all extraneous variables removed." These addition, the Information Design class extraneous variables include race, gender, featured a Web page design assignment that different abilities, and appearances. The specifically centered upon playing with Internet format is not a panacea, and it is representations: a map transformation not equally appealing to all types of assignment. Students were assigned to learners, but it can filter out such "noise" create a World Wide Web page featuring a factors that interfere with communication map for a trip of their choosing, such as the and learning once technical problems morning ride to work, and translate it into are overcome! three different forms of information: a visual map, formal directions using text, Creation And Manipulation Of Shared and an informal written description of the Spaces trip, based on their subjective perceptions In the Information Design class, the and thoughts. listsery provided a shared space that all could share in creating. Beyond that, Continuous But Not Continual students could identify the URLs for World Communication Wide Web sites relevant to class topics and Communication must be timely. This assignments, thereby providing pointers to includes timely responses to student the larger shared space of the World Wide questions and timely input to listsery Web itself. Some students added such URLs discussions by students and instructor. to their own Web pages as a resource for all Timeliness will vary in the context of the the students in the class. particular virtual class, but continuous monitoring of the listsery by the instructor Multiple Forms Of Representation is vitally important. Multiple forms of representation were 13 24 EST COPY AVAILABLE In this Internet-based class, studentscould tures," assignments, references, and related log on to the listsery and the classWeb resources. pages whenever it suitedtheir schedules. In contrast to much traditional teaching, However, it was very important forstudents the virtual community context centered to participate in the listserydialogue on a around the listsery provided greater regular basis. Many students logged on interaction between students as well as the daily. But a few students had problems opportunity for students to see each other's staying in touch with the virtual community homework and respond to it. creating a on a regular basis.Thus, constraints more dynamic learningexperience. This enforcing continuous communication are had valuable pedagogical implications. needed. Setting deadlines is animportant One student com-mented, "You all have strategy to motivate students tomaintain such diverse approaches. It has beenfun to continuous communication and engage- follow your links and glimpse a bit of your ment with class activities. Atthe same time, personalities.., this has been a good group some flexibility mustbe maintained to to work with and learn from."Still another accomodate technical problems,including student had this to say: "Many thanks toall student efforts initially to join andlog onto of you for being so interesting.I'm the class listsery and Web pages aswell as favorably impressed by your intellect, your computer server crashes that mayoccur creativity, and your hard work ..." (due to growing pains, excessivedemands, power failures, etc.)while the class is in Clear Lines Of Responsibility ButNo progress, preventing access toclass Web Restrictive Boundaries pages and other resources. Clear lines of responsibility were estab- The telephone should not be overlooked lished through the framework of the in communications betweenstudents and syllabus and the implementation of the the instructor. It provides a more open- class. Many of the class assignments ended forum for discussion andtrouble- centered around exploring resources onthe shooting than email. It's a great way tohelp World Wide Web; as a result,the students while eliciting valuablefeedback. boundaries of exploration were broadand In addition, the telephone offersgreater unrestricted. And class discussions were potential for the instructor to conveyboth unrestricted, except in rare instances when a personality and empathy than email. student became domi-neering.

Formal And Informal Environments Decisions Do Not Have To Be Made By In this class, the listsery providedthe Concensus primary informal space. Studentssubmitted In an educational context such as theclass their assignments to the listserv,together described here, the instructor is thefinal with introductions, discussions,jokes, and arbitor in decision-making. However,it is anec-dotes. This class featured more valuable to have students take ownershipof assignments than a traditionalclass, the class by helping to determinecertain specifically, short assignments that were things, such as discussion topics,helping smaller in scale and relativelyinformal, in classmates deter-mine how to solve keeping with the listseryformat. technical problems, ideas for carrying out Assignments were designed to supportthe assignments, etc. possibility of wide-rangingdiscussions, which, indeed, resulted. Physical Presence Is Not Necessary The World Wide Web componentof the The lack of physical presencedid not class acted as the formal environment.It prove a barrier inthis class. However, a "cyberlec- featured the syllabus, weekly Web page was established forthis class that 14 featured brief student biographies, together (Portland, OR; Lincoln, NE; Kansas City, with photographs and email address. This MO; Denver, CO; Albuquerque, NM; Sioux helped students to attach faces to the other City, IA; and Grand Forks, ND), serving participants in the virtual community of the students in a single region or state. With the class. In addition, students were asked to Internet format, students from Emporia, KS introduce themselves informally on the and students in the various regional listsery at the beginning of the class. A programs all have the opportunity to share photograph of the instructor was included the same instructional experiences. on the class home page so that students would have a face to connect to this Selective use of outsiders for comple- member of the virtual community. mentary insights and information Rheingold reports that, "Some people Outsiders were not utilized directly in this many people don't do well in class, but outside information came from spontaneous spoken interaction, but turn the textbooks and the wealth of resources out to have valuable contributions to make available on the Internet. It would be very in a conversation in which they have time easy to get input from outsiders in an to think about what to say. These people, Internet-based class in the form of guest who might constitute a significant speakers contributing to the listsery proportion of the population, can find dialogue or student interviews with outside written communication more authentic than experts via email, telephone, etc. Some the face-to-face kind. (p. 23)" Indeed, this assignments for this class featured field proved to be true in this class. One student trips, which fit within this dimension of in particular who was reportedly very shy Schrage's model. in face-to-face classes became quite loquacious in the virtual community Collaboration's End context of the Internet-based class. The class ended with the end of the Another student reported afterward that semester. The temporary virtual community he got to know students far better in this dissolved. However, lasting bonds were class than in person-to-person meetings that established. One student who traveled to a took place in on-site classes and other city in another state to attend a weekend forums. This corresponds to Rheingold's intensive class reported that students at that assessment that the Internet is a place where location who had been her virtual "people often end up revealing themselves classmates in the Information Design class far more intimately than they would be were very hospitable, inviting her to stay at inclined to do without the intermediation of their homes and to go out to dinner with screens and pseudonyms. (p. 27)" them. Significantly, one thing that greatly It is important to note that while the class appealed to students in this class was the no longer exists as a virtual community opportunity to get to know and share an collaboration's end the students still instructional experience with -- students form a community within the graduate from other regional sites besides there own. program and as a community of One student commented, "This has been a professionals. Near the end of the class, one lot of fun, and I've enjoyed this student wrote, "I am assuming that many of opportunity to take a class with all you us will be raving Web Heads by the end of midwesterners and get to know some of the the class and will be doing all sorts of work other students outside of Oregon." Most of in our communities (or for ourselves). It the other classes taught via the distance would be nice for us to be able to continue program that included this Information our discussions on the ESU [Emporia State Design class are taught at regional centers University] listsery that's dedicated to Web

15 talk." As this comment indicates, there are case study demonstrates, the model of a forums for the virtual community of the virtual community, with students interacting members of the Information Design class to dynamically with the content, the continue, as part of a larger virtual technology, and, most importantly, each community. And they seem to have the other, offers a powerful and convivial motivation to do so. approach to providing education at a distance. Conclusion This paper has presented a case study ofReferences an Internet-based class that wasbased Marks-Tarlow, T. (1995). Creativity around a model of a collaborative virtual Inside Out: Learning through multiple community. This class was a test pattern for intelligences. Reading, MA: Addison- future courses taught via the Internet. Wesley. Already revisions have been made in McLellan, H. (1996a, November- response to what was learned in this class, December). Being digital: Implications for including more emphasis on deadlines, education. Educational Technology. 36(6), establishing a comprehensive plan for class 5-20. implementation at the outset (easier done McLellan, H. (1996b). Internet-based thesecondtimearound!),and Education: Some Guidelines. Tech Head increased emphasis on some telephone Stories (http://tech-head.com/i-ed.htm). communication between individual students Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual and the instructor. In Internet-based Community. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley education, many approaches are possible; it Schrage, M. (1991). Shared Minds: The is indeed a powerful and flexible medium New Technologies of Collaboration. New for teaching and learning. For an over- York, NY: Random House. view of these different approaches, refer Schrage, M. (1995). No more teams: to "Internet-based Education: Some Mastering the dynamics of creative Guidelines" (McLellan, 1996h) at the Web collaboration. New York, NY: Currency- site http://tech-head.com/i-ed.htm. As this Doubleday.

16 :27 "Our Town: An Architectural Perspective": A Program For Inner-city At-risk Children by Claire B. Gallagher

Abstract "Our Town: An Architectural Perspective" is a program for at-risk elementary school children in which the neighborhood serves as the classroom and as a vehicle for instruction and the development of community pride and self-worth in the participants. The program provides an alternative educational environment in which students who have difficulty performing in a typical classroom feel welcome and safe. Classes are hands-on and interdisciplinary in nature. Visual and spatial literacy are at the heart of "Our Townms educational strategy. This paper will discuss the program and suggest possible ramifications in terms of classroom practice. Introduction to use the "Our Town" program in this In the fall of 1992, the "Our Town" program neighborhood and to note any similarities and was instituted at Carnegie Mellon University differences between the outcomes of the in Pittsburgh, PA. The goal of this effort was to suburban and urban student populations. begin a grassroots program introducing built- environment awareness in the public schools. Methodology -The Design Problem The pilot project was established with a The exercise began with a discussion of the suburban population of fourth grade students. question "What is a city?" This discussion led Twenty children, ten girls and ten boys, attended to a brainstorming session in which a list of class sessions over a ten week period. These buildings for inclusion in "Our Town". A large- sessions focused on concepts of basic scale topographic map, 7' x 14', was provided composition, urban design and architecture. for planning the city. This map, drawn on sheets There were no prerequisites for inclusion in the of craft paper which had been taped together, classes other than a general interest in the provided the framework for developing the city subject of architecture and the ability to pay a plan and its infrastructure. Students were given nominal course fee. Children worked in a group small reproductions of the plan to take home to explore the components of a town and, and develop a scenario and general map of the subsequently, design a fictitious example. An proposed city. architect served as the primary facilitator with assistance from educators, teaching assistants In a subsequent class, the drawings and text from the Department of Architecture of were displayed with each student presenting his/ Carnegie Mellon University, and other her work. A discussion followed in which volunteers. Design of the curriculum was a general concepts for the design of the city were collaborative effort between the architect and explored. The original list of buildings from the director of the program. the brainstorming exercise was edited and the students agreed upon a basic strategy for Based on the success of the pilot project a designing the city. A role playing exercise second program was instituted in an urban provided the vehicle through which to proceed. neighborhood which included children from a Issues of zoning, adjacency, and transportation white, blue-collar section of the neighborhood were investigated in this manner. Each building and black children from the "projects" adjacent from the general list was written on a 5" x 7" to the school, which served to separate the two index card and placed on the site map. The groups of students.This environment students were free to move the cards until all represented a "worst case scenario" in that these conflicts regarding adjacency and other children had no interaction other than their daily pertinent issues were resolved. Zoning was coexistence in school. The challenge became established and infrastructure was discussed. The index cards were fixed in position with tape. The site map was divided into four quadrants and teams of students were established to A transition was then made to a larger scale develop each section.Five students were map with dimensions of 21' x42' . This map assigned to a quadrant.Within each group, contained all the elements of the smaller assignments for the design of the buildings were version; it, too, was divided into quadrants. negotiated. In all but two cases, it was agreed Students began by establishing their building that the buildings would be developed by locations on the map and then designed them. individuals, not by teams. The two examples of team projects were the mall and the Materials were provided for the models of the amusement park. buildings. These included assorted cardboard boxes, plastic containers, construction paper, The larger scale site map was placed on the tubes, straws, glitter, wallpaper samples, coffee floor of the Great Hall of the College of Fine stirrers, popcicle sticks, fabric, foil, acetate, Arts Building at Carnegie Mellon University, cardboard, chipboard, paint, markers, glue, an impressive, large space. The planning of this clips, fasteners, beads, etc. Students were free city was well considered. A great deal of to choose from the available materials as they attention was paid to issues of zoning and developed their models.Interaction among adjacency. Interpersonal interactions during the students was encouraged by the facilitators. planning process involved a great deal of Buildings were designed on their "sites" and, discussion and compromise. The original when completed, were fixed there. Having building list indicated references to occupations designed one building, each student began to or job sites within the families of the participants design another. This process continued until (for example, the rehabilitation center) but all buildings were constructed and it was agreed during the editing process these personal biases that the town had been completed. were eliminated since the importance and relevance of these buildings was not universal. The Suburban Response The remaining buildings, that were designed By discussing the notion of what a city might and placed in their context, were mainly public be, the class established the concept that a city buildings and recreational facilities with some was "a place where many different peoplelived upscale housing. Transportation was indicated together." Further, they established the fact that to be via subway and car only with no reference some people worked in a city but did not live to other means of public transportation. No there and needed transportation to and from connections were evident between the two their jobs. articulated subway stations and the streets for vehicular traffic were drawn timidly, without The students began with the given map and conviction, and visually appeared as an developed a strategy for the design of their city. afterthought. There was a considerable amount of unarticulated open space within the city. Figure 1 During the building design phase, students were Planning The City unconcerned with the adjacent designs and with the inherent ramifications regarding other buildings. The resulting designs were visually disconnected; their connection remaining one of formal planning only. There was virtually no consideration of context with nosite development or landscaping. The individual buildings acted as isolated events in a homogenous space. Building articulation was extensive but found On the final day of the program, family only on the exterior.Kinetic elements, members and friends were invited to visit "Our sophisticated formal relationships of masses Town". This open house provided and (collision of forms, changes in scale, etc.), opportunity for the children to explain their vibrant signage, and other design strategies work to others. The overall sense of the visitors were evident in many of the buildings but the was that the children were proud of their interiors were not considered. creation. They were able to describe their process with clarity and explain the concepts Figure 2 of zoning, planning, and building design The Toy Store through the example of "Our Town".

The Urban Response The project began with a discussion of what a city was. It was established that a city was a "place" and that many people lived there. A lively discussion followed in which things found in a city were used to describe the term. From this, a continuation of brainstorming produced an extensive list of buildings and places.Many of these elements were recognizable as small scale components of the immediate neighborhood.Housing was Little evidence of scale or human interaction discussed and, although high rises were was discernible. An example of this was the mentioned, single family housing was stipulated fire station. This building was elevated above as essential.Parks and open space were street level on columns in order to allow traffic mentioned repeatedly. to pass beneath it. No streets were indicated, however. A kinetic drawbridge allowed the A basic site map was produced by the firetrucks to get to the street from above. The facilitators and was met with enough resistance massing and proportion of the building were to abandon it. A new site map was designed, at very sophisticated. There were no elements of full scale (20'x 40') by the students using scale. No windows, doors, stairs, or other processes of discussion, conflict, and human elements were included in the design. compromise. It was constructed in the gym and It was, in fact, an abstraction of a fire station. fixed to the floor. Topographic features, rivers, roads, and other organizing factors were drawn Figure 3 directly on the craft paper with black marker (a The Fire Station deliberate choice of the designers). Figure 4 Laying Out The City

19 '3 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Once the general map was established,the connected to this system, one had to negotiate in turn, brainstormed list of elements was edited(little with the "owners" of the utility who, the was seen to be irrelevant),the items were would erect a tower and bring the yarn to This discussion was lively and written on 5"x7" index cards, and theplanning building. process began. A great dealof compromise was animated. necessary to agree on thelocations of major buildings. There was immediateattention to Landmarks were important in this city. Local bakery and adjacency and the affect of onebuilding on elements such as the corner bar, the "Our another. The context of eachbuilding was barber shop were included in the fabric of large discussed at length.Transportation was a Town". The buildings themselves were been the specific concern. The bus station waslocated in scale. The larger boxes (which had conveniently for all inhabitants toutilize it. containers for other building materials at the Pedestrian patterns wereprojected and outset) became the buildings, or acollection of form sidewalks were added. An airportconnected moderately sized boxes were assembled to Once the general a skyscraper, forexample. 'In general, the scale the city to the rest of the world. although the plan was established, the index cards werefixed of the buildings was consistent, of to the map in theirdesignated locations. No buildings were out of scale in relation to that quadrants were drawn. Otherimpositions of the site map. students assigned order were avoided. The both on buildings to each other for developmentwithout Building articulation was extensive building had interference from the facilitators.They then the exterior and the interior. Every of scale implied by the began to design and build. Manybuildings were open doors and a sense cardboard designed by teams. In some cases,the teams inclusion of human figures made of would remained intactthroughout the or pipecleaners.Many buildings were generation of several buildings, inothers, teams personalized in terms of concept and content. babies designed would recombine after the initialdesign was An example was a hospital for children by completed. Recombination might occurseveral by a girl whose sisters had all had constructed times in the course of the project. the age of sixteen. The designer had all of the beds (plastic fruitcontainers), pillows (batting Materials were provided in largecardboard mattresses (batting and fabric), and placed boxes placed around the site map.It was and fabric), and bedclothes (fabric) in a specific common for the students toempty the large them carefully in the building the boxes of their contents and usethem for the orientation. The entire site surrounding gardens basic structure of their buildings.Having hospital was landscaped with flower pipecleaners designed one building, a studentwould begin (egg cartons with paper flowers on and areas to design another. The processcontinued until in each section), paths for walking all the buildings were constructedand the for parking. students agreed that the townhad been Figure 5 completed. The Hospital For Babies

The planning process continuedthroughout the design of "Our Town". Issuessuch as access to electrical power becameitems for discussion and compromise. The effects of theinclusion of such elements became evidentin the city. The source of power wasestablished as the basketball hoop. Yarn was attached tothe hoop and strung between thread conesthat stood adjacent to buildings in the city. Inorder to be 20 The bus connected other parts of the city to the Figure 7 hospital. An elaborate scenario was embedded The Winning Skyscraper in this project.Its designer was proud of her design and would describe it in detail if questioned.

Another example of personalized projects was the middle school. The boy who designed it spent the first few classes accusing everyone of hating him and threatening him. He would not work in the group and sat alone on a bench against the wall of the gym. Facilitators sat with him on his bench and encouraged him to become a part of the design process. After several attempts at inclusion, the boy showed an interest in designing the school. His design was large in scale with a fully open facade that revealed all the elements of a traditional school: chalkboard, desks with chairs in rows, teacher's desk, book shelves, a globe, etc. Lighting was The design process continued until the site provided through clerestory windows located map was full of elements, the list of buildings in a sophisticated roof structure that was folded had been addressed, and the class agreed that and fastened to form a unique shape. He named the city was complete. A document was the school after himself and added the name of produced by the children in which they his architect "teacher". described their process through a series of Figure 6 images (drawn manually and with the aid of a The Middle School computer) and text.The students were responsible for choosing the content and formatting the document. The last class meeting was in the form of an open house during which time the students could explain their work to friends and family. Descriptions included walks around "Our Town" (shoes were removed at the request of the students) and the recounting of the scenarios that served as points of departure for the designs. The printed document was distributed at this time. An element of competition was evident in the two skyscrapers in "Our Town". Two teams What the Children's Designs Tell Us were trying to build the tallest one. Trial and The strength of this educational strategy with error regarding structural issues of height and at-risk populations is evident in the work of the proportion led to two different, but successful, children from the "Our Town" project. There designs for tall buildings. There were several are some compelling arguments for the use of failures before the design was perfected and visual and spatial instruction with inner-city each tower was limited by its base to height children. Some of the differences in the process ratio. At the conclusion of the project, however, and products of the two populations of children the designers demonstrated an understanding in this study are obvious. For educators these of the concepts embedded in the design of a differences have direct implications in terms of tower. classroom practice.

21 The typical means of instruction in our Epilogue educational culture is either linguistic and/or The "Our Town" project has been expanded mathematical. Rarely is any attention paid to to four phases. These take place over the course visual or spatial thinking or problem-solving. of a year and can briefly be described as follows: The "Our Town" project demonstrates an Phase One: Designing "Our Town" example of the latter in which children are given the freedom to design and build an environment Phase Two: Landmarks Past and Present of their own. For the suburban children in this Students document their neighborhood in study this was fantasy, a game. For the urban drawings, models, and interviews of long-time children this was real life, a chance to role play residents to uncover the history of the and control an environment, albeit imaginary, neighborhood. The concept of landmarks is which is an unusual condition for them to used as the point of departure for this phase. experience. For them it was problem solving of the highest order. From the beginning of the Phase Three: Neighborhood Intervention exercise the suburban children accepted the Students compare the findings from Phases parameters of the problem as given by the Two and One. Differences between the ideal facilitators. The urban children did not, taking and the real conditions of the neighborhood are control from the outset. They worked as a team discussed and possible solutions are proposed. to design their city while the suburban children Students work in teams to identify needs and insisted on working alone. The urban example design interventions forsitesinthe demonstrated a working knowledge of the neighborhood. These ideas are presented to concept of community and its connectionwith neighborhood organizations, residents, potential the classroom while the suburban example project funders, the mayor and other elected illustrated the common classroom emphasis on officials, and the community at-large. A project individuality, invention and product. The is chosen from among the submissions based process in the urban "Our Town" project was on design and feasibility. revealing as a natural example of cooperative learning. It had a life of its own. Phase Four: Implementation of the Design With the help of community members, Developing a curriculum around these educators, local organizations, architects, classroom strengths could serve as a landscape architects, and others the students springboard to other content areas. The possible build the chosen community intervention. This implications of this are numerous but the final phase has resulted in a new community success of this approach, especiallywith urban park in one Pittsburgh neighborhood complete children, would indicate the usefulness of the with landscaping, street furniture and lighting, integration of visual and spatial thinking and and a new sidewalk with the names of those problem-solving with at-risk populations. who helped inscribed in ceramic panels set into Architecture, by its nature, is interdisciplinary the concrete. The lesson to be learned is and would be an appropriate choice for a theme profound: a small group of children made for such a curriculum. This, of course, poses something very important happen. Their tremendous challenges for educators but the neighborhood helped them become part of the potential is there to address a motivational and process and they have improvedtheir educational issue in real terms.Perhaps, in neighborhood. "Our Town" provides a this way, at-risk children such as these could compelling example of the neighborhood as be sent a different message than they typically classroom and for the use of visual and spatial hear in the classroom: one of strength, thinking and problem solving as the vehicle for hopefulness, and success. instruction with at-risk children.

22 33 The Effects Of Dubbing Versus Subtitling Of TelevisionProgram by Fattawi B. Mokhtar Abstract The knowledge of program contentamong viewers who watched an instructional television program translated into several translation modes and under different viewingfashions was investigated. One hundred seventy six college studentswere randomly selected and randomly assigned into eight experimentalgroups. A 4 x 2 factorial design was employed.The dependent variable was the viewers'scores on multiple-choice comprehension test questions on the program content administered immediately after treatments. Severalsignificant differences among variables were found and discussed.

Introduction process point of view. When a program is When language becomesa barrier to translatedinsubtitles,itautomatically communication, the classic alternative changestheconveyanceof information solution to this problem is translation. fromauditorydominancetovisual There are twomodes of translating dominance (d'Ydewalle et al. 1991). With television programs. First is a translation translation by dubbing, the translation process known as "dubbing." With this maintainstheoriginalmethodof method, every spoken word, including communication used by television. voice-over narration as usually employed in With translationinsubtitles andin instructional programs, is translated into dubbing then, the television medium tends the target language. to communicate in two different fashions: The second mode of translationis a with visual dominance in the former and process known as "subtitling."With this auditory dominance in the latter. Whether method, spoken words, either in dialogues, thesedifferencesaffectviewers' monologues (on-camera voices)or voice- comprehension of the program contentis overnarrations,aretranslatedand unknown at this point. presented in the form of text superimposed Technically, translation by subtitles will on the visual, typically at the bottom part preserve all audio signals in the original of the screen. Hence, with this method the soundtrack (including music, sound effects, dominant meaningful symbolsare and spoken words) exactly as in the original presented in visual form while thenon- production. Aesthetically, this isone of the meaningful spoken words remainas major advantages of subtitlesover dubbing auditory symbols. (Voge 1977). However, when considering In many non-English speaking countries, the communication process,the spoken translated broadcast materials, either for words (in the original language)are turned entertainment or instructional purposes, into non-meaningful symbols. The role of constitute a great if not dominant portion these symbols during viewing is not yet of the overall number of mediatedresources understood. in those particular countries. Translation of If Schram's Communication Model is used imported programs isa viable effort to asatheoreticalground,thosenon- overcome the problem of high cost versus meaningful spoken words will be categorized limited audienceforlocal production as "noise," which according to the model (Kilborn 1989). will impede the communicationprocess (Schram 1954 in Heinich et al. 1989). An Statement of the Problem investigationinvolvingretentionand Translation by dubbing or subtitlingseems elimination of the soundtrack in subtitled to impose several new characteristics on television might answer this question. the product of this process. There are Another formof writtentexton severalquestionsrelatedtothese television is the "caption."Captions and characteristics which need to be addressed, subtitlesare identical in physical format particularlyfrom the communication and in the way they are presented on the

23 34 screen.They are different, though, in the Hypothesis 3.There is a significant sense that captions use the samelanguage as difference in the knowledge of program thesoundtrack, whereassubtitlesare content between viewers who viewed a presented in a different language.Several television program in a single viewing studies on theeffects of captioned experience and those who viewed the same television on learning among hearing- program in a repeated viewingexperience. impaired and normal-hearing viewers Hypothesis4.There aresignificant indicate that captioned television improves interactions between modes of translation learningsignificantly (Neuman1991, (dubbing or subtitles) in an instructional Markham 1989, Koskinen 1988, Bean television program and viewing experiences. 1989). Whether subtitled television affects comprehension and learning as consistently Methods as captioned televisionis unknown at this Research Design point. A 4 x2 factorial design with random selection and random assignment was Purpose of the Study employed in this study (Keppel 1991). The purpose of thisstudy was to Translationmodeswerethefirst investigate viewers' knowledge of program independent variable (Factor A), with four content under various television translation levels:dubbing (al); subtitles with sound modes and viewing experiences. The (a2); subtitles without sound (a3);and researcher was interested in investigating without translation (a4). whether there were any differences in the The second independent variable (Factor knowledge of program content among B) was the viewing experience with two and repeated viewers who watched an instructional levels:single viewing (b 1) television program that was translated in viewing (b2). several translation modes and variations,. The dependent variable was the viewers' those who watched the program translated, scores on multiple-choicecomprehension and those who saw the same program test questions on the program content.This after without translation. test was administered immediately The researcher was also interested to treatments. Each mean cell and the main investigatewhethertherewere any effectswerecomparedtotestthe differences in the knowledge of program hypotheses.When there was significant content among viewers who watched those difference, post hoc tests were conducted to translated and not translated programs pinpoint where the difference was. under single viewing condition to those who saw the same, but underrepeated viewing Subjects condition. One hundred seventy sixstudents from the Center for Matriculation Program, Research Hypotheses UniversitiSains Malaysia in Penang, Thisstudy advanced thefollowing Malaysia, were selected as the subjects in hypotheses: this study. They were randomly selected and Hypothesis1.Thereisa significant randomly assigned into eight experimental difference in the knowledge of program groups. Each group consistedof twenty-two content between viewers who viewed an subjects. instructionaltelevision program with Because of the nature of selection criteria translation and those who saw the same to enroll in this program and therigidness program without translation. of the program itself, matriculation students Hypothesis 2. There is asignificant are highly homogenous in termsof their difference in the knowledge of program academic backgrounds and age levels. content among viewers who viewed an instructionaltelevision program with Instrumentation different treatments of translation by Discussions on instrumentation are dubbing or subtitling. presented in two sections. The first section is on the materials,in this case the character generator machinewas used. translated instructional televisionprograms The lettering was Futura regular in 36 point where the independent variableswere size. Kemp et al. (1985) notes that for manipulated. The second section ison the recognized legibility standards forease of comprehension test questions in which the reading, the letter size should be at leastone dependent variable was measured. twenty-fifth the height of thescreen. On a 23-inch television monitor with 15 inches The materials of screen height, 36 point Futura satisfied The Spanish version of an instructional this requirement. The letteringwas in white televisionprogramentitledCardio and bordered in black. A maximum of 2 PulmonaryResuscitation(CPR)For lines with 2 inches of marginson each side Bystanders (revised), produced by Pyramid and a minumum of 2 inches of bottom Film and Video (1992) was chosen for this space were uniformly employed. study. The English version of theprogram The exact translation used in the dubbing was not chosen because English is the was used in subtitles.The text was not second language in Malaysia.Narrations summarized asisusually done in the and other on-camera voices in the original subtitling of feature programs. soundtrack might to a certain degree have To see the placebo effects, the original been understood by the viewers. Hence, this version in Spanish without translationwas effect was a potentially confounding used. For the subtitles without sound variable for the subtitled version of the condition variable, the same subtitled instrument.Besides language, the choice version was used, but played in mute. was also based on the following criteria: All versions of the program, including the i) The length of the programwas not original without translation, were recorded more than 30 minutes. on half-inch Sony high-grade VHS tapein ii) The program content was something PAL color system. of which the researcher believes the subjectshave some basicentry-level The comprehension test questions knowledge, but no knowledge in detail. All questions were developed by the iii) The program was produced ina researcher based on the program content typical documentary fashion where verbal conveyed through both channels (audio and modalities such as voice-over narrations video) as a whole.To ensure content and on-camera voicesdominatethe validity and precise wordingson the conveyance of the messages. questions, the printed CPR procedures iv) The overall program contentwas written by the American National Red something believed to be meaningfulor at Cross (1978),Feldmanet al. (1975) and least stimulating to a subject's interest. Seymour (1981) werereviewed.After a v)Subjects in this study were within the series of pilot test, the final version of the scope of the intended audience specified in 35 comprehension questions was translated the program. into the Malay language. The reliability of Upon receipt of permission of the thecomprehensionquestionswas copyrightowner,theprogram was determined tobe .79 by the Cronbach duplicated and translated into Malay using Alpha technique computed by SPSS-X two modes of translation,dubbing and program. subtitling. The translation was basedon the original soundtrack in English. Experimental Procedures For the program translated in dubbing, the All viewings were carried out in the voice-over was narrated by a semi- projectionroom. The 60-person capacity professional narrator.On-camera voices roomhas semi-permanent seats and was were spoken by amateur actors and equipped with two 23-inch television actresses.Original sound effects and music monitors, a VCR,and several other were reused whenever possible. facilities for projection,The acoustic and For the program translated in subtitles,a ambient light controls of the roomwere

25 :36 adequate. The temperature was controlled second viewing, the subjects were given by means of threewindow-type air another 10 minutes to complete the test. conditioning systems. The exact same procedures were repeated in For the purpose of this study, only 44 every session. In the subtitles without seatswereallocated.Two 23-inch sound condition, the same subtitled version television monitors were set up to ensure of the program was used, but shown in mute. that all viewers were seated no further than Allsessions were conducted by the the maximum distance suggested.Heinich researcher himself without any assistance. et al. suggested that one 23-inchtelevision monitor should serve no more than thirty Results students (Heinich et al. 1989).Hence, for Datawere analyzed using Two-Way 44 viewers, two 23-inch monitors were Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), One-Way more than generous. The seatingdistance Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and t-Tests and the angle of viewing were also set in to test the hypotheses. The alpha level accordance to Heinich's suggestions. was set at .05. When there wassignificant The experiment sessions were held on difference between the means, Tukey four consecutive evenings. All seats were test procedures were conducted to numbered from 1 to 44.All set-ups were pinpoint where the difference was. readiedatleast thirty minutes before sessions were to begin. Single Viewing The descriptive statistics in Figure 1 Experiment Implementation revealed that under the single viewing Randomly chosen subjects were ramdomly experience condition, students who viewed assigned into 4 groups of 44 subjects each. the program without translation had the Minutes before the session was to begin on lowest score (Mean = 16.45, SD = 3.5). the day of the experiment a representative° Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests and of the group in that particular session drew statistical tests using Tukey test procedures to determine on which versionof the indicatedthatthistreatmentwas program the group would betested. significantly different than the other three Immediatelyafterviewing,the treatments at p = .000 level (ANOVA) and comprehension test was administered to all p <.05 level (Tukey). subjects in the group. The subjects were Figure 1 instructed to answer by circling the correct DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS responses on the question paperitself. FOR TRANSLATION MODES They were given 30 minutes to complete AND VIEWING EXPERIENCE At the end of the 30 minutes, all the test. TRANSLATION MODES subjectswereaskedtostop.One VIEWING representative of the group drew to EXP. Dubbing Subtitle Subtitle No Trans determine whether subjects seated in odd +Sound - Sound numbered or even numbered chairs would stay for a repeated viewing. Students seated in unselected numbers were asked to hand in Single Mean22.36 21.23 22.50 16.45 SD 3.1 3.2 3.0 3.5 their comprehension test answers and leave n 22 22 22 22 the room. The remaining subjects would be in a Rep. Mean29.68 25.77 27.91 18.55 repeatedviewingcondition. A brief SD 1.6 2.4 1.9 3.1 explanation was given on this viewing n 22 22 22 22 condition.They were requested not to change their seats. The program was then shown for the second viewing. The subjects Mean26.02 23.50 25.20 17.50 the TOT. SD 4.4 3.6 3.7 3.4 were told that they could answer 44 questions while in the second viewing if n 44 44 44 they wished.Upon completion of the

26 37 The students in subtitles without sound SD = 1.9)was not significantly different treatmenthad the highest mean score than dubbing treatment(Mean= 29.68, (Mean = 22.50, SD = 3.0).Statistical tests SD =1.6).Pairsof treatments under however, indicatedthatthere were repeatedviewingconditionswhich no significant differences between this significantly differed from each other are treatment, the dubbing treatment (Mean = shown in Figure 3. Data analysis using Two- 22.36, SD 3.1), and subtitles with sound Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) treatment (Mean = 21.36, SD = 3.2) at p indicatedthatinteractionbetween <.05level.Pairs of treatments which translation and viewing was significant at p significantly differed under single viewing = .000 level.Further examination of the conditions are shown inFigure 2. cell means revealed that the mean score of Figure 2 Figure 3 PAIRS OF MEANS UNDER PAIRS OF MEANS UNDER SINGLE VIEWING REPEATED VIEWING WHICH ARE SIGNIFICANTLY WHICH ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT DIFFERENT

Dub.SubtitleSubtitle No Trans. Dub. Subtitle SubtitleNo Trans. + Sound - Sound + Sound - Sound

Dub. * Dub. * *

Subtitle Subtitle + Sound * + Sound *

Subtitle * Subtitle * * - Sound - Sound

* p < .05 * p < .05

Repeated Viewing translation modes treatment under single Intherepeated viewing condition, viewing conditions changed inconsistently students viewing the without translation under repeated viewing conditions. This treatment again had the lowest meanscore appeared to indicate that an interaction (Mean = 18.55, SD = 3.1). Dubbing between translation modes and viewing treatment (Mean = 29.68, SD = 1.6) experiences was truly present. appeared to be the best of the three translation modes.Statistical tests using Tests of Hypotheses Tukey test procedures indicated that under All hypotheses were tested using Two- this viewing condition, without translation Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), One- treatment was significantly different than Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and t- all other treatments.Subtitles with sound Tests. The alpha level was set at p < .05. treatment (Mean = 25.77, SD = 2.4) was When there was significant difference significantlydifferent thansubtitles betweenthemeans, theTukey test without sound treatment (Mean = 27.91, procedure was used to pinpoint where the SD = 1.9) . Also significantly different difference was. from subtitles with sound treatment was Hypothesis4.Therearesignificant dubbing treatment (Mean = 29.68, SD = interactions between modes of translation 1.6).Surprisingly,however,subtitles in instructional television programs and without sound treatment (Mean = 27.91, viewing experiences. H4 was tested first

27 because the outcome of the hypotheses on p < .05 level. Another one-way ANOVA to interaction will have a strong implication test the mean of translation modes under on the testing procedure of the other repeated viewing conditions was conducted. hypotheses (Keppel1991). Analysis of Again, the analysis indicated that at least Variance (ANOVA) revealedthatthe one translation mode was significantly interaction between translation and viewing different than the others F (3, 87) = 94.83, was significantF (3, 168) = 6.429, p = p = .0000.The outcome of Tukey test .000. H4 therefore was accepted. procedures indicated that the without- Hypothesis1.Thereis a significant translation mode was significantly different difference in the knowledge of program than all other translation modes at p < .05 content between students who viewed an level. Hence hypothesis 1 was accepted. instructional televisionprogram with any Hypothesis 2. There isa significant modesorvariationsoftranslation difference intheknowledge of program compared to students who viewed the same content among students whoviewed an program without translation. instructional television programwith Figure 4 Figure 5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ONE-WAY ANOVA SUMMARY TABLE (SINGLE VIEWING)

Source SS DF MS F Sig. F Source SS DF MS F Sig. F

Between Group 534.45 3 178.15 16.89.000* Translation (T)1957.295 3 652.432 81.08 .000 Within Group 885.90 84 10.54 Viewing (V) 1031.114 1 1031.114128.144 .000* T x V Interac. 152.205 3 51.735 6.429 .000 Total 1420.36 87 Explained 3134.6147 449.08855.811 Residual 1351.818168 8.047 *p <.05

Total 4495.432175 25.688 translationindifferentmodesand p <.05 variations. The same analysis and test mentioned in Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed the testing of HI were used to test this that the translation's main effect was hypothesis. The conclusion, however, was significantF (3, 168) = 81.082, p = .000. rather open-ended.Under single viewing However, because the interaction between conditions, Tukey test procedures indicated translation modes and viewing experiences that none of the three translation modes, (H4) was significant (p = .000), a judgment (i.e. dubbing,subtitleswithsound and based on the translation's main effect alone subtitles without sound) were is not sufficient.All translation cell means significantly different than each other at p under both viewing experienceconditions < .05 level.Hence, under single viewing should be examined and tested. conditions, H2 was rejected. Two single-factor (one-way) analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted. The Figure 6 analysisindicatedthatatleastone ONE-WAY ANOVA translation mode is significantlydifferent (REPEATED VIEWING) thanthe otheis F (3, 87) = 16.89,p = .0000.Tukeytestprocedureswere conducted to pinpoint where the significant Source SS DF MS F Sig. F difference was. The outcome of the Tukey Between Group 1578.04 3 526.01 94.83 .000 test procedure indicated that the without- Within Group 465.90 84 5.54 translation mode condition was significantly different than all other modes Total 2043.95 87 and variations of translation conditions at *p <.05

28 A contrasting result was found under viewing conditions. This phenomenon can repeated viewing conditions.The Tukey be comprehended by understanding that test procedures indicated that subtitles with television is a dual-sensory medium. Part sound was significantly different than of the information is conveyed through dubbing and subtitles without sound at p < visual channels andthe rest are through .05 level.Hence, under repeated viewing auditory channels.Visual channels utilize condition, H2 was accepted. visual symbols(inthiscase,scenes Hypothesis 3.There is a significant demonstrating the CPR procedures), while differenceinthe knowledge of program auditory channels utilize spoken words(in content between students who viewed a this case the narration and dialogues television program in a single viewing giving the detailsabout CPR). In the experience and those who viewed the same process of interpreting each symbol in program in a repeated viewing experience. television, viewers switched back and forth Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed between the two channels (Findhal 1971) to that theviewing main effect was decode the message.If the symbols were significant F (1, 168) = 128.144, p = .000. within both the sender's and the receiver's However, since interaction between viewing field of experience (Schramn 1954 in experiences and translation modes was Heinich et al. 1989), the symbols could be significant, further analysis was needed decoded.Whenthesymbolswere before a conclusion on this hypothesis successfully decoded, communication was could be drawn. successful. In other words, the message was Four t-Tests with Independent Samples understood.In the situation of viewing a were conducted.Group means of each programwhere the auditory channel was translation mode treatment under single full of symbols which were not within the viewing conditions were compared with the viewer's field of experience (i.e., unknown group means of the same translation mode words in the program without translation), treatmentunderrepeatedviewing the message in the auditory channels could conditions. Group means ofwithout not be decoded.Hence, communication translation under single viewing conditions through auditory channels did not occur. were also compared to means of without Viewers were forced to depend upon only translation underrepeated viewing one channel, the visual channel.Messages conditions. in words were not recieved by the viewers, Allt-Testresultssupportedthe meaning they missed part of the program hypothesis that repeated viewing conditions content. were indeed significantly differentthan It is concluded, therefore, thatviewers single viewing (p < .05) regardless of the acquired the least amount of knowledge on translation modes. H3therefore was the program content when viewing an accepted. instructional television program produced in aforeignlanguagewithout translation Discussion and Conclusion on the compared to when viewing the same Findings program with translation. Hypothesis 1 The first hypothesis was developed in Hypothesis 2 relation to the question of whether or not The second hypothesis was developed to translations would make any difference on test whether dubbing, subtitles with sound, viewers' comprehension of the program and subtitles without sound, affects viewers' content. comprehensionofprogramcontent As expected,students who viewed the differently. The mean scores of students program without translationobtained who viewed the program under those three significantly lower mean scores on the conditions were compared. Two-Way multiple-choice test compared to students Analysis of Variance procedures indicated who viewedthesameprogramin thattranslation'smaineffectswere translations, both under single and repeated significant.At the same time however,

29 40 repeated viewing,the differences between interaction between translationmodes and without sound viewing experience was alsosignificant. dubbing andsubtitles Two remained insignificant. Subtitleswith sound, Further analysis was conducted. however, was significantly differentthan separate One-Way Analysesof Variance for viewing and dubbing and subtitles withoutsound. The translation modes under single be more repeated viewing yielded twodifferent effects of second viewing seem to prominent on dubbing and subtitleswithout results. Under single viewing, nosignificant sound. Under differences were found betweenthe three sound than on subtitles with Under repeated single viewing, the mean scoresfor dubbing modes of translation. and subtitles without sound were22.36 and viewing, dubbing and subtitleswithout sound 22.50 respectively. Underrepeated viewing, were also notsignificantlydifferent. 29.68, an underrepeatedviewing the mean score for dubbing was However, increment of 7.32.The mean scorefor conditions, subtitles with sound was dubbing and subtitles without sound was27.91, an significantly different than incremenet of 5.41. Undersingle viewing, subtitles without sound.The mean scores the mean score for subtitleswith sound was of the students in subtitleswith sound were viewing was significantly lower. 21.23, and under repeated Statement of the 25.82, an increment of4.59. It was As mentioned in the of the mean Problem section, translationby subtitles obvious that the increments scores of students indubbing and subtitles will preserve all audio signals,including the spoken words, without sound were morethan music, sound effects, and increment of the mean scoreof students in exactly asin the original production. the subtitles with sound.Also, the standard However, whenconsidering subtitles without communication process, the spokenwords deviations for dubbing and turned into sound were 1.6 and 1.9respectively, while in the original language were the standard deviation forsubtitles with non-meaningful symbols. According to for the Schramn (1954 in Heinich etal.1989), sound was 2.4. The possible reasons symbols were differences in mean scoresand standard those non-meaningful in subtitles without soundand categorized as "noise" whichwould impede deviations There was subtitles with sound were due tothe absence the communication process. in these two some indication thatSchram's theory was and the presence of "noise" modes of translation. true, as shown in thedescriptive statistics the effects of where the mean score forsubtitles with In subtitles without sound, for second viewing and the absenceof "noise" sound was 21.23, while the mean score studentsto subtitles without sound was22.50 (a probablyenabledthe deviation concentrate more and tobetter comprehend difference of 1.27). The standard The same effects for the subtitles with sound was3.2, while the program content. subtitles without could be noticed in dubbingtranslation, the standard deviation for Although that students where "noise" was also absent. sound was 3.0, which indicates dubbing translation employedvisual and in subtitles without soundhad scores closer in students in subtitles auditorychannelssimultaneously to the mean than the communication, while subtitleswithout with sound.Subtitles with sound was also channels, both compared to dubbing to testthe prediction sound employed only visual in visual translation modes appearedtohave that the message transmitted equal effects under single channels and the messagetransmitted in statistically probably affect viewing and repeated viewing. audio channels would In subtitles with sound,the effects of viewers differently.The mean score for but at the same dubbing was 22.36 (a differenceof 1.13). second viewing were present that the time, the effects of"noise" were also Hence, there were indications acted as a kind of an was true.Unfortunately, present. The "noise" prediction obstacle during viewing.As a result, the however, those predictions were not of that showed increment ofthemeanscores supported by the statistical test mode was the significance of thedifferences. Under students in this translation

30 AVAILABLE isEST COPY 41 lower compared to the increment of the analyses indicate thatsingle viewings were mean score of students in subtitles without significantlydifferentthanrepeated sound. The "potential difference" between viewings, which appeared to be superior to subtitleswithsoundandtheother single viewing. translationmodes,whichwas not Further investigation of the interaction statistically significant under single viewing between viewings and translation modes, conditions appeared to be statistically however, revealed that theeffects of significant under repeated viewing. repeatedviewings,wereparticularly The fact that there was no significant prominent onthe program translated in difference between dubbing and subtitles dubbing and subtitles without sound. Results without sound was indeed an unexpected indicating a significant difference between finding. In principle, comparison between single viewings and repeated viewings were dubbing and subtitles without sound could be not unexpected.Earlier studiesonthe equivalenttoa comparison between effectsofrepetition yieldedsimilar simultaneous audioand visual stimulants results (Ash andJaspen1953, Kendler, versus visual stimulants only.Earlier Cook and Kendler 1956, Cook 1960, Garza studies in this domain (Hoban and Van 1991). Omer 1950, Travers 1964, Findhal 1971, The program used in this study was 30 Reese 1983, Baggett and Ehrenfeucht 1983, minutes long. After the firstviewing, the Pezdek and Steven 1984, Drew and Grime subjects were given the first chance to 1987) supported the belief that both visual answer the comprehension questions. Since and audio channels working together were they were not told previously that they much more effective than either one alone. would be given a second viewing, they In fact, this was part of the theoretical probably tried their best to complete the ground upon which the second hypothesis testafter the first viewing.When they inthisstudywasbuilt.Particular were given the second viewing they seemed investigations into those earlier studies, to pay even more attention to the program. however, revealed thatnone of the Saturationeffects seem tohavenot conditions used in those studies which occurred with that sequence and length of represented visual stimulants only were viewing. identical to the subtitles without sound In conclusion, repeated viewings seemed conditionusedinthisstudy.Any to significantly help viewers to acquire discrepancy in results between earlier studies more knowledge on the program content and this study might be associated with this than single viewings. However, the effects aspect of dissimilarity. of repeated viewings were not consistent in Itis concluded, therefore, that under all translation modes.It was equally single viewings of translated instructional prominent on the program translated in television,translation modes didnot dubbing and in subtitles without sound, less contributetoany differencesinthe prominent on the programtranslated in knowledge of program content among subtitles with sound, and least prominent on viewers. However, under repeated viewings, the program without translation. this study indicated that translation in dubbing and subtitleswithout sound Hypothesis 4 helped viewers to acquire more knowledge The final hypothesis was developed to see on the program content than translation in the interactions between translation modes subtitles with sound. andviewingexperiences.Statistical procedures indicated that the interactions Hypothesis3 between the two factors weresignificant. The third hypothesis was developed to Sincethere were noearlierstudies test whether single (one-time) viewings mentioninginteraction between viewings would make anydifferenceinthe and translation modes, no references to knowledge of program content as compared earlier studies could be made. torepeated(two-time)viewings. Data Discussion and conclusions related to the

31 Feldman, S. and Ellis, H. (1975). Principles of resuscitation, interactioneffects between translation 2nd.ed. Oxford, Great Britain: Blackwell Scientific modes and viewing experiences were Publication. Findahl, 0. (1971). The effect of visual illustrations upon combined with the discussion on hypotheses perception and retention of news programmes. ERIC 2 and 3.Hence, theyare not presented Document Reproduction Service No. ED 054 631.7- 801. again here. Garza, T. J.(1991). Evaluating the useof captioned video Language barrier in the use of foreign- materials in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals. v 24. produced instructional media is a universal Heinich, R.Molenda, M. & Russel, J. D. (1989). problem, particularly among non English Instructional mediaand the new technologies of media instruction. (3rd. ed). New York: McMillan. speaking countries. Instructional Hoban, C.andVan Ormer.(1950).Instructional film practitioners, as well as scholars especially research, 1918 - 1950.Technical Report No. SDC 269 - inthecountriesconcerned,should 7 -19.Port Washington, NY: US Naval Special investigate and address this problem more Devices Center. in Kemp, J.E and Dayton, D. K. (1985). Planning and seriously.Technologicaladvances Producing Audiovisual Instructional Media 5th ed. New electronics and atmospheric exploitation York: Harper and Row. overcome the Kendler, T.S., Cook, J.0., and Kendler,H. H. (1953). only helps human to An investigation of the interacting effects of repetition geographical barriers and distancein and audience participation on learning from training communication, but notto language.It films. AmericanPsychologist, v 8, 378 - 379. thelanguagebarrier, Keppel, G.(1991).Design and analysis,a researcher's seems, due to handbook (3rd ed).Englewood Cliffs, N.J :Prentice Hall. McLuhan's dreamed global village is yet a Kilbom, R. (1989). They don't speak proper English: a reality. new look at the dubbing and subtitling debate.Journal of multilingual and multiculturaldevelopment. v. 10, 5, 421 - 435. References Koskinen, P. (1988).Using captioned television in classroom reading instruction.Teaching English to the American National Red Cross. (1978). Respitoryand deaf and second language students. v. 6. n 1. 15 - 19 circulatory emergencies. The American National Red Markham, P. (1989). The effects of captioned television Cross Publication. videotapes on the listening comprehension ofbeginning, Ash,P. and Jaspen, N.(1953). The effects and intermediate and advanced ESL students. Educational interactions of rate of development, repetition, participation, Technology. v 29. n. 10. 38-41. projected and room illumination on learning from a rear McLuhan, M. (1989).The global village: transformation film. Instructional film research reports. Port Washington, in world life and media in the 21st century. New York: N.Y: U.S. Naval Special Devices Center. and Oxford University Press. Baggett, P. and Ehrenfeucht, A. (1983). Encoding Neuman, S.andKoskinen, P.(1991). Captioned retaining information inthe visuals and verbals of an television as 'comprehensible input': effects ofincidental educational movie.Educational and communication word learning from context for languageminority technology journal. 31. 23 - 32. student. ERIC Document Reproduction Service.ED captioned Bean, R. and Wilson, R. (1989). Using closed 332538. and television to teach reading to adults. Reading Research Pezdek, K. and Stevens, E. (1984). Children's memory for Instruction. v 28. n 4. 27 - 37. auditoryandvisualinformationontelevision. Cook, J. 0. (1960). Research in audiovisual communication. Developmental psychology. 20. 212- 218. In J. Ball and F. C. Byrnes (eds). Research,principle Pyramid Film & Video. (1992).Cardio pulmonary Lansing: and practices in visual communication. East resuscitation (CPR) for bystanders (revised). 30 minutes Projectin MichiganStateUniversity,National video. Santa Monica, California:PyramidFilm & Video. Agricultural Communication. Reese, S. D. (1983).Improving audience learning from d'Ydewalle, G. Praet, C. Verfaillie, K. and Rensbergen, J. television news through between-channel redundancy. subtitled television, automatic reading (1991). Watching ERICdocument reproduction service No. ED 229777. behavior. Communication Research, v 18, n 5. 650 -666. Seymour, J. (1981). The heart attack survival manual: a d'Ydewalle, G. Van Rensbergen, J. and Pollet, J. (1987). guide to CPR in acrisis.Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Reading a message when the same message is available Prentice Hall. auditorily in another language: The case of subtitling. InJ. Travers, R. (1964).Research and theoryrelated to K. 0' Regan and A. Levy Shoen (Eds.). 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32 43 Questing Toward Cohesion: Connecting Advertisements And Classroom Reading Through Visual Literacy by Ann Watts Pailliotet Abstract This article has four purposes. First,it offers a rationale for connecting students' communication experiences in and out of classrooms to foster relevant literacies needed in contemporary society. Second, it shows how print advertisements and academic print texts share content, structural elements, and reader/viewer processes. Third,it details a method for analyzing print advertisements and academic content area texts. Last, it offers 22 instructional practices to foster cohesive literacy strategies and relevant understandings for students and educators.

Questing Toward Cohesion: Why We settings, it makes sense to build upon this Should Connect Commercials and knowledge and connect itto classroom Content Area ReadinginOur literacy learning. Classrooms Connecting visual and print literacies in Although literacy development occurs in the classroom bridges distances in students' interdependent social systems that transcend experiences, because allliteraciesare classroom barriers (Emig, 1983; McLuhan complementaryandinterdependent & McLuhan, 1988), students and teachers (Neuman, 1991). Visual and print texts often see schools and society as separate share many common structural elements communicational worlds (Bianculli, 1992; like signification (Bopry, 1994; Saint- Pope, 1993). Many educators still teach Martin, 1990), use of images (Pettersson, content area reading using only traditional 1992),textualpatterns and levels of print texts, ignoring mass media, and meaning (Herber & Herber, 1993; Kervin, divorcing instruction from larger social 1985) and rhetorical devices (Ohlgren & contexts. But modern literacy is no longer a Berk, 1977) which convey explicit and tacit matter of comprehending only the printed ideologies (Althusser, 1986; Giroux, 1993). or spoken word. Individuals must also be When a person "reads" mass media, s/he is able to understand and critically analyze also engaging in many processes that sophisticated visual information in films, parallel those required to understand print videos, textbooks, computer environments, text,likepreviewing,metacognitive magazines, television, and life settings, as decision-making, and active response. well as in academic texts. Processes of visualliteracyreinforce Students come to our classrooms with rich (Lusted, 1991) and extend traditional print background knowledge gained from varied reading and writing skills (Sinatra, 1986), communicational experiences. The average supportcurrenttheorieslikewhole high school student has spent more time language (Fehlman, 1996), further literacy watchingtelevisionthaninschool pedagogy (Kellner, 1988; Witkin, 1994), (Lutz,1989) and countless hours viewing and foster critical thinking (Semali, 1994). films, videos, magazines, computer games, This article identifies common literacy comics, art, and billboards. Students are also principles, textual structures, and reader continually exposed to electronic and print processes that print advertisements and commercial advertisements. Ignoring these content area texts share. Next, it explains an social experiences is counterproductive to analytic method called Deep Viewing that literacylearning.Effectiveliteracy can be applied to both types of texts. Last, it instruction (Reutzel & Cooter, 1992) and offers 22 additional classroom activities to content area reading (Vacca, Vacca & Gove, connect and extend students' literacies. 1996) build onstudents'background When students are able to articulate and knowledge, gainedinclassrooms and apply .literacy strategies shared by diverse outside of them. Since teachers (and media and situations, learning becomes students) bring a wealth of background more relevant. Pairing print advertisements knowledge about mass media to academic with content reading bridges experiences in

33 44 classrooms and society (Considine & Haley, Common Textual Structures, Elements 1992), assisting individualsto develop and Content useful literacy skills and create critical, All texts -- whether print, electronic, or cohesive understandings of contemporary situational share common elements, including genres, plots and structures, communication. images and metaphors , and the use of signs Common Principles, Content and and symbols. Students encounter the Literacy Processes of Popularand following shared content in commercials Classroom Texts and content area texts: Researchers, theorists, and practitionersin Sequencing fields of reading, literacy development, - Imagery composition,literaryresponse,and -Expository textual patterns communications identify many principles, -Persuasive techniques textual structures, and literacy processesthat -Narrative structures all modern texts share. These aredescribed -Textual patterns of organization next. 'Cultural biases in illustrations and text Information Common Principles -Introduction of new langauge Many forms of communication areworthy or vocabulary of study and analysis. These includeoral, 'Fact vs. opinion electronic, and popular texts, as well as -Paragraph structure boldprint, cultural events. Attention devices like The reader/viewer is not apassive use of spacing, and color recipientof informationbutactively -Illustrations engages in transactionswith a text to create ' Word choice of meaning. verbs, adjectives, nouns ,etc. Many meanings are possible as readers/ -Organizational elements viewers interact with texts and construct like headings, titles, sections meaning from them. There are levelsof -Graphs and charts understanding from explicit and literal to -Sentence structure and grammar implicit/interpretative and applied. -Textual evidence Understanding texts is a recursive and -Omissions of content or ideas ongoing process, not linear or static.These -Implicit/explicit themes and values understandings are developed through past -Superordinate and subordinate ideas and present experiences andnotdeveloped 'Rhetorical structures and devices in isolation, but arise within social contexts. -Point of view Literacy environments in and outof 'Construction of explicit and implicit schoolareintimatelylinkedand themes through language and imagery interdependent. "Use of qualifying statements Textual understandings involve many - Use of statistics andnumerical human responsesincluding emotions, references intellect and metacognitive awareness,the -Use of jargon that evokes specific ability to know and apply variousstrategies cultural discourses Strategies and understandings developed 'Illustrations, art and other in one form of communication interactwith visual information and support others. Reading,writing, and viewing are Common Literacy Processes speaking, listening Many literacy skills and processes interdependent. 'Allforms of media arise within specific are needed to understand anytext. Students cultures or ideologies. Analysis ofmedia engage in the following processeswhen may be used to promotemulticultural they read commercials and content area awareness and criticalthinking. texts: 'Rhetorical analyses of textual elements - Previewing like audience, narratives, or context maybe -Skimming used to promote understandingsinall -Activating schema forms of media. -Drawing on background knowledge and prior understandings 'Making choices about the importance

4.4 5 and veracity of information literacy skills may have several benefits. 'Observing textual elements First, students and teachers are familiar with 'Sorting and Selecting cornmercials.Additionally,print 'Retaining and Remembering advertisements are readily available, connect 'Analyzing and Evaluating literacy environments of home and school, 'Identifying levels of meaning contain many of the same elements and "Reading explicit information and subtexts devices found in text books, and serve asan "Employing guiding questions interesting, confidence-building means to 'Identifying themes develop students' and teachers' strategies 'Looking for biases forunderstandingprintinformation. 'Identifying and analyzing arguments Furthermore, many states nowmandate 'Recalling, retelling, remembering specific curricular goals that require the 'Comparing and contrasting teaching and learning of critical media 'Identifying and citing textual evidence analysis (e.g., New York, Washington). In 'Distinguishing among superordinate and sum, beginning with visual analysis of print subordinate ideas commercials and then applying these 'Recognizing and expressing personal strategiesto academic texts may help response students and teachers to develop cohesive 'Critically analyzing rhetorical devices understandings of the meanings, structures 'Using multiple modalities to understand and content not only of textbooks, but of meanings and articulate responses to them all communicational environments in which "Using graphic organizers to structure they live. information (e.g. venn diagrams, semantic webbing, intersected lists, herringbones, etc) Procedures for Deep Viewing: Metacognition: Employing varied Code Categories comprehension strategies When Deep Viewing, participants begin 'Comprehending unfamiliar words analysis at literal, observational levels, then 'Learning new vocabulary progress through interpretative and applied 'Distinguishing among fact and fiction /evaluative levels using the following code "Noting missing information categories to guide inquiry: 'Responding through visual, written, and oral means Sequence and Structure This code notes the sequence of visual The Deep Viewing Process: material on the page and the structure(s) of Connecting Literacies the print text. It answers, "In what order is Postman (1985) points out that contem- information presented? How does sequence porary individuals are bombarded with and structure of presentation influence visual information but have few ways to meaning?" understand or act on what they see. The DeepViewing Methodprovidesa Semes and Forms systematicprocessforanalyzing, Semes are units of visual meaning that understanding, and interacting withvisual create symbols. This code examines objects information. It combines a heuristic and people. It describes colors, textures, framework (e.g. Lusted,1991), semiotic shapes, symbols, or repeated objects, and codes for understanding print and visual dress and physical traits of people.It information (Barthes,1974; Saint-Martin, answers "What objects and people do we 1990),and three leveled comprehension see? What are the characteristics of these models (Herber & Herber, 1993; Him ley, people and objects? What meanings do 1991)tohelpparticipantsreach these people and objects have for us?" understandings of visual information. Deep Viewing builds on common literacy Language and Discourse principles, content and processes. It offers a This code focuses on words and phrases wayto"read"andanalyzeprint that may sum up main ideas or themes, commercial advertisements. Itsstrategies repeated language, language that seems out may then be applied to understandings of of placeor unfamiliar, and possible content area textbooks. meanings of language. It answers, "What Using advertisements as a basis to develop language is used? What does this language critical awareness of visual information and mean?"

35 Proximity and Spacing Language and Discourse: This code examines use of space and What type of language is used? Is it formal, relations of objects in the text.It examines informal, or a mix? dimensions, relative sizes, and numbers of Is there terminology I don't know? objects on the page, use of empty space, as Are there repeated words? Words that share well as indications of movement like similar meanings? Words that have opposite gestures,arrows,orothersymbols meanings? (vectorality). It answers, "How is space used? How does this use of space influence Proximity and Spacing: meaning?" How is space used? Note the relationships on the page. Culture and Context Is there more print or visual information? This code situates the text in particular Are objects/people pictured alone or in times and cultures. It notes symbolic or groups? linguistic references to cultural knowledge, Note dimensions. Are some objects bigger like images or terminology that pertain to than others? science, art, academic disciplines, or popular Do the objects and people appear to be culture. Itanswers,"What social still? Are they moving? If so, how? knowledge is referred to? What is implied? What is assumed? What is missing?" Culture and Context: Effects and Production What symbols or language do I notice first? This code examines devices and elements What do I have to know to understand these that are used in the text. It answers, "Who symbols and language? (e.g., that caps and created this text? Why? What elements assist gowns symbolize education or doctors use or prevent us from understanding it?" stethoscopes) Deep Viewing may be done individually, Effects and Production: in pairs (participants progress through What production devices and elements do questions and levels), or collaboratively the creators of the text use? (angles, fonts, (participants each take a code and report to artistic devices) whole group at the end of each level using a What clues are there that guide the way I Jigsaw II approach). Participants may process and understand this text? respondthroughwrittennotes,oral (Uses of words like, 'first, second, third'? discussion or use of diagrams and pictures Bold print, highlighted passages, repeated as they view. images or colors? ) Level One: Literal Observation Level Two: Interpretation The purpose of this level is to gather as The purpose of this level is to explore and much information as possible for analysis. construct a range of understandings about Describe only what you see ("a slim the text, the reader, and the situation. woman inareddress") and avoid Participants now interpret the information interpretative ("She's sexy.") or evaluative they have gathered. They may summarize comments at this stage. ("This is sexist.") ideas,createhypotheses,connect Look at the text and answer the following information on the page with past and questions: present experiences, identify and describe their strategies of analysis, and express Sequence and Structure: feelings and understandings of the text. Inwhat orderorsequenceisthe Questions toassist in these processes information presented? include: What do I see first, second, third, etc.? Sequence and Structure: Semes and Forms: What is the structure of this text? Who is pictured? Does it tell a story? Present an argument? What is pictured? List information? Compare and contrast? What are the characteristics of people and Show a problem and solution? Cause and objects? effect? How do you know?

36 .47 What parts of the text create (or lack) Effects and Production: sequence and structure? Close your eyes and recall what you've seen. What do you remember? Why? Semes and Forms: What devices are used to capture your What do you think or feel when you see the attentionandhelpyouremember objects and people pictured? information? Where else have you seen these types of Where have you seen these devices used objects and people? before? What are the most important objects or Who created in this text? How can you tell? people here? How do you know? What are they trying to communicate to List or discuss associations you make when you? you see these objects and people. What messages does this text explicitly LevelThree:Evaluationand convey? Application What messages does this text implicitly The purpose of this level is to apply and convey? evaluate strategies and ideas made explicit in the first two levels.Now participants Language and Discourse: should discuss how they might apply what Isthere language inthistext thatis they have discovered to other situations and unfamiliar to you? texts. They may also evaluate the text and Does the language create more than one the ways they understand it. meaningforyou? Whatarethese meanings? Sequence and Structure: What sorts of feelings and ideas do you Where else have you seen the sequence(s) have when you read this language? and structure(s) you found in this text? What language seems most important? Is the structure of the text appropriate for Why? the purposes and information presented? What topic or topics does this text present? What do you do when the structure of the How do you know? text is unclear? Are the language, topics, and ideas in this text used only by certain people or in Semes and Forms: certain situations? Do the objects and people presented fit the textual message? Proximity and Spacing: Do they appear in other texts? How is space used in this text? Do these images convey purposes and ideas What meanings do use of space have for you feel are important? you? Do they convey hidden or undesirable What meanings do big (or small) objects messages? have? What meanings do groupings vs. isolated Language and Discourse: objects have? What language is unfamiliar? Why don't What meanings do its images of movement you understand it? or stillness have? How can you learn (or teach) what it means? Culture and Context: Is the language appropriate for the topic What would you need to know in order to and audience? understand this text? Who would know and not know this Proximity and Spacing: information? Why do you think the authors used this Who is being addressed in this text? spacing? How are they being addressed? What implicit and explicit messages do they Who/what is missing or not pictured? convey through their use of space? Who is not being addressed? Are the forms of address and knowledge in Culture and Context: this text part of larger cultural beliefs and Who and what does this text include or practices? exclude? Isit culturally biased?If so, how? How would you address this problem?

37 Production Effects: structural patterns, images, devices like bold Is this text visually effective? Why or why print, or language. not? For example, use an advertisement that has Does it fulfill it purpose? a listing structure. Ask students to identify Is it considerate of its audience? its "signal words" like "first," "second," If you were to redesign this text, what and "third," then to find examples in their changes would you make? Why? would you texts as they read. Make a chart of signal use? words that students add to as they read. Questing Toward Cohesion: 22 Ways 3) After demonstrating a Deep Viewing to Connect Visual and Print Literacies think aloud with an advertisement, teacher After engaging in Deep Viewing analysis repeats process on a page or chapter of a of print advertisements,teachers and textbook to promote critical awareness of students may engage in additional activities content,structuresand metacognitive that foster visual and print literacies. strategies. Below are 22 ideas to help create cohesive content reading and literacy instruction. 4)Students perform a Deep View analysis on a text book passage. Listing and posting 1) Ask students to brainstorm elements that strategies they used to analyze the text may textbooks and advertisements share. List be helpful when they engage in content responses on charts, a computer data base, area reading. or handouts for future reference. Guiding questions include: 5)Create an advertisement of a topic in a In what ways do textbooks and textbook or work of literature (e.g. A advertisementsstructureinformation? political advertisement for a historical (print, visual diagrams, illustrations, etc.) figure, a commercial for a new scientific What patterns of print text do they share? product, a public service announcement that (e.g. problem/solution, cause/effect, listing, addresses an issue raised in the classroom compare/contrast, definitions, persuasive vs. text). descriptive, expository or narrative) 'What structures do they use to organize 6)Write a "textbook" summary of information? (e.g., titles, diagrams, context information presented in an advertisement. clues) This is an excellent way to help students What symbols do textbooks and think critically about what information is advertisements share? (Use of certain colors, presented and missing in a text and to illustrations, images) promoteawareness oflinguistic What types of language do they use? conventions. What cultural knowledge do they require? How do they use space? (Flow charts, 7)Use Deep Viewing of advertisements as diagrams,larger and smaller pictures, aspring boardtodiscuss differences borders and gutters, chapter or section betweenfactand opinion,persuasive dividers) techniques, or social issues like gender bias What devices do they use to explain or racism. ideas? (Bold print, charts, margin notes, graphic organizers, summaries, guiding 8)Teachers use Deep Viewing process to questions) evaluate textbooks or other educational How do we know what ideas in a text are materials. most important? (Relate to Deep Viewing categories: sequence in which material is 9) Ask students to create a story board or presented, semes and forms, repeated story frame for an advertisement that has a language and terms, proximity and spacing narrative structure. Narrative structures are in texts, references to cultural or prior often used in "testimonial" advertisements knowledge, production devices like bold formedicines,dietaidsor financial print or highlighted spaces) planning. Compare and contrast narrative structure of an advertisement (setting, 2) Through modelling, show how text characters, plot, conflict, resolution) with a books and advertisements share elements. story framed piece of literature. Teacher and/or students identify common

4 10) Students create print advertisement ments for powerful words and images. They campaignfor contentareatopicor then revise drafts of their own writing using literature. In groups, they first identify words and strategies used during analysis. theme or main topic citing evidence from the text. Then, they create a logo, slogan, 17) Class thesauri or word banks. As and print copy. students find new or effective language and imagery in commercials, they note on 11)Students create "advertisement" study poster,board,in journals, or through guide for content text. They must highlight electronic data base; they then refer to their importantinformation andcreatean findings when writing and reading future advertisement that convinces readers why texts. and how to read it. This process is similar to a reading roadmap, which improves content 18) Tying texts. Students create a print or learning and metacognitive skills. computerized data bank of common images /rhetorical strategies found in commercials 12) To reinforce reading comprehension and their images. Throughout the year, they and writing skills, ask students to write a add to the list as they encounter these same paragraph from an advertisement in which images in literary or content texts. (e.g., theyidentifythemaintopicor contrast of light and darkness in language superordinate idea as well as supporting or illustration; construction of arguments or (subordinate ideas). Repeat same exercise narratives.) with content area text. 19)Qualifying statements, "weasel" words 13) Students examine language and images or hyperbole. Students identify these uses in advertisements for explicit or implicit of language in advertisements and list them cultural,gender,orracialbiases, on a classroom chart. As they read, reward propaganda techniques,or persuasive them for finding the same language in their strategies. Extend these observations to textbooks and list examples they find. analysis of textbooks or secondary sources. Discussif these words convey fact or For example, note what is missing from an opinion. Also refer to the classroom chart advertisement.List the questionsthat during writing assignments. These examples students ask as they analyze. Use these same show students what not to do. Provide questions to identify point of view or biases examples of effective writing strategies intextbooks. Ask studentstowrite beside negative examples. persuasive and informational texts using strategies they find in advertisements. 20) Study of statistics and graphs. Use these elements in advertisements to help 14) Point of view/target audience. Students studentsandevaluateunderstand analyze advertisement to identify target information in math, science, or social audience. Stress that they must provide studies texts. textual evidence for their findings. Ask them to rewrite advertisement for another 21) Students collect advertisements that audience and explain their choices of reflect persuasive strategies for folders or language and imagery. Tie to point of view bulletinboards.Theythenanalyze and audiencein literature lesson by asking speeches, current events or their texts for them to note evidence for point of view and these strategies. their responses. 22) Students use a graphic organizer 15) Promote metacognitive skills through to structure information in an advertisement strategy lists and reading roadmaps. As and then use same strategies when reading students and teachers analyze content texts(e,g., a venn diagram to advertisements,listcomprehension compare 2 texts, a herringbone to answer strategiestheyused(previewing, who, what, where, when, how and why; a compare/contrast, rereading, etc.): Refer and semantic web toarticulate and extend apply to these lists to content reading. background knowledge). 16) Effective writing and vocabulary Conclusion development. Students analyze advertise- Based on informal observations in my own

39 :5 0 high school and college classrooms,I have my highschoolstudentsnotedthe found that connecting literacy principles, invisibility of Native Americans in both textual structures, and reader processes mainstream media and their own history through use of print advertisements and texts,they engaged inacademic and academic texts appears to have several communityresearch to gather additional benefits. information for their peers. First, students demonstrate many positive Finally, making textual connections assists affective outcomes, like high levels of students to forge cohesive understandings motivation, interest, and social interaction. and develop sound literacy strategies for all For example, each time I have introduced modernmediaandcommunicational critical analysis of textbooks in preservice environments. The following anecdote literacy methods courses through an initial illustrates this point. collaborativeexaminationofprint Last week, a student approached me commercials, students became so involved before class. She excitedly told me: that they were reluctant to leave when the I actually used the stuff [visual class session was over. Second, initial analysis] we learned in here [the analysis of print commercials appears to class]...I was watching tv and I fosternewcriticalinsightsduring started thinking aboutt subsequent readings of academic texts. categories, like how they were using Many of my high school students retained space and timing and who was there and extended the skills learned during and who wasn't there and what it all commercial analysis. As the semester meant... I got really critical!...I progressed, it became like a game for many started seeingthingsI'dnever to find and share "weasel words,"signal noticed before and thinking about words, instances of persuasive strategies, as them in different ways.... I like this well as to rate effective, ineffective, or class because you teach us biased visual information in their textbooks. usefulthings,likethings you In particular, I find that after analyzing don't just use at school...things you commercials, students learn to look past can use now but you also apply out what is on the page and to note missing in thereal world ...You're points of view or information. Many showing us that literacy is more continuetoalludetobiasesor than books and boring underrepresentation they first found in lessons... It's alot bigger and alot commercials during successive readings of moreconnected thanI used to class texts. Recently, my preservice teachers think it was. noted a Whole Language bias in one of This student's account shows how she is their books, citing specific textual evidence making meaningful connections among like relative use of space and sequencing of literacytexts,practices,learning and topics, diagrams, and descriptive language. environments. It is my hope that this article Others have identified gender stereotyping may offer positive directions for other and underrepresentation of ethnic groups in students and teachers, as they quest for children's literature. One explained, "I cohesiveunderstandingsof modern caught it because the texts and pictures are literacy. like the ads we looked at." Third, connecting commercials to content References area texts may spark curiosity andlead to Althusser, L. (1986). Ideology and self-initiated learning. Last semester, several ideological state apparatuses. In H. Adams of my students embarked on a lengthy & L. Searle (Eds.), Critical theory since examination of gender biases in classrooms 1965 (pp. 239 - 51). Tallahassee, Florida: and instructionalmaterialsaftertheir Florida State University Press. interest was piqued by their noticing a lack Bianculli, D. (1992). Tele literacy. New of women in advertisements for financial York: Continuum. planning and business travel. Bopry, J. (1994). Visual literacy in Next,I believe that combining advertising education - A semiotic perspective. Journal with content texts enables students to bridge of Visual Literacy, 14(1), 35-49. distances among the often artificial world of Considine, D. M., & Haley, G. E. (1992). the classroom and "real" experiences in Visual messages. Englewood CO: Teacher life settings. For instance, after several of Ideas Press. Emig, J. (1983). The web of meaning. Ohlgren, T. H., & Berk, L. M. (1977). The Upper Montclair: Boynton / Cook new languages: A rhetorical approach to Publishers. massmedia and popular culture. Fehlrnan, R. H. (1996). Viewing film and Emzlewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - television as whole language instruction. Hall. Inc. English Journal, 85(2), 43 - 50. Pettersson, R. (1992). Describing picture Giroux, H. A. (1993). Reclaiming the content. In J. Clark Baca, D. G. Beauchamp, social: Pedagogy, resistance and politics in & R. A. Braden (Eds.), Visual celluloid culture. In J. Collins, H. Radner, & Communication: Bridging across cultures A. P. Collins (Eds.), Film theory goes to the (pp. 153-60). Blacksburg, VA: movies (pp. 37-55). New York: Rout ledge. International Visual Literacy Association. Herber, H. L., & Herber, J. N. (1993). Pope, C. A. (1993). Our time has come: Teaching in content areas with reading, English for the twenty-first century. English writing. and reasoning. Boston: allyn and Journal, 82(3), 38 - 41. Bacon. Postman, N. (1985). Amusing Ourselves to Kellner, D. (1988). Reading images Death. New York: Elizabeth Sifton Books: critically: Toward a post-modern pedagogy. The Viking Press. Journal of Education, 170(3), 31 - 52. Reutzel, D. R., & Cooter, R. B. (1992). Kervin, D. (1985). Reading images: Levels Teaching children to read: From basals to of meaning in television commercials. In N. books. New York: Merrill. Thayer & S. Clayton-Randolph (Eds.), Saint-Martin, F. (1990). Semiotics of Readings from the 16th annual IVLA visual language. Bloomington and conference (pp. 36-43). Bloomington, IN: Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Western sun. Semali, L. (1994). Rethinking media Lusted, D. (Ed.). (1991). The media literacy in schools. Pennsylvania studies book: A guide for teachers. London Educational Leadership, 11(2), 11-8. and New York:Rout ledge. Sinatra, R. (1986). Visual literacy Lutz, W. (1989). Double Speak. New York: connections to thinking, reading. and HarperPerrenial. writing. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. McLuhan, M., & McLuhan, E. (1988). Thomas Publisher. Laws of media: The new science. Toronto: Vacca, R.T. & Vacca J.L. (1996). Content University of Toronto Press. Area Reading. (5th ed). New York: Neuman, S. B. (1991). Literacy in the HarperCollins. television age: The myth of the tv effect. Witkin, M. (1994). A defense of using pop Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing media in the middle school classroom. Corporation. English Journal, 83(1), 30 - 3.

41 52 Old Dad And Edna St. Vincent Mil lay: Tools For Humanizing the Visual

by Elizabeth (Betty) Cramton and Bever lee R. Kissick

Abstract Preparing students to be both constructors and consumers of visual information will bean important responsibility for all teachers. This will mean giving them the tools togo beyond what is merely visual to the deeper, human meanings that lie beneath.This paper suggests ways that educators, kindergarten to college, can help students define their own frames of reference, learn how their interpretation of visual symbols compares to the ways that others interpret thesame symbols, and construct visual symbols for themselves.

Introduction work" as sketching, painting, or sculpting and Nineteenth century English artist and social would have learned about it in classrooms critic John Ruskin once wrote:"The greatest equipped with paper and chalk. Today's thing a human soul ever does in this world is to students have the technologyto learn that see something.Hundreds of people can talk there is more to the visual than "art work" and for one who thinks, but thousands can think that they cancreate it themselves using all for one who can see. To see clearly is poetry, that Ruskin's era had plus the full power of the prophecy, and religion allin one"(cited in mediated classroom. Stevenson, 1984, p. 2095). As teachers prepare students for a century Labeling the ability to see clearly (visual when theywillbebothconsumersand literacy) as poetry, prophecy, and religion may composers of visualobjects,itismore seem a bit extreme to the modern educator, important than ever that they recognize the maybeevenabitfrightening,butthe paradoxaccess to technology has created. responsibility for helping students recognize Just as it is their job to help students learn to and correctly interpret visual information is make full use of the power of technology, so it not extreme. By deliberately building into the istheir job to help them recognizethat, curriculumexperienceswhichenrichthe although technology gives us chances that no student's exposure to the meanings behind the generation before us had,it is still just a tool visual, educators may find that the task need whose chief value is the opportunity it givesus not be frightening, either.And, thankfully to interact with other people.Contemporary there are ways for teachers to help students Colombian philosopher William Ospina warns find meaning behind the bombardment of that the "detour of humanity into a world of visual cues they confront every day-- to see objects without sense results in the confusion beyond the merely visual, to become visually of all values and a lack of purpose" (cited in literate. Wilson, 1996, p. 39). Educators will need to find ways to convince Looking Toward the Future students (kindergarten through college) that, A century or a little. more has passed since while technology can manufacture, supply, and Ruskin described the value of seeing clearly, a transmit the visual, it doesn't become literacy century that took us from a time relatively free until it becomes human. This will mean that from manufactured visual cues through the students will need to look beyond the surface invention and use of ever-increasing kinds of of what they see to discover the meanings technology to produce and reproduce images. behind the visuals.S.I. Hayakawa (1964), Students in his time would have defined "art referring to what made words human, pointed 43 53 with situations meanings for most educators prepare them to deal out that there are really two whose age, meanings when they confront a person words-- their extensional (concrete) national meanings. The physicalability,ethnicity,skills, and their intensional (implied) is different from visual representations, origin, or economic status same could be said of Theflexibility :visibility and helping students learn aboutthe power theirown? connection will be importanthere, too, won't such representations have overthe way they be to ask world will it?One way to do this would feel and think and respond to their and to contrast predictably become an ever-greaterpart of students to examine stereotypes those stereotypes withreality.Students could classroom responsibility. locate, imagine, or construct A recent monograph by E. Cornish(1996) of be asked to something that remindsthem of a person The Futuristmagazine, for example,predicts whose background or abilityis different from that by 2025 people's attention maybecome The their own -- in otherwords, to define that this world's most precious resource. from commodity is person using asingle symbol. A person competition for such a valuable be symbolized by a necessarily The Netherlands might likely to be fierce, although not the North Pole by an down his wooden shoe, one from fair. Ruskin could have walked How would education orpersonal London street and encountered afew hand- igloo. contact with a real personfrom either of those crafted or crudely printed signsbegging for his places refine the students'attitude? How much attention. What does today's visualconsumer trust would they placein the accuracy of their find? What will confront thecitizen of 2025? original symbol? Would one symbol be How does the flexibilityof their Recognizing Frames of Reference enough? visibility? One important way thateducators can experience improve their prepare students to bewise visual consumers frames of Comparing SymbolicInterpretations is to help them define their own symbol that Students who understand that no one reference.A simple activity, and one to represent an entire group student, can be counted on really could have meaning for any age perhaps, to examine Dad" (honoring Dr. of people will be ready, is to do what we call "Old symbols change entertain his how the meanings of common Kissick's father who used to Jonathan first look based upon individualperspective. daughters with it). The participants is the art of seeing straight ahead and describewhat they see Swift said that "vision things invisible" (cited inStevenson, 1984, p. directly in front of them. Thenthey are invited do this. bend, to stretch, to 2095). Symbols encourage us to to change position, to Each of us can look at a commonsymbol (a move.With each shift of position comes a red heart shape, acornucopia, a swastika) and new view of theirworld.Even the youngest feel an immediate, oftenemotional reaction. student soon learns that thereis a tangible link recognizing that each between the angle they look atsomething and The trick comes in reaction is formed out of our ownexperiences what they are able to see. thateach,therefore,isindividual. Of course, becoming visuallyliterate goes and Educators can help studentslearn that they beyond changing just ourphysical perspective. will all probably feelsomething as they look The real lesson of "Old Dad"is that flexibility for the invisible meaningbehind the visible visibility,and thattakes on a increases symbol, but that each oneof them will feel symbolic significance, too. Consider what something slightly orsignificantly different happens when we ask students to movebeyond from what others aroundhim/her are feeling. themselves, to view the worldfrom someone Depending on the experience orsophistication else'sperspective. Late twentieth-century students,teacherscanconstruct studentsfind themselvesin a time when of the activities to help themdiscover if all ofthem technology has challenged them toconfront a the same thing.Kindergartners, great deal of culturaldiversity. How do are "seeing" 44 54 for instance, often visit pumpkin patches in the into a smiley face. A banker might do some fall. Couldn't teachers help them to learn variation of a dollar sign.An athlete might about diversity by asking each to tell what the draw a baseball. Itwillbeimportant pumpkin meant to her/him? Many U.S. (especially with adults) to emphasize that the childrenwillimmediatelythinkof Jack quality of the drawing is not as important as O'Lanterns or Thanksgiving pies.Children the depth of thought that goes into creating it. from other countries, whose experiences would Indeed, some of the drawings will be crude, be different, probably would not. some elaborate, but all ought to be well Older students could use a similar exercise to thought-out.Once again, thepower of the discover what their country's flag symbolized activity comes as participants begin to share to them, personally. This would be an their drawings and to explain why they chose excellent opportunity to use visual literacy to depict themselves as they did--as they begin skills in a wide range of courses.Sociology to reveal the invisible selves behind the visible students could contrast the change in attitudes ones. among personsindifferentagegroups. History students could discuss how the design Considering Another Angle of the flag had evolved over time or how However students deal with symbols, whether respect for it had shifted during various times as consumers or constructors, the real task for in the country's history. Communications educators will be to help them see that they can students could define its personal or universal gain perspective by changing their angle. This symbolism in essays or speeches. Art students angle may simply be a physical one as in the could be asked to redesign it to represent the Old Dad activity, but more often it will mean perspective of a particular individual or ethnic that they will need to rearrange themselves group.Psychology students could examine emotionally, socially, or psychologicallyin man'sfascinationwithandrelianceon order to experience this shift in perspective. symbols. Journalism students could This latter challenge is sometimes frightening, experiment with the relative impact of different especially if students feel that they will have to layoutsusingthesymbol. Businessor give up their own identity or assimilate a new economics students could discuss its value as a one. A final challenge for educators, then, will marketing tool.However teachers choose to be one of helping students learn to recognize use this activity, though, it will be important what they have to gain by learning to discover that they build in ways for the participants to meanings behind visuals from more share their results with each other, since this perspectives than their own. They do not have will reinforce the connectionbetween to give up their own traditions or beliefs to do perspective and attitude. this. Instead they can live richer lives by learning about how others interpret the world's Constructing Personal Symbols symbols. By learning to use their minds and Another way for students to discover how their hearts as well as their eyes they can equip powerful visual symbols are is to begin to themselves to be better visualconsumers, construct some for themselves.An activity better citizens of the world, better friends. which is fully adaptable to age or subject is one we call "The Cup." For this one students Conclusion are given a pencil, a sheet of paper, and a plain Early in this century Edna St. Vincent Millay Styrofoam cup. They are instructed to trace a wrote a poem which began "All I could see circle onto the paper using the large (open) end from whereIstood...." Literarycritics of the cup as a template. Inside that circle they generally agree that the poem depicts spiritual aretodrawsomethingthatsymbolizes orreligiousgrowth. Indeed,itstitle, themselves.A person who believes s/he is "Renasence," means rebirth.As we stand on basically cheerful, then, might turn the circle the threshold of a new century, one which is 45 likely to ask its citizens to be bettervisual them deal with change and diversity.And, it consumers than they have everbeen before, prepares them to enter a hectic world better perhaps we can turn to this poem for guidance prepared to make sense of it all. once again. Is there in the poem a patternfor personal growth? Does it offer a hint about References how to expand our viewpoints and thus expand Cornish, E. (1996).The cyper future; 92 our world and our understandingof it?"The ways our lives will change by the year world," Mil lay reminds us, "stands out on 2025. Bethesda, NY:The Futurist either side/No wider than the heart is wide" Society. (cited in Warfel, Gabriel, & Williams, 1937, Hayakawa, S.I. (1964). Language in thought p. 1362).Becoming visually literate implies and action.New York: Harcourt more than just recognizingthe existence of Brace. shape or color or form.It means more than Stevenson, B. (ed). (1984. The home book of just assigning or constructing symbols. For quotations;Classical and modern. tomorrow's citizens to be good consumers of New York: Greenwich House. visual elements, for them to be able to deal Warfel, H. R., Garbiel, R. H., & Williams, S. withthe bombardment of symbols that will T., Eds. (1937). The American mind; competefortheirattention,theymust Selections from the literature of the somewhere learn to view the world with their United States. New York etal.: hearts, too.Helping students look for and American Book Company. recognize the humanity behind the visual gives Wilson, O.A.F. (1996). A review of Too late them another perspective, another angle.It for man. The Boston Book Review, 3, enriches their educational experience. It helps p.39.

46 A Review Of Slim Hopes: Advertising & The Obsession WithThinness by Richard Couch Abstract The following is a review of Slim Hopes: Advertising& The Obsession With Thinness, a video by Jean Kilbourne produced by the MediaEducation Foundation. The video is divided into seven main parts and discussesAmerica's compulsive behavior in our desire to be thin. This video is a wonderfultool for professionals in the communicationsand health fields. Slim Hopes: Advertising & The Obsessionof tall, thin, broad shoulders and small With Thinness is a 30 minute video pro-hips excludes 95% of all women in the duced by the Media Education Foundationworld. Dr. Kilbourne suggests that women which is affiliated in some way with theare supposed to be pearshaped.This University of Massachusetts. The videovision of women which modem advertising discusses America's compulsion with thin-agencies promote may cause serious eating ness. disorders and terrible self-concepts in young women. For example,11.3% of col- The author and main "talking head" inlege women have bulimia nervosa; 80% of the video is noted researcher Jean Kil-10-year-old 4th grade girls are already on bourne of the University of Massachusetts.a diet. The health implications arefright- She has also created another award win-ening.Eight million Americans, mostly ning video titled Still Killing Us Softly.women, suffer from anorexia orbulimia. Although the format of the video is the traditional "talking head," (obviously a In Section 3, Kilbourne discusses sculpt- video of a lecture Dr. Kilbourne presenteded bodies, what she calls the "voluptuous to a group) she uses over 120 ads fromlook." We Americans are obsessed with print and television to emphasize the de-fitness and in many cases at the expense moralizing, degrading and life-threateningof our health, for example, the recent dis- way that we Americans look atfood in ourclosure of leakage from silicon breast im- culture. A close look at these images oftenplants. This debilitating disorder is direct- displayed in film, TV and magazines dis-ly related to the desire of some women to closes our view of food as decadent orbe more voluptuous. sexy, often leading young women tosuch eating disorders as anorexia and bulimia. The food industry is the center of discussion in Section 4.Companies spend 36 The video is divided into 7 sections in-billion per year in advertising. The cereal cluding 1) Impossible Beauty, 2) The Waifindustry spends 20 times more on adver- Look, 3) Constructed Bodies, 4) Food andtising their products than they do on mak- Sex, 5) Food and Control, 6) The Weighting it.Food has become a way to escape Loss Industry and 7) Freeing Imaginations.and/or a way to alter one's mood.In The content and examples from advertis-some cases, food is even beingmarketed as ing are provocative and engaging. In Sec-a substitute for sex. As afurther example, tion 1, Dr. Kilbourne discusses the notionSection 5 demonstrates how advertisers of female beauty and America's fascina-combine food and the ability to control tion (some would say compulsion not tooneself.For example, "good girls" are mention time, energy, and money spent)those who don't eat. Some advertisements with some "ideal" female beauty. Sectionmake women feel ashamed for eating; 2 includes an explanation of the "waifwomen who eat are too indulgent; they can look" that is represented by super models.eat diet or fat-free dessert and become less This "super model" (just look at the wordsself-indulgent. Many women pick at their we use to explain these women) body typefood when they eat in front of others, but

47 binge later. The extreme of thiscontrol,but which society says is uglierthan according to Kilbourne, is the feelingthatsmoking.This insidious public health good girls keep all of their appetitesunderproblem is the focus of the last section of control.The assumption is that weallthe video. know girls who can't say no. Kilbourne suggests that we as consumers Section 6 is perhaps the longest sectionand as willing participantsin the and discusses in-depth the weightlossskullduggery of the advertising industry industry.Advertisements are gearedmust take an active role inchallenging the toward religious, moralistic language, evenimages that we see on our TV screens, in using such words as temptation,sin, andour movies, and in ourmagazine salvation.This industry knows thatadvertising.In closing, Dr. Kilbourne Americans have a terrible prejudice againstpoints out that the #1 wish for mostadult fat people, especially women. Thirty yearswomen is to lose weight.If we cannot ago, the $33 billion dietbusiness did notaddress the root of the problem -- popular exist. Fifty percent of all women are on amedia advertising -- we aredestined to diet at any one time in America.Seventy-continue to believe in thethinness five percent of statistically "normal"mystique. women thinktheyarefat. The physical/medical damage is compounded Although the talking head nature of this by the fact that 98% of dieters wholosevideo bothered me, the messageis gainpowerful and important. The researchand weight through commercial programs solid it back and more. the conclusions reported seem although there were times when Iwanted One other related factor addressed intheto challenge assumptionsgarnered from video is the connection betweensmokingthe research. The video is animportant and thinness.Ninety percent of allresource for anyone teachingmedia courses smokers start before they are age 16andor health courses.It can be purchased many women whosmoke say they can'tfrom Media Education Foundation,26 give it up because they will gain toomuchCenter St., Northampton, MA01060, weight. What a strange paradox:Women (41 3)-5 8 6 41 7 0 . are willing to continuesmoking which theyhttp:/ /www.igc.apc.org/mef/mef.html. know damages their health ratherthanI also found the business tobe very gain weight which is health threateningcooperative in sending preview copies.

48 58 Hypermedia: New Dimensions of Literacy by Mary L. McNabb

Abstract Changes in literacy codes and conventions due to hypermedia technology are discussed. Starting with a brief history of the synergistic relationship between technology and literacy, the article examines the need for redefining literacy beyond print-based communications. Key literacy codes inherent in electronic hypermedia text are compared with those fostered by printed-based text. These codes have emerged from hypertext's associative narratives, film grammars, and pictorials.The article calls for continual examination of emerging hypermedia communications in order to establish the conventions of electronic literacy.

Technology's Influence on Literacy have "learned to process reality in terms of a History tells the story of a synergistic logically ordered, continuous and linear world" relationship between technology and literacy. (Gumpert & Cathcart, 1985, p. 24). The For the past five centuries, the technology of Literacy Dictionary (1995) currently defines the printing press has defined the organization literacy as "active, autonomous engagement and presentation of communication (Bolter, with print and stresses the role of the individual 1992, p. 20).The printing press spawned a in generating as well as receiving and assigning genre of written communication found in books independentinterpretationstomessages" which is predominantly characterized by linear (Venezky, 1995, p.142).In this paper, I narratives that provide transitional passages suggest that literacy, in a computer-networked from one related idea to another. These society, is not solely about reading the printed transitionstypicallyexplaintheauthor's word.Rather it encompasses receiving and rationale behind connecting ideas. Print-based sending messages in a hypermedia format. writers are taught to provide readers with a coherentlineof reasoningembodiedin Barnhart (1991), in a synopsis of the history grammatical sentence structures and of human communication systems, describes paragraphs connected by explicit transitional how documented or written forms of human expressions. Print-based readers are taught to communicationstartedwithpicturesand look for the author's thesis or main idea and to evolved, passing through the phonography- comprehend supporting points connected to the word syllabic and phonography-syllabic to the thesis in a coherently flowing narrative. presentprint-basedphonography-alphabetic communication system (p. 3).In the modem The narrative evolved and flourished for print-based system of communication,the hundreds of years within cultures where print- writing and thereading of phonography- based linear communication dominated.The alphabetic forms of communication written word came to dominate communication proliferated. Barnhart (1991) suggests that the in educational realms as well as in communities alphabetic systems of modem printed-based because "the text was the first cheap, mass cultures serve the aim of human produced form of knowledge representation we communication better than the preceding ones, had:itiscalled printing, and it made a by reducing the use of visual symbols and long- revolution" (McCorduck, 1992, p. 246). Those term memory space (p. 12). "However, in of us who learned to be literate in a culture consequence,each new scriptrepresented where printed text dominated communication language in terms that were more remote from 49 1988; Weber, meaning than the units of the precedingscript, & Cathcart,1985; Kellner, thus posing new problems for learningand 1930). McClusky (1949)discussedthis deciphering" (Barnhart, 1991, p. 12). phenomena nearly a half-century ago, stating: "Studies of language developmentshow that Educators involved in the technological elementary word and number meanings arise with objects and developmentsof the20thCentury have out of sensory experience and things, but later words and numbers areused in grappled with the problems for learning them from the deciphering posed by the print-basedculture, a manner which removes and have posed solutions related tomulti- concrete.Hence, words and numbers may become highly abstract and complexin use and sensory, multi-dimensional modes of Multi-sensory instructional in meaning. In fact, they maybe "abstracted" communication. meaningless. Therein lies theory and practice, as we know it,originated to the point of being which plagues Comenius'Orbis Sensualium Pictus the disease, known as verbalism, with educators (Weber, 1930, p. 27).Comenius popularized instruction" (p. 1). Researchers and grappled illustrated textbooks or visual aids thatserved throughout the 20th Century have its pictorial with the problems posed by alphabetic systems to associate "objective reality, or since the representation,with abstract cognate word dominating human communications Given symbols" (Saettler, 1990, p. 31).Comenius development of theprintingpress. thathuman also developed a theory of instruction thatdeals Barnhart's(1991)premise systems undergo an everyphaseofinstructionwhich communication with suggest herethat Pestalozzi later implemented as principlesof evolutionary process,I instruction based on "the laws ofnatural microcomputer technology is facilitating yet in human human development" ( Saettler, 1990, p.36). another evolutionary step communication which defines and embodies a Weber, another pioneer in the realm ofmulti- new form of literacy. divided visual sensory communication, above all experience into two classes, real andvicarious. Many agree that literacy is "Real experience arises from aconscious culturally bound by the social contextsand communication act. problematic situation ... customs surrounding the response to an actual that "true vicarious experience, by way ordifference, Putting it best, Boyer (1987) states through arises from a response to an unreal, ormake- language literacy is achieved only believe situation, which is represented to usby cultural literacy" (p. 81).The term cultural word,line,form,or literacy, initially an Americanphenomenon, change,gesture, of arrangement" (Weber, 1930, p.1). Weber refers to one's ability to understand an area "The (1930) asserts that viewing a motionpicture knowledge (Barton,1994,p.13). fullest. equivalence between text and knowledgeis one provides vicarious experience at its of Through this century, the need forvicarious of the great unacknowledged assumptions centuries" experience in human communication has grown educationinthepastfew In today's along with an increasingly complexmerging of (McCorduck, 1992,p.245). literacy cultures brought together by computer-networked society, cultural diverse literacy to telecommunication technologies. reaches beyond the tradition of print include visual, media, and computerliteracy as 1993; Griest, Although print-based human communication well (Considine, 1987; Feinstein, is the dominant mode of communicationin 1992; Kellner, 1988). western civilization, it depriveslearners of the essential basal experiences that allowfor an Fundamentals of Electronic Literacy rapid accurate translation of word symbols,resulting Hypermedia technology, with its multiple in a potential mismatch between mentalimages innovations capable of processing challenges and word associations (Berger, 1987;Gumpert modes of communication, 50 commonly held assumptions about the nature longer bound by print, but may include the full of literacy.It is increasingly apparent that range of multi-sensory information found in interactive hypermedia is the up and coming hypermedia communication systems. mode of communication for the 21st Century (Considine, 1987; Galbreath, 1994; Kalmback, Characteristics of Hypermedia 1994; Kellner, 1988; Popkewitz & Shutkin, Essential to understanding any hypermedia 1993; Shirk, 1991).In early predictions, the communication system is an understanding of hypermedia industry was expected to grow hypertext.Hypertext "consists of a network, rapidly from $3 billion in 1991 (U.S. and or web, or multiply connected text segments. Canadian markets) to estimates from $13+ to Hypertext writers set up multiple connections $31+ billion by 1995 and estimates ranging between nodes of a text, and readers choose from $34+ to $81+ billion by the year 2000 which links to follow, which nodes to read, and (Brandt, 1992). Although print-based texts which nodes to skip" (Johnson-Eilola, 1994, p. continuetodominatecommunicationin 197). Conceptually, hypertext can be used for education,static print-based linear text no several communication purposes. One purpose longer dominates American cultural is to facilitate locating information. The search communication: "Sixty-five percent of engine capability of the computer allows one to informationimpartedbetweenpeopleis type in a key word or words and to search a nonverbal in our culture" (Considine, 1987, p. single text for all references to the word in 634). Some claim that the emergence of multi- context. The user of computer networks such sensory,multi-linear communicationisso as the World Wide Web may employ a "key profound that it indicates a new, postmodern word" search strategy to locate information in era in history (Griest, 1992; Kellner, 1988; individual texts stored within the network's Landow,1992;Faigley,1992).Electronic databases. Another use of key words are formsof communicationspurredon by preprogrammedhyperlinkscreatedbya advances in hypermedia and computer network hypertext author.Preprogrammed hyperlinks technology embody important cultural changes are created with hypertext mark-up language influencing the nature of literacy itself. (html). The hypertext author utilizes html to establish connections between electronic files Electronic communication not only includes which may contain printed text, or audio, printedtextbut may alsoencompasses video, and pictorial stills and animations. pictorials, film grammars, and multi-sensory structuresrequiring semiological analysis. There are fundamental differences, however, Some use the term "media literacy" to refer to between types of hyperlinks.Links that are the new forms of electronic communication. created through key word searchesreflect The objective of media literacy instruction print-based activities engaged in by readers of involves students in "learning the skills of cross-references suchas encyclopedias, deconstruction, of how cultural texts [media] dictionaries, technical manuals, citations, and work, how they signify and produce meaning, footnotes (Johnson-Eilola,1994, p.201). and how they influence and shape their Links created by authors and embedded within 'readers' (Kellner, 1988, p. 47). Gambell documents representaninnovationin (1989)identifiesthementaloperations communication much different than the linear, characteristic of literacy as the ability to crack transition-ladennarrativesofprint.The a code, to derive information from the code, to hypertext author may create a variety of derive meaning from the information, to act on hyperlinksrepresentingamultitudeof such meaning, and to make inferential and rhetorical strategies involving key words, their other cognitive structures from the meaning to synonyms, antonyms, analogies, comparisons, arrive at new meanings (p. 273). Given these contrasts, associations, etc. The hypertext characteristics, the definition of literacy is no authormay drawon knownrhetorical 51

BEST COPY AVAilABLE strategiesemployed by print-basedlinear little known. We need to take a close, writers, or may invent new strategiesfor analytical look at emerging grammars from linking nodes of multi-sensory information. new types of electroniccommunication systems in order to begin to understand the evolutionary Hypertext, indeed, represents a new medium literacy of the coming age. for thought and expression (Bolter,1992; Eldred & Fortune, 1992; Nelson, 1992;Shirk, An underlying premise of visual instruction is 1991).The process of reading in hypertext that all visuals are arbitrary to some degree, conversely becomes an interactive process of requiringacquiredskilltocompose and constructing meaning in that the reader has comprehend. Current objectives for visual choices to make about which hyperlinks to literacy instruction regard teaching the learner pursue. In addition, thehypertext reader not how to comprehend both literal and metaphoric only can rely on a linear narrative flowladen meaningsofvisualsthroughdescriptive with transitionary statements which explainthe reflection,compositionanalysis,context connections between sentences and paragraphs. analysis, and evaluation of images(Considine, In hypertext, the hyperlink is the transition and 1987; Feinstein, 1993). New literacy codes are comescolor-codedwithoutanexplicit also manifest in media grammars or structures. explanation as to where it may lead. While the Film grammars include the close-up shot, process of meaning makingis nothing new to medium shot, long shot, full camera shot, and literate readers, the multiplicity of choices tracking shots (Berger, 1987; Considine, 1987; facing a hypertext reader calls for new skills Fehlman, 1992). Camera distance indicates or related to drawing inferences, and some yet signifies meaning. For example, close-up shots unknown reading strategies. Paths in hypertext signify intimacy; in contrast, full shotssignify are characterized bymulti-linear, subordinated, social relationship (Berger, 1987, p. 152). cyclic, and associative thinking patterns that the form thebasisfor new grammarsand Audio codes, though hardly mentioned in structuresof communication inelectronic literature about literacy, include oral narration, environments (Bolter, 1992; Ulmer, 1992). dialogue, music, environmental sounds,and quietpauses(Fehlman, 1992). The With the rapid advances in computer comprehension of multi-sensory codes technologies capable of processing not only constitutes the substance of media literacy large amounts of print-based texts, but audio, efforts aimed at enhancing one's ability"to visual, and film texts as well, hypertexts are intuit or predict the next sequence[which] & often embedded within hypermedia makes communication possible" (Gumpert Such intuition or communicationsystems. Hypermediais Cathcart, 1985, p. 28). characterized by nonlinear hyperlinks within a prediction relies on familiarity with thecultural multimedia environment (Lockard, Abrams & codesthecomposer employstoconnote Of concern to Many,1994,p.219). In other words, meaning within the media. hypermedia's fundamental operating principles educators should be the gap that existsbetween print- derive from hypertext. Hyperlinks,in a the institutionalized codes of traditional, daily hypermedia communication environment, relate based curriculum and codes encountered printed text to audio text, or visual displays, or by students living in acomputer-networked and to film clips. While hypertext draws on the society: "Just as people learn to speak standard grammar of itsverbal language think in the grammar of themedia first origin, hypermedia draws on lesserknown acquired, they take for granted aworld view through grammarsfrom20thCenturyfieldsof which rests upon a reality structured communication including cinematology, visual available communication technology" literacy, and semiotics.Here again, in new ( Gumpert & Cathcart, 1985, p. 30). combinations, the grammar of hypermedia is 52 $2 Hypermedia carries complex messages Boyer, E.L. (1987). College: The embeddedinamulti-sensory,interactive undergraduate experience in America.New medium, making plausible the notion of a new York: Harper& Row, Publishers. literacy.The trend toward hypermedia as a modeofcommunicationinmainstream Branch, R. (1992). In review.Multi-media Americancultureindicatesaneedfor Review, 3(2), 64-74. educators, who shoulder much responsible for Considine, D.M. (1987). Visual literacy and the literacy of youth, to look beyond print- the curriculum: More to it than meets the eye. based notions of literacy to an emerging Language Arts, 64(6), 634-640. cultural literacy driven by and embodied in electronic hypermedia communication systems. Eldred, J.C., & Fortune, R. (1992). Exploring the implications of metaphors for computer Emerginghypermediatechnology networks and hypermedia.In G.E. Hawisher particularly challenges the assumption that the & P. LeBlanc (Eds.), Re-imaging computers printedwordisthebest communication and composition (pp. 58-73). Portsmouth, NH: medium for educational purposes. Changes in Boynton/Cook Heinemann. cultural communication need to be reflected in the classroom."One of the greatest areas of Faigley, L. (1992). Fragments of rationality: deficiency is the failure of the school system to Postmodemity and the subject of composition. provide young people with an understanding of Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. the form and content of the communication technology of their society" (Considine, 1987, Fehlman, R.H. (Nov., 1992). Making meaning p. 639).Hypermedia may soon constitute the visible: Critically reading TV. English Journal, student's first language. With this in mind, I 19-24. have attempted to outline a historical rationale for redefining what it means to be literate in the Feinstein, H. (1993). Visual literacy in general age of electronic communications. education at the University of Cincinnati. Journal of Visual Literacy, 13(2), 89-96. References Barnhart, J.E. (June, 1991). An analysis of the Galbreath, J. (1994). Multimedia in education: history of writing and young children's literacy Because it's there? TechTrends, 39(6), 17-20. acquisition.Literacy Research and Reports, no.6. DelCalb,IL:Northernlllinois Gambell, T.J. (1989). Cognition, literacy, and University. curriculum. In C.K. Leong & B.S. Randhawa (Eds.), Understanding literacy and Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to congition (pp. 269-285). New York: the econology of written language. Plenum Press. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Griest, G. (1992). English in its postmodern Berger, A.A. (1987). Semiological analysis. In circumstances: Reading, writing, and goggle 0. Boyd-Barrett & P. Braham (Eds.), Media, roving. English Journal, 14-18. knowledge, and power (pp. 132-155). London: Croom Helm. Gumpert, G., & Cathcart, R. (1985). Media grammars, generations, and media gaps. Bolter, J.D. (1992). Literature in the electronic Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2, writing space. In M.C. Tuman (Ed.), Literacy 23-35. online: The promise (and peril) of reading and writingwithcomputers (pp.19-42). Johnson-Eilola, J. (1994). Reading and writing Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. in hypertext: Vertigo and euphoria.In C.L. 53 Selfe & S. Hilligoss (Eds.), Literacy and Sadder, P. (ed.) (1990). The evolution of Computers: The complications of American educational technology. Englewood, teaching and learning with technology (pp. CO: Libraries Unlimited. 195-219). New York: Modem Language Association of America. Shirk, H.N. (1991). Hypertext and composition studies. In G.E. Hawisher & C.L. Kalmbach, J.A. (1994). Just in time for the 21st century: Multimedia in the classroom. Selfe (Eds.),Evolvingperspectiveson Tech Trends, 3 9(6), 29-32. computers and composition studies (pp. 177- 202). Urbana, IL: NCTE. Kellner, D. (1988). Reading images critically: toward a postmodern pedagogy. Journal of Ulmer, G.L. (1992).Grammatology (in the Education, 170(3), 31-52. stacks) of hypermedia, a simulation: Or, when does a pile become a heap? In M.C. Tuman Landow,G.P. (1992).Hypertext:The (Ed.), Literacy online: The promise (and peril) convergence of contemporarycritical theory of reading and writing with computers (pp. and technology. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins 139-164). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh University Press. Press.

Lockard, J., Abrams, P.D. & Many, W.A. Venezky, R.L. (1995).Literacy.In T.L. (1994). Microcomputers for twenty-first Harris & R.E. Hodges (Eds.), The literacy centuryeducators.(3rded.) New York: dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and Harper Collins College Publishers. writing(p.142). Newark:International Reading Association. McClusky, F.D. (1949). Audio-visual teaching techniques. DuBuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Weber, J.J. (1930). Visual aids in education. Co. Valparaiso, IN: Valparaiso University.

McCorduck, P. (1992). How we knew, how we know, how we will know. InM.C. Tuman (Ed.), Literacy online: The promise (and peril) of reading and writing with computers (pp. 245-259). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Nelson, T.H. (1992). Opening hyper-text: A memoir. In M.C. Tuman (Ed.), Literacy online: The promise (and peril) of reading and writing with computers (pp. 43-57). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Popkewitz, T.S., & Shutkin, N.N. (1993). Social science,social movements, and the production of educational technoloyg in the U.S..In R. Muffoletto & N.N. Knupfer (Eds.).,Computersineducation:Social, political, and historical perspectives (pp. 11- 36). Cresskil NJ: Hampton Press Inc.

54 Perception Of Elementary Students Of Visuals On The Web Manal A. El-Tigi Barbara A. Lewis Virginia M. Mac Entee

Abstract

The way information is visually designed and synthesized greatly affects how people understand and use that information. Educators have long been aware that conceptual and perceptual styles, past experiences, and cultural background affect the way people learn. Good teachers consider individual differences and learning styles as they teach. Now, increased use of the World Wide Web as a teaching tool makes it imperative to question how visual/verbal information presented via the WWW can increase or restrict understanding.The purpose of this study is to examine students' perceptions of the effectiveness of visuals in conveying the instructional message.

Introduction assessing the quality of the graphics in terms Today's rapid advancementofnew of how they are perceived by the intended technologies has made the impact that visual audience. imageshave oneducationveryevident. Heinich, Molenda and Russell (1993) stated, The focus of thisstudyisto examine "We are a visualsociety;one thathas specificvisual design elements specified by experienced theincreasing production and researchers (Heinich, Molenda and Russell. distribution of visualmessagesinrecent 1993) as attributes of quality visuals.The years" (p. 66). research question is:How does the intended audience perceive the effectiveness One of themore prominentemerging and meaningfulness of the visuals presented in technologies is the World Wide Web (WWW). terms of the following: An ever growing number of educational sites are being developed on the World Wide Web information/instructional purposes to provide a source of information for teachers graphic/picture elements and students. The graphical user-friendly text/lettering elements features of the World Wide Web allow for color greater versatility of presentation design. The layout Web designers are able to accommodate a wider range of learning preferences by using Designing with Learning Preferences Web attributes such as sound, images, and in Mind text. The educational sites are generally useful The process ofdesigning effective in content. However, the quality of the design, instructionalmediareliesuponcareful from an instructional design perspective, is not planning. The planning should include a needs always what it should be (El -Tigi & Branch, analysis and a learners analysis. The learners in press). analysis must contain the learner's learning preference (Dick and Carey 1996). A The purpose of this study is to examine learner's learning preferences may be one of students' perception of the effectiveness of the following: visuals in conveying the instructional message. Thecontentionisthatgood visual:a learner prefers to read rather instructional designprovides procedures for than listen to discussions; 55 ir

sustainattention,and auditory:a learner prefers to listen to a "Attractattention, tape and/or discussions rather than read: generateemotion"(p.66).Consequently, and visualsaidreiterationof information by allowing easier storage and retrieval of kinesthetic: a learner prefers concrete visuals can also experiences lather than abstract learning. information. Ultimately, motivate learners by increasing their Therefore, a designer must create with all interest in the text. three of the learning preferences in mind. In a There are several factors to consider when Web Course design,thedesignershould designing visuals for instructional purposes. include written language with audio script of factorsarecolorselection, the text for the auditory learner.The course Among these should include graphic pictures that represent layout of visual and verbal elements, text and the meaning of the text for the visual learner. lettering and texture among others.

Learning from Visuals Text/Lettering Elements Three factors ought to be considered in the According to Heinich, Molenda and Russell design process; style, color of text and size of (1993), students learn from visuals by being text.Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1993) able to read, understand, and interpret visuals recommend that consistency and harmony with accurately.Thus, the students decode the other elements influence the choice of information that they see. The students must Plain style is suggested for use for also be able to encode information by creating style. instructional material.Lowercase letters are a visual in order to communicateeffectively. most legible. Short headlinesmaybe written in with others through the visuals. all caps as long as they do not exceedthree words. The color of text ought to be selected When visuals are used in a Web site, the itcontrasts with the images are used to illustrate something. The based on how well color. Contrastenhances asaccuratelyas background images should illustrate while stronger contrast achieves possible the designer's point of instruction. legibility. greater emphasis. Finally thesize of lettering They should be realistic pictures that allow the ought to be estimated based on the distance learner to create an association between the from which it will be read.Therefore, larger text and the image.The image should help text size should be used forbigger classrooms. cue the student learning process.For example:if the designer's site is informing Color children about poison, the designer might Research attributes mood and movement to include a graphic of skull with two bones Colorcommandsattentionand crossing making an "X".This symbol is the color. enhances visual impact. Color serves to common symbol for poison. heightenrealismofimage; pointout and differences; highlight Designing Visual Material for Learning similarities important information and detail; and create a Meaningfullearningis oneofthe emotional response (Heinich, fundamental tenants of instructional design. particular Molenda. and Russell, 1993). Colorscould be toAusubel(1968),material According categorized into cool and warm colors.Warm presented is comprehended in the process of colors such as red, yellow and orangecould be internalization. Visuals serve as concrete used to approach the viewer togain the clues to meaning. Concrete referents enhance readers attention. In contrast, coolcolors such communication and understanding through violet tend to retract. clarification of abstract concepts. Heinich. as blue, green, and Molenda, & Russell (1993) state that visuals

56 66 Layout Table 1 Participants The arrangement of the text and graphics Male 6 help the design into a logical sequence for Female 9 learning.Faioloa and Debloois (1988) found 7 year olds 1 that dividing larger portions of information 8 year olds 1 into smaller units of information improves 9 year olds 13 visual clarity and results in improved retention 3rd Grade 2 of information. Therefore, the arrangement 4th Grade 13 of theinformationshouldbeconsistent throughout the design of the course because Data Collection Procedures the learner needs to concentrate on the content We used one of the top 5% (rated by Point of the information and not the way itis CommunicationCorporation) Web course presented. sites for children. We selected this site due to the appropriateness of the content, which is Texture specifically geared to that population group. Textureisacharacteristicofthree dimensional objects and materials.It serves to A ten-item survey was designed to elicit convey a clearer idea of the subject to the specific responses regarding comprehension of viewer by suggesting the sense of touch. instructional message based on both image Texture provides emphasis,separation,or cues and text. Pages geared at three specific enhances unity.Given the multi-dimensional situations were selected out of approximately attributesof the Web,scannedimages, 20 sets.The selection process was based cartoon characters and texture enhanced on a pilot study which helped determine the images are easily depicted. most useful content to the specific age group and also the overall quality of the information Method and visuals provided.The best three were The designershouldbecreating Web selected based on this criteria. We asked the courses with the learner in mind.In order to childrenaboutthedesignof thepages see the extent to which the learners could including: contribute to the evaluation of an instructional materialontheWeb,we interviewed information/instructional purposes elementary students on their perception of graphic/picture elements visual design in a Web course. text/lettering elements color Participants layout Participants of the study are 7,8 and9 texturing year olds. Fifteen students were able to participate in the study. Students were asked Students were interviewed in10 minute their overall understanding of the topic, their segments given their short attention span and learning preference and their perception of the also the constraints of conducting an interview visual aids in the course. during specific class hours.

Data Analysis Information/instructional purposes Throughout the interviewing process, none of the students understood that all the sites dealt with kid safety.This phenomenon was expected by the researchers because the Web courseonlymentionedtheperformance 57 objectives on the beginning home page.This rabbit happy isinterestingbecause a key principalof rabbit hopping no idea what Instructional Design is a clear statement of the someone drinking cleaning stuff performance objective for every introduction rabbit looks sick of a new instructional event. Listed below are rabbit with yucky face - poison the students perception of the Web sites. somebody swallowed some poison not to drink poison by reading What do you think the Web site is about? rabbit scared poison Site 1: Telephone Safety no idea- I don't know poison site telephone it says poison teacher about to teach - sitting at a desk when you are alone waitingforacall-thinkingabout As the students read the information being answering the phone presented, it becameapparent tothe telephone researchers that the majority of the students principal - what if the telephone understood the concept of the sites (Figure 1). what to do if the phone rings At this time in the research process,the Do I answer the question- What should I students did not use the visual designs to do if the phone rings interpretthe meaning of thesites. The waiting for something students comments were: answer phone talking about a phone Figure 1 teacher sitting at desk don't know what site is about Understand Site Concept

Site 2: Drug Safety 8 6 4 Sitel drugs 2 person drinking 0 pg Site 2 selling drinks Really Bad Good Really Site3 Bad Good sell someone drugs Rating kids offering wine drugs and alcohol not sure - not to take drugs or alcohol Tell me one thing you have to do to be safe? drugs or alcohol not clear Student Comments asks a question- what should you do bullies Site 1: Telephone Safety drinking drugs alcohol because there is a beer never tell caller your alone - no way get a bottle life

Site 3: Poison Safety Site 2: Drug Safety

stay from poison say no to drugs 58 say no how to deal with electricity tells you to choose a different friend, nobody around Picture 2 walk away report to adult walk away and tell parents- several don't wiggling make sense nobody says no never say your name Site 3: Poison Safety talk to parents

writing tell you all the thingsyou should do Figure 3 walk away and report to adult Site 2: Drug Safety call 911

ei Picture lj Graphic/Picture Elements Kg Picture 2 The visual designs did not help the students make an association with theinformation being given (Figures 2- 4); even though, the students tried to make an association between Rating the picture and the information being given. The followingare some of thestudents interpretation of the visual designs. Site 2: Drug Safety Picture 1 Do the pictures help you understand whatto do? person drinking little hit because someone offering Figure 2 someone is offering does kid handing out wine to other kids Site 1: Telephone Safety picture not good doesn't tell if it is a bad drink because of XXXX on bottle doesn't tell about drugs

El PictureiJ mPicture Picture 2

dressed to go out - waiting forsomeone to come Really Bad Good Really Bad Good not clear she is not drinking any Site 1: Telephone safety Picture 1

little/has a phone- someone is goingto answer no clue of answer - there is a telephone

59 Figure 4 Figure 5

Site 3: Posion Safety Size of Letters

10 r ------8+ el Picture 11 6+ m Picture 21 4 2 ul \"4 Really Bad Good Really Really Bad Good Really Bad Good Bad Good Rating Rating

Site 3: Poison Safety Picture 1 Color The students like the color ofthe lettering and the background (Figure 7and 9). Some not clear of different tell parents - say no to do whatsright students did have suggestion colors for both the letters and thebackground he could be screaming aboutseeing a (Figure 8 and 10).The students response is ghost the opposite of research conductedin the field because he's drinking poison According to research, children is of color. somebody joking around - something prefer warm colors; however, this Web course wrong used cold colors. he looked sick/different color eyes -funny thing or bad Do you like the white colors? shocked may be sick don't swallow things Figure 6

Picture 2 Color of Letters

rabbit eat something good 8 7 rubbing tummy cuz happy andsomething 8 5 good 4 3 not doing anything 2 1 rubbing stomach 0 Really Bad Good Really he's happy and smiling Bad Good Rating

Text/Lettering Elements The majority of the students thoughtthe size What color would you like tomake the letters? of the lettering was okay (Figure5).This is opposite of the opinion of the researchers.

Are the letters large enough toread?

6070 Figure 7 Is it easy to move from one location on the Suggested Letter Color page to another using the icon?

2.5 2 Figure 10 C 1.5

A Moving From One Location to Another 0.5 0 White Blue Black Yellow Green Purple Color

Really Bad Good R call Do you like the black background? Bad Good R a in g

Figure 8 Other comments students mentioned Background Color have a computer but don't use it 8 ...... 7 6 writing helped - picture no good not familiar with screen - like to learn this way worked on hi-tech at old school- would

Really Bad Good Really like to learn about computers Bad Good exciting to wait - something might pop up Rating used computers - not very familiar with on-line - likes this learning not familiar with on-line document picturesnotenoughdetail-nothe What color would you make the background? information not helpful-nice to have picture (don't tell) use mouse Figure 9 Discussion and Conclusion Suggested Background Color The way information is visually designed and synthesized greatly affects how people understandand use that information. Educatorshavelongbeenawarethat conceptual and perceptual styles, past Black Dark BLue White Purple Green Sea Maroon Black wr Green Stars experiences, and cultural background affect Color the way people learn. Good teachers consider individual differences and learning styles as Layout they teach. The students liked the layout of the sites. All of the sites were uniformed and contained Therefore, the design of quality instructional the same number of visual designs to help the material involves a learner-centered approach students. None of the students had difficulty whichtakesintoaccountthelearning moving from one location to another location in the Web course (Figure 10). 61 71 WEST COPY AVAILABLE

-4 characteristics of the intended audience of the What changes could be made to improve Web site. Each component of the information the visuals in the Web site. used in the presentation process for a Web course must be study, from the students perception? designedwiththeintendedlearnersage. learning preferences, and culture in mind, in Reference addition to several other characteristics.The Ausubel. D.(1968)Educational Psychology. qualityof informationpresentationfor New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. instructional purposes should be assessed in ways which involves the process of designing. Dick.W.andL.Carey.(1996)The developing and evaluating instructional Systematic Design of Instruction. New material.Therefore, the Web Designer must York: Harper Collins. incorporate the learnerinthe design and development stage of the course along with the El-Tigi M. & Branch, R. M. (in press). use of the learner during the formative and Interaction, feedback, and student control to summative evaluation of the course. facilitate learning on the Web.

Further Research Faiola.T.,andDebloois, M.L.(1988) Further research needs to be conducted on Designing a Visual factors-Based Screen how elementarystudentsperceivevisual Display Interface:The New Role of the design.The questions that still remain to be Graphic'Technologist. Educational asked are: Technology. August, 12-21.

Do designers of Web Courses pilot their Heinich, R., Molenda. M., and Russell, J.D., course with elementary students before (1993) Instructional Media and the New implementation of the course? Technologies of Instruction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Do students prefer to use visuals to help them understand information being Lucas,L.(1991).Visually Designing the presented? Computer-LearnerInterface,Educational Technology. July, 56-58.

6272 The White Man's Indian:Stereotypes In Film And Beyond by Charalambos Vrasidas Abstract The image of Native Americans had been established long before filmwas invented, and with a few exceptions, it has remained thesame since then.Film, because of its visual nature and mass appeal, played a major role in perpetuating the misconceptions aboutthe Natives. Some of the most popular images were the bad Indian, the good Indian andthe noble savage. One of the methods that white society employed in an effort to isolate the NativeAmericans and make them a weak minority in their own homeland,was stereotyping.Stereotypes were created for three main reasons: (a) to confirm the superiority of Western civilization,(b) to perpetuate the myths on which the American nation was built, and (c) to offer entertainment through literature, art, and film. Stereotypes werevery entertaining, and therefore, profitable.

Coming to America Pearce (1967)putit,"Americanswere When thefirstEuropeanscameto coming to understand the Indian as one America they found a rich continent witha radically different from their proper selves; lot of resources. Here they wanted to create they knew he was bound inextricably ina a society similar to that in their countries in primitive past, a primitive society, and a Europe.The only obstacle to their plans primitive environment, to be destroyed by was the indigenous people.In the view of God, Nature, and Progress to make way for the European settlers the Native Americans the Civilized Man" (p. 4). were hinderingprogress(Pearce,1967). The Whites tried to civilize them and make Images and Stereotypes Before the them conform to the Whites' culture and Invention of Film values. Whites tried to educate the Natives, Lippmann (1961) defined stereotypesas change their religion, and steal their land. "pictures in our heads" (p. 3).Before we Efforts tocivilize the Natives were not see and experience the world, we take from successful.Therefore, the only way for society pre-defined images of the world in white society to solve its Native American theform of stereotypes. Stereotypes, problemwastodestroy theNatives according to Marger (1994), are erroneous, (Berkhofer,1978; Deloria, 1989;Pearce, overgeneralized images of groups of people 1967). It was alright for Europeans to whichserveasthebasisforseveral become savages in order to save civilization; prejudices. In multi-ethnicsocieties, a white civilization that was opposed to the stereotypingisoneofthetechniques Natives values and beliefs. employed by the dominant group in order The differencesbetween Western and to maintain its dominance over subordinate Native Americancivilizationsplayeda groups. significant roleinthe evolutionof the Lippmann (1961) claimed that relationship between the Whites and the stereotypes serve as the defense of our indigenouspeople. "Indianness" and status insociety. More specifically he civilization were, according to the Whites, postulatedthatstereotypes are"the twoconceptsopposedtoeachother projection upon the world of our own sense (Berkhofer,1978). NativeAmerican of our own value, our own position and our cultures were more based on simplicity and own rights .... They are the fortress of our mystery, rather than on abstract scientific tradition, and behind its defenses we can knowledge. As Deloria (1989) stated, "the continuetofeelourselvessafeinthe westernhemisphereproduced wisdom; position we occupy" (p. 96). According to westernEuropeproducedknowledge" Lippmann(1961),anyattackonthe (p. 11). According to European Americans, stereotypesislikeanattackonthe whitesuperiority,religion,and moral foundations of our status in society, on our systems should have prevailed over the values, aid on our whole belief system. Native Americans and their culture.Whites Before the invention of film, a soon realizedthatitwas impossibleto stereotypical perception of Native civilize the "savages." As Roy Harvey Americans was embodied in art, fiction, and

63 entertainment events (Barnett, 1975; share his belongings with the settlers, was a Berkhofer, 1978; Stedman, 1982).For a brave warrior, lived with simplicity, and longtime,white societytreatedNative close to nature.Usually, good were those Americans as objects of entertainment. An Natives that gave up theircultureand exampleofsuchtreatment wasthe identity and became "white."The noble attachment of Sitting Bull to the Buffalo Bill savage image of the Natives appeared in the Cody Wild West Show (Churchill, Hill, & captivitynarrative because white society Hill, 1978). Stereotyping and the creation realized that it was responsible for the fact of myths was an approach employed by that the Natives were gradually becoming white society for justifying the stealing of extinct (Barnett, 1975).The image of the land from the Natives. bad Indian and the noble savage were S lotkin(1973)arguedthat"printed usually in coexistence. literature has been from the first the most Churchill et al.(1978)identified three importantvehicle of mythinAmerica" major themes under which stereotyping of (p. 19). Themes of Whites fighting against Native Americans can be categorized. The the "red devils" and usually first theme was, "the Native as a creature of outperformingthemwereessentialfor a particular time," mainly between 1800 and confirming thesuperiority of white 1880 (p. 47). This meant that thousands of civilization.In fiction, Native American's yearsofhistoryandcivilizationwere inferiority and savagery were constantly usuallycompressedtounderasingle juxtaposed to the white man's superiority. century.This period was a time during AlwaystheWhitesoverpowered the which the Natives werefighting for their "savagery" and prevailed over the Native lives and their land.For the Whites, this Americans. period was a time of their victory over AccordingtoBarnett(1975),Cotton savagery;it was the time of victory of Mather's (1699) Decennium Luctuosum is Western over Native American civilizations. an example of early American fiction in The second theme was "Native cultures which Native Americans are misrepresented interpreted through white values" (Churchill and stereotyped.Mather's main focus was etal.,1978,p.47). Whiteshada thecaptivitytheme underwhich white completely different culture. Tryingto settlers were captured by the Natives. In the interpretNativeAmericancivilizations book, Native Americans were paralleled through western culture's values can only with wild animals and demons with very result in misinterpretations. These strong primitive instincts. misinterpretations inevitably resulted in the Similar themes are abundant in the pre- creation of numerous stereotypes.It was Civil War frontier romance, the dime-novels, convenient for white society to create a and nineteenthcenturyfiction. Other fictitious Native American identity closer to examples from fiction come from James the white interpretation.This new identity Fenimore Cooper's The LeatherStocking was the same for all the Natives regardless Tales and included The Deerslayer (1841), of their tribal origin. The Last of the Mohicans (1826), and The The third theme was "Seen one Indian, Prairie (1827) (Pearce, 1967). seen 'm all" (Churchill et al., 1978, p. 47). There were a number of stereotypical North America contained more than 600 characteristics depicted in works of fiction different Native American societies which which Barnett (1975)called"redgifts" were speaking over two hundred different (p. 75). The body build, physical strength, languages (Barnett, 1975,p.72). The height, excellent hunting and fighting skills, distinctdifferencesamongtheNative and the heavy accent were some of those American societies were never dealt with characteristics.In addition to these "gifts", seriously. Instead, the perceptions of many Barnett(1975)andBerkhofer(1978) people at the time, the Natives, no matter of identified three major kinds of stereotypes. what culture and heritage were all "ignoble These were the bad Indian,thenoble savages". savage, and the good Indian. The themes and stereotypes described so The bad Indian washostile,savage, farwere dominantinearlyAmerican vengeful, and immoral. Images of bad fiction. By the end of the nineteenth Indians were abundantinthecaptivity century, the most favorite theme in popular genre in early fiction. The good Indian was fiction was the Native American fighting in usually friendly to Whites and was willing to the Far West anddyinginorderfor

64 civilizationtoproceed(Barnett,1975; way. Bypresentingthestereotypical Stedman, 1982). When film was invented images of the Natives in an entertaining the situation became worse for the Natives. way, the shaping of the mass audiences' A new powerful medium was employed by minds becomes even more effective. Whitesthatcontinuedtheprocessof Film was, and stillis, a very profitable miscreation of the Natives' image. business, and like in any other business, the major driving force is money.Stereotypes The Power of the Moving Image were very entertaining, and as such, movies Inart,NativeAmericanshadbeen with stereotypical characters were well liked sculptured or painted.In fiction they had among the masses.Therefore, films with been described with words. When film was stereotypical themes were watched by big invented, Native Americans were shown on audiences, andconsequently,were very screen, riding horses, screaming, killing, profitable. Stereotypes were attached to and scalping people. Because of its ability several minority groups including African- to present moving images, film played a Americans, Latinos, Asian-Americans, major role in perpetuating the stereotypes women, and Native-Americans. of the Native Americans. Film, like any other form of art, reflects Mythology of the Western Genre the culture of the society and at the same The representation of Native Americans time,contributestothatculture. It in films was mostly restricted to one genre, embodies the society's values, beliefs, and the Western. Because of the structure of the social structure and assists in transmitting Westernitwas reasonableenoughto culture to mass audiences.The complex stereotype Indians.Spears (1959) argued relationship between film and cultureis that the Western is a type of film that targets explained by Belton (1996) who stated that chiefly juvenile and unsophisticated minds. "the movies are an integral part of mass Hence,"itisnaturalthat a stereotyped culture and are embedded within it.One villainshould havebeenthemajor does not produce the other;rather, each representation of the Indian" (p. 18). interacts with the other, and they mutually When the settlers began moving West, one determine one another" (p. 1). of the major obstacles they confronted were The film industry has played a significant the indigenous people.The frontier in role in shaping the perceptions of people Westerns was usuallya place where an towards differentethnic groupsandin advancing Europeancivilizationclashed perpetuatingthemythsonwhichthe with "savagery." It provided a setting American nation was built. Miller (1980) where the enjoyment of violent conflict argued that Hollywood films "became a would be justified without questioning the major transmitter of 'assimilationist' values moral values of society (Cawelti, 1974).As andhelped toreinforce a narrow a product of nostalgia, the Western led the conception of American life to which all viewersinconstructing an imaginary groups were expected to conform" (p. xi). civilization that attempted to replace those Film was a major force in creating the ideal civilizations that were already in existence. image of what an American shouldbe. ThecreationofamythologicalWest Filmindustrydictatedhow Americans justifiedtheseizureoflandandthe should behave, what they should believe in, genocide of the Natives. This inevitably led and what they should look like. to the formation of a new view of history Many scholars pointed out that people's which was mainly based on myths. perception of history are shaped to a great The Western was a type of American extend by images presented in film and mythology. The mythologies that exist in a television (Vidal, 1992; Seixas, 1994).For societyareindicatorsofthenational many people the two main sourcesof character. The myths thatserved as a informationaremovies andtelevision. foundation for the Western were reflecting Myths and stereotypesabout Native the white society'svalues,beliefs, world Americans are alive today because view, and thedesirablesocialstructure. television and film, as media with mass Slotkin (1973) argued that one of the major appeal, played a major role in perpetuating forces that shaped mythology in America the misconceptions about the Natives. Film was thewilderness of theland andits and television have the "unique power of indigenous people.Another major force reaching mass audiences in an entertaining

65 75 was the need to control this wildernessand building and perpetuating the stereotypes get rid of the indigenous people. of Native Americans. D.W. Griffith, who is In his book The American West in Film. regarded as one of the first greatest film Critical Approaches to the Western, Tuska directors, shot many films in which Indians (1985) identified seven basic plots around were the protagonists. Occasionally, which the Western developed. One of these individual Natives were depicted as "good" plots was the 'Indian story." According to but the group was always presentedas this plot,"an Indian, an Indiantribe, or "evil." Bataille and Si let, (1980) cited The severalIndiannationsareeitherthe Redman and the Child (1908),Ramona principal focus of the story or the principal (1910), and The Battle at Elderberry Gulch motivation of the actions of other characters (1913) as examples of such films. inthestory. Generallythelaw of Veryrarelydidfilmmakersusereal miscegenation has applied, so while a white Native Americans in their work.Because man might marry an Indian woman,she the Native Americans were the "savages," comes to die in the course ofthe story. they have often been portrayed by stars of Rarely ... an Indian woman might live and horror films like Bela Lugosi and Lon ride off with the hero; and even more rarely Chaney (Churchill et al., 1978). a white woman might choose tolive with an Occasionally, when real Natives appeared in Indian male and survive the end of the films, they were mainly used as props to picture" (p. 31). helpcreatetheappropriateatmosphere. An example of the above plotisthe Examples of thefew successfulNative movie The Searchers (1956)which was American actors are Willie Rogers, Chief based on Robert Montgomery Bird's Nick Dan George, Willie Sampson, and Graham of theWoods,writtenin1837.After Greene. spending five years with a Native American Aleiss (1991) argued that one of the few chief, the white woman is "rescued" and the films ever made about Native Americans chief iskilled. Very powerful was the which depicted them sympathetically was dilemma that the Whites were facing before' The Vanishing American (1925). rescuing the white woman. Should she also Althoughasilentfilm,TheVanishing die? After all, she lived with the savage for American is one of the film industry's most five whole years.Can she still be white? powerfuldepictionsonwhitesociety's Questions of this nature were prevalent in exploitation of Native Americans. The film many other Westerns. presented a very negative image of the The period during which most of Western missionaries. The importanceofThe plots take place, was from 1860to 1890, Vanishing American, accordingto Aleiss because by1890most oftheNative (1991),"lies not so much in its accurate Americans had been either killed or placed depictionofthemisguidedreservation on reservations. The Western genre was one systemasinitsabilitytorevealthe of the most favorable among the masses frustration of a society unable to resolve its and served as an everlasting source of Indian Problem" (p. 468). myths on which a whole nation was built. From the time of WWI andon,the native's image became very popular in film, Brief Historical Overview of Images and for the next thirty years it remained of Native Americans in Film unchanged.Film images represented the From the beginning of film history, there Native American oftenas lazy,savage, was already a large pre-existingbody of drunken, heathen, usually male, with no attachedtothe specific tribal characteristics and with no images and stereotypes 1980; Native Americans.Filmmakers drew their family relationships (Bataille & Si let, material from the stereotypes that existed in Berkhofer, 1978).There was a serious popular culture. Native Americans appeared reason for why most of thetimes the Native on the screen with the verybeginning of American in the movies was male. As According to Bataille and Deloria (1989)argued, Native American film history. of the Si let (1980),short films suchas Sioux males have "too much of the aura Ghost Dance (1894) and the Parade of savage warrior, the unknownprimitive, the instinctive animal" (p. 3).This association Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show (1898) were very shown by Edison's coin-operated machines. of male Natives with savagism was Great early American directors like D.W. convenient for the Whites.It allowed the Whites Griffith,played asignificantrolein Native American's hostility towards to be explained in terms of the Natives' In the movie Duel in Diablo (1966), animal instincts and only rarely in terms of directed by Ralph Nelson, the savagery of a reaction to the white man's exploitation of the Natives is also punished.One of the the Natives. main ideas portrayed in the film was that Between 1951 and 1970 at least 86 Native there is nothing that can change the Native American-Vs-U.S. cavalry films were Americans from being savage.Therefore, produced and all of them were based on theyhavetobekilled. Themovie pre-existing stereotypical themes (Churchill postulated that there is no place for the et al., 1978).The war theme was always a Natives neither on the reservations nor in favorite subject. The United States American society. government signed more than four hundred Before the 1970s, there were only few treaties and agreements with the Native films that treated Native Americans in a Americans. However, none of those treaties sympathetic way.One of these films was was ever kept (Deloria, 1989).Very rarely Delmer Daves' Broken Arrow which was were the issues of treaties dealt with by the released in 1949. The story was about an film industry in a way that would shed light Apache Chief and an ex-army officer who on U.S. government's dishonesty. were tryingto bring peace among the The violence depicted in the Western was Natives and the settlers.It was the"first a great selling point.War themes evolved picture that asked audiences to take the around the conflict between Whites and Indian'sside," andforthisreasonthe "savages" and hada strongappealto Association on American IndianAffairs audiences. By depicting human conflict at "gave it a special award" (Spears,1959, its utmost, war films are very emotional and p. 25-26). Although there was a more engaging for the audience (Watt, 1988). sympathetic depiction ofthe Native Therefore, war films are well liked and Americansin- thisfilm,Broken Arrow watched by the masses. Stedman (1982) lacked authenticity.Spears (1959) argued pointed out a parallel between the soldier- that the leader of the Apache was dignified Vs-Native American movies with World War in a way that "he resembled a Harvard II movies; the Natives, like the Japanese and graduate more than anilliteratesavage" the Germans, needed to be exterminated. (p. 31). With the beginning of WWII the focus of During the late 1960s and early 1970s the film industry turned towards making there was an obvious change in the political films about the war. Consequently, during and social situation in the U.S. mainly due this period the number of movies about to the Civil Rights movement and to the Native Americans declined. country's intervention in Vietnam. This was One of the most anti-Indian films ever aperiodofawakeningsinAmerican madewas JohnFord'sTheSearchers society. The genocide in Vietnam resulted (1956). The plot centers around the search inthereconsiderationoftheNatives' for alittlegirlthatwastakenby genocide on U.S. soil. Films like Tell Them Commanches,aftertheymurderedher Willie Boy is Here (1969), A Man Called family.Ford portrayed the insanity that Horse (1970), Little Big Man (1970), and resulted from being captured by the Natives Soldier Blue (1970), indicated this shift of and he deliberately justified the killing of attitudes towardstheNative Americans. Natives. Actor Jeff Hunter played the role Still, all these films have done very little in of Martin, the "half-breed"cousinof breaking the stereotypes and restoring the Debbie who was kidnapped. Martin, along Natives' image. with Debbie's uncle Ethan, played by John Arthur Penn's Little Big Man (1970) also Wayne, spent most of the time in the film received some good reviews in regards to trying to rescue Debbie. In a very powerful the film's representation of Native scene, the hatred towards Native Americans Americans.Chief Dan George, a Native is expressed by Ethan, who shoots a dead American actor, rises to an important figure Native in both eyes. He then said that the in the film. The killing of Custer and his Commanche warrior "will have to wander troops is presented as a justified revenge for forever between the winds" and he will theatrocitiestheU.S.Cavalryhad never be able to enter the spirit land.By repeatedly committed against the Natives. usingan actorwithJohn Wayne's George Armstrong Custer is presented as an magnitude, Ford managed to justifythe "insane maniac". This depiction of Custer killing of the Natives. wasincontrasttotheglorifiedhero

67 portrayed by Errol Flynn in They Died With problems.In most instances, the audience Their Boots On (1941). This illustrates how watches them getting killed because of the the treatment of a Native American subject "crimes"theycommitted.Consequently, in the 1940s is different compared to the according to Churchill et al. (1978), by the treatment of the same subject in the 1970s. 1950s it was more than natural for Native Michael Mann's adaptation of the James American childrento "cheer the cavalry Fenimore Cooper classic, The Last of the when watching television or at the movies", Mohicans (1992)andKevinCostner's since they did not want to identify with Dances with Wolves (1990), are some recent Natives because most of the times they were films that deal sympathetically with Native the losers (p. 49). Americans. This does not mean that they John Ford's The Searchers (1956) was are authentic. Commenting onDances with usedina study conducted byShively Wolves, Seals (1991) argued that the film (1992).This study attempted to examine presented Native Americans as being "very sociological models of how people use and and how poetic and nature-loving" (p. 634). interpretculturalmaterials Furthermore, he pointed out that the men in minorities deal with cultural myths of the the film "speak Lakota inthe feminine dominant culture.The participants in this form," and this because the screenplay "was study were 20 Native males and 20 White translated by a woman, who also served as males living on a reservation. Both groups the primary linguistic coach" (p. 637). watched the movie The Searchers.The The documentary film Incident at Oglala assumptionbehindthisstudywas that (1991),andthefeatureThunderheart viewers interpret movies according to their (1992) are two examples of recent films cultural experiences. One of the questions that make strong political statements about that the participants were asked after they viewed the film was: With whom did you the exploitation of Native Americans by the of the federalgovernment. TheIncidentat identifythe most?"60 percent Oglala centers around the uprising at Pine Indians and 50percentoftheWhites identifiedwithJohnWayne,while 40 Ridge Reservation in 1975, during which of the two federal agents were killed. percent of the Indians and 45 percent Thunderheart also deals with the events at Whites identified with Jeff Hunter" (p. 727). Pine Ridge and presents an inside view of None of the participants identified with the the reservationsystem. Walton (1995) Native Chief Scar, not even the Natives. argued that, because these films did not The impact of the Western on American thatDanceswith culture was tremendousbecauseitwas receivethepublicity the Wolves did,indicatedthat white society widely viewed. Before the1970s, refuses to deal with its Native American Western was a very well liked form of problem. entertainment. Cawelti (1971) found that in Chicago during 1967, four major channels Impact of Stereotypes combined, were showing an average of A Senate subcommittee in 1969 eighteen hours of Western films per week. conducted a survey,which was part of a Images presented in movies are dominant in study on Native American education.After popular culture and they shape many other spending more than two years researching, forms of representation. Consequently, the members of the committee found that to images of the Native Americans in Westerns white society the Native American's image played a significant role in perpetuatingthe was the stereotypicallazy, drunken and preconceptions about North America's first the committee inhabitants. dirty. Furthermore, Native American concludedthat"the basisofthese The imageofthe stereotypes goes backintohistory-a warrior had a strong influence in popular history created by the white man to justify culture. Some of the many examplesof the use of thenative'swarrior imageare his exploitation of the Indian, a history the comics, cartoons, names of sport teams Indian is continually reminded of at school, and on television, in books,and at the movies" (BlackHawcks,Braves,Redskins), military equipment (Iroquoishelicopters). (Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Braves, 1969). The fans of baseball team Atlanta Native Americans, with few exceptions, use a "so-calledIndian war chant"to people with salutetheir team and evoke imagesof were never dealt as humans, 170). The there own history, civilization, and savagery (Marger,1994, p. image of the Native American warrior was Bataille, G. M. & Si let, C. L. P. (1980). The already established andit was associated entertaininganachronism:Indians with strength and vigor.Therefore, it was in American film. In Miller, R. M. justifiable to name military equipment and (Ed.), The kaleidoscopic lens. How sports teams after Native American tribes' Hollywoodviewsethnicgroups names. (p. 36-53). Englewood, NJ: Jerome S. Ozer, Publisher. Conclusion Belton, J. (1996).Introduction. In Belton, The film industry has played a significant J.(Ed.), Movies and mass culture role in the misrepresentation and (p. 1-22). Rutgers University Press, stereotyping of the image of the Native NJ. New Brunswick. Americans. There are a few exceptions to Berkhofer, R. F.Jr.(1978). The white the rule, but still the film industry has a man'sIndian. NY: AlfredA. longway togoforamorerealistic Knopf. depictionof Native Americansinfilm. Bird, R. M. (1910). Nick of Woods. NY: A. Even the films that are supposed to be L. Burt Company, Publishers. dealing sympathetically with the Natives are Cawelti,J.G.(1971). Thesix-gun not as authentic as they should be.The mystique. Bowling Green, Ohio: film industry's interpretation of the Natives Bowling Green Popular Press. was not merely a result of its ignorance on Cawelti, J. G. (1974). Savagery, civilization, thesubjectbutalsobecauseof white and the western hero. In Nachbar, J. society's inability to deal effectively with the (Ed.), Focus on the Western (p. 57- Native American problem. 63). Englewood CliffS, NJ: Prentice- The stereotypical images of the ,Native Hall, Inc. Americans were a result of a systematic Churchill, W., Hill, N., & Hill, M. A. (1978). effort of misrepresentation that goes back MediastereotypingandNative fourcenturies. Theywere createdto response: An historicaloverview. confirm the superiority ofWestern The Indian Historian, 11 (4), 45-56. civilization and to perpetuate the myths on Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, whichthenationwas build. Besides, U.S. Senate. (1969).Report 501. stereotypes were entertaining and therefore, Made byitsSubcommitteeon movies with stereotypes were very IndianEducation.91st Congress, profitable. 1st session. For many people, the only contact they Cooper, J. F. (1901). The works of James ever had with Natives was at the movies. Fenimore Cooper. (32 vols.), New The Western, as a film genre and as a type York: D. Appleton and Company. of American mythology, played a major Deloria, V. J. (1989). Custer died for your rolein perpetuating themythsand sins. An Indian manifesto. Norman, stereotypes about Native Americans. Images Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma presentedinmoviesaredominantin Press. popular culture and they influence many Lippmann, W. (1961). Public opinion. NY: other forms of representation.In order to The Macmillan Company. restore the Native American's image, the Mather, C. (1699). Decennium Luctuosum. mythsandstereotypesonwhichthe In Lincoln, C. H. (Ed), Narratives of American nation was built, needto be the Indian Wars, 1675-1699. confronted. (pp. 169-300). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Marger, M. N. (1994).Race and ethnic References relations.(3rd ed.).Belmont, CA: Aleiss, A. (1991). The Vanishing American: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Hollywood's compromise to Indian Miller, R. (1980).Preface.InMiller, R. Reform. Journal of American (Ed.), The kaleidoscopic lens. How studies,(25)3, p. 467-472. Hollywoodviewsethnicgroups Barnett, L. K. (1975). The ignoble savage. (p. xi-xiii ). Englewood, NJ: Jerome American literaryracism, 1790- S. Ozer, Publisher. 1890. Westport, Connecticut: Pearce,R.H.(1967). Savagism and Greenwood Press. civilization. A study of the Indian

69 and the American mind. Baltimore: 95/96 (p.199-201).Guilford, CT: The Johns Hopkins Press. The Du shkin & Benchmark Seals, D. (1991). The new Custerism.The Publishers Sluice Dock. Nation, 634-638. Watt, D. (1988).History onthePublic Seixas, P. (1994). Confronting the moral screen,I.In Rosenthal, A. (Ed.), framesof popularfilm:Young New challengesfor documenta people respond to historical (p. 435-443). Berkeley, A: revisionism. American Journal of University of California Press. Education, (102), 261-285. Shively, J. (1992). Cowboys andIndians: Perceptions of Western films among Films American-Indians and Anglos. Apted, Michael (director). (1992). American Sociological Review, (57), Thunderheart. 725-734. Costner, Kevin (director). (1990).Dances Slotkin, R. (1973). Regenerationthrough with Wolves. violence. The mythologyofthe Daves, Delmer (director). (1950).Broken American frontier, 1600-1800. Arrow. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan Ford,John(director).(1956). The University Press. Searchers. Spears, J. (Jan., 1959). The Indian onthe Nelson, Ralf (director).(1970). Soldier Films in Review,(10), 18 - Blue. screen. Duel in 35. Nelson, Tirf (director). (1966)._ of the Diablo. Stedman, W. R. (1982). Shadows Last of Indian:StereotypesinAmerican Mann, Michael (director). (1992). of the Mohicans. culture. Norman, OK: University Little Big Oklahoma Press. Penn, Arthur (director). (1970). in Man. Tuska, J. (1985). The American west (director).(1969). film.Criticalapproachestothe Polonsky,Abraham. Connecticut: Tell them Willie boy is here. western. Westport, (1991). Greenwood Press. Redford,Robert (director). history. Incident at Oglala. Vidal,G. (1992). Screening Man Cambridge: Harvard University Silverstein, Elliot (director). (1970). A Called Horse. Press. They died Walton, J. (1995). Hollywood and the Walsh, Raoul (director). (1941) Indianquestion. InSchultz,F. with their boots on. (Ed.), MulticulturalEducation

70 80 BEST COPY MARA LE Teachers' Perceptions Of Instructional Design Ann S. Dana Abstract Over a two year period, in five sections of a tenweek course in instructional design of software, sixty graduate students took partin the study. Students were surveyed using a six part questionnaire at thebeginning and end of the course. The goal was to determine students' understanding of instructional design. The resultsindicated there was no awareness of design principles on the pretest. Twenty per centindicated they did not understand the term compared tosixty-eight per cent positive responses on the post test. CAI software modules, designed by the students, showed betterunderstanding of visual design principles than responses indicated.

Introduction and detailed knowledge acquisition. Detailed The development of thefieldof objectives prior to beginning a lesson and a instructional design has covered many remindertopaycloseattentionto decades along with the field of educational relationships would help in understanding psychology. As more is learned about how this knowledge (Beasley & Waugh, 1996). we learn, the closer we get to providingthe best techniques for creating the instruction User or Audience that will help each and everyone learn to Instruction begins with the analysis of the the best of their abilities. Learning theories prospectiveuseroraudience.The have changed considerably in recent years importance of the learner or user has also as we begin to understand more about how been noted as an important element of the students learn. Shuell (1990) stated these design of instruction by both Apple (1992) insightsinto how learning takes place and Microsoft (1995) development teams. indicatethatthe behavior theory of Identifying and understanding your audience learningisnot applicable for student are the most important firststepsin learning today. The author foresees new designing your product (Apple,1992). theories and procedures emanatingif Designers must let go of their own feelings, instructional design is to remain relevant to desires and experiences and strive to see the learning that is taking place today. through the eyes of the user (Howlett, Jonassen (1995) stated that schools and 1996). This may mean studying the people universities must recognize the need to in the target group, thinking about where support students in active, constructive, they work, tools they use, limitations they collaborative, intentional, conversational, deal with. "A well designed user interface is contextualized, and reflective learning. built on principles and a development Thetheoryandpracticeofthe process that centers on users and their instructional design system includes the tasks." (Microsoft, 1995, p. 3). It is one of categoriesofdesign,development, Gagne's elements of instruction (Gagne, utilization, evaluation, and management 1987). Considering the user is necessary in (See ls, 1995). There is a need to integrate the design and development of any type of theinstructionaldesign process with instruction. It is essential to the design of outcomes based education.In helping software that theinterface makes the teachers understand the fundamentals of informationintheprogramreadily instructional design this study used the available to the user (Jones, Farquhar, & definition by Shambaugh (1994) who stated Surry, 1995). Teachers are involved closely that instructional design is: "Aprocess with learners daily. Taking a closer look at which analyzes the needs of learners and the learners' characteristics is a major designs structured 'possibilities'to address element of instructional design. The project those needs."(p. 4) Instructional designers to be developed by the teachers, as students and/or instructors should determinean and consequently as designers, was to be an appropriate balance of structural knowledge interactivelearning environment. The

71 teachers had to understand that the learners greaterunderstandingof thedesign would be making decisions, choosing elements needed for effective instruction? directions, puzzling over options, and Teachers have many strengths including accepting the consequences. Schweir (1991) planning a course of study, evaluating and cautionsthatiftheinteractive locating instructional materials, developing environment Es tobeuseful,the more materialsifneeded,handling motivation, that builds the learner's desire administrativedetail,plusevaluating to learn from the content, must be a key student progress and keeping records, and concern. Many considerations need to be keepingparentsandadministrators addressed, such as prior knowledge of the informed of the students' progress. Above learners, integration of new knowledge with allitistheir job to teach. Teachers' existingknowledge,organizationof perceptions of what they know about new concepts to be learned, differences in ideas, equipment and materials is hampered learnerfamiliarity with content, how by lack of time and experienced help, but knowledgeimproves,howlearning alsoexperiencingfrustrationeasily improves, how to improve transfer, benefit (Hannafin & Peck, 1988). Teachers' beliefs of feedback, how to prevent confusion, and in how students learn is the key to the how to adapt to individual learners.It is approachinusing technologyinthe essential that a designer needs to have a learning environment. Giving guidance to firm understanding of instructional design teachers in workshops or course work before developing software. should revolve around what the teacher A model should show thestrong already uses as methods and strategies in the correlation between the teacher and/or classroom. The instructor can then model designer and the three major components: or guide the teacher intohow technology The Who, the learners and their would support what this teacher already characteristic; believes (Dana, 1993). The What,thecontent and objectives of the subject matter Design of the Study within the curriculum; Five groups participated in the study. TheWhere,thelearning Sixty graduate students, taking a required environment including what we know coursetitledInstructionalDesign of of learning theory along with the Software, while pursuing either a Masters or needed elements of instruction and aCertificateof Advanced Studyin design principles. Technology in Education at the National Thereisa need togain a greater College of Ediication at National-Louis understanding of how we can bring the University, participated in the study. The worlds of instruction and instructional majority had no prior experience with design closer together. hypermedia authoring software. While those who had prior experience mightbe Teachers' Role considered to have an advantage, they were What meaning do classroom teachers, as all on equal ground in the development graduate students,bringtothe term process. instructional design? What significance does ithavefor them? Do teachersfeel Procedure differentlyabout theimportance of The setting was a ten week course on instructional design after taking the course? instructional design of software. Eachclass The purpose of this study was to determine session was three hours once a weekand what teachers' current perceptions were of students would need to spend three tonine instructional design and if this required hours of preparation time prior toeach coursehadanyaffectontheir class. Longer preparation time wasneeded understanding. Because the_teachers used during the development cycle. Partof each hypermediaauthoringsoftwareto class was spent in discussion of thereadings demonstratetheirknowledgeof for the week. These documents gave instructional design, did they also show a background information ininstructional 72 82 design theory and in practical uses of wastodeterminetheparticipants' hypermedia. Instructional design theory was understanding of instructional design and the essential basis for this course. The how it was used in their teaching. Also courseincluded twobasicsections, included were questions concerning the instructional elements (gain attention, state course, its purpose, and the benefits to their objective, stimulate recall of prerequisite teaching. The first question concerned what learning, present stimulus material, provide the participants felt were important criteria learning guidance, elicit the performance, in software that they would or could use provide feedback, assess performance, with their students. Questions 2 and 3 will enhance retention and transfer) (Gagne, be discussed in this paper, along with the 1987) and design principles (define users, examples of how instructional design was state purpose, presentation methods are demonstrated in their projects. logical, easy navigation, clear introduction, layout consistent; and text, graphics, and Data Analysis audio appropriate and integrated; and no The responses to the questionnaire have glitches) (Apple, 1989). been analyzed using the Data Collector, a Students also analyzed commercial CAI HyperCard program that allows narratives software using an instrument that dealt with to be entered and analyzed for key words or their awareness of these instructional and phrases (Turner & Handler, 1992). Topic design elements inherent in the software. cards were created for each of the key There were practice sessions with the words. The topic cards were further hypermedia authoring software as they were analyzed with other key words assigned. planning and critiquing each others' designs Comparison of the pre and post responses foraCAIsoftwaremodulethat were done for questions 2 and 3. Three incorporated as many of the instructional topics were chosen to be compared and and design elements as were needed. The graphicallypresentedforthesetwo final class session was dedicated to the questions on the pre and post tests. participants presenting their CAI projects Figure 1 shows the participants' responses with documentation. Peer editing and to question 2. Even after the 10 week evaluation were continuous throughout the course, the design, creation, or evaluation developmental process as well as in the of software was not dissimilar. However, in final analysis. The following criteria were reading the narratives on thesurvey, used in the final evaluation to show their greater differences were apparent for the understanding of the instructional design same respondent. process: Title Screens - title, byline, instructions, Figure 1 instructional goal, objectives, navigation Instructional Design Definition aids, introduction to the user. Pre/Post Test Comparison Menu -clear,concise,instructions, navigation aids, one selection on menu completed. Instruction Screens - consistent design framework, precise functional areas, good use of all design principles,positive feedback. Good balance of graphics, text, sound, animation,appropriatemetaphor, and consistent navigation tools throughout.

Instrument A six question pre/post questionnaire was developedandadministeredtothe participants (see Appendix). The purpose The definition as described on one pretest stated, "How the software is designed to be 73 83 lw

theplanning of all used in an instructional setting."The post aplace within test for the same participantstated, "The instruction. design A participant answered, "I'm notreally design of lesson materials has elaborated on the elements incorporated whichfacilitate sure" on the pretest, but post test with, "Yes,because we learned the learning." different elements of designin class and A second example for thepretest ID the program definition revealed, "A design thatwill incorporatedtheseinto fosterstudent designed for class. Now, when I see a new enhancelearning and software program I ask thequestions from productivity.I have tons of drilland students number 1," which stated "I) Isthe software practice software, but I feel my students? 2) multimedia appropriate for the age of my need to get more involved with self explaining? and start generating questionsand finding Is the title screen clear and questions. I don't want 3) Is the user in control?4) Is "help" easily answers for those documentation? software to do my job, but I wantit to help available? 5) Is there clear 6) Do students get appropriatefeedback? 7) me do a betterjob." The post test to definition for this participant was,"A piece Isthere consistency from screen of software that has beendesigned to screen?" learning of A second example of responseto the enhance instruction or the 'design' my lessons to concepts. However, thedesign should be pretest was, "Yes. I in; the accomplish my goals and meet my motivational and easy to navigate be 'user context should be clear& consistent; it objectives, to be interesting, and to how to use it; friendly'." must state its purpose and On the post test this sameparticipant text, graphics & sound shouldbe integrated. however, I am more But most important, it mustsimulate the wrote, "Yes, now, students to conscious of design asitapplies to real world & encourage the everything! I find myselfanalyzing my interact with it." it. I'm Comparison of the responsesfor design lessons, TV commercials, - you name always thinking about howit could have and design principles relatedmuch greater concern for the useof design principles on been better." the post test. Both of the post responses Figure 2 above show the recognitionfor their use. All of the responses onthepretest Instructional Design Users mentioned design onlyinrelation to Comparison Of Pre/Post Test `designing software' and not whatelements Responses were needed to makeit effective, as isseen in the pretest response forthe second participant.Instructionwasmore important to the participantsafter the course than prior.The difference in the importance of students toinstructional design was greater on the posttest. One participant did not respond tothe question on the pretest. The third question asked theparticipants to answer and explain ifthey were users of instructional design. The terminologydrew a blank on the pretestfor twenty per cent sixty-eight per of the respondents while Projects cent indicated on thepost test they were theteachers first example Most of theprojects certain they were users. The presented showed a solidunderstanding of of the responses showswhat a powerful It is importantto amount of understanding wasachieved over the design principles. the while a second look at this aspect ofthe study. Do the duration of the course actual projects show moreof what the respondent realized instructionaldesign has 74 84 participants learned about instructional included under the title.. Information on design than the narratives reveal? Since the what the user was to do was included. It is teachersusedhypermediaauthoring not enough to include just icons, words are software to demonstrate their knowledge of needed for clearer understanding (Howlett, instructionaldesign, didthis medium 1996), as in the following example of a provide the vehicle needed to show their title screen. The metaphor of using a map understanding of the design elements needed for motivation relates well to the topic and for effective instruction? to the age of the users. BackgroundinformationonCAI (computer assisted instruction) was given to Figure 4 allstudents.Analysis of commercial Title Screen 2 software, where aspects of design elements were discussed, preceded students planning and executing their designs. The planning included analysis of the users, selection of content,listingobjectivesto be incorporated, and planning screen designs which were peer edited before execution on the actual screen. CAI software should be interactive, friendly, motivating to the user which may include using a guiding metaphor to make the software more intuitive for the user.

Title Screen Menu Screen Title Screens were to include the title, Menus were to be part of the projects. byline,instructions,instructional goal, Students were required to make certain that objectives, navigation aids, introduction to the users had a choice of the path to follow theuser. The following figures are and were toincludeclear,concise, examples of how students incorporated the instructions, andnavigation aids. The requirements: graduate students were to follow one selection on menu to completion. Figure 3 Title Screen Figure 5 Menu Screen

Citailts

3101logra6tly Kids Ages 'Directions'Menu 4-7 This example of a title screen included appropriate graphic to the title. The font was legible. The metaphor was the pond This example of a menu screen for an withintheschool,thebrickwall early learning project included all directions representing the school. Included were using the audio capabilities of the authoring buttons to access credits, bibliography, software which were read when the mouse directions, and the menu. The purpose was passed over the large button area. Primary 75 Lt EST COPY AMIABLE 85 yellow been (Apple, 1989). Thefollowing example colors of red and blue with a displays icons appearing to theleft of the background were appropriate forthe user's The title of the arrows that representpreviously visited age group and the content. locations. Users can return to anyof those program was included. The stopsign was a familiar icon for any age group,but the locations by clicking the icon. word stop was also included. Figure 8 Location Icons Figure 6 It. Brand Menu Screen 2 rye Opener, t do you so* in al* Wad< and YT 1 whits, pletwal

Abraham Ulm* **ow el A bnal Et se it*, Kt A dean A 1110144 A gabs. A (MO Mad A wad A my (WO

®L :Plaint* Instructions

Ili LEI Instruction Screens The student designers were toselect one This menu incorporated a schoolhallway and metaphor used in the item from their proposed menu as the continuing complete a module thatwould include project. This project wasdeveloped for check took the user instruction and a way for the user to teacher use. The button map themselves on theinformation.The toaconcept map thatshowed the toinclude screens. Thisisa instructionscreens were relationship of all consistent design framework,precise navigational aid that gives the usercontrol of all design in the program. functional areas, good use over their location principles, and positivefeedback for right or incorrect responses.The content area Figure 7 the students chose had a greatinfluence on Concept Map the way the information wasprojected. -....!VISMUNIPurAF0T1 arlci,T6Chit°122/1 Figure 9 au 41.8. Information Screen -A- -A- * -* * * -A- * * 71/4 February 1861

*- The South Creates -frk a Government * At a convention in Alabama, the seven seceding states created a * Confederate Constitution that gave 1911Eitdt A- states greater individuality.Jefferson Davis was named provisional * president of the Confederacy until To navigate effectivelythroughout a *74k elections could be held. stack, the users must knowtheir options. **--********-*****-A- Five user needs should beaddressed: context, what is it about; to the user location, where is user now; The information presented includes text in red. Previousinstructions to destination choices, where can user go; that more there; theuserinformed them travel methods, how will user get information would be givenif the red text progress indicators,where have users 76

Ea EST COPY AVAIITAleLE 86 were clicked. Figure 12 Figure 10 Positive Feedback to Response to Hot Text Incorrect Response

-*-** * -A- -A- Or --A- -A- * * 74- Jefferson Davis

Jefferson Davis Elected as the leader and president of the Confederacy. Served in the House of Representatives and the Senate. He was not well liked as a leader during the war , but received much sympathy during his post-war prison stay. H can * -*- -A- -A- * -A- -A- loc -* -A- -A- * -A- -* * information in the form of a movie or still A self check can also be made by the picture is accessed by a click. designer giving an example and asking the After information is given students can user to see if they can find examples. They take a quiz to determine if they have gained can go back and reread the instructions if the information. To be usable to the they cannot recognize the elements or teacher, a management system would be parts. included. Where a teacher merely wants students to check themselves, simple non- Figure 13 graded evaluations can take place. The user Self Check should receive positive, helpful feedback whether to a right or a wrong answer. The Can you find four of JAMES AND these flue elements on THE following is an example of a question and this title page? answer covering what they were informed GIANT PEACH author a CIIIUMN'J STOKT about the Midwest. title publisher Figure 11 city of publication ROALD DAHL copyright date Illustrated by Quiz NANCY EXHOLM BURICIDIT Click on an area to see if you are right! (UEDA IMPE Kt MR is Oa .

The St:Lawrerice'- A,'' -is qeaway:conpects., thejli dwlese fi,Leter,oy;closeif off*,by,,,OateS,A, Discussion ,9°4.(!t) ;(an'ai! Designprincipleswerenotvery eloquently described in most post test 4iikAtirftic'Deetin toc questions, but there was awareness that was not apparent in the pretests. Software's 3 out of 3 relationship to instructional design was very apparent. Students, were also important in the design process.One participant wrote Appropriate feedback should be non- on the post test for the question as to how threatening, immediate and informative. It the course would impact her teaching, "I should be free from elaborate praise of now am very confident in what I am correct answers and free from rewards for looking for in software design, etc. this can incorrect answers. It should also be relevant onlyimpact my teachingand my for the particular users. instruction in a positive way. I can design 77 my own program to address the needs of it would directly affect their teaching. One my students. I do not have to search for a such response,"Ithink my teaching program that may meet some of the needs. strategies will change somewhat even if I'm I can design my own program to reinforce not working on computers. We studied anything that I may teach in class. This will characteristics of the user; wellina reallyimpact my instruction and the classroom they are the learner, visual, learningthatwilltakeplacein my tactile, etc. and as a teacher, you must classroom.Ihave enjoyed thisclass remember all your students are different and immensely and feel it was well taught. I see on slightlydifferentlevels." Another myself using this in my classroom and have further justified the impact, "...as I prepare ordered Hyper Studio for my class for the class lessons and activities I keep in mind next school year. My students will be so effective instructional design." excited to have the opportunity to present using different criteria. This can only make References my life as a teacher more enjoyable. Having Apple Computer, Inc. (1992). Macintosh motivated,excitedstudentsinyour human interface guidelines. Reading, MA: classroom will have a direct impact upon Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. my teaching. I will begin to have fun again Apple Computer, Inc. (1989). HyperCard along with my students. What I have stack design guidelines. Reading, MA: learned in class affords me the creative Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. opportunities that I so enjoy." Beasley, R. & Waugh, M. (1996, Spring). It is little wonder that teachers do not The effects of content-structure focusing recognizethat thereisa correlation on learner structural knowledge acquisition, betweendevelopinginstructionand retention,anddisorientationina instructional design. Earle and Sheffield hypermedia environment.Journal of (1995) stated that there are discrepancies Research on Computing in Education, 28, between the roles and needs of teachers and 271-281. the requirements of the instructional design Dana, A. (1993). Integrating technology process. In essence teachers plan mentally; into the classroom: Description of a designers create detailed plans on paper. successful first-grade teacher. Unpublished Teachers use already prepared materials; doctoral dissertation, "Northern Illinois instructional designers don't accept them. University, DeKalb. Teachers focus on instructional activities; Earle, R., & Sheffield, C. (1995). Changes instructional designers focus on the process in ID fundamentals:Implicationsfor and the product. It takes a great deal of teacher education. In B.Seels(Ed.), time to process a design; teachers lack the Instructional design fundamentals: A time.The sampling of theteacher reconsideration (pp. 209-221). Englewood responses makes this apparent. Cliffs,NJ:EducationalTechnology Responses to all questions found software Publications. to be the dominant response within the Gagne, R. (Ed.). (1987). Instructional narratives on the teacher survey. As these technology: Foundations. NJ: Lawrence teachers are enrolled in a degree program in Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. technology, they would possibly assume Hannafin, M., & Peck, K. (1988). The software would be involved. Further design, development, and evaluation of research may shed light on why they do instructional software. NY: Macmillan not all recognize instructional design as part Publishing Co., 29-44. of their daily planning. The survey could Howlett, V.(1996).Visual interface include questions concerned with the design for windows. NY: John Wiley & recollectionsoftheireducational Sons, Inc. background, when and where they learned Jonassen,D.(1995,July-August). to prepare instructions. Survey question 6 Supporting communities of learners with narratives revealed thedirection they technology: A visionforintegrating hoped to go or would go after the course technology withlearninginschools. experience. 40% of the participants found 78 Educational Technology, 35, 60-63. Appendix Jones,M.,Farquhar,J., & Surry,D. (1995, July-August). Using metacognitive Questionnaire theoriestodesignuserinterfacesfor 1. If you were responsibleforselecting computer-based learning. Educational software for your classroom, list the criteria Technology, 35, 12-22. you use. Schweir,R.(1991).Currentissuesin 2. When you hear the term instructional interactive design. Instruction Technology design, what does it mean to you? Past, Present, and Future, Anglin, G. (Ed). 3. Do you perceive yourself as a user of Englewood, Co:LibrariesUnlimited,pp. instructional design? Explain your answer. 195-201. 4. What do you see as the relationship See ls,B.(1995).Instructionaldesign between your answer to question 2 and the fundamentals: Issues of integration.In B. designofthesoftwareusedinyour Seels (Ed.), Instructional design classroom? fundamentals: A reconsideration (pp. 247- 5.Describe what you think you will be 253).EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Educational discussingandlearninginthisclass. Technology Publications. (pretest) Shambaugh,R.(1994).Principlesof 5. What relevance does what we discussed instructional design. (Course syllabus EDCI and learned in this class have on how you 5164)VirginiaPolytechnicInstitute & develop instruction. (post test) State University: Author. 6. Based on your previous answer, do you Shuell, T. (1990, April). Learning theory expect this course to have an impact on andinstructional design: Engaging the your teaching? Please, explain your answer. learner in meaningful ways!. Paper presented atthe annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. TheWindowsinterfaceguidelines for software design.(1995). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. Turner, S. & Handler, M. (1992). Data Collector(Version 2.02)(Computer software), CA: Intellimation.

79 89 Visual Exercises: A Quest For Alternative Measures Of Student Learning by Robert Sitz

Abstract

You may have heard the refrain ". .but I can't draw!" This appears to be a frequent lament when students are asked to execute an illustration, T.V. storyboard, or a visualization exercise. The reality is that all students can draw; drawing is a useful exercise; and there is much to be learned from this type of visual mediator. Theory, empirical evidence, and exercise results in the context of individual differences and information processing is discussed.

Although many students simply do not and spatial location of objects marked the visualize or draw very well, most students upper elementary years (Feldman, 1970). have capabilities and potentials that they, Granted, not everyone had the benefit of and perhapstheirprofessors,are formal art training, but drawing experiences overlooking. Drawing can be an extremely are an integral part of most elementary useful classroom activity for a variety of curriculums. Such a wide use of the term reasons, and this paper will demonstrate that "drawing" may seem strange, butitis there is much to be learned from this type of common. Wherever the essence of the task is learning mediator. to work with lines and shapes on a flat Any college-age student has the capability surface, the word "draw" is the usual referent of rendering simple stick figures or outlines (Goodnow, 1977)! of shapes.As young children, they were introduced to art by learning to copy simple Background shapes such as geometric figures (squares, Onceelementaryrepresentationsare circles,rectangles)or letterformsas a mastered, it may be that drawing becomes precursor to learning how to print. Many progressively less of a learning tool as one times, the young child was asked to outline a moves through the educational system. But map as an aid to learning about the world. there is some evidence to suggest that those Then they moved on to the use of circular, earliest childhood experiences with drawing ovoid, and stick-like representations of are better retained than is generally thought. people and things; to creation and repetition In an advertising principles class, as part of of basic representational formulas. Finally, an introduction to the creative process, this some detail was added to their drawings, professor has asked students to participate in including conventions that were learned for associational fluency exercises. In one such space and motion.Increasing degrees of experience, students were asked to render visual correspondence to the shape, color, drawings in response to a two word verbal

81 30 cue, "pop bottle."The drawing results greater visual elaboration is evident in their pictured (Figure 1) reveal a range of skill, but drawings. Most students have added detail what issignificantisthat students are and scenario. Again, a wide range of skill definitely successful at rendering intelligible levels and quality is evident, but all students illustrations and in many cases embellishing appear capable of at least a modest level of them with contextual detail. draftsmanship. In a second, follow-up exercise, students It should be noted that prior to the exercise were asked to respond to the verbal cue (two days earlier), a formal presentation of a Coca-Cola. As canbeseeninthe reel of Coke commercials covering a forty- accompanying example pictures (Figure 2), year plus period of history had been presented to the class. This ensured that all

Figure 1 Examples of Three Different Figure 2 Examples of Student Drawings in Student Drawings of "Objects" Response to "Coca Cola" Verbal Cue Figure 2-A: Additional Drawings to the The level of detail recall is intriguing, and of Coca Cola Cue course in this case, none of the students had prior knowledge of the subject matter or the film. Itshould be apparent that the assignment was considered more challenging than rendering pop bottles! Prior experience with the imagery, unlike the Coca Cola exercise, was not a factor here.

Empirical Evidence of Drawing Acumen In a related formal experiment, 234 post- secondarylevelstudents(Freshmen/ Sophomores) in English composition courses in a large metropolitan community college participated in a study that utilized drawing responsesasthedependentmeasure. Students were asked to read a lengthy art history passage (1500 words) which was accompaniedbyphotographsand illustrations. The subject matter was complex and the information density of the text was high. The textbook-like passages referredthereadertopicturesand illustrations accompanying the assignment students had some experience with Coca (see Figure 4). The visuals were included to Cola imagery, even if it is possible that they provide further description and explanation had little background otherwise. This point of the subject matter about Greek vases. At will become more significant. the conclusion of a twenty-minute reading In a graphics and visual communications and studying the assignment, the student course, the film "Battleship Potempkin" subjects were given time to draw what they (1925), edited by Sergei Eisenstein, was had seen and remembered about the text and presented for viewing to demonstrate the pictures. editing concept called "quick cutting". "The Over 90% of the subjects provided usable Seventh Seal" (1956) by Ingmar Bergman is drawings that reflected their accurate recall also shown and discussed. During follow-up of the topic.The level of recall detail classperiods,studentsareaskedto depicted in the drawings was quite participatein a "visualization exercise" where surprising given the complexity of the subject they have to recall and draw their favorite (seeFigure5). Consideringthe scene from the film. Sample drawings from predetermined lack of student background the study suggest that memory is vivid, and aboutthesubjectmatterandtheir that most students are able to clearly express inexperience in art, the drawings results were themselves through drawings (see Figure 3). impressive (Sitz, 1990).

83 92 Figure 3 Student Drawing Examples What Can Be Learned from Drawings? fromFilmBattleship Scholars involved in the psychology of art, Potempkin and the Seventh perception, imagery, learning and memory Seal have long had a stake in understanding both the process and the outcome of"children" drawing.Some see works of "art" as a reflection of very general phenomena of human life. Drawings and paintings may be regarded as an expression of our search for order in a complex world, as examplesof communication, or more specifically as an indication of aspects of human development and skill. Drawings can also provideinsight about the nature of thought andproblem- solving (Goodnow, 1977). Rudolph Arnheim is a seminal figure who haslong usedarttoanalyzevisual perception and visual thought(Arnheim, 1966, 1969, 1974). In a recent article(1993), healludestoanessaybyGabriela Goldschmidttitled"TheDialecticsof Sketching" (1991) in which theauthor undertakes to answer the question of"What kind of reasoning" sketching(drawing) represents. It is suggested thatsketching is not simply a matter ofrepresenting on paper the images that are held in adesigner's mind, but rather it is a dialectic processthat brings aboutagradualtransformationof information. The outcomes of this dialectic process could be revealedin the information content of drawings.This is a topic for future investigation. be the .The study of visual perception may mostsuccessfulareaof experimental psychology with steady progressmade over the past 100 years. Althoughthere has long been very sophisticated understandingof the nature of many visualphenomena, it is only recently that specifics about theprocessing of highlevelvisual information hasbeen possible. Today it is known thathigh level

843 Figure 4 Textbook Photographs Figure 5 Examples of Student Drawing Responses and Recall of Complex Reading Subject Matter. Geometric and Orientalizing Styles (300-600 .g. c.)

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85 94 visual processing relies on previously stored learned (Gombrick, 1960). What is evident information about the properties of objects is that these students are not just seeing, but andevents. Ingeneral,"high-level" they have learned how to see and what to see information processing refers to cognitive tovariousdegreesofexpertiseand dimensions of perception. It is believed by preference. Their attention to specific types some that if a theory of high-level cognitive of information detail is revealed to some perception can be developed, considerable extent in their drawings.Somehow, they leverage in understanding imagery will be have selected certain dimensions of the achieved (Kosslyn, 1994).Therefore, one subject matter, probably determined by a recent concern of the research on visual combination of what they have learned and information processing has been imagery know, what they believe and want. The type production. of sensory input provided in the classroom In terms of advertising, visuals have been exercises has evoked a variety of responses in thought to act either to retrieve memories the form of different images revealing associated with brands or as mnemonic probableindividualdifferencesin devices. The function of images has experiences, attitudes, interests and quite therefore been tied to memory rather than to possibly such physiological characteristics as imagination. This orientation continues to eye-handcoordinationandabilityto have impact since imagery production is concentrate (Berger, 1989). conceptualizedastheretrievaland It has been argued that imagining and manipulation ofreal objects and experiences. seeing are fundamentally different.That According to Scott (1994), the imaginative "cognitive maps" and "object schematics"

visual itself is yet to be considered, "... nor that appear as images when they are standing has the link between notions of 'image,' alone are really parts of a perceptual cycle 'imagery,'imaginary,' and 'imagination' thatincludes many ongoingactivities. been explored" (MacInnis, 1992).In the People are "seeing" because they elect to previouslyalludedtonon-scientific select out parts of the perceptual cycle. On classroom experiences with the terms pop the other hand, where the object stands bottleand "Coca Cola,"the drawing alone, it is imagining, not seeing. However, evidence fails to reveal whether the elaborate anyone who has to make mental preparation pictorial contexts are the result of memory, to pick up information specifying particular imagination, or some .interaction. But detail about certain objects must be able to perhaps for classroom purposes, resolution imagine that object. The exercises described of the issue is not important. herein require just such preparation by the What appears to be most significant is the students. Whatever the activity, seeing or realization that student participation in the imagining, the ability to "divide, detach, and processing of complex symbolicvisual manipulateourownanticipationsis materials like illustrations, photographs, and immensely important." In Neisser's words advertisingmessagesrequirescognitive (1976), these are the fundamental operations participation and the reliance on learning. in all higher mental processes.Imagery Additionally, objects are translated into expressed through drawings may be one drawings by the process of representation example revealing ability as it pertains to the using certain conventions that have been so-called "higher mental processes."

8 6 Individual Differences: Implications evidencedbythetypical 30second One of the many objectives of education is advertising spot or print advertisement. The the cultivation of critical thinking.The point being that external structuring and development of perceptual and cognitive organizing of information by the instructor skills that enhance the students' ability to or textbook designers could be even more critically examine visual information is a important, particularly as it might relate to worthy goal, particularly as it relates to FieldDependentstudents. Drawing inducing students to learn about the details exercises have the potential to force students thatdrivethevisualimpact and to critically examine and concentrate on memorability of subjects like advertising. information, and at the same time to varying Students learn to see the nuances of good degrees reveal the nature of the information advertising design versus poor design, the the student processes. Isthe student detailed flourishes that are the sign of processing the critical information that has differences between serif and sanserif been cued by the instructor, or is the student typographic styles, or the distinctive shapes attending to extraneous matters that may that define corporate graphic marks. But, interfere with learning? individualsdifferintheirinformation processing habits relative to perceiving, Conclusion thinking, problem solving and remembering The use of visual imagery as a form of such details. One hypothesis is that some learning mediation has attracted increasing individuals are better able to separate out attention in recent years with studies by detail information from an overall context Paivio (1986) and Kosslyn (1994), and through analysis and structuring than are others.Although the concept of imagery others. It has been suggested by the remains controversial in memory research, it CognitiveStyletheory of Field is apparent that we have moved beyond Independence-Field Dependence that people relianceonintrospectiveself-reports. will differ significantly in terms of thought Drawings have been used frequently in strategies when recalling information. For memory experiments, and by inference, it example, Field Independents are thought to would appear that they could have a niche in be able to identify important visual cues the classroom alongside verbal measures of regardless of whether or not they are made student knowledge and understanding in salient.On the other hand, information addition to what they may yield in regard to recallishindered in the case of Field understanding imagery. Dependent individuals if visual cues are not What is intriguing about student drawings obvious (Witkin, etal.,1977; cited by is that they appear to have potentials beyond Moore, 1985). the strict measurement of imagery vividness In advertising, of course, a variety of or memory about objects and other specific design techniques and visual cues "help" the referents. Many of the drawings come with consumer access the priority (or importance) context providedbythe composition's of informationelements. Thisis background.In some cases, the context accomplished through subtle means like helps to clarify the learned referent the emphasis, eye gaze, sequencing, and other student was inadequate to the task of cues that are salientlike arrows. However, rendering through drawing skill. Where the in the classroom learning environment, the student is unable to select the symbolic variety and density of information should be, drawing conventions necessary to depict the andusuallyis,much greater thanis object properly, supplemental illustrative 87 96 background can help to clarify intended that the kind of thinking and use of the meaning. Inother words,contextual "mind's eye" that is inherent in drawing background helps the viewer to understand exercises would be beneficial. Creative the "message." Student drawings are often problemsolving,planning,strategic submitted embellished with background thinking, and decision making require use of detail or with verbal balloons, captions, and the higher order visual perceptual processes. other notations (even when the instructions are "not to use words"). The background or Summary contextual information is interesting and in It is clear that all students have the ability some ways revealing in regard to student to render coherent representations of both interests, sense of humor, attitude, and so real and imaginary "visions" through the act on. of drawing. The process of creating "art" The most obvious and long-standing requires the use of critical thinking skills, justification for the use of drawing exercises visual imagery and memory. Drawings can in the classroom has to do with creativity. berevealingintermsofindividual Image generation has been likened to a kind differences ininformationprocessing, ofattentionalpriminginwhichthe creativity, attitudes, personality and talent. representation of an idea in associative Empirical evidence suggests that drawings memory is accessed.Visual images are may measure more of what peopleknow somehowgeneratedwhen werecall thantheverbal counterpartincertain previously seen objects or events, or when instances. Besides, students have fun doing "objects" are combined in novel ways, or visualization exercises! Why not use them when patterns that have never actually been more often? seen are "mentally drawn" (Kosslyn,1994). Studentscertainlydifferintermsof References associational and ideational fluency as Arnheim,Rudolf. (Spring1993). measured by verbal tasks. One can presume Sketching and the psychology of design. that similar findings could prevail in terms of Design Issues. IX:(2):15-19. "associational" and "ideational" fluency as it pertains to drawing exercises. (1974). Art & Visual Perception. In advertising, it is taken for granted that Berke ly: University of California Press. good copywriters and art directors have excellent visual imagination and "fluency." (1969). Visual Thinking. Berke ly: Writers paint pictures with words, so being University of California Press. able to see products, people, and scenes in the mind's eye is important. Designers must (1966). Toward a Psychology of Art. be able to manipulate the elements of a print Berke ly: University of California Press. layout or sequence the frames of a T.V. commercial, visualizing the desired outcomes Berger, A. A. (1989). Seeing Is Believing. (Wells, Burnett, Moriarty, 1995). So as part Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing: 82- of the preparation of students for these 83. professions, it would seem to be axiomatic that drawing exercises would be an on-going Feldman, E. B. (1970). Becoming Human part of classroom activity.Even if the Through Art. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice studentaspirestoprofessionalactivity Hall Publishers. outside the creative sphere, it would appear 88 Gombrick, E. H. (1960). Art and Illusion. Neisser, Ulric. (1976). Cognition and Princeton: Princeton University Press: 120. Reality. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman Goodnow, J. (1977). Children Drawing: 1 and Co.: 133. -19, 73. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Image and Brain: A Dual Co.g Approach. New York: The Resolution of the Imagery Debate. Oxford University Press: 23-107. Cambridge: MIT Press: 53-75. Scott, L. M. ( Sept 1994). Images in Mac Innis, D. J. (1992). Imagery in advertising: The need for a theory of visual marketingcommunications: Beyond rhetoricJournal of Consumer Research, pictures and visual processingAnnual Inc, Vol. 21: 252-273. ConferenceoftheAssociationfor ConsumerResearch.Vancouver. BC Sitz, R. C. (1990) Visual communication (October 7-10). effects of picture design cues and cognitive styleonlearningarthistorytext. Moore, D. M. (1985). Cognitive style Dissertation Abstracts, 51-5, 1485A presentation mode in a visual location task. InternationalJournalof Instructional Wells, W., Burnett, J., Moriarty, S. (1995). Media. 12(3):179 -183. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

89 Tri-Coding Of Information by Timothy J. Simpson Abstract Paivio's (1979, 1986) Dual Coding Theory has received widespread recognition forits connection between visual and aural channels of internal information processing. The use of only two channels, however, cannot satisfactorily explain the effects witnessed everyday. This paper presents a study suggesting the presence of a third, kinesthetic channel, currently used by NLP practitioners, which operates in cooperation with the channels of Paivio's theory and expands its usefulness.

Paivio (1979, 1986) presented a theoretical conceptualizationfromthedualcoding construct which he called dual coding to hypothesis. Most also concerned abstract and explain the manner in which people process concrete nature of stimuli, which Paivio and make sense out of the information with (1986) also predicted. which they come into contact. According to this construct, dual coding comes about as a Ineachcase,thesestudiesrestricted result both of the aural and visual nature of themselves to the two internal processing thewaythehumanbrainprocesses channels which Paivio (1979) had information. Sense of each modality is made hypothesized. From practical experience, fromtheirownrepresentationalsystem however,Paivio'sconstructfallsshort. withinthe mind and experience of the People aren'trestricted to mentally individual.Information bits accessed in the processing information verbally or visually internal visual channel are called imagens, solely. There seems to be another influence whileinformationbitsaccessedinthe present. The history of music has provided internal aural channel are called logogens. severalexamples of compositions which They come into contact with each other influence people profoundly even today. The within the consciousness of the individual, feelings do not come merely from the sound and they each alter the meaning assigned to but also from the feelings which listeners the other in the process because of their have for their associations with these sounds. associations from within a person's memory In recent times, broadcast commercials have and experience. attempted to elicit emotional responses from theiraudiencestopurchaseproductsor During the 1980's and 1990's there have services they might not otherwise purchase. beenseveralattempts made tovalidate Publicserviceannouncementsseekto Paivio's construct (e.g., Dean & Gray, 1985; influence their audiences to change the status Kulhavy et al, 1993; Mayer & Sims, 1994; quo, to make decisions differently, to act in a Kounios & Holcomb, 1994; Sadoski, Goetz manner consistent with their presentations & Avila,1995). Each of these studies rather than in the manner in which people examined the connection between verbal and might be expected to otherwise react. These visualinformationpresentedtosubjects. examplessuggestthatthereisanother Each concluded that the concept of dual internal channel of information processing coding of information explained their results. which also has an effect on altering the Inaddition,DeanandGray's(1985) meaning of verbal and/or visual stimuli. conclusions were based upon the connection theyperceivedbetweenthehemispheric Paivio's construct came out of a tradition natureofthehumanbrainandthe of research which required an emotional

91 detachment of the researcher from the subject The techniques of NLP have been used in under study(e.g.Gay,1996;Kerlinger, counselingbecauseitallowsatrained 1964).This detachment has a purpose: to counselor to access information about a client prevent an emotional bias on the part of the of which the client may be unconsciously researcherfromundulyinfluencingthe aware and unable to verbally express.By results of that research. While this is indeed examining changes in a person's breathing a desirable goal, the way it has been met has rate and pattern, skin color, eye movements, itselfbiasedtheresearchconducted in andsoon,acounselor candetermine information processing, as an impediment to unconscious feelings, attitudes, and so on, animpartialconsiderationofPaivio's which would impact a person's performance construct. (Charvet, 1993).Using NLP techniques in other fields has been suggested as well. In an attempt to meet the goals of research Classroom learning (Simpson, 1994; Nagel et methodology regarding reduction of bias al, 1993), sales (Reese & Bagley, 1987), and while addressing the need for examination of personal development (Robbins, 1992) have an emotional influence, this project sought a most notably utilized these NLP techniques. different paradigm. This paradigm needed to accept the presence of emotions, feelings, In this project, information on how subjects and so on, from the subject while having a were processinginformation was drawn way of identifying the influence whichthese using the NLP calibration techniques of eye feelings would have over the results of the accessing, breathing, and skin color.These study,maintainingothermethodological were correlated with the way the stimuli were considerations.The technique chosen was presented, the subject's primary (or chosen) one developed in 1975 using Neurolinguistic processing modality, gender of subject, level Programming (NLP). of education, and age (development).

NLP was developedbyBandler and Method Grinder (1975)frombasicconceptsin Subjects in first part were 25 people (14 classical conditioning. According to the male, 11 female) ranging in age from 16 to concept of NLP, a person facing a stimulus 53.All were high school graduates, with has a reaction which results from their past over half holding college degrees,three of experience, their understanding, and their these graduate degrees.All were volunteers training. These associations control their from three social groups who participated actions and behaviors, at both the voluntary individually at a time of their convenience and involuntary levels.By examining the during the early months of 1996. None was changes in involuntary reactions an selected on thebasisofanyother individual presents, an investigator can draw characteristics. conclusionsasto how anindividualis internally processing the information, how it In'the second part, subjects were 11 people is influencing that individual by sparking an (4 male, 7 female) ranging in age from 5 to internal change, and so on. NLP has had its 16.All volunteers participated individually. greatest impact on the field of counseling, They were enrolled in a summer program in giving a counselor or therapist clues as to Broward County Florida during the middle of changes ininternalstate,crisispointsin 1996. All were public or private school changepatterns,andsoon. Changes students K-12. Each provided consent from important in treatment of phobias and other one of their parents prior toparticipating in therapeutic techniques owe much of their the study. None was selected on the basisof success to the information these techniques any other characteristics. can give a trained professional. 92 100 Eachsubjectfirstparticipated in a Results screening interview.At this time, subjects Of the 25 subjects in study 1, all but 3 (1 were asked questions which prompted them male and 2 female) appeared to show a to internally process data aurally, visually, or strong preference for visual processing of kinestheticallytoestablishtheirpersonal information. Of the 11 subjects in study 2, 3 preference of internal information processing (1 male and 2 female) showed a preference modality. (Thisis not controlled by the for visual processing of information, 2 (1 modality of the stimulus.Rather itis a male and 1 female) showed a preference for preference asto how the brain internally auralprocessing of information, and the processesinformationpresentedto it, remaining 6 (2 males and 4 females) showed regardless of the sensory modality used in a preference for kinesthetic processing of information acquisition.)All subjects were information. When faced with the audio tape then asked a series of six questions which and the conversation, each subject in study 1 prompted each ofthem to process processed informationin more than one information using each of the three identified modality, although there primary modality modalities (aural, visual or kinesthetic). The was used more than any other.In study 2, eye accessing, breathing, and skin coloring the subjects were, for the most part, unable to processing cues they presented in response to changefromtheirpreferredprocessing these questions were recorded.From this modality. Gender of subject was not a information, each subject was identified by significant factor, but age and educational preferredinternalinformationprocessing background seemed connected together as a style. single contributing factor.

At the conclusion of this interview, each Discussion subject was asked to (1) listen to a four Differences in age between the subjects in minute audio recording of a transcribed radio study 1 and study 2 show an interesting drama, and (2) participate in a three minute difference. The adults in study 1 were almost dialogue with two confederates who were all primarily visual processors, but they were working from a script designed to actively adeptatprocessing informationineach involve the subject emotionally by modality to a degree when called upon to do challenging their feelings on the topics of so. This seems to suggest that adults have an politics and religion.Each confederate was acquired ability to process in each modality, also trained to make the observations needed but they tend to process information in a for the analysis of involuntary cues from the combinationofinternalmodalitiesas subjects.These were keyed to a common circumstances dictate. The juveniles in study NLP calibration checklist and then correlated 2, however, had a much broader range of withthecuesusedinthecalibration preferred modalities.They tended to rely interview (eye accessing, breathing, and skin almost entirely on their preferred modality, coloring). regardless of the modality suggested by the stimulus. Thiswouldindicatethat At the conclusion of each study, a focus developmental stage (age) plays a role in the group composed of several of the subjects in options one has available.As one ages, each study was separately conducted.This experienceinusingdifferentmodalities wasdonetodetermineifsubjective seems to offer the adult a choice, although comments from the participants could help the adults tended touse the optionsin explain the observations.The focus group combination with their preferred modality was conducted within one week of the rather than use modalities with equal facility. members of the focus group' participation in the study.

93 EST COPY AVAILABLE Gender of subject appeared to play no part During thecourse of thisstudy,two in determining internal processing preference additional observations were made which or the ability to change modality as dictated were not planned.First, children tolerated by need.Although there are differences in outsidenoisesbetterthanadults. One number of males and females in each study, possible reason for this would be that the because of the small number of subjects concentration required of them to process involved there is no reason to assume gender information effectively cuts off the influence is a factor. of external competing stimuli. Adults, on the otherhand,being moreabletomake Education of subjects, while probably a adjustments in their processing of confounding influence with age, suggested information, do this without conscious effort that the academic training received in more (an idea which was supported by spontaneous extensive years of schooling trained the comments from several of the adult subjects internal information processing capabilities after their participation). Those making this of the subject. Those with more than a high suggestion also stated that the external noise school education were more able to move disturbedtheirconcentration,butdidn't among the modalities and showed less of a necessarily prevent them from processing the dependence on their preferred modality (they information. The childreninstudy2, combined the two less often than those whose however, seemed to block out the noise. education waslimitedtohighschool). Many were asked about thisaftertheir However, since most of these subjects also participation, and they suggested that they had graduate school experience aswell, havelittledifficultyconcentrating on lacking a group with undergraduate processinginformation,whentheydo education, there is little reason to believe this concentrate. is a continuous development. The children in study 2 also offered that The best indication that comes from the they have difficulty concentrating in areas results is support for the idea that people use where there are few external distractions. three, not just two, modalities of internal Many stated that they preferred the noise of a information processing.This supports the television or radio while thinking. Two of contentions of NLP practitioners that we are them stated that they do not use the library at creatures of our emotions and feelings as school because they are unable to think in the much as of our words and visual images quiet environment associated with a library. when it comes to the internal processing of Instead, they prefer to study and think in an information.With experience and practice, atmosphere which seems to bother adults. we develop an ability to utilize more than one modality effectively. We develop a preferred Second, and of more importance here, each modality, and when thereisno specific subject who was able to explain how they reasonforchoosing onemodality over prefer to process information also suggested another thiswould seem to be the one we that the presence of other modality of stimuli use.Those lacking experience and training tendtoconfusethemandmakethe (children in this study) develop one internal information more difficult to process.For processing modality, which they seem to use example, one woman who preferred visual inall situations and contexts.When that internal processing stated that she had great modality is not appropriate, they do not have difficultylistening to thewords in another modality available to which they can conversations, but that if she pictured the switch.Consequently, they are limited in images those words elicited in her mind she their ability to easily and smoothly assimilate was able to process and retain most of the information in comparison to adults. information in the conversation.Another 94 102 woman, with an aural preference, said she images (imagens) and aural internal stimuli had difficulty processing the words in a book (logogens) andkinestheticstimulineeds unless she read the book internally to herself. examination. Paivio has given us the concept Then she was able to process the information to use. With a simple addition, we can begin easily and retain it for later use. to discover the mechanism by which we develop meaning from visual images. Conjecture With the suggestion by Dean & Gray References (1985) that the hemispheric nature of the Band ler, R. & Grinder, J.(1975).Frogs brain mirrorsthe concept of modalities into princes: Neuro linguistic programming. presented in NLP, an interesting conclusion London: Eden Grove Editions. can be drawn.If NLP accurately describes the way we internally process information, Charvet, S.R. (1993). Words that change then we do indeed make use of more than the minds: Mastering the language of influence. two channels Paivio (1979, 1986) suggests. Dubuqe, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing We use this capability without conscious Company. control. While Paivio's hypothesis certainly seems accurate, it would seem the addition of Paivio, A. (1979).Imagery and verbal another channel would be inorder. A processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, kinestheticchannelwouldexplainhow Associates, Publishers. emotions and feelings attach to words and how each of us derives a unique personal Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: meaning from events experienced in common A dual coding approach. NY: Oxford with others. University Press, Inc. This seems to hold true particularly in Dean,R.S. & Gray,J.W. (1985). visual terms.The focus group of adults Implications of neuropschological research consistently commented on the importance of for school psychology.(ERIC Document visual images to their ability to accurately reproduction Service No. ED263 513). and efficiently process information. If these Gay, L.R.(1996).Educational research: visual images were lacking, the information tended to be jumbled and disjointed. If Competencies for analysis and application (5th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: images could be associated later, many times Merrill/Prentice-Hall. theinformationcouldberetrievedand processed effectively. Kerlinger, F. W. (1964).Foundations of (3r_ Ed.). The content of the visual images they behavioral research. d Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich College createdwasalsoimportant. Strong emotional associations were common, which Publishers. would explain the ability of propagandists to Kulhavy, R.W., Stock, W.A., Woodard, evoke emotions from people with visual K.A. & Haygood, R.C.(1993). Comparing the images. Paivio'shypothesis,with elaborateness and dual coding theories: The addition of a third (kinesthetic) channel, can case of maps and text, American Journal of effectivelyandefficientlyexplainthis Psychology, 106 (4), 483-498. phenomenon.Its existence has been shown too many times throughout history, and the Kounios,J. & Holcomb, P.J. (1994). theme has been used extensively in literature Concreteness effects in semangtic (e.g.,AldousHuxley's 1984). The processing: ERP evidence supporting dual- alterations of meaning associated with visual 95 codingtheory,Journal of Experimental Robbins, A. (1992).Awaken the giant Psychology: Learning, Memory and within; How to take control of your mental, Cognition, 20 (4), 804-823. emotional, physical and financial destiny. London: Simon & Schuster. Mayer, R.E. & Sims, V.K. (1994).For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Sadoski, M., Goetz,E.T. & Avila,E. Extensionsof adual-codingtheoryof (1995).Concreteness effects in text recall: multimedia learning, Journal of Educational Dual coding or content availability, Reading Psychology, 86 (3), 389-401. Research Quarterly, 30 (2), 278288.

Nagel, C.V., Reese, E.J.Reese, M. & Simpson, T.J. (1994). Message into Siudzinksi, R.(1993). Mega teaching and medium: An extension of the dual coding learning: Neurolinguistic programming hypothesis. Paper presented at the 26th appliedtoeducation. Portland,OR: AnnualConferenceoftheInternational Metamorphous Press. Visual Literacy Association, Tempe, AZ, October 12 - 16. Reese, E. & Bagley, D.(1987). Beyond selling: How to maximize your personal influence. Cupertino, CA: META Publications.

96 104 Table 1. Information Processing Modalities Used bySubjects in Study 1

Modality Radio Program Conversation

Visual (Male) 14 12

Visual (Female) 11 9

Aural (Male) 10 11

Aural (Female) 10 9

Kinesthetic (Male) 11 9

Kinesthetic (Female) 11 11

n (males) = 14, n(females) = 11 Table shows modalities used during condition, notpreferred modality.

Table 2. Information Processing Modalities Used bySubjects in Study 2

Modality Radio Program Conversation

Visual (Male) 2 3

Visual (Female) 5 5

Aural (Male) 2 2

Aural (Female) 6 7

Kinesthetic (Male) 2 4

Kinesthetic (Female) 7 7

n (males) = 4, n(females) = 7 Table shows modalities used during condition, notpreferred modality. Table 3. Percentage of Time Modalities Used by Subjectsin Study 1

Modality Radio Program Conversation

Visual (Male) 42% 36%

Visual (Female) 36% 33%

Aural (Male) 37% 40%

Aural (Female) 37% 36%

Kinesthetic (Male) 21% 24%

Kinesthetic (Female) 27% 31% n(males) = 14, n(females) = 11 Table shows percentage of modality use during condition, notpreferred modality.

Table 4. Percentage of Time Modality Used by Subjects in Study2

Modality Radio Program Conversation

Visual (Male) 55% 59%

Visual (Female) 29% 24%

Aural (Male) 20% 25%

Aural (Female) 56% 59%

Kinesthetic (Male) 25% 16%

Kinesthetic (Female) 15% 17%

n(males) = 4, n(females) = 11 Table shows percentage of modality use during condition; notpreferred modality. Table 5. Other Modality Use Related to Preferred Modality, Study 1

Visual Aural Kinesthetic

Visual (m) 11 12

Visual (f) 9 9

Aural (m) 0 0

Aural(1) 1 1

Kinesthetic(m) 1 0

Kinesthetic(f) 1 0 n(males) = 14, n(females) = 11 n(Visual - m = 13, f = 9), n(Aural - m = 0, f = 1), n(Kinesthetic - m = 1, f = 1) Table indicates number of subjects using each non-preferred modality per preferred modality.

Table 6. Other Modality Use Related to Preferred Modality, Study 2

Visual Aural Kinesthetic

Visual (m) 0 0

Visual (1) 2 1

Aural (m) 1 0

Aural(f) 1 1

Kinesthetic(m) 1 0

Kinesthetic(f) 2 1 n(males) = 4, n(females) = 7 n(Visual - m = 1, f = 2), n(Aural - m = 1, f= 1), n(Kinesthetic - m = 2, f = 4) Table indicates number of subjects using each non-preferred modality per preferred modality.

99 0 7 Diversity In Cyborg Images: A Case Study Of Barry Levinson's Toys by Linda E. Lucek

Abstract The image of the cyborg is proliferating.Associated with the cultural paradigm of postmodernism, the cyborg, in its numerous aspects, has become a predominant metaphor used to describe the relationship between humanity and technology in post-industrial information societies. This case study of Barry Levinson's 1992 comedy film, Toys, is meant to demonstrate some of the many faces of the cyborg.

Introduction Increasingly, we are being bombarded There are various postmodern genreswith cyborg images from literature, film, about cyborgs and cyborgization.I will be television, and the discourses of social using the term Cy-Fi here to designate all reality. But how is it that cyborgs can be forms of cyborg fiction. conceptualized as both killing machines The overlapping and mutual influence and creative artists? There is new interest of science fiction and other postmodern in addressing this diversity in cyborg fictions has often been noted.Jeff Cupp imagery among criticsof filmand and Charles Avinger (1993) state: literature. Scott Bukatman's 1993 book, Terminal Science fiction and fantasy Identity: The VirtualSubjectin may be considered Postmodern Science Fiction, emphasizes ephemeral, extra-canonical, how Cy-Fi beginstoaddressthe or even, heaven forbid, connection between new forms of control popular genres; however, and freedom brought into being by a theyofferexactlywhat high-tech, postmodern culture and the many postmodern writers advances of feminism, minority discourse have been looking for--an and ecological inquiries. Nor is he alone. escapefromareality Jenny Wolmark similarly addresses Cy-Fi principle which has come to as social discourse in her book, Aliens and be perceived as immovable, others:Science fiction, feminism, and and an alternative vision of postmodernism (1994),distinguishing a world which seems to be between the cyberpunks of the male- moving towardits own dominatedgenreand cyborgs from desolation. feminist science fiction. They point out that postmodern writers Cyberpunk exploresthe such as Pynchon, Vonnegut, Marge Piercy, interface between human and StanleyElkin,Garcia Marquex, and machine in order to Calvino, and William S. Burroughs have all focusonthegeneral written works which could be classified as question of what it means to science fiction or fantasy. be human; feminist science Cultural identity has been defined fiction has also explored within the cyberpunk fiction genre as the that interface, but in order blackly humorous condition of never fully to challenge those universal owning oneself, as exemplified by hybrid, and essentialist metaphors cyborg identities.The technoculture of about"humanity" which the cyborg has radically permeated a avoid confronting existing segment of youth culture which has and unequal power adopted the name of thescience fiction relations.Cyberpunks and genre it tries to emulate. There is a great .cyborgs can therefore be deal of evidence showing an increasing regarded as related influence of cyberpunk and science fiction responses to technology that in general on diverse cultural discourses. are rooted in gender, and in different ways both seem to 101 asked question is "what are the various of his specialties. At one early point in the cyborg discourses being presented here?" film, he strides through the toy factory, with The theme that runs throughout the film great billows of smoke streaming behind and the one thing that all the Zevos appear him. He's wearing a "smoking jacket" that tosharein common istheir love of makes him look like a walking smoke gadgetry, of toys. What differs between the bomb or powerful wizard.In this fashion, military Zevos and the civilian Zevos are he appearsto be a commanding cyborg their conceptions of what makes a good toy, presence.Later, we see him wearing a and what a toy should be good for. (At one body-sound jacket, wired to make different point, when one of the General's disguised wild sounds depending on how he moves. war toys starts shooting ammunition from a It is merely a guise, however, a cosmetic baby bottle, Alsatia says "That's a very bad technology that he can put on or take off. baby! ".) His power is nothing but smoke, for while It is their mutual love of technology that incorporating his father's whimsical ideals, makes them all exceptional candidates for Leslie has never been forced into the harsh cyborgization.But I hope it will become realities of leadership, power struggles, and apparent,thatI do not use the term responsibility and thus, at the film's outset, "cyborg" or employ that concept in a he remains a boy with his toys. disparaging way.Rather, my point is that cyborgization can come in many flavors, not solely the typical terminator.I will Figure 2 briefly recount some of the cyborgization LESLIE SMOKES indicators present in the film's characters.

Kenneth Kenneth Zevo hasonlyaminor technological implant --his pacemaker, which is connected to his beanie propeller as an early warning system.It was much more than cosmetic, however, considering its life-extending functionality. His affinity for technology took the form of whimsical gadgets.

Figure 1 TOYMAKER KENNY

The General (Leland) The General is another boy with toys, but molded in his own father's image. He takes everything (himself included) too 4 Y. seriously, except (in that paradoxical twist) humanity. The outcomes of war have been separated from his consciousness like the severing of the corpus callosum, so that his right side does not truly understand what his left is about.He is excited by the prospects of training and using children as war machines."Let the games begin" he says just before the final showdown. He watches the battle simulation on his security system with glee as scores are tallied in Leslie video game fashion, but the scores represent Leslie,thefilm'shero,continually the actual stalking and destruction of his appears manipulating or wearing various own relatives by his mechanical creations. gadgets throughout. Novelty apparel is one He is a military cyborg, as ishis son, Patrick. 104 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 109 disgruntled and start leaving once the Patrick military faction begins to take over. Patrickalsohasapropensityfor extendinghisfunctionalitythrough technology--espionage bugs, x-ray cameras, Figure 4 thesecurity"nervecenter." T h e HAPPY WORKERS Terminator's cyborg, the T-800 (played by ASSEMBLY LINE Arnold Schwarzenegger) has a metallic endoskeleton covered with flesh, while these military cyborgs have symbolically hard exteriors.Alsatia tells her cousin Patrick that he reminds her of Leslie. When Patrick protests that they are the exact opposite, she responds "Exactly", because Leslie is all silly and soft on the outside but strong on the inside while Patrickisthe exact opposite. Patrick has a penchant for novelty apparel similar to his cousin's but, being a military cyborg, it manifests as camouflage costumes.

Figure 3 PATRICK IN CAMOUFLAGE Security Workers The General's new security personnel are just following orders, like programmed machines. They march through the factory in formation to a military beat.Suddenly photographic identification is required of everyone in the company. A culture of fear and intimidation is generated. Barbed wire and monitoring devices start to pop up.

Child Workers In the restricted area, Leslie finds the children who are testing the General's video wargames. They barely notice him, being mesmerizedby theirgamesand concentrating on accumulating their points by blowing up military bases, people, army tanks, and helicopters. A thousand points Old General are scored for blowing up people. Like his son, the old invalid General's The General has hopes of starting eyes light up when he anticipates the daycare centers (a philanthropic gesture) in excitement of the impending toy war. poverty areas, where welfare mothers can leave their children all day long and they Happy Workers can be taught to read and write using video This film's soundtrack is exceptional. computer programs.In addition, he plans One song, entitled HappyWorkers, is to create a special variety of programs to choreographed with visual images of the develop hand-eyecoordination,train toy factory assembly line workers doing childrenintheuse of sophisticated their jobs in energetic style.They are equipment, simulated flight experiments, integratedin a positive way with the company's technology, "joyous in [their] and visual laser lock-on.The culmination industry". While factory work is often held of the children's daycare training would be up as dehumanizing, it is being portrayed "flying" an actual combat mission using here as satisfying in a supportive corporate remote-control weaponry while the kids still culture. The "happy workers" soon become think they're playing a game.

105 trying out all the paper doll fashions on Sea Swine herself. She is an Amish cyborg, sticking The "classic" cyborg formulation, the simply with the basics. She calls her dolls thorough blending of technology and and doll fashions "endearing" and employs organism is to be found in this film in the creativity and artistry in her work. experimental amphibious sea swine, another Alsatia's military-minded cousin, Patrick, military cyborg that appears vaguely similar doesn't realize that she was engineered until to a hippopotamus equipped withrobotic the sea swine blows her head off. Then he optical scanner, automatic weapons, and comments "Alsatia's a robot? ...I always backup system. Leslie "discovers" it in the thought she seemed the same age."An General's restricted area, when he breaks in, immediate mental disparity is generated falls into its pit, and it attacks him.The when he calls her a robot.It stems from the lock-on laser targeting of the Sea Swine juxtaposition of the image of Alsatia in her looks amazingly similar to that of the T- paper doll "office" with theimage of the 800 cyborg in The Terminator film. In true numerousmilitaryrobotsbeing classicfashion,thistechnologylater manufactured in the General's restricted malfunctions, turning on its creator (the area. (Compare Figure 6 belowwith Figure General). 7 which follows.)

Figure 5 Figure 6 SEA SWINE'S LOCK-ON LASER ALSATIA IN DOLL CLOTHES TARGETING THE GENERAL

Figure 7 THE GENERAL'S ROBOTS Alsatia Alsatia becomes an obvious possibility for cyborg candidacy, once it becomes apparent that sheisan AI (artificial intelligence).It might be argued that she is a robot rather than a cyborg.However, it seems inconsequential whetherher flesh is more or less artificialthan that of The Terminator'sT-800 when considering the dominant function she was meant to perform. She was designed by her father to be a human sister to Leslie and she fulfills that role quite successfully. Although she has helped to test some of her brother's high-technology creations, such as a virtual reality system they call the "Woozy Helmet", Alsatia's own work at Zevo With springs hanging out,Alsatia's Toys is less technology oriented. She also disembodied head asks Leslie "Do you--do wears novelty apparel, but it islimited to 106 EST COPY AVAILABLE 111 you love me?", next proclaiming (in Tin line whichis"IfIcannot bring you Woodsman fashion) "I miss my heart." comfort, then at least I bring you hope...." Unlike the General, she had a heart all We are not to be made comfortable or less along.What she and Leslie both lacked vigilant in our struggle, but at least we initially was the grown-up courage (in should know there is hope. Cowardly Lion fashion) to fight with the The International Children's Choir doing General to uphold their principles. the singing (along with Wendy Melvoin) is positioned in a Christmas tree formation. At the closing celebration, we think we hear the Toys dreaded sea swine again, only to be shown The originalfactory toys and new that it is only the innocent play of the wind- military toys are intimately involved in the up alligator making similar sounds and then cyborg narratives of the film.Some, such we see that the victorious, wholesome toys as the Woozy Helmet are worn by the appear where the children had previously in characters and integrate technology with the tree. their senses. The cherished airplane that carries Santa Claus into the spectacular mock-up of downtownManhattanduringthe Figure 8 celebration is a sharp contrast to the film's SHARED VIRTUAL REALITY manyremote-controlcombatplanes USING THE WOOZY HELMET involved in destructive pursuits. Summary Shown below in Figure 9 is a summary table of the cyborg indicators which I found in the characters of this comedy film.

Figure 9 CYBORG CHARACTERIZATIONS IN TOYS Character Cyborg Indicators Kenneth implanted pacemaker connected to beanie propeller Leslie love of whimsical toys; Although the toys are not sentient, they are often anthropomorphized--especially novelty apparel when the toys become the army in the final General love of war toys battle scene.Little wind-up bears seem to Patrick camouflage apparel, care about each other when shot,little mechanisms of espionage penguins appear agitated when knocked Old eyes alight at the prospect of down by a military jeep, a wind-up child General war and dog appear to escape into the night. Happy well-integrated into factory Workers mission Security unquestioning military The Closing of the Year Workers compliance with orders While the film depicts a hero's journey Child innocently/naively interfaced for Leslie, at the same time it is presenting a Workers with war videogames hopeful metaphor for the rest of us.The Sea Swine "classic" cyborg; made of film begins and ends during the joyous flesh and bolts; turns on its company Christmas celebration. Itis a creator whimsical yet sacred time,a time of Alsatia "robot" sister hierophanies, cyclicallysurroundinga Toys, majority on both "sides" were transitional, liminal year. anthropomorphized The song that both opens and closes the film is The Closing of the Year. The central message of the film is presented in its first 107 112 I hope that I have demonstrated through Cameron, J. (1991). Terminator 2, 137 mins. this exercise that cyborg characteristics are Cupp, J. and Avinger, C. (1993). Do science not in and of themselves good or bad. fictionandfantasywritershave Rather, they are a consequence of the postmodern dreams? Literature, postmodern world we currently live in. Interpretation, Theory, 4, (3), 175-184. Cyborg images can takeas many Haraway, D. (1985). A manifesto for possible forms as we have possible futures cyborgs: Science, technology, and and itis always up to us to maintain socialist feminism in the 1980s.Socialist vigilance in guiding their development. Review, 15, 65-107. Harper, M. C. (1995).Incurably alien other: A case for feminist cyborg writers. References Science Fiction Studies, 22, 399-420. Levinson, B. (1992). Toys, 121 mins. Baudrillard,J.(1983). The ecstasy of Moravec, H. (1988) Mind children:The communication. In H. Foster (Ed.), The future of robot and human intelligence, anti-aesthetic:Essays in postmodern Cambridge and London: Harvard culture.Port Townsend, WA: Bay University Press. Press, 128. Rushing, J. H., and Frentz, T. S. (1995). Bukatman, S. (1993). Terminal identity: Projecting the Shadow:the cyborg hero The virtual subject in postmodern in American film.The University of science fiction, Durham and London: Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Duke University Press. Wolmark, J. (1994).Aliens and others: Cadora, K. (1995).Feminist cyberpunk. Sciencefiction,feminism,and Science Fiction Studies, 22,357-372. postmodernism. Iowa City, IA: Cameron, J. (1984).The Terminator, 108 University' of Iowa Press. mins. Linking Reading And Writing: Concept Mapping As An OrganizingTactic Rionda Osman-Jouchoux Abstract

A pilot study of an instructional uniton summarizing technical texts suggests that reading strategies and concept mapscan be used effectively by undergraduate technical writingstu- dents. The strategies chosen were simple heuristics basedon theoretical descriptions of the processes successful readers and writers use. Conceptmaps provided a transition between the two sets of strategies, allowing learners to organize their understandingof the text.

When writerssuccessfullysummarize many ignoredimportant ideas and texts, they must first read and understand emphasized relatively obscure points.It new information and, then, transform that appeared that many of these students did information to fulfill a specificpurpose. not understand the material they read and, Concept mapping, used as a visualorgan- so, were unable to transform the ideas into izing technique, can be an effective link coherent, concise renditions of the text. between the two processes. Theinstructionalunitdevelopedto In a preliminary study, students inan address this problem presents the task of undergraduate technical writing classwere summarizing technical texts in twosteps. given a three-part, paper-based moduleon First, learners are instructed to read thetext summarizing texts.Each part presented purposefully and, then, to writea summary instruction on metacognitive reading of the text guided by prompts. Toconnect strategy, summarizing strategy, and concept the two sets of strategies,learnerswere mapping. Students read and mapped three asked to construct concept maps of the text texts and wrote summaries of two of the as a way to organize the knowledge gained texts. As part of the readingstrategy, from readingthe text andtogain an students completed concept maps of the overviewoftheinformation tobe text before writing summaries. As part of summarized. the mapping tactic, studentswere instructed to label the links between ideas.Those This unit was designed to present simple, students who completed themaps with almost intuitive strategies thatencourage labeled links generally wrote summaries learnersto considertheirtasks andto that effectively transformed information. monitor their understanding.These goals wereformulatedfrom theresearch This paper describes the development of literature.From that literature we know the pilot module, including the reading thatlearningstrategiescanenhance strategiesandthecognitiveprocesses learning(see,forexample,Dansereau, involved in writing summaries.Then, the 1985). We also know that often learners do linkingfunctionofcognitive mapsis not use teaming strategies even though we discussed. Finally, the conclusions and think they should. speculations this study provided and the implications for further study are Garner (1990) has addressed the problem discussed. of failure to use learning strategies, and her reasons that learners do not use strategies include: Summarizing The Problem Over several semesters studentsin an often learners do not monitortheir undergraduate technical writing class have learning, either because they donot had difficultyproducingsummaries of understand how to evaluate what they texts. Many of their summaries consisted are doing or too many demands are of truncated sections of the originaltext; made on memory resources. 109

Ix_4 learners often have work habits that are often learners acquire a strategy in a successful in some situations, and they specific set of circumstances and are are reluctant to abandon routines. then unable to transfer thatskillto other circumstances. learners may lack the in-depth knowledge base that would enable them The strategies developed for the touse higher reasoning whenthey summarizing unitconsistofsimple encounter new information. heuristics designed to guide thelearner learners often experience instructional through the processes good readers and situations that discouragetryingout writers are presumed to use. See Figure 1. strategies. Figure 1 Reading and summarizing processes and strategieslinked by concept maps

Schema Theory of Reading Processes Summarizing Processes construct and refine a model of 'consider audience needs meaning 'evaluate text 'read a piece of information, 'identify important ideas .find or construct a schema to link 'paraphrase ideas the new information to existing 'condense ideas knowledge, 'polish new text 'continue to amplify and refine the model of the meaning of the text X ) Reading Strategy Summarizing Strategy before reading select material to include 'define the task 'transform structure (if necessary) 'examine the text structure 'combine ideas (if necessary) while reading 'substitute global terms 'monitor understanding 'eliminate extra words after reading 'link ideas clearly 'organize understanding I

Concept Map 'select important information 'connect ideas

1 1 0 Garner's (1990) concerns were taken into Figure2reproducesa pageof the consideration in developing these summarizing unit. The text is presented on strategies. Readers are prompted to define the right, and the reading strategy cues are their task, to examine the text's structure, on the left. and to set goals for themselves.Readers are prompted to be aware of portions they do not understand. The unitprovides Summarizing Strategy encouragement to break habits, and the Summaries and the abilities needed to extremely general nature of the prompts produce them have been of interestto should not discourage transfertoother several research teams (Brown, Campione, circumstances. & Day, 1981; Brown & Day, 1983; Brown, Day, & Jones, 1983; Winograd, 1983) who have found that, developmentally, Reading Strategy summarizingisalate-developingskill Schematheoryprovidesuswitha useful in investigating higher-order description of the process of meaning- comprehensionproblemsof goodand making. A reader reads new information poor readers. and activates an existing mental schema, or creates a new one, that allows the reader to However, Hidi and Anderson(1986) connect new informationto the already pointed out that writing a summary of an known. Then, as pieces of information are existingtextisfundamentallydifferent added, a mental model that represents the from other writing tasks. When producing meaning of the text is constructed and original text, we plan content and structure refined.Reading, then,is a process of and generate ideas and details in a pattern acquiring information and relating new to of activity that continuallyshifts among known knowledge. these tasks.When writing summaries, we must comprehend and evaluate existing From this description of reading, we can texts and condense and transform the ideas recognize the processes good readers use: we find there. they examine the structure of the text, they setgoalsfortheirreadingandtheir Writers of effective summaries: learning, they check on their understanding as they go along, and they evaluate their select material to include understanding.(For one account of the is this trivial information? redundant processes of good and weaker readers, see information? Pearson and Raphael, 1990.) select or write topic sentences The reading strategy presented inthe should I maintain the original summarizing unit calls upon readers: structure? can I combine these ideas? is this structure accurate before reading with respect to the original? to define their task paraphrase and polish why am I reading this? what do I can I substitute a global term for a need to get from this text? list? can I eliminate extra words? while reading are these ideas clearly linked? to monitor their understanding We canview theprocesses usedin do I understand this passage? why readingtechnicalmaterialandwriting not? do I need more information? summaries throughthe earlytheoretical after reading work on self-regulated learning of Corno to organize their understanding and Mandinach (1983).They provide a do I understand this material? how framework that describes necessary do the parts relate to each other? activities when learners are learning most does this new information fit with effectively.Specifically, when learners are what I already know? comprehensivelyengaged,theyacquire knowledge by the processes of attending,

1 1 1 BEST COPYAVAIIA1,LE 116 Figure 2 A page from the summarizingunit, Part 3

Make notes here /introducing.the.intemet/intro.to.ip Consider your purpose in Introduction to the Internet Protocols reading this text. Computer Science Facilities Group Is this text appropriate to your RUTGERS purpose? Is it authoritative? The State University of New Jersey What kind of information do you think it will give you? 3 July 1987 This is an introduction to the Internet networking protocols(TCP/IP). It includes What questions do you think the brief descriptions of the major text will answer? a summary of the facilities available and protocols in the family. Copyright (C) 1987, Charles L. Hedrick. Anyone mayreproduce this document, in whole or in part, provided that: (1) any copy orrepublication of the entire document must show Rutgers University as the source, and mustinclude this notice; and (2) any other use of this material must referencethis manual and Rutgers University, and the fact that the material is copyrightby Charles Hedrick Look at the structure. and is used by permission. Note the headings and Unix is a trademark of AT&T Technologies, Inc. subheadings. What did the author think was Table of Contents important? 1. What is TCP/IP? How is this text organized? 2. General description of the TCP/IP protocols What will be the most interesting 2.1 The TCP level sections? 2.2 The IP level 2.3 The Ethernet level 3. Well-known sockets and the applications layer 3.1 An example application: SMTP 4. Protocols other than TCP: UDP and ICMP 5. Keeping track of names and information: the domain system 6. Routing 7. Details about Internet addresses: subnets andbroadcasting 8. Datagram fragmentation and reassembly 9. Ethernet encapsulation: ARP 10. Getting more information

Portions of Section 2 and all of Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,and 10 have been omitted.

Visual organizers,ingeneral,can be rehearsing, monitoring, strategic planning, of They then transform that knowledge bythe definedasgraphicrepresentations differentkindsofthinkingprocesses processes of selecting,connecting, and Concept maps are a form tactical planning. (Clarke, 1991). of visual organizerthat,as Clarkehas and Concept Mapping pointed out, supports both inductive Transforming informationis a process deductive thinking. common to both making concept mapsand provide In reading strategies, maps allowreaders writing summaries. Concept maps of the text, a flexible format forgraphic representation to organize their understanding of concepts and the relationships among including that obtained from the macros- tructures of texts. When usedin prewriting them (Jonassen, Beissner, & Yacci, 1993; learners to Novak & Gowin, 1984). strategies, concept maps allow

112 organize their knowledge and develop their whether a metacognitive approachto writing for an audience. By explicitly reading as well as writing would address organizing their understanding of a text, the summarizing difficulties of students writers of summaries should be positioned to transform information to the needs of a whether the mapping tactic providedan particular audience instead of using the opportunity for students to consolidate most common strategyof presenting a their learning or distracted from the sequential, abridged recapitulation of the task text. The unit was used by students enrolled in In the summarizing unit, learners were an upper division technical writing class instructed to write the main idea of the text during Spring semester 1996.The three- at the top of a sheet of paper.Then they part unit was used during class time.Part wrote secondary ideas or subconcept below One required students to read a short text the main idea. Each subconcept was to be on learning style preferences, make a map linked to the main idea and the link labeled of the text, and complete a learning style to explainthe relationship between the inventory.Part Two required students to concepts. Each subconcept was to be read a short text definingthe Internet, described as completely as possible, and the make a map of the text, and write a 200- links clearly defined. See Figure 3. word summary for a group of employees of a database company.Both Parts One and Two were completed in class.Part Three required students to read a much Figure 3 longer,morecomplextextdescribing Generic example of a concept map TCP/IP protocols, make a map of the text, and write a 200-word summary for the sameaudience. Students received IMain idea participation points for the first two parts, elationship link relationship and the summary produced in the third 'OriCep.) part was graded.Figure 4 displays a map concept conceptelationshi of a text, and Figure 5 displays annotated link link samples of summaries. idea link link Idea link Fifteen students completed all threemaps idea link and both summaries.The unit contains idea link written instructions for producing a map, link and the class completed a map onthe link board after the first unit. ink link ideaidea idea Both summaries received comments on the degree to which they were logically organized, addressed audience awareness relationship issues, and were polished.Organizational problems and audience awareness issues occurredrarely. The polishof these summaries elicited the most comments.

The Summarizing Unit The Pilot These categories for comments reflect The goals for the pilot study were to issues that writers must address; however, determine: they do not tell us about the processes of summarization. When writerspresent whether this approach allowed information in the original sequence, often sufficient opportunity for students to that form of organization is appropriate for become proficient with the strategies a summary. Inshortpieces, audience awareness issues can be obscured. While whether this approach took up too learners are expected to polish their writing, much time in this case the first summaries (Part 2) were written in class; the second summaries

1 1 3 118 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Figure 4 Concept Map of Text to Summarize (Part 2)

What is the Internet?

history 20 yrs ago: Dept of several kinds of Defense ARPAnet definitions Ethernet local area network of networks based networks leading to on TCP/IP protocols desktop workstation technology in 1983 community of users & Icreated demand developers workstations came with Berkely UNIX and IP s/w collection of resources

how it works Other networks including administratively NSFNET independence each network: decides how to NSFNET 5 supercomputer connect & how to fund centers available for any connections scholarly rsch

need to share resources extremely connections of rsch & educ sites Providers expensive to NSFNET

providers many providers also commerical services began to support NSFNET connections

(Part 3) were take-home assignments, and Used as an in-class exercise, however, the the quality of transitions, usage, and flow unit took a significant amount of class was improved. time. To be more acceptable to other instructors, the unit should be modified to Conclusions and Speculations be take-home exercises augmented by in- The three-part unit did function class discussions and explanations. succesfully as an instructionaltool. It seemed to provide enough repetitions of The technical writing students who com- the strategy instruction to allow students to pleted all three parts of the unit produced use it well in the third part. summaries of thetextsthat were well- organized and that transformed the original

1 1 4 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1 :19 Figure 5 Examples of Summaries from Part 3

Comments In laymen's terms, TCP/IP is a set of protocols that allow combination of ideas across computers to share resources across a network. There are several paragraphs. various vendors that support TCP/IP services. The more traditional services that TCP/IP offerare file polish issue: proofreading transfer, remote log in, and computer mail. These services provide users to get and send files, log in froma different condensation of several com_puter, and send messages to other computers. paragraphs More of the modern services are TCP/IP are remote print, polish issue:proofreading remote execution, name server, terminal servers, and network- oriented windows system. These services allow a user to print condensation of several from a remote printer, run a program on a different computer, file paragraphs user names and passwords, allows small computers to run protocols, and programs to display on different computers. Bothorganizational issue: Should last sentence be the topic of traditional and modern services are applied to all of the the next paragraph? computers on the network. These protocols are able to work by commands that have a polisE issue: proofreading logical progression. Each protocols runs off of the other. For unclear paraphrasing of the example, the main commands feeds off of another set of protocols' interdependence commands. If more information is desired you can consult RFC, or polisE issue: punctuation Request for Comment. This will give you the answer you are looking for. audience awareness issue: will readers have access to the RFC?

Comments Computers, like people, have many different languages. audience awareness issue: When people want to communicate effectively, they must first opening provides a simile agree on which language to speak. Computer networks operatethat demystifies the the same way. For computers to communicate effectively, they technology need to follow a defined set of commands, or "protocols", that each system can understand. Once computers are able to "talk", they can share resources and perform certain tasks. Two of the most commonly used protocols are TCP and IP. Since these two protocols are often used in conjunction with one another, they are sometimes referred to, concurrently, as TCP/IP or IP, TCP. Some of the tasks they help performare: file transfer - allows you to send files to or get files from organizational issue: only another computer. traditional services are listed, remote login - allows a user to login on any computer on the no recent developments are network. included sending mail - allows you to send mail messages to other users on the network. In short, TCP/IP allows you to expand your resources and working environment beyond your individual PC. With the help of these protocols you can access more powerfulprograms and expedite information more rapidly.

1 1 5 material by combining ideas across sen- the transforming processes found in tencesandparagraphs. Severalwere their summaries? reluctant to label relationships among the ideas in their maps, and the first efforts of In the proposed study, the mode of con- these studentstendedtopresent more struction of the concept maps will be varied information verbatim, with less effortto according to the type of learnereffort make transitions between ideas. required:entirelylearner-constructedor pre-constructed. Examination of These differences in the summaries may performancedifferencesshouldreveal be explained by the amount of effort that whether the writers are selecting important the writers put into their maps.As Corno information, discarding irrelevant and Mandinach's (1983) theory of self- information, andmaking connections regulated learning suggests, learners adapt between ideas. the level of effort and the ways in which they acquire (attending, rehearsing, Summaries in the follow-on study will be monitoring, strategic planning) and examined for transformations in much the transform(selecting,connecting,tactical same way Winograd (1983) rated planning) information to the situation. summariesof goodand poorwriters. Transformations, derived from those used In the most involved mode of learning, by Winograd (1983) and Brown and Day comprehensive engagement, learners use all (1983), include: the learning processes and skills optimally. When learners are focused on a task, they paraphrases of ideas rather than emphasizetransformationprocessesof verbatim copies of portions of text selecting important information, connecting new informationtoalready combinations of ideas across known,andmakingtacticalplansto paragraphs achievethetask. Whenlearnersare presented withsituationsthateither substitutions of global terms for lists of encourage or force them to manage their items resources, they expend effortin finding ways to avoid all or part of the effort (such We canspeculatethatreaderswho as working with others tosharework). thoroughly understand the text they are When learners arein a passive position, summarizing would be morelikelyto such as a lecture situation, they receive produce paraphrases, combine ideas, and information and avoid transforming substitute globalterms. We canalso processes. speculate that those writers who expend the effort to select important ideas and to make Possibly, the summarizing process calls explicit the connections among the ideas, as upon learners, first, to be comprehensively they do when constructing a concept map, engaged to read the text and understand it would more thoroughlyunderstand the thoroughly.They must, then, be focused text.If that is the case, concept mapping on the task of producing the summary. would be an effective organizing tactic in metacognitive learning strategies. A follow-on studyis being conducted that will try to examine the relationship between student effort and the quality of References summaries. This study will investigate the Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & following questions: Day, J. D. (1981). Learning to learn: On training students to learn from texts. Edu- 1 Do learners who use concept maps as cational Researcher(February 1981), 14- metacognitive organizing strategies 21. produce summaries of technical material that reflect transforming processes? Brown, A. L., & Day, J. D. (1983). Macrorules for summarizing texts: The 2 Does the level of learner engagement in development of expertise (Technical construction of the concept maps affect Report 270 No. ERIC Document

1 1 6 121 Reproduction Service No. ED 225 136). Toward a theory of settings. Rev. Educ. Bolt, Baranek and Newman, Inc., Cam- Res., 60, 4, 517-529. bridge MA; Illinois University, Urbana, Center for the Study of Reading. Hidi, S., & Anderson, V. (1986). Producing written summaries: Task Brown, A. L., Day, J. D., & Jones, demands, cognitive operations, and impli- R. S. (1983). The development of plans for cations for instruction. Review of summarizing texts (Technical Report 268 Educational Research, 5 6(4), 473-493. No. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 225 134). Bolt, Baranek and New- Jonassen, D. H., Beissner, K., & man, Inc., Cambridge MA; Illinois Univer- Yacci, M. (1993). Structural knowledge: sity, Urbana, Center for the Study of Techniques for representing, conveying, Reading. and acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. Clarke, J. H. (1991). Using visual organizers to focus on thinking. Journal of Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. Reading, 3 4(7), 526-534. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Corno, L., & Mandinach, E. B. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement Pearson, P. D., & Raphael, T. E. in classroom learning and motivation. Edu- (1990). Reading comprehension as a cational Psychologist, 18(2), 88-108. dimension of thinking. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and Dansereau, D. F. (1985). Learning cognitive instruction. Hillsdale NJ: strategy research. In J. W. Segal, S. F. Erlbaum. Chipman, and R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills. Vol. 1., pp. 209-239. Winograd, P. N. (1983). Strategic Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. difficulties in summarizing texts No. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED Garner, R. (1990). When children 228 616). Bolt, Baranek and Newman, Inc., and adults do not use learning strategies: Cambridge MA; Illinois University, Urbana. Center for the Study of Reading.

1 1 7 122 The Meaning Of Color In Trademarks by Ed Johnson Abstract Accurately denoting colors and measuring their meanings have been long-standing challenges for scholars and artists alike. This study addresses this problem by suggesting the use of a model of cyan, magenta, and yellow primary colors, which is common in industry, but generally neglected by scholars and fine artists. For this study, over 500 fictitious trademarks were uniquely colored by using thiscommer- cial model. Respondents evaluated these trademarks in terms of 57 scales. The results found five predominant factors (or meanings). Significant relationships were found between these meanings and the presence of these three primary colors.

Introduction colleague of American professor and col- Scholars and artists have long discussed orist Albert H. Munsell (1994). Perhaps the nature of color, but failed to find a gen- because of his presence here, Munsell's sys- erally accepted system to denote specific tem became most common inAmerica. colors until the 1930s. Since then profes- Today many American fineartistsand sionals have used a three-color modelin communication scholars continue to use his photography and printing to accurately re- system. producecolors.Strangelyenough,this Unfortunately, there are at least four se- common industrial model is virtually never rious problems with the Munsell system.It used by communication scholars and fine tendsto be nominal, unbalanced, out- artists. Instead, they typically reply on ear- moded, and unconventional. lier and less satisfactory models. This paper Munsell'ssystemusesnominalterms argues that the use of this industrially ac- rather than interval levels to denote hues. cepted color model could greatly benefit Colors are merely noted in terms of being scholars whoconductcolor-relatedre- "red,""yellow,""green,""blue,"and search. "purple." This nominal system limits the ability to Models Of Color Denotation analyze research results. Nominal-level data The modern notationof color began limit the use of more powerful statistical three centuries ago when Newton created techniques that permit interval-level data his color wheel from the seven colors he (Hays, 1988). Such nominal-level data also observed in the rainbow. Waller created a make it nearly impossible for researchers to chessboard color system tomoreeffec- determine precisely when a color changes tively portray tints, shades, and hues. In from one hue to another. There is no in- 1772 Lambert added a third dimension by strument to determine when a green be- graphing color in the form of a pyramid comes a blue-green. The Munsell system (Birren,1969). A century later, Maxwell has the possibility of colors being subjec- (1877), the discoverer of the electromag- tively and inconsistently denoted. netic theory of light, was the first to mea- The problem of being unbalanced is best sure color quantitatively by the means of seen in the "Munsell Students Charts" that revolving colored disks. accompany Munsell's A Color Notation These new theories encouraged others to (1988). In it there are ten charts, one for reformulate how fine artists might perceive each hue. These ten hues are represented relationshipsamongcolors. Cheveul's with anywhere from 20 color chips (e.g. Principles of Harmony and Contrast of yellow) to 30 (e.g. red) color chips. Besides Colors (1839) greatly influenced the Im- thisdisproportionaterepresentationof pressionist movement, and the theories of hues, there are also abnormal distributions Wilhem Ostwald influencedthe German of color chips within these charts. The pat- Bauhaus' use of color. Ostwald was also a terns of these charts tend to be skewed. For

1 1 9 123 EST COPYAVAILABLE example, the color chipsfor yellow are superior to any two-color process. About heavily skewed toward the bright top of the same time, Kodak introduced its Koda- their chart. color film, using a similar three-color sys- Such an irregular model isproblematic. tem. Today all color photography is based Statistical techniques that assume a normal on this three-color principle (Mees, 1961). distribution should be avoided with such ab- Perhaps the best description of this three- normally distributed scales (Hays, 1988). color measurement of color is to be found As to being outmoded, Munsell (1988) in Hardy's The Handbook of Colorimetry originally conceived his color notationin (1936) and his subsequent articleon the 1898 as a tool to teach his color-composi- topic (1937). Following these publications, tion students. His system is based on his the Committee on Colorimetry of the Op- personal evaluation of the pigments of his ticalSociety of America(1943,1944a, day, and lacks an index for the vivid syn- 1944b, 1953) published a series of articles thetic organic pigments of today (Mayer, that present in measurable terms virtually 1985, p. 408). the same denotation of reproducible colors. Although Munsell's system is still a useful Hardy presents the three subtractive pri- tool that enables artists and scholars to maries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) and subjectively denote color, it predates mod- theircomplementarysecondaries (red, ern instruments that can measure color ob- green and blue) in terms of their specific jectively. Interestingly, Munsell's own pub- wavelengths. These six colors are based on lisher, Macbeth, sells color densitometers the "tristimulus values of the spectrum col- (Macbeth, 1989). These instruments mea- ors" (Hardy, 1936, p. 7). This color model sure color not with Munsell's notation, but is now used universally by those who repro- in terms of a more current system described duce colors through photography, graphic by the Committee on Colorimetry (1943. arts, and broadcasting. 1944a, 1944b, 1953) and discussed more The three-color model of color notation fully below. has none of the problems found inthe Regarding Munsell's system being uncon- Munsell system. Because itis the founda- ventional, professionals (such as photogra- tion for the present professional notation phers and graphic artists) who need to pre- of color, it is neither outmoded nor uncon- cisely reproduce colors virtually never use ventional. Because it allows for the interval the Munsell systemnor are they trained measurement of color, it has none of the to.For example, a student can earn a problems of nominal-level data. And be- bachelor's degree in color without once en- cause it can measure all three of its color countering the Munsell system (Brooks In- dimensions on identical scales (such as from stitute of Photography, 1969). 0 to 100 percent),itdoes not have the Because theseearliermodels, such as problems of Munsell's irregular model. On Munsell's, were inadequate for commercial the other hand, the three-color model of professionals who neededanobjective, color notation can denote all the colors of measurable model by which to reproduce the Munsell system. colors accurately, color research intensified In spite of all these advantages, commu- throughout the first half of this century. nication researchers rarely use this three- Industrial researchers continually returned coloi system. An extensive review of the to the premise that a full spectrum could be literature failed to find one example of its denoted in measurable terms by only two or use. three "primary" colors. For example, in- For these reasons, I suggest the use of the ventors between 1910 and 1930 worked on three subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, a large number of experimental color pro- and yellow) be considered by scholars and cesses for movies, including two-color pro- researchers of color in the future in place of cesses that dyed film red and blue-green.In the use of the Munsell system. 1932 the Technicolor Motion Picture Cor- poration introduced its three-color imbibi- Measuring the Meaning of Color Osgood, May, and Miron (1975) provide tion process in which dyes were transferred the to the film's gelatin coating, with results one of the most important works on 120 124 meaning of color. From a wide variety of The other group of research questions research, they summarize how different (RQ4-RQ6)predictsignificantrelation- colors tend to elicit meanings of activity, ships between these factors andspecific potency, and evaluation. colors, similar to the results found by Os- Interestingly, although Osgood wrote the good, May, and Miron (1975, p. 327). In "color solid" analysis of colorimetry (1953, summary, they found that blue related to a p. 129), he failed to address the quantitative positive evaluation, red to potency, and red measurement of color in his writings on the and yellow to activity. meaning of color. His findings lack the objective denotation of color discussed above. RQ4 Blue(cyan+magenta),andgreen Regardingthemeasurementofthe (cyan+yellow) will connote positive meaning, Osgood encourages researchers to evaluation. develop their own scales that are appropri- RQ5 Red (magenta+yellow) will connote ate to each investigated topic: "[the] crite- potency. rion in scale selection is relevance to the concepts being judged" (1978, p. 78). Os- RQ6 Red (magenta+yellow) and yellow good elaborates: will connote activity. [A]lthough there are, we believe, standard fac- Method tors of judgment, the particular scales which may, in any given research problem, best rep- Sampling resent these factors, are variable and must be Respondents were sought who approxi- carefully selected by the experimenter to suit mately represented the general population. his purposes (1978, p. 80). Intercepts in a variety of public locations (such as a restaurant, laundry, and grocery In summary then, the first purpose of this store) were used to contactrespondents present study is to show the viability of us- from in and around a major Midwest city. ing the current industrial color system of Questionnaires were completed by a total of cyan, magenta and yellow to denote a full 569 respondents during October, 1995. range of color (hopefully avoiding the po- Because this experiment was designed to tential problems of Munsell's system). The measure the effect of color, a question was second purpose is to use original scales, as asked at the conclusion of the survey in or- recommended by Osgood, to examine the der to detect those who were colorblind. meaning of these colors. The question asked people whether the re- Research Questions spondent was colorblind, with the possible responsesbeing,"yes,""slightly,"and Osgood (1975) found three basic dimen- "no."The "slightly" option was included sions of meaningevaluation, activity, and to detect those with partial colorblindness. potency. The first set of research questions Two respondents indicated that they were (RQ1-RQ3) predicts that this present study colorblind and 36 others indicated that they will find factors similar to those three di- wereslightlycolorblind.Theresponses mensions repeatedly found by Osgood. (It is from these 38 people were deleted. Of the assumed that each research question has a remaining 531 respondents, 323 indicated null hypothesis in which no significant re- that they were female and 208 male. Ages sults are predicted.) ranged from 12 to 77, with the average age RQ./ A factor will be found that is similar being 25. to Osgood's factor of evaluation. Survey Instrument RQ2 A factor will be found that is similar Respondents were each randomly assigned to Osgood's factor of activity. a one-page (11" X 8.5"), horizontal questionnaire. On the top right of the question- RQ3 A factor will be found that is similar naire was the randomly colored trademark to Osgood's factor of potency. (the stimulus material). Below it was a sentence requesting the respondent to evaluate the trademark in terms of 57 scales. The

121 125 gesture towards possibilities philosophy, cinema, television, and comics for self-definition that move of a movement away from the traditional beyond existingsetsof experience of the body and toward some social and political relations. sort of ecstatic cybernetic fusion. Radicallyoppositionalclaims The body must becomea have been made regarding cyberpunk cyborg to retain its presence in literature. Many of the apparent theworld,resituated in contradictions stem from multiple technologicalspaceand conceptions of cyborg identity.In refiguredintechnological her influential Cyborg Manifesto terms. Whether this represents a (1985/1991), Haraway notesthe continuation,asacrifice,a ironic nature of the cyborg metaphor. transcendence or a surrender of "the subject"isnot certain. From one perspective, a Elements of all three pertain, cyborg world is about the butinworks asotherwise final imposition of a grid of diverse as Neuromancer or Max control on the planet...about Headroom, Blood Music o r the final appropriation of Videodrome, the condition of women'sbodiesin a beingispresentlylistedas masculinist orgy of war. terminal. (Bukatman, 1993) From another perspective, a cyborg world might be The armored body has been depicted as aboutlivedsocialand compensating psychologically for a weak bodily realitiesin which ego or the ego disruptions resulting from a people are not afraid of blurring of identity. Arnold their jointkinshipwith Schwarzenegger's pumped-up body has animals and machines, not come to represent the figure of the cyborg afraidofpermanently in popular imagination.Most commonly partialidentitiesand the cyborg is represented as a killing contradictory standpoints. machine (which can be ally or foe to humanity). From one perspective, as Karen Cadora (1995) points out, the image Crisis of the Subject of the cyborg represents the total Back in 1983 (prior to the advent of triumph of genocidal patriarchy. public cyberspace), social theorist, Jean From another,itis"a multiply Baudrillard noted that in these postmodern positionedsubjectenabledby times the subject. has become a "terminal of technology."The image is one of multiple networks".This new subjectivity bothhopeandterror. Mary is at the heart of Scott Bukatman's book, CatherineHarper(1995)also Terminal Identity:TheVirtual Subject in discriminates between the liberatory Postmodern ScienceFiction(1993). effect the image of the cyborg is Bukatman makes a marvelous play on often seen to promote at the same words and images, forcing one to consider time as it supposedly reinstates and the "posthuman" bent of our evolution both further solidifies humanist as.an end to current identities and as a subjectivity. reconstructedidentificationwiththe computer terminal(orevenwitha Crisis of the Body "terminator" of cinematic fame). One aspect of postmodern thought involves an information age crisis of the Cinematic Cyborg body, related to the pervasive dissolution of Quite a bit of attention has already been boundaries.It is a crisis of meaning and paid to the cyborg images in films such as definition, stemming from the blurred The Terminator,Terminator2,a n d relationship of the subject to his/her own Robocop.While there is much to learn body and bodily anxiety in the face of fromthedominantcyborghunter overwhelming technology. Bukatman tells mythology (e.g., seeRushing and Frentz, us that evidence can be found in literature, 1995 and Bukatman, 1993),I am also

102 1 Z6 EST COPYAVAIIA LE interested in the somewhat more subtle Alsatia is... well...He leaves it unsaid, but cyborg imageswhicharebecoming we soon find out that she is a space-cadet increasingly prevalent in popular culture. (among other things). Science fiction films are obvious sources The General must consult with his bed- for reflection of postmodern mythology. ridden, imbecilic, four-star General father However, as the strength of this mythology (Jack Warden) before taking over the grows, we can find it's influence more company.Eventually Kenneth is buried, pervasively distributed in other genres.In along with his activated "Barrel of Laughs", this instance, I will use Barry Levinson's some other novelties, and some extremely 1992 comedy film, Toys, as a case study. long-lasting batteries.Leslie and Alsatia ride to and from the funeral in a bumper car. Cyborg Plot The General enlists his son, Patrick Zevo Keeping in mind that cyborg mythology (LL Cool J), also career military, to help concerns the relationship between humanity him overhaul the business, starting with andtechnology inpost-industrial security operations.He becomes inspired information societies,Iwill begin by by the possibilities for creating war toys and examining the cyborg discourse within starts a secret research division to develop Toys.This film has the underlying theme and test them.It quickly begins to usurp that "toys" can be life-affirming orlife- more and more of the factory space, destroying and that a deliberate effort (a literally squeezing the "happy workers" out. battle on the "field of innocence") must be Besides the new security personnel, most of made to prevent our toys from being the worker replacements are children who twisted toward corrupt purposes. A are testing video wargames in the secret secondary pointisthat weapons are restricted area and inadvertently training actually toys for the bloody-minded.Key themselves to be destructive cyborgs. elements of the film's plot which relate to Leslie determines that he must break into the cyborg metaphor follow. the restricted area to see for himself what A quietly eccentric toy manufacturer, threat it represents to the ideals of Zevo KennethZevo(playedbyDonald Toys. He is discovered and battlefield lines O'Connor), is dying and he asks his rigid are drawn. In a hopeful twist during the last career-militarybrother,Leland Zevo part of the film, Patrick switches loyalties to (Michael Gambon), a three-star General, to Leslie and Alsatia.His allegiance changes take over the presidency of histoy when he becomes enlightened asto a company. We are quickly exposed to the deception on thepartofhisfather opposition within the Zevo cyborg tradition, regarding the nature of his mother's death. as Leland and Kenneth Zevo sit across a He tells his father "I came real close to table in a confrontational truce to determine being just like you."Leslie finally stands the fate of Zevo Toys. up to his uncle, physically fighting back Starting with a camera pan down the and stating "and you thought I was a fool... length of the General's decorated military I will not let you destroy Dad's dream." figure, across his polished shoes, to a The film can easily be seen as a hero's mechanical alligator pointing toward the lit- journey, wherein Leslieis forced into up novelty shoes of Kenny.When the making the hero's initiation quest through camera moves back we soon see that he is dark and perilous waters, successfully wearing a beanie cap with a revolving battling the monstrous other (the military propeller on top.It is connected to the machine inprogress, embodied inan implanted pacemaker which will soon fail to experimentalseaswine cyborg and keep him alive. culminating in a toy war), and eventually Kenneth makes thisrequest of his emerging as a capable leader.His father antithetical brother (their father's favorite), had hoped such a confrontation would even though he has a grown son, Leslie prove the key to Leslie's growing up. Zevo (Robin Williams), and daughter, Alsatia Zevo (Joan Cusack) who are both Cyborg Characterizations completely devoted to the toy factory and Who is the cyborg in this film? In films his whimsical ideals. He explains that Leslie such as The Terminator and Terminator 2, does not have the ambition or feel ready to it seems apparent. A more appropriately- take on the responsibility of leadership and

103 127 rest of the page was filled with two columns Colored trademarks were printed by an of scales.An example ofthesurvey ink jet printer.Tests were conducted to instrument with a medium gray trademark is compare how well theseassignedcolors included at the end of this article. matched their counterparts from the Pan- For at least four reasons it seemed appro- tone ProcessColor Selector(1983)a priate to use a familiar context, such as a book designed to specify such colors. The trademark, as a vehicle by which to present ink jet printed colors had the same appear- colors. First, trademarks are ubiquitous in ance as their corresponding Pantone ex- American culture, so there is ecological va- ample.This confirmed that the trademark lidity in their use. Second, because a trade- colors do appear as they are supposed to, mark may consist of different elements and that such an experiment could be suc- such as typographycolor as an indepen- cessfully replicated later. dent variable may be somewhat masked Regarding scales, there were three sources from the respondents. Third, respondents used in compiling semantic terms to be used can project their responses onto the per- for this study. The first was used to include sonality of the company that would use those terms that are expected to be com- such colors. Fourth, national trademarks are municated by actual colored trademarks. A registered with the Department of Com- previous survey (Johnson,1994) of 125 merce, so one may compare these results corporate executives of Fortune 500 com- with the colors actually registered. panies asked the open-ended question as to (Interestingly, only seven nominal colors what specific qualities their trademarks were may be registered"red," "orange," meant toconnote. The participantsre- "yellow,""green," "blue," "purple,"and sponded with 14 different terms that be- "other"besidestheachromaticblack, came the bases for this study's scales. white, and gray.) Next, to find whether the random colors Because of these reasons, it was decided t o °being evaluated in' this study connote the present the colors to be evaluated in the same meanings as had been found in previ- form of a trademark. The initials for the ous research, the writings of Charles Os- fictitious "BFH" company were selected at good, May and Miron (1975) regarding the random. The selected typeface was Cooper meaning of color were used as this second Blacka heavy typefacethatprovided source. more inked area on the page for thecolors A final source was included in an attempt being tested. No other logo or graphic ele- to ensure are many meanings were included ment was included. All the trademarks were as possible. For this last source, responses presented on the solid white background of were gathered from 16 visual communica- the questionnaire. tions students who had been asked what A unique color was found for each trade- these randomly selected colors meant to mark on the 569 questionnaires completed. them. In an extensive review of the literature, this The lists of semantic terms from these is the only example found where random, threesourceswerecompiled.Duplicate interval-level color was used. Each trade- meanings were eliminated. Because the term mark was printed in only the three subtrac- "feminine" was included, its polar opposite tive primary colorscyan, magenta, and "masculine" was also eliminated. This re- yellow. Using a computer program to gen- sulted in a final list of 57 different semantic erate random numbers, random amounts of terms (the complete listis available from these three primary colors were found for the author). The 57 semantic terms were all 569 questionnaires. Each uniquely col- placed in alphabetical order to avoid a pos- ored trademark was then coded with a six- sible pattern of positive and negative evalu- digit identification number thatindicated ative terms. the percentage of each color. For example, The scales used with these terms reflect questionnaire number "69-42-63" indicates twomodificationsmadebyZillmann 69 percent cyan, 42 percent magenta, and (Johnson,1995) to the Osgoods' (1978) 63 percent yellow. original semantic differentials. One change is that the scales extend to "10." One advantage of this is that it allows a greater The rotation used was Varimax (the most possible range of responses. Another advan- common form of rotation). Scales with a tage is that people are accustomed to mak- factor loading of .60 or greater were kept ing evaluations on a decimal-based scale. torepresent thesefactorsin subsequent The other change is that each scale has analysis. Thirty-two scales had loadings of only one semantic term rather than a pair .60 or greater on these five factors. of polar-opposite terms. New scales offered Chromebach's alpha was used to examine a range of agreement with each single se- the scales that constitute each of these fac- mantic term, from "not at all agree" (1) to tors. The results appear sound, with the five "extremely agree"(10).Thiseliminates factors having an average Chromebach al- any possible disagreement as to the selec- pha score of 0.86 and a range from .95 to tion of pairs of terms being polar opposites. .76. These five factors account for 90 percent of the total variance examined in this Settings research (the full table is available from the As the writings of Albers (1963) shows, author). Below is a summary of each of adjacent colors can have a substantial effect these five factors. on each other. For this reason, care was "Activity" is the phrase selected to de- taken to ensure that no other color than scribe the first factor, and itclearly sup- the trademark appeared on each white ques- ports the second research question (RQ2) tionnaire. The only other thing to appear regarding "activity."The terms from 13 on the questionnaire were the scales and in- scales loaded most heavily (with loadings of structions, which were printed in black. .60 or greater) onto the first factor. These Although adjacent colors can affect per- semantictermsare"vibrant,""wild," ception, previous research by Land (1959, "upbeat," "youthful," "energetic," 1977) shows that the human eye radically "unique," "trendy,""innovative,""new," adjusts to widely differentlightsources. "sexy," "modem," "refreshing," and This is why people perceive white paper as "sociable."The phrase "active" was sub- white, whether it is viewed under green fluo- jectively selected to name this factor. This rescent, yellow incandescent, or blue north first factor accounts for 46 percent of the light;whereasconventionalcolorpho- variance examined in this factor analysis. tographs taken under these diverse settings "Up scale" is the phrase selected to de- would show marked color shifts. For this scribe the second factor. Six terms loaded reason, no extraordinaryprecaution was most heavily onto the second factor. These taken to alter the light sources of where terms are "rich," "professional," these trademarks were viewed. "sophisticated,""quality,""regal,"and "serious."This second factor accounts for Results 19 percent of the variance examined in this Five Factors of Color factor analysis. To test the first three research questions The third factor is named "nice." The six (RQ1RQ3), factor analysis was used to more terms that constitutethis factor explain the relationship among the scales in "soft," "gentle," "cozy," "quiet," "calm," terms of theirunderlyingfactors.The and "pleasant"may also represent impo- overallmeasureofsamplingadequacy tence, supporting the third research ques- (MSA) was .94 with the lowest being .83. tion (RQ3) regarding "potency." (An MSA score of .80 is generally consid- "Worn out" is the phrase used to describe ered more than adequate.) the fourth factor.It comprises the terms The Kaiser method (Rummel, 1970) was "depressing," "tired," "musty," and used to determine the number of factors to "tacky." It accounts for nine percent of the examine. In this method, only factors with variance examined, and it is the factor that eigenvalues greater than 1.00 are retained. represents a most negative evaluation. Five factors were found that met this crite- "Brassy" is the phrase used for the last rion. The skree chart was also examined to factor. It contains only three terms"big," confirm the soundness of this number of "bold," and "blunt."It accounts for only factors. four percent of the variance.

123 There is no one factor that decidedly rep- significantly depart from the normal distri- resents evaluation, and so the first research bution. These abnormal distributions are re- question is not clearly supported. One could ported here, with the original data scores argue that the first three factorsactivity, being used in a conventional manner in the up scale, and niceall represent different regression technique and reported below. aspects of positive evaluation. In the same Cyan means up scale (Figure1).The way the last two factorsworn out and greater the percentage of cyan used in a brassymay be seen as reflecting negative trademark, the higher its company tended evaluation. The support for such specula- to be evaluated in terms of being up scale. tion, though, seems questionable. Figure 1 In summary the second and third research Regression questions regarding activity and potency are Summary of Stepwise specifically supported by these results. On Analysis for VariablesPredicting the the other hand, the first research question "Up scale" Factor (N = 503) regarding evaluation is not specifically sup- Variable B SE B 13 ported. Intercept 4.36 0.13 Five Meanings of Color C yang >0.01>0.01 .26* To examine the meaning of color, a sin- Note. R2 = .07 gle scoreranging from 1 to 10was *p < .05 found for each of the five factors described above. This was done by finding the mean Up Scale Factor score of the words that constitute each factor. These mean scores were then used as 7.00 dependent variablesinfurtherstatistical 6.50 V analysis. 0 The independent variables were the ran- 6.00 dom percentages of the three primary colors present in each questionnaire's trade- c4 5.50 mark. Regression was selected as the most appropriate statistical technique to use to 5.00 test the relationship between these factors and colors. Becauseit was believed that 4.50 there may be curvilinear relationships be- 0 20 40 60 80 100 tween these sets of variables, quadratic as Percent Coloi well as linear relationships were examined. The stepwise method was used to select The greater the presence of yellow and those independent variables(colors)that magenta used in a trademark, the lower its would best predict scores for each of the company tended to be evaluated in terms of factors. For conciseness, only those models being nice (Figure ). If one were to accept are reported here that have the greatest that these "up scale" and "nice" factors are number of statisticallysignificantcolors. analogous to Osgood's factor of positive An alpha level of .05 was used to determine evaluation, then these results support the which colors to use as significant predictors fourth research question (RQ4). in each regression model. The standard statistical assumptions for regression were checked. It was found that many of the respondents tended either to agree strongly or disagree strongly with the terms used on the survey's scales. This high frequency of responses toward the extremes of the scales resulted in a distribution flatter than the conventional bell curve. Scores for kurtosis range from .55 to .82, which

124 30 BEST COPY AVy l LA. ILE Figure 2 Summary of Stepwise Regression Worn Out Factor Analysis for VariablesPredictingthe 5.00 "Nice" Factor (N = 514) 4.75 Variable B SE B Intercept 6.29 0.22 4.50 -0.01>0.01 C Yellow .19* E 4.25 Magenta2 -0.01>0.01 .19* Note. R2 = .07 4.00 *p < .05 3.75 Nice Factor 0 20 40 60 80 100 6.50 Yellow Percent Colol 6.00 IU- Contrary to the sixth research question O (RQ6), the presence of cyan and absence of `,1), 5.50 .0 yellowmeanactivity(Figure4).The greater the percentage of yellow used in a 5.00 trademark, the lower its company tended to be evaluated in terms of being active. On 4.50 the other hand, there was a curvilinear pat- 0 20 40 60 80 100 tern found with the color cyan. Companies - Yellow Percent Cola tended to be evaluated the lowest in terms of activity where there is about 40 percent Magenta cyan used, but evaluated highest with 100 percent cyan. Yellow means worn out. The greater the percentage of yellow used in a trademark, Figure 4 the higher its company tended to be evalu- Summary of Stepwise Regression ated in terms of being worn out (Figure 3). Analysis for VariablesPredictingthe If the "worn out" factor is analogous to po- "Activity" Factor (N = 511) tency, the results fail to support the fifth research question (RQ5). Variable B SE B Intercept 4.96 0.32 Figure 3 Cyan -0.03 0.01 .16* Summary of Stepwise Regression Yellow -0.01>0.01 Analysis for VariablesPredicting the .11* "Worn Out" Factor (N = 511) Cvan2 >0.01>0.01 .09* Note. R2 = .05 Variable B SE B *p < .05 Intercept 3.87 0.14 Yellow2 >.01 >.01 .12* Note. R2 = .02 *p < .05

125 3 in doing scholarly research. These results Activity Factor show that this color model can be success- 6.00 fully used, with all the benefits described previously. Among them is the ability to 5.50 use interval measures of colorinhigher `c75 Z5.00 statistical analysis. The second purpose isto examinethe 4.50 meaning of these three colors. The results related to this are discussed below. 4.00 Color Factors 3.50 The factors found in this study appear to 0 20 40 60 80 100 generally approximate the findings of Os- Yellow Percent Colo! good (1978). The firstresearch question Cyan (RQ1) is not clearly supported. Whereas there was no one factor found that clearly Cyan and magenta mean brassy (Figure represents Osgoods' evaluative factor,it 5). The greater the percentage of cyan and could be argued that "up scale" and "nice" magenta used in a trademark, the higher its are aspects of positive evaluation. company tended to be evaluated in terms of The second research question (RQ2) was supported, with this study producing a fac- being brassy. tor for activity, as Osgood had also previ- Figure 5 ously found. The third research question Summary of Stepwise Regression (RQ3) also seems to be supported, with the Analysis for VariablesPredictingthe factor of being "worn out"relating to po- "Brassy" Factor (N = 515) tency.

Variable B SE B 13 Meanings of Colors Intercept 5.25 0.20 The meanings found in this study are only Cyan2 >.01 >.01 .20* somewhat successful in approximating the >.01 >.01 .08* findings of Osgood (1978). The presence of Magenta2 cyan in trademarks that scored higher as Note. R2 = .05 being up scale and nice supported the fourth *p < .05 research question (RQ4). This is in line with Brassy Factor several of our culture'sclichés,such as 7.00 royal blue, true blue, and blue blooded. The presence of yellow related to being 6.50 worn out, which fails to support the fifth 0 research question (RQ5).Yellow(along t/I with magenta) make red, which Osgood's 6.00 finding suggest should mean potent.Per- haps respondents tend to recognize yellow 5.50 as' an index of deterioration. They mayfind yellow reminds them of items that are worn 5.00 out, such as old yellow papers or clothe. 0 20 40 60 80 100 The respondents to this survey tended to see companies as being more activewhen Cyan Percent Colo] thetrademarkscontainedasubstantial Magenta amount of cyan while lacking yellow,fail- ing to support the sixth research question Discussion (RQ6). While there is no obvious reason The first purpose of this study is to showwhy these results should be different from the viability of using the commercial pri- Osgood's, there are a number of possible mary colors of cyan, magenta, and yellow explanations, discussed below.

126

132 Practical Significance. As an example of the temporary aspect, Although these regression results may be the Color Association of the United States statistically significant, there remains the and the Color Marketing Group annually question as to their practical significance. predicteachyear'sfashionablecolors. The amount of variance accounted for in Samples of these colors are published each each of these regression models ranges from year inCommunication Art.As this tem- only two to seven percent (R2 = .02 to poral aspect dictates a change in colors .07). indicatingcurrentasopposedtopasse This suggests that the color of trademarks itemsso too mayothermeaningsof has a slight, albeit statisticallysignificant, color, such as activity, be transient over effect on how people evaluate companies. time. For example, theseresultspredictthat Convention is another arbitrary aspect. changing certain colors may tend to cause Perhaps several actual companies in one in- people to change their opinion of a com- dustry also share one predominant color in pany by a point or so on a ten-point scale. theirtrademarks.Respondentsmaybe Although such a change may be subtle,it conditioned to recognize thisassociation could still prove substantially beneficial to between color and industrial factor, where that company. they may fail to recognize such a relation- Color is only one element in the whole ship in other items, such as the ones Os- gestalt of a trademark. It works with the good describes. other elements, much as the rhythm sec- Yet another reason why the Osgood's tion of a band supports a song's melody. findings are different from these findings is The use of color in a trademark can har- that the denotation of cyan, magenta, and monizetheothergraphicelementsto yellow may have revealed more informa- present a pleasing, unified message. Just as a tion than was possible previously with less slight change in a tertiary note in music can precise colors. change a chord from major to minor, so the A final possibility of thedifferencein discord in the graphic elements of a trade- findings may be that the scales used in this mark may disruptitsintendedmeaning. present study offer a different fitfor the The musician has the advantage of already true underlying meanings of color in trade- having a generally accepted, codified set of marks. If so, then this is an example of the chords that become the basis for his or her very reason why Osgood advocated using creativity. The graphic artist lacks such an original scales rather than standardized fac- advantage and must rely solely on his or her tors. intuition in assembling a visual image. The Implications result of this research is offered as a tool to There are two main implications from help the commercial artist. It offers a guide these results. The first is for the commer- to selecting colors that may better harmo- cial artist. When there are opportunities to nize with a company's intended image. select colors for trademarks, the artist may Theoretical Rationale For these Findings want to consider the possible meanings of Although Osgood spent hislife seeking color found in this study. The second impli- universals of meaning (1975),henever cation is that these results show the viabil- claimed to have found themnot even for ity of using the measurement of cyan, ma- color. Part of the reason may be due to the genta, and yellow inacademicresearch. fact that color isoften an arbitrarily as- This study calls for the use of the profes- signed symbol (Buehler, 1955, p.112). The sional color model of cyan, magenta, and meaning of color may vary with time and yellow to become the conventional measure convention. in future scholarly research of color.

127 33 Johnson, E. (June,1994). An examination References of the meanings of trademarks and their Albers, J. (1963). Interaction of color. New graphic elements. Paper presented at Vis- Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Corn '94-Eighth Annual Visual Com- Birren, F. (1969) The color primer: A basic munication Conference, Sierra City, CA. treatise on the color system of Wilhelm Johnson, E. A. (1995). The Meaning of Ty- Ostwald. New York: Van Nostrand Rein- pography. Unpublished doctoral disserta- hold Co. tion, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. Brooks Institute of Photography.(1969). Kodak. (1995). Kodak Color Print Viewing Brooks Student Catalog. Santa Barbara, Filter Kit. Rochester, NY: Kodak Books. CA: Brooks Institute of Photography. Land, E. H. (1959). Experiments in Color Buehler,J.(Ed.).(1955).Philosophical Vision. Scientific American, 200, (5). pp. Writings of Peirce. New York: Dover 84-99. Publications. Land, E. H. (1977). The retinex theory of Chevreul, M. E. (1839). The principles of color vision.Scientific American, 237, harmony and contrast of colours, and (6). pp. 108-128. their applications to the arts.London: Henry G. Bohn. Macbeth.(1989). Munsell Color.Balti- more, MD: Munsell Color. Committee on Colorimetry, Optical Soci- ety of America. (1943). Journalof the Maxwell, J. C. (1877). Matter and motion. optical society of America, 33, (10). pp. New York: Dover Publications 544-554. Mayer, R. (1985). The artist's handbook of Committee on Colorimetry, OpticalSoci- materials and techniques. (4th Ed.). New etyofAmerica.(1944a).ThePsy- York: The Viking Press. chophysics of Color. Journal of the optical society of America, 34, (5). pp. 245- Mees, C. E. (1961). From dry plates to 265. Ektachrome film: A story of photographic research. New York: Zif-Davis Publishing Committee on Colorimetry, OpticalSoci- Co. ety of America. (1944b).Quantitative Data and Methods for Colorimetry. Jour- Munsell, A. H. (1988). A color notation. nal of the optical society of America._34, Baltimore: Macbeth. (11). pp. 633-688. Osgood, C. E. (1953). Method andtheory Committee on Colorimetry, Optical Soci- in experimental. psychology. NewYork: ety of America. (1953). The scienceof Oxford University Press. color. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J. & Tannenbaum, Communication Arts.(1995).Color Pre- P. H. (1978). The measure of meaning. dictions. Communication Arts. Palo Alto, Urbana: University of Illinois Press. CA: Coyne & Blanchard. Osgood, C., May, W. H., & Miron,M. S. Hardy, A. C. (1937). The theory of three- (1975). Cross-cultural universalsof af- color reproduction. Journal of the optical fective meaning. Urbana: Universityof society of America, 27, (7). pp. 227-40. Illinois Press. Hardy, A. C., & Wurzburg, F. L. (1936). Pantone. (1983). Pantone ProcessColor Handbook of Colorimetry.Cambridge, Selector. Moonachie, NJ: Pantone. MA: The Technology Press. Rummel, R.J.(1970).Applied Factor Hays, W.L. (1988).Statistics.(4thed.). Analysis.Evanston,IL: Northwestern Fort Worth, TX: Holt,Rinehart and University Press. Winston. 26. Mysterious 1avittNot at all 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely8 9 au= 10 29.28.27. PlainPeople-orientedNew 1 2 33 44 55 6 7 8 9 10 Number: 50-50-50 32.31.30. ProfessionalPrecisePleasant 1 2 33 44 55 6 7 8 9 10 Pleaseagree that circle each the word most describes appropriate the BFHnumber company. to indicate how strongly you 35.34.33. RefreshingQuiet Quality 11 22 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2.1. Adventurous 1agreeNot at all, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Extremely 9 agree 10 38.37.36. RichRegalRomantic 1 2 3 4 5 6 77 88 9 10 5.4.3. BluntBigBeautifulAttentive 1 2 3 44 5 6 7 8 99 10 41.40.39. SexySociable Serious 1 2 3 4 55 66 7 8 99 1010 co" 8.7.6. CalmBoringBold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1010 45.44.43.42. SoftSterileSophisticatedStrong 11 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10 10.9. Clean Classy 1 22 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 48.47.46. TackyStuffySympathetic 11 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10 14.13.12.11. CozyEarthyConservativeConfident 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 50.49. TraditionalTired 1 2 3 44 5 6 7 88 9 10 16.15. Energetic Depressing 1 2 3 44 55 66 7 8 99 10 53.52.51. Unique TrendyTrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1010 20.19.18.17. GentleFeminineInnovativeGaudy 1 22 33 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 57.56.55.54. YouthfulWildVibrantUpbeat 1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 99 10 24.23.22.21. ModernLeader InvitingHostile 1 2 3 44 55 66 7 8 99 10 Finally, three last questions about you:60.59.58. WhatAre sexis are you? 1) Female you color blind? 1) Yes your age? 2) Slightly 2) Male 3) No 25. Musty 135 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Thank you very much for your help! 136 An Opportunity For Visual Literacy In The K-4 Classrooms Of Ohio By Colleen M. Sexton and John C. Bel land

Abstract The Ohio School Net Plus initiative provides $400,000,000.00 to transform K-4 publicclass- rooms in Ohio with computers, software and professional development. This dramatic change affords the opportunity to introduce visual literacy concepts into primary education. Someprelimi- nary efforts have been made, but substantial additional work remains to be done.

Scenario cally learned though not planned for arise. Ms. On Tuesday morning, the third grade students A believes it is important to eliminate this hid- in Ms. A's room were clumped about the room, den curriculum and to openly plan for and cre- some around a white board, some madly scrib- ate opportunities where lifelong learning skills bling on paper, and others gathered around a can be fostered. Projects such as the electronic computer monitor. This was not a special morn- play program provided students the opportunity ing but rather typical of the kind of work the to collaborate by recognizing that one can learn children in Ms. A's class do. The project for from the experiences others bring to the learn- the past few days was to prepare an electronic ing environment. Cooperative skills which are program for the school's Spring Dinner The- necessary to come to group consensus on par- ater. The students that were collaborating with ticular concepts were emphasized in this project. a group of sixth graders who produced the They enhanced the interactive experiences, printed play program, were gathered around the decreased competitiveness, and promoted a white board refining their interview questions more collaborative view of learning. Commu- for the student actors in the play. The group nication skills grew as the students clearly ar- scribbling on papers were brainstorming pos- ticulated their ideas and understandings of the sible layouts for their electronic program. Co- work done by others. operation among all by accepting and listen- Ms. A believes that all of her students can ing to each other's ideas brought forth a cre- learn, that each may not learn the same way or ative layout design that morning. The group the same things, and that it is important to give around the computer monitor were actively each student a variety of opportunities to dem- engaged in a discussion about a drawing cre- onstrate how he or she is smart. She tries to ated by one of the students using drawing soft- provide experiences that are meaningful to the ware on the computer. Communicating their learner, to encourage the student to make real ideas, listening to one another, and sharing decisions, and to provide the students opportu- constructive comments led to the creation of a nities to refine their thinking and deepen their beautiful opening page for their electronic play understanding of a concept. This occurs by program. By opening night the students had developing understandings of concepts within created a Hyperstudio document with buttons real world contexts so that each student con- that led to a separate page about each student structs her or his understanding of the concept actor or helper involved in the play. As guests by direct experiences. This constructivist phi- entered the school, waiting for their table, they losophy of learning underpins each experience could sit at one of the four computers setup in Ms. A shares with her third grade students. the hallway, go through the Hyperstudio stacks, Wouldn't it be wonderful if Ms. A were and read about the evening's performers. cloned; that all children could be actively en- What indicators of success could Ms. A iden- gaged learners; that all classrooms were learn- tify through projects such as these? While the ing environments that used multiple tools to end product has value in teaching particular assist learners in creating richer understandings concepts within given disciplines, skills typi- of concepts; that communication among learn- 131 137 ers was increased so that teachers could listen be different, how the teacher's role will change, for misconceptions; and where all learners how the use of technology in the classroom fits could have quick access to current information. into the district's continuous improvement plan, A strong desire to create these powerful learn- and how they describe a technology-rich learning environments exists among many of the ing environment. Districts are asked to describe stakeholders involved in education in Ohio. the kinds of things that will be happening in the classroom as a result of the addition of com- School Net Initiatives puters, and most importantly to describe their present benchmarks and their future indicators The initial catalyst for this dramatic change was a program known as School Net. The of success. School districts are encouraged to think "out- School Net initiative enables every classroom within school buildings to be networked for side of the box" with this application, while raising proficiency scores is an important indi- voice, video, and data access. The school dis- cator of success for educators in Ohio, one must tricts identified as "low wealth districts" by the ask if it is the only measure? Placing a com- state also receive a workstation for each of their classrooms. The SchoolNet funding, however, puter in a classroom may make a student more efficient. It can provide access to multiple re- does not address the need for connectivity between participating schools. It is the responsi- sources previously not available. It can assist with communication skills, and so on and so bility of individual districts to support this con- on, but that alone will not raise test scores. Life- nectivity. long learning skills, like those fostered in Ms. An extension of SchoolNet was a focus on K-4 learners called SchoolNet Plus. It is be- A's room, are more readily achievable goals that ultimately can impact on increasing proficiency lieved that exposure to computer technology during the primary grades will promote lifelong scores. Of course to reach such goals, Professional learning habits that will follow a child through- Development is of vital importance. The out their formal years of schooling and beyond. SchoolNet Plus initiative allows school districts Through this initiative school districts were al- to make decisions on how to spend their allo- located funds to provide one computer workstation for every five children in grades K cation. They are strongly encouraged to divide their funds among hardware, software, and pro- through 4, provide appropriate software, and fessional development. Conditions within some conduct professional development for teachers. school buildings prompted the legislators to To date out of the 611 school districts within allow school districts to apply up to 10% of Ohio, 578 districts have applied for SchoolNet those dollars toward electrical wiring upgrades. funding and well over 550 of these are actively Professional development can come in many moving forward with their plans for implement- forms. Some districts are opting for the initial ing the computer technology into their teach- quick fix, teach teachers how to turn on the ing and learning environment. computer, how to use various software appli- The SchoolNet Plus initiative is not strictly cations, and what to do when minor problems about hardware. It is designed to create learn- arise. The thinking along these lines tends to ing environments such as the one provided by be, get them on technology first, get them com- Ms. A. Any school district applying for their fortable with it, then we'll worry about how to SchoolNet Plus allocation must have in place a integrate it into the classroom. Another group technology plan. This plan should reflect the allo- philosophy which underpins the use of technol- believe in one-stop shoppinggive your cation to a vendor who will provide hardware, ogy in the classroom. Each district is required training, and a packaged curriculum with vary- to complete an application which paints a pic- ing degrees of adaptability to the existing cur- ture of how they see their philosophy being put riculum. This quick fix eliminates themulti- into practice. School districts are asked to ex- tude of decisions that must be made wheninte- plain how they believe: technology can be a grating technology into the curriculumeffec- catalyst for change, how the student's role will 132 138 BEST COPYAVAILABLE tively. The benefits and downsides of this de- students). The second round of funding is for cision are a subject for a doctoral dissertation. $150 million. An additional $125 million is A third approach to professional development expected in future allocations. The first round has been a combination of technology and phi- of dollars were available to all school districts, losophy; training on the hardware, reflective and the legislation for the second round targeted 459 thought provoking discussions about software out of 613 districts based on the following cri- purchases, and cooperative development of les- teria: 1) have an FY95 adjusted valuationper sons designed to integrate new tools into the pupil below $110,000 and an FY94 adjusted teaching and learning environment. expenditure per pupil below $5,218, 2) have The School Net office has supporteda vari- an FY96 total ADM of at least 9000 and an ety of training opportunities within regional FY95 ADC percent of at least 18%,or 3) have communities throughout the state. Local deci- an FY95 adjusted valuation per pupil below sions guided the types of professional develop- $60,000. Non-targeted districts are expected ment opportunities during the Summer of 1996. to provide a dollar for dollar match toaccess During the 1996-97 school year, regional their funds. To assist non-targeted districts,we SchoolNet Faculty are supported throughout the have defined a match as any money spent by state with the charge of assisting districts with the district since the SchoolNet Plus legislation technology-related concerns and creating op- was enacted. So long as they can demonstrate portunities for teachers to become more effec- that they have spent a given amount ofmoney tive in integrating technology into their teach- they can receive an equal amount not to exceed ing. Teachers within districts throughout the their identified allocation. state are taking part in team action research As we move into the second round of fund- projects with additional state funding to study ing, we want to obtain a clear picture of where the impact technological applications haveon each district is in moving their technology plan their learning environment. The SchoolNet forward. To this end, we have designed thesec- office entered into a contract with the ond round application to be an accounting of Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Science where each district is, what is happening in and Mathematics resources to co-develop with individual K-4 buildings within the district, and local teachers a template for evaluating K-4 where the K-4 teachers are in their skills with science and mathematics software, to trainrep- technology and in applying them in their class- resentative teachers from each region of the room.It would be ideal if all districts could state on how to use the template, and to work simply pull the application off of our web site with that trained group to evaluate the software or from the special list server we have set up to available to the Clearinghouse. The results of field SchoolNet Plus questions and concerns. those evaluations are found on a web site spon- However, until all have access we've opted for sored by the Clearinghouse and designed to call sending each district a disk with the question- up entries from a variety of categories. The naire on it. The district liaison, typically the trained teachers are charged with either creat- technology coordinator, will complete one sec- ing opportunities to train additional teachers tion; each K-4 building principal will elec- within their district on how to use this template tronically complete a second section; and each to evaluate mathematics and science software, K4 teacher will be asked to complete aques- or they can charge individual school districts tionnaire on an electronically-read response to provide this service for them as the district sheet. These data will provide an understand- begins to make decisions on software purchases ing of how the first year monies were distrib- with their SchoolNet Plus dollars. uted among hardware, software, staff develop- The SchoolNet Plus initiative is moving into ment, and electrical upgrades, as well as pro- its second round of funding. Initially thestate vide a baseline for comparison once future al- allocated $122 million dollars for thedistricts locations for SchoolNet Plus are appropriated to be distributed at $171.79per K-4 ADM (av- by the legislature. erage daily membership, equivalent to enrolled 133 1 3 9 We are convinced that technology can be a understanding images will be addressed in new catalyst to invigorate the learning environment. and interesting ways. Rich powerful learning experiences can be cre- For example, in the example provided above, ated through proper implementation of multi- Ms A's students used drawing and painting soft- media tools. The School Net Plus legislative ware to generate art to be used for the school's initiative in Ohio may state that schools must upcoming dramatic activity. It would be inter- strive for a 1 to 5 computer to student ratio, but esting to examine how the creation of art dif- while reaching that goal we've created some- fers when executed on the computer as opposed thing much more dynamic. The computers cre- to traditional tools available to primary-grade ate a physical presence which can not be ig- learners (Fein, 1993). In addition, if a scanner nored A presence, that when properly used, can were available, it would be interesting to study develop and enhance lifelong learner skills for just how young learners began to combine me- all learners regardless of age. dia in the computer workspace and to evaluate how the resulting images functioned in the ImplicationsVisual Literacy school and personal lives of these learners. Just because there is an enormous infusion Literacy objectives of technology into kindergarten through fourth During the time in school when traditional grade in every public classroom in Ohio, this literacies are emphasized in the curriculum, it does not necessarily mean that any attention will will be interesting to see if adding visual lit- be given to visual literacy. In fact, in some situ- eracy experiences will prove useful in the de- ations, the policy-makers in local districts have velopment of learners' abilities. For example, chosen to purchase so-called integrated learn- will creating electronically based, illustrated ing systems which focus on the tutorial presen- stories increase the meaning young learners tation and drill/practice of very traditional cur- derive from written and spoken language. Can riculum content in the form of compartmental- learners experience the idea that the images ized knowledge. However, since the equipment drawn by an adult to illustrate a story are only standard for the machines to be purchased with one possible alternative in visualizing the mean- SchoolNet Plus funds must be high-end ver- ings of the story? What kinds of special mean- sions of either Macintosh or Windows 95 ma- ings can only be expressed iconically? How chines (the processor speeds must be above 100 can simple electronic photography anddigital MHz, include a CD-ROM drive, and must have video help make meaning while encouraging the PCI-bus architecture), these machines af- self expression? What are the fundamental ford exciting possibilities for visual experimen- components of a visual language (Moriarity, tation and visualization experiences. 1994)? How are visual languages mediated by Art objectives culture? Primary-grade learners in Ohio have access to extraordinary tools for these explora- For some teachers and learners, the techno- tions. logical environment will simply provide a new set of tools to use to be expressive in the visual Vistialization objectives realm. In these settings, the goals will be more There are innumerable opportunities for the oriented to artistic expression rather than ex- development of visualization experiences with plorations in visualization or generating explicit the computer platforms available to K-4 learn- ideas about extracting meaning from different ers. Mental rotations can be externalizedand visual forms. Of course, if teachers and stu- modeled on the computer screen. Animations dents reflect on the creative process used in which zoom in on map details and which dy- generating the art and if they use critiques to namically illustrate complex processes canbe encourage understanding of the pubicknowl- displayed under the control of the learner.Vi- edge creation which can be associated with sual transformations such as fromperspective works of art at any level, then those visual lit- views to orthographic ones can be animated as eracy objectives which focus on producingand 134 140 well so that young learners can begin to inter- themselves in a representation of a school li- pret diagrammatic information with fluency brary media center. In Figure 1, the learner is (Salomon, 1987). Just how these experiences looking from the outside of the media center will affect primary grade learners is not known, through the door. Using animation software, Figure 1 the student is able to VIEW FROM OUTSIDE THE LIBRARY/MEDIA CENTER move her/himself through the door to explore the inside. Questions which ask the learner to anticipate what the layout of the media center will be using cues from the image and also from N thefloorplan shown in Figure threehelpthe learner begin to comprehend differing points of view and accomplish mental rotations. Figure. 2, which but there is work in progress by Phi lleo (1996) represents an interior view of the media center in mental rotations and location in space, and illustrates just one of the infinite number of Wilkens (1996) in virtual reality which should views which learners can investigate on their begin to offer some understanding of the po- computer screens. This work should build the tential for these technologies. An example of sort of literacy which will help in orienting in Philleo's work is represented in Figures 1-3. space for map reading and the like. In his work, young learners are asked to orient Image-process-

Figure 2 ing objectives LEFT INTERIOR OF THE LIBRARY/MEDIA CENTER Image processing allows inquiry into science and mathematics topics through the use of image transformations. Images which use colors to indicate elevation can be used to calculate very complicated things such as the volume of water in a pond or lake.Infrared images can be used to 135 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 141 Figure 3 propriate for primary- grade learners. This pa- FLOOR PLAN OF THE LIBRARY/MEDIA CENTER per is an invitation to all interested in visual literacy to understand the opportunity SchoolNet Plus has provided in Ohio. As thisinitiativeis brought to life in all K-4 public classrooms in the state, there will be many ideas competing for attention as curricula are re- formed to take advantage of the resources. What will visual literacy scholars contribute to this transformation?

References Eisenhower Regional Consortia. (1995). Prom- ising practices in math- calculate energy use. Even if the objective is ematics and science education. Columbus: not calculation, imaging techniques can assist Eisenhower National Clearinghouse, 165p. learners in separating figure from ground, find- Fein, S. (1993). First drawings: Genesis of vi- ing animals in the dark, and many other things sual thinking.Pleasant Hill, CA: Exelrod (Eisenhower Clearinghouse, 1995).User Press, 139p. friendly image-processing software will run Fisher, C. et. al. (1996). Education and tech- well on SchoolNet Plus computers. It remains nology: Reflections on computing in class- to be seen whether teachers will avail them- rooms. San Francisco: Jossey-B ass,316p. selves of the opportunities afforded by this set Moriarty, S. (1994). Visual communication as of techniques. a primary system. The Journal of %4sualLit- eracy, 11, 1, p11-22. Conclusion Philleo, T. (1996). Visualization skills mani- Itis too early to tell whether the technologi- fest by intermediate-grade students. Unpub- cal revolution in K-4 classrooms in Ohio will lished dissertation proposal. Salomon, G. (1987). Interaction of media, cog- result in increased visual literacy. Substantial research and development is needed to ascer- nition, and learning. San Francisco: Jossey- tain what strategies, materials and purposes are Bass, 282p. Wilkens, R. (1996). Virtual reality as an op- the most powerful foci for increasing visual literacy. It is also necessary to find out what vi- portunity to visualize. Personal communica- sual literacy strategies are developmentally ap- tion. September, 1996.

136 Visual Fidelity and Learning via Computer-Based Simulations by Glen A. Holmes

Abstract This paper is founded upon the belief that human behavior is observable, measurable, and predictable. Successful attempts to quantify behavior known to occur in learning environments such as the K-12 classroom may lead toward the development of useful tools that aid educational practitioners in refining their own pedagogical knowledge and skill.This paper proposes a strategy for investigating such an idea.

Introduction end-userstostudyand/or analyzethese Computersserveasconvenientand behaviors and perhaps, serve a useful purpose efficient tools for modeling and analyzing the in the preparation of teachers (pre-service behavior of real systems in other words, and/or in-service) for real world experiences. conducting simulations.Whereas modeling Thestrategyproposed below is an describes what a system is (for example, aggregationof ideas associated with appearanceandtechnicalspecifications), knowledge-based simulations, behavior simulation can demonstrate what a system observations,visualization,and the team does. approach to product development. Visualizationisalsoimportantwhen designingsimulations. Itisonlyafter Knowledge Based Simulations something is visualized that a simulation can Knowledge-based simulations use special be used to investigate its behavior (Adams, knowledge to boost run-time performance 1994). However, just how much visual detail and fidelity, often relying upon disciplines isnecessarytoeffectivelycommunicate such as game and probability theory for during a simulation is debatable. Some argue implementation (Adams, 1994).These type that,themoredetailofferedthrough of simulations use predicate calculus and if- visualization, the better the communication of then reasoning to achieve results and are well ideas. Other suggest that details of the media suitedforapplicationsthatpredictthe used during simulation may interfere with the likelihood of an event's occurrence. By message being conveyed (McCloud, 1993). broadly defining a game to be any activity, In the case ofclassroom behavior enterprise, situation, or endeavor between or simulations, one might argue that increased amongst humans and combining this with levels of abstraction may allow users to more probabilitytheory,speculativescenarios closely identify with characters (objects) of (e.g., classroom situations) can be analyzed. the simulation and, consequently, gain more from the learning experience. DifficultiesinQuantifyingHuman Visualizationaddsmeasurement,color, Behavior quantification,qualification, andother One way to gather data on human behavior attributes to abstract phenomena. It provides is through repeated observations followed by a sense of purpose, making concrete what some technique to reduce and quantify the otherwise, may exist only as a product of data collected. One such reduction technique one's imagination. is that of Flanders' Interaction Analysis.In Classrooms can be viewed as educational this procedure, a recorder makes observations microsystems in which a variety of human ofclassroombehaviorandtalliesthe behaviors (both teaching and learning) might behavior according to some classification occur. Likewise, effectiveclassroom scheme -- either a sign system where only simulations canprovide opportunities for specific behaviors identified in advance are

137 143 recorded, or a category system, where itis continuum represented by two-dimensional, assumed that all behaviors, regardless of their stick-figuredrawingsandvirtualspace, nature, can be classified in some way. The combined with real-time knowledge systems behavior frequencies are then translated to a (i.e., databases).Figure 2-4 illustrates three matrix (see Figure 1) for subsequent analysis. examplesofwherepointsalongthis Typically, the overall observation period does continuum might exist. not exceed 20 minutes with tallies being Three-dimensionalvirtualreality(VR) recordedatapproximately3-4second constitutes the other end of the continuum intervals. and is an environment worth examining for its ability to add visual depth and meaning Figure 1 Example of behavior frequency count (left Figure 2 column) translated into behavioral Low Fidelity analysis matrix (10 rows X 3 columns)

Figure 3 Medium Fidelity

The category system is usually preferred over the sign system because of itsdynamic nature and more exhaustive approach to ** quantifying behavior. Examples of verbal teaching behaviorsincludereinforcing, questioning, lecturing, and the like. Illustrativeexamplesofstudentverbal behaviors include initiating, responding, and Figure 4 so on.Behaviors not falling within these High Fidelity general boundaries are said to be indicative of noise or confusion and are recorded as such.

Depicting Classroom Behavior Via Computer Simulation. How can computers be used to visually, aurally, interactively, or otherwise, simulate classroombehavior? Fromavisual perspective,the answer tothisquestion probablyliessomewherebetween the 138 44 to simulations.VR offers navigation and Videographers and graphic artists bring the three-dimensional viewing of worlds in real visualexpertiserequiredtoguidethe time while allowing users to move with six selection and/or creation of images used to degrees of freedom: forward/back, up/down, realistically (or abstractly) represent human left/right, pitch up/down, angle left/right, and behavior. Varying degrees of image realism rotateleft/right(Von Schweber & Von mustbegeneratedinordertomake Schweber, 1995). The user's role shifts from comparisons, etc. aimed at arriving at optimal being passive to that of becoming involved. fidelity levels. As a clone of physical reality, users "exist" in Instructional designers assess needs, design three dimensions, experience reality in real instructional components, propose effective time, and have the ability to interact with strategiesfordeliveringinstruction,and imaginary space surrounding them. Whereas evaluate outcomes of the instruction.The interaction type (e.g., "fly-through" versus psychologists assists in the quantification of "reactive") defines a VR experience, level of human behavior -- namely, teaching and/or interfacing (e.g., "through-the-window," "into learning. Educational researchers participate the room," and "immersive") enhances it. in the identification, collection and analysis An ever-increasing number of of data used to create the knowledge base computerized tools are emerging which offer component of the simulation.The project assistance inbuildingartificialworlds. managerserves multiple roles_while Different products (Cyberspace Developer's assuming primary responsibility for Kit, World ToolKit for Windows, VR Creator scheduling, identifying additional resources, and the like) support several types and levels and the like. of interaction and immersion. Many of these Information Resources.A number of software tools allow linkages to be made electronic databases will be evaluated and between the finished product and external utilized to generate the knowledge base for databases anessentialfeaturefor the simulation. Several CDROMs of this type demonstratingandanalyzingclassroom existandarecurrentlyavailable(e.g., behavior via simulation. National Longitudinal Study 1988, Education Statistics,and the like).Several previous Developing a Plan of Action investigations employing older technology Research Team. For the purposes of this will be reviewed to compare methodology, project it was essential to organize a team of analysis and research findings (Strang, et al., individuals with varying levels of experience 1991; Strang, et al., 1989; Strang & Booker, and expertise. Toward this end, a core team 1984; Strang & Booker, 1983). has been formed and consists of at least one, Developmental Tools. Newer and sometimes several of the following: technologiesandsoftwareproductswill computer programmers, instructional continuously be reviewed for their capability designers,videographers,graphicartists, toprovideaprogramming environment behavioral psychologists, educational robust enough to complete the project in a researchers, and a project manager. timely manner. Where necessary,several The role that programmers will playis products will be combined to achieve results. critical and may appear obvious. Hardware is currently limited either to a Notwithstanding,such individualsmust Pentium-based environment or UNIX demonstratemastery-levelcompetencyin workstation. It should be noted that hardware object oriented languages (e.g., C++, Visual selection is based largely upon availability BASIC, etc.), as well as multimedia authoring andcurrentperformanceratingsandis environments (e.g., Authorware, Toolbook, subject tO change at any time. and Director), and three-dimensional Time Line.The feasibility of such an animation programs (e.g., 3-D Studio). undertaking will be evaluated periodically

139 and regularly.As a part of the formative Strang,H.R. & Booker, A.(1984). A evaluation process, decisions will be made to microcomputer-based simulation of either proceed with the project as originally classroom interaction.Journal of planned, alter the current course of action, or EducationalTechnologySystems, abandon the project altogether. Weekly 12(3), pp. 209-19. meetings are planr.ed with all participants Strang,H.R.,etal.(1991). A self providingprogressreportsonany new administered simulation for training developments which might benefit their own basic classroom skills. Computers in immediate needs or the team as a whole.If the Schools, 8(1 -3), pp. 229-43. the "green light" to proceed is retained, the Strang, H. R., et al. (1989). Talking with the team will develop a rapid prototype of the computer: A simulation for training simulation,conductapilottestofits basic teaching skills.Teaching and functionality, and then move quickly to seek Teacher Education, 5(2), pp. 143-53. additionalfundingfor expansionof the Strang, H. R., et al. (1987). Microcomputer- model. based simulations for training fundamental teaching skills. Journal References of Teacher Education, 38(1), pp. 20- Adams, L. (1994). Visualization & virtual 26. reality: 3D programming with visual Strang,H.R. & Booker,A.(1983). basicfor windows. McGraw-Hill, Microcomputer-based simulationin New York, New York. training, elementary teachers. Chorafas, D. N. & Steinmann, H. (1995). Educational Technology, 23(10), pp. Virtual reality: Practical applications 30-31. in business and industry. Prentice Von Schweber, L. & Von Schweber, E. Hall,inc., Englewood Cliffs, New (1995). Virtually here. PC Jersey. Magazine, March 14. McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. Kitchen Sink Press, Inc., Northampton, MA.

140 148 Design Issues Adapting a Visual Paper-and-Pencil Test to the Computer: A Case Study The Figure Classification Test By James M. Washington Jr.

Abstract This paper documents some issues in a project assignment to convert the Figure Classification Test to the computer. The intent is to illuminate these issues, andto outline major questions. A brief description of the original paper-and-pencil test is followedby a description of the project's computer program, revealing part of the decision-making process that went into this implementation. Results from observation of initial users of the program are followed by some concluding thoughts. Although an initial philosophy of "faithfulness to the original test" produced an ultimately workable test project, observation of persons taking the computer-based test revealed opportunities for improvement.

Introduction pictures are grouped according to some As effortinthefieldof teaching rule, such as "the shapes in Group 1 have continues to move toward gray shading, and, in Group 2, the shapes computerization, the idea of testing on do not have gray shading," as illustrated the same platform follows predictably. in Figure1. The subjectis asked to Not only do we want to pre- and post-test classify each of the eight figures under thestudentstodetermineteaching the groups as belonging to one of the effectiveness,butwe mayalsobe groups by writing a 1, 2, or 3 under the interested in some characteristics of the figure. learners so that our methods may be better tailored to different learning styles. Figure 1 is admittedlyarather degenerate example. In the main body of The Paper-and-Pencil Test the test, the test subject needs to make The Figure Classification Testisa associationsonvisualand geometric standard test published by the concepts like right angles, parallelness, Educational Testing Service in Princeton, apparent dimensionality, relative spatial New Jersey(Copyright © 1962by positioning, and so forth. Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved.) The test'spurposeisto The Figure ClassificationTest was determinethe subject'sability to considered for computerization as part of discover rules that explain things.The a larger project. Abbot L. Packard, also a test is almost entirely visual,except for graduate student at Virginia Tech, was some initial textual instructions to the currently preparing a computer assisted test subject and familiar control text like tutorial / refresher on statistics for use by STOP. DO NOT GO ON TO THE NEXT graduate students. As part of the project, PAGE UNTIL ASKED TO DO SO. hewasinterested inwhatlearner characteristics make statistics more or The methodology of the pencil and less accessible. Since statistics may be paper test is as follows: considered a visual / spatial / rules course of study, a participant's score on the The subject sees a series of two or Figure Classification Test is interesting three groups of pictures. Each group in this respect. Since the statistics tutorial consists of threepictures,with each is computer-based, it is desirable also to picture composed of printed shapes. The want to perform the learner testing on the

141 147 Figure 1 Example Figure Classification Test set User inputs: Group 1 has gray shading. Group 2 does mouse / computer keyboard not. Getting the Graphics Of immediate concern was the task of taking the original drawings and converting them for use in the project.

1 the pages, then 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 Scanning test converting them to line output using a tracingpackageturnedouttobe sameplatform,hencetheneedfor unsatisfactory, as shown in Figures 2 and computerization of this test. 3. Adding to this problem, some of the test's drawingsuse a dotted-line The Program characteristic to distinguish a different The task was conceptually easy: Take "flavor"oflinethatsometimesis a standard, published and verified test, and put it on the computer. Display the Figure 2 test questions, get the user's input, and Set number 5, first part, as scanned calculate thescore, clearly merely a programming task. Display, user interface, and other design issues were "implementation details."The obvious strategy was to be as faithful as possible tothepaper-and-penciltest,taking advantage of features and compensating limitations of the computer medium. important to the rule for the set. Due to therelativelylowresolutionof the Initial Program Specifications computer screen, dotted lines did not Development environment: look good on the screen, and often broke Authorware® ProfessionalTM for up in ways that made the lines and curves Wi ndo wsTM much shorter. A small dotted-line circle often could not be identified as such due The test: Copyright 1962 by to this effect. Improving the resolution of Educational Testing Service the scan improved this somewhat, but also added extraneous photocopy Philosophy: maintain faithfulness to artifacts that needed to be cleaned up original test using a bitmap editor.

Project completion: 3 weeks Figure 3 Initial assumptions: Set number 5, first part, as "traced." Target resolution: Cleaning up this mess took longer than VGA (640x480, 16 colors) completely redrawing.

142 L42 Ultimately, completely redrawing the screen,indeference totherelatively test became the easiest option, in terms of lower resolution of the computer screen. speed andquality.Dottedlinesand curves became gray lines and curves. The As designed, the top of the screen "Layers"featureofCorelDRAWKD displays status information, the center allowed use of a standard template for the displays the active zone for user input, boxes. The individual drawings were and the bottom of the screen contains redrawn within these, as shown in Figure navigation buttons. Feedback and 4. From there,the figures could be instructionstotheuseralso are copied-and-pasted into Authorware®. important, so interactive prompting and highlighting of user selections occurs Figure 4 while the test is being performed. Figure Set number 5, first part as redrawn 5 shows an example screen, as the user using CoreIDRAW!® sees it before selection of a test figure, Grow and Figure 6 shows the same screen after user selection of a figure. o S Authorware® provides easy access to user interface methods, so mouse and keyboard inputs operate equivalently for the user. To use the mouse, the user The originaltest centers the group clicks anywhere within the test figure, figures above the eight test figures. For then anywhere within the group to which consistencyof user interfacefor the thetestfigurebelongs. To usethe project, Groups 1 and 2 always remain in keyboard, the user presses the number on the same place relative to the test figures, the keyboard associated with thetest regardless of whether a third group is figure, then the number of the group. To present. move on, the mouse user clicks on the "Go On to Next Set" button, and the Since the redrawing was performed by keyboard user presses "Enter." persons knowledgeable about the rules for the particularsets,conversion of Sincetheoriginaltestallowsthe dotted lines to gray and the standard subject to return to previous sets within placement of the groups are the only the current test part, the project test also substantive visual differences between allows for this with a button for "Return sets in the original paper-and-pencil test to Previous Set." and the sets in the project version. The original test is timed, eight minutes Screen Design for each of the two parts of the test. This The philosophyof designforthe is also handled easily by Authorware®. project screens was to keep close to the The clock device inthe upper right paperversion,yettohelptheuser corner of the screen is provided by the navigate the test. In the paper test, up to authoring package, though placement and four test sets are displayed per page. For usage on the screen areleftfor the the project, only one set is displayed per programmer to decide.

143 149 Figure 5 A set as presented on the screen to the user

AIL Fraction of Time Set Number 5 of 14 WI Remaining (in black)

Group 1 Group 2 LA.) r o4 i ick t e stfigiue 2 6 8 4' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Returo.to Previous Set Go Ors to Next Set

Instructions coaching, while being observed by the Inkeeping with thephilosophy of programmer. Subjects ranged in age from staying as close as possible to the written 20 to 40 yearsold, and ratedtheir test, onlyminorchanges tothe computer familiarity in therange of instructions were made. These changes "familiar" to "expert." No statistics have served only to make the user familiar been generated, but these observations withtheinterface,assumingsome have led to some questions that indicate a familiaritywith computer termslike need for further study and improvement "click with the mouse" and "press the of the current design. key." The original sample problems are presented in the same format as the test User Interface proper. The first sample is completed for The user interface and screen design the user, and the second sample has a seem to be acceptable. Clicking a figure, "Hint"buttonthat,whenpressed, then clicking a group seemed to work generates a display of the correct answers well for all subjects. The subjects saw a and the explanation of the rules for the "video game"metaphor,whichwas set. familiar to the extent that clicking with the mouse in a region generally gives a Preliminary Evaluation predictable response. Preliminaryevaluationconsistedof direct observation of persons using the The current design makes mouse usage program. Fifteensubjectsatdifferent mandatory and keyboard input optional. times sat in front of a computer to run the A mouse clickismandatory on the program with no verbal instructions or buttons that say "Go On to Next Part," a

144 150 design feature that prevents those who proficiency at the task, however. The use the keyboard from blindly pressing instructions provided in the test may be "Enter" afterthelastset of apart, insufficient. A few subjects, even after removing their opportunity to review or the second sample problem, stillstated complete previous responses. Mouse use that they did not understand what they isalso mandatory forthebuttonto were supposed to do. All of the subjects "Return to Previous Set," for no apparent who were ignored on this issue (and it reason, however, no user has yet asked was difficult not to answer questions) for a keystroke to do this. eventually did figure out the task.It appears,particularlywithcomputer- It may be a general rule that if mouse based testing, where no assumption can use is mandatory in any respect, users be made about the availability of a person will not tend to use the keyboard. No to answer questions,thatinstructions subject, after moving the mouse, ever must be abundantly clear. This is not just attempted to use the keyboard for input. a different test;itis a new computer When asked why they used the mouse in program that must be learned. preference to the keyboard, most subjects said it was just preferred. It is noted that Placement of the "Quit" button was more mental effort is needed to code the problematic. Originally,itwas placed test figure locations to the numbers 1 with the navigation keys at the bottom of through 8 and the group locations to the the screen, but users often pressedit numbers 1 through 3 than moving the instead of the "Go On to Next Set" mouse cursor to those locations. button. These users reported that they knew what the button was before they Usersdidnotallgainimmediate pressed it, but pressed it anyway. These Figure 6 Screen after selection of test. The highlight around test selection 6 is red on the screen

145 151 EST COPY AVAHABLE users hadjust completed using another order. Is this ordering important? How package with the "Go On" button in the was the original order determined? Some same place as the "Quit" button in this sets do appear to be more difficult than application. Navigation and exit keys others, since the users seem to spend should be spaced apart from one another, more time on some sets than others. Does and should,if possible, be consistent the computer screen presentation change between applications. factors that affected the original ordering? Device Dependence For a program developed in Most users worked the test linearly and Authorware®, the project is surprisingly were hesitant to move on to the next set if device-dependent. Of particular concern they had trouble. Thus, it appears that the isthe differenceincontrast between project also tests a subject's willingness monitors. Gray shading can turn black or to give up and move on. Is this effect disappear completely depending on the enhanced by this particular presentation position of a knob on the user's monitor. mode? Was this part of the original Sincethedifferencebetweenblack, design? Would clearer instructions help? white, and gray is essential to the test, Wouldpresentationofa"difficulty would another color be better than the index" help? gray? The project provides instant scoring to Another device-dependence question is the user. After the test, most users asked the issue of screen curvature. Is there a what the score meant. Since this is a test limit on the curvature of a computer that can be taken only once due to monitor at which parallel lines and right learning factors, would it be appropriate angles no longer appear to be parallel togivetheuser someidea ofthe lines and right angles? significance of the user's score compared with others? How significantisthe Still another portability question is the score?Should high school students be speed of the computer with respect to grouped with college students?Should screenupdates. The project usesthe engineering/technicalpersons be times allowed from the original test, and grouped with education / social sciences does not allow extra time for updating the persons? screen between sets. Moving from one screen to another on a 486/33 machine Testing Conclusions takes approximately one second. Screen The project presents a substantially updates using a faster or slower machine different test than the original paper-and- withadifferentvideocardwould pencil test. It tests not only the subject's necessarily take a different amount of abilityto discover rulesthat explain time. Is this important to the validity of things, but other factors, like willingness the test? to learn a new computer program, mouse / keyboard skills, and propensity to give Test Factors up and move on. Device dependence Some usersappearedtobemore issues also detract from the computer proficient than others at using the mouse test's equivalence to the original test. To and keyboard. Is this important to the itscredit,however,itpresentsa user's score on the test? substantially level playing fieldto the user.Personswithmoredifficulty The test is presented linearly, with one discoveringrulesthat explainthings set following another set in the original spent more time on the initial setsand

146 152 had lower scores than persons with less necessary to make the project comparable difficulty. None of the observed subjects to the original test, if that is a desirable completed allsets, indicating that the characteristic for the project. Among the current time limit is a limiting factor to possible strategies are: the higher scores. It seems likely that the current configuration of the project will improved instructions, perhaps with significantly differentiate between more examples persons with high ability and low ability in the test's design purpose, although the a better representation of "flavor" scores will not likely be comparable to than gray the original test's scores. timing the responses to determine a Conclusions better order for the test There is more than meets the eye in adapting a visual test to the computer. An randomizing thesets(wouldthis attempt at faithfulness to the original improve or hurt scoring?) paper-and-pencil test may not be sufficient to make the subject's score the establishing a time limit for same from papertocomputer. The comparable scores with the paper test author's experience in this regard is not unique. Review of publications on the replacing or redrawing sets that prove to be more difficult to the users subject of computer-based testing indicates that even text-based shortening or breaking up the test psychological tests on the computer may show different results than the paper-and- accumulation of scores for persons of pencil versions. Themes in these papers different backgrounds for comparison include computer anxiety (can this be and assignment of more distinguished from anxiety in learning a meaningfulness to the user's score new computer program?), the primacy of the importance of the user interface, It is possible that a complete redesign computer response time, programming of the test might be a desirable option. errors, and miscommunication between The paper-and-pencil testislimited to the test preparer and the programmer. black ink on white paper and geometrical shapes; wouldadditionalcolorsor Itisperhaps an overstatement that motion or more iconic clues enhance or computer-based tests are a new frontier detract from the test purpose? Could intesting. Computer-based tests have such a test be adapted to give additional been aroundsincethe adventof information about the subject? computers. Recall that almost everyone's second programming task involves As the title suggests, this paper is about quizzing the user for his name. Research issues, not answers. The computer is a into quality and design issues related to promising platform for testers and test- computer-basedtesting,however,has takersalike.For theuser,testscan only taken place in the last fifteen years become more like video games, and the or so. public seems to have an almost inexhaustible appetite for these, which Direct observation of the users of the are, after all, tests of some sort. For the program appears to be a good first step tester, the computer also provides the toward improving andvalidating this ability to diagnose and improve a test to a computer-based test. More work will be degree never before possible. It is only a

147

1 53 matter of doingso.Onlyafterthe Knupfer, N. (1994) Computers and limitations of a test are known can they visual learning.VisualLiteracy:a be determined to be important, spectrum of visual learning. D. M. Moore unimportant, worth pursuing, or worth a andF.M.Dwyer,editors(1994) complete rethink of the project. EducationalTechnologyPublications, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ Bibliography Beaumont, J. G., (1981) Kyllonen, P. C. (1991) Principles for Microcomputer-aided assessment using creatingacomputerizedtestbattery. standard psychometric procedures. Intelligence; 1991 Jan-Mar Vol 15(1) 1- Behavior Research Methods and 15 Instrumentation; 1981 13 Labre, M., Clements, N., Fitzhugh, K., Booth,J.(1991) The key tovalid Lancelotta, G., et al. (1987) The effect of computer-basedtesting: Theuser computer administered testing on test interface. Special issue:Computerized anxiety andperformance.Journalof diagnostics. European Review of Applied Educational Computing Research; 1987 Psychology; 1991 Vol 41(4) 281-283 Vol 3(4) 428-433

Dimock, P. H. and Cormier, P.(1991) Most, R. (1987) Levels of error in The effects of format differences and computerised psychological inventories. computer experience on performance and Special Issue: Computerised anxiety on a computer-administered test. psychological testing. Applied Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology An InternationalReview; Counseling and Development; 1991 Oct 1987 Vol 36(3-4) 376-383 Vol 24(3) 118-126 Nurius, P. S. (1990) Computer literacy George, C. E., Lankford, J.S., and in automated assessment: Challenges Wilson, S.E. (1992) The effectsof andfuturedirections.Computersin computerizedversuspaper-and-pencil Human Services; 1990 Vol 6(4) 283-287 administration on measures of negative affect. Computers in Human Behavior; Rafaeli, S., and Tractinsky, N. (1989) Computerized tests and time: Measuring, 1992 Vol 8(2-3) 203-208 limiting, and providing visual cues for Johnson, J and Johnson, K. (1981) response timeinon-line questioning. Psychological considerations related to Behaviour and Information Technology; the development of computerized testing 1989 Sep-Oct Vol 8(5) 335-351 stations. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation; 1981 13 Schoenfeldt, L. (1989) Guidelines for computer -based psychological testsand Kaplan, H (1992) Representation of on- interpretations.ComputersinHuman linequestionnairesin aneditable, Behavior; 1989 Vol 5(1) 13-21 auditable database. Behavior Research MethodsandInstrumentation;1992, 24(2) 373-384

148 154 Representing The Ghetto Playground: From 'Be Like Mike' To Hoop Dreams by Jeffrey Chown

Abstract This paper traces representational strategies employed by the recent documentary Hoop Dreams. Of particular interest is the way the film employs juxtapositional editing strategies to make sociological observations about racial relations in current American society. The paper examines how this proceeds from traditional notions about what form and meaning thegenre known as documentary film can exhibit. The phenomenon of Hoop Dreams is also placed against the broader cultural context of popular culture representations of class and race, and finally howmass audiences receive such works.

The problem with documentary as a form is question those of the audience who invests in thatit invites loosely warranted claims of the play of light and shadows that represents "truth," "objectivity," and "realism." It seems the film before them?Is it a white fantasy to have a different status than fictional films, about the Other that Hoop Dreams serves which are morecloselyassociated with up?' "fantasy," "entertainment," and "contrivance." Hoop Dreams emerges at a strange time in Inthe realm of the movie theater,the the history of American race relations. More audience seems to prefer the latter descriptors black people than at any time since the to the former when deciding upon what to EmancipationProclamationarecurrently spend six or seven dollars.Documentary is incarcerated. Affirmative Action is on the normally confined to the province of the retreatandprogressive socialwelfare classroom, PBS, or the Discovery Channel. programstoaidthepoorarebeing However, when a phenomenon comes along systematically dismantled. The 0. J. Simpson such as the film Hoop Dreams, which breaks verdict has become a touchstone for a white box office records for the documentary form backlashtoblackhostilitytowardsthe and fans a public outrage over its exclusion criminal justice system. And yet if we are an from the most contrived of Americana, the insensitive, racist culture, why is it that our Academy Awards, thenitis time tore- televisions and movie screens have never been examine our coordinates. so open to positive black role models from The title alone should cause us to be wary; the Cosbys to "Be Like Mike" to Colin how does one visually document "dreams," a Powell to Hollywood luminaries such as mental construct which can be explained Danny Glover, Denzel Washington, Whoopi orally,but becomes more difficultin a Goldberg, or Oprah Winfrey? At the same medium of the visual? The ultimate irony of time, negative role models also abound. Rap this documentary is the confusion of whose artistsusingprofanity andanti-social dreams the film documentsArthur Gates and messages to denounce the racism of the white William Agee's? Or are they merely stand-ins power structure are made millionaires by for the dreams of thousands of young, inner white teenagers flocking to buy the latest city basketball players? Or, and this will be N.W.A. or Dr. Dre CD. the subject of this paper, are the dreams in

149 155 These contrasts may be paradoxical and write: "Whatever else itis, the movie is a incongruous. Or we may need to consider portrait of a wounded culture that, at the whether even positive images of black people moment, can imagine very few ways to bind in the mainstream, dominant media in some and heal itself.' How is it that video of two way either contribute to or mask a systematic fourteenyearolds wholovebasketball suppression of a race of people in America. eventually becomes a "portrait of a wounded To state the case in a more inflammatory way, culture"? are we moving to the socio-demographicpoint The question is slightly facetious.Any whereifblackscannotfollowthe documentaryisonly asinteresting asit comfortableexampleoftheHuxtables, inspires our ability to move from the concrete America will write them off to crack houses to the abstract and to, as David Bordwell puts and prisons? The concern in the following is it,"make meaning."' Even a Discovery with how documentary images of black channeldocumentaryabout RainForest America interfacewiththesecultural butterflies involves an inevitable level of developments. abstractionoranthropomorphismasthe On the surface, Hoop Dreams should be the viewer makes sense of the images before him antidotetowhite(andblack)fantasy or her. Hoop Dreams is onlycompelling if television such as "The Cosby Show" or thedocumentaryimagesof twoblack "Fresh Prince of Bel Air," which depict a basketball players represent more than the two worldofblackaffluencewithlittle players involved, if we can make the next correspondence to demographic reality.In move and say these images mean something Hoop Dreams, one black family is depicted in about our culture, our attitudes about race, our the desperate background of the Cabrini social organization.If the film does not Green housing projects and the other in the invite this move, then we are simply using it rowhouses of Chicago's west side. Electricity to eavesdrop voyeuristically on two is turned off because the Agee family, living individuals exotic in their difference for us. on welfare, can not come up withthe bill. So I do not find Denby's assertion that The father struggles with a crack addiction Hoop Dreams portrays a "wounded culture" to and turns to religion. The other boy's father be unreasonable;it just needs to be tested deserted him at birth. His older brother is against other interpretations.' It would seem, frequently unemployed and vicariously lives however, that the most salient question about through his younger brother's successes. At possible interpretations of Hoop Dreams is the beginning of the film, the two fourteen- whether this film gives us positive and useful year-olds have fourth to fifth grade reading insight into racial questions, into questions levels. Hoop Dreams seems to depict a level concerning sport and society, or whether the of desperation not normally encountered in film opportunistically capitalizes on current American mainstream media's representation public fascination with black athletes.This of black life, unless it is to set up a violent same fascination makes a fewfortunate gangster rap story about drugs in the inner individuals very wealthy, but it potentially city. reducestherangeofcareeroptions But we should stand back for a moment. conceivable for black males to sports and Hoop Dreams has an extraordinary propensity entertainment and not much else. for escalating the level of abstraction about SometimeintheEighties,basketball what its documentary images "mean." Two emerged as the preeminent media/marketing black teenagers and their families consented to sport in American culture.With itsfast, have three white filmmakers follow them continuous action it is a more telegenic sport around in their day-to-day life for a period of than baseball.With bare heads and legs, in five years. The images the filmmakers have effect visible bodies, it is a more human sport collected and edited provoke David Denby to than football which features heavilypadded

150 1 5 and protected players who are difficult to admitted toa wild, dangerous place, where distinguish in a long shot.Basketball stars incredible ball is playedbut they dare not such as Michael Jordan or Magic Johnson enter this arena unless chaperoned. The film have reaped the benefits of the growing public White Men Can't Jump plays withthe fascination with the game with outrageous transgressive notion of a white man entering commercial endorsement contracts, something this world; the fictional film's fantasy project on the order of $40 million per year for isbest revealed when Woody Harrelson, Jordan. through the magic of camera angles, does With the basketball fever which has made seemingly dunk the ball on an inner city "slam dunk" part of the national vocabulary, playground. However, White Men Can't Jump has come an interest in the spawning ground has more reality than the sanitized version of for the mythic stars of the NBA who are inner city life and athletic activities we see in predominantly black.This is of course the television commercials.Pepsi would never ghetto playground, which of late has become have you believe that drive-by shootings can a primal fantasy land for white America. happen, drugs can be scored, and people are Pepsi, Mountain Dew, Nike, Reebok and a working out intense frustrations in their play hostof othercorporationshavebegun on the asphalt court. developingghettoplaygroundsasprime There is, then, a bit of the touristic gaze repositories for seductive fantasies about their about Hoop Dreams.White America can products. We see Shaquile O'Neal arguing entera hallowedbut dangerous ground with a cute ten-year old about drinking a through this movie, just as white sophisticates pepsi at the neighborhood asphalt court.Or once braved the strange land of Harlem to we see Charles Barkley and Michael Jordan travel to see black entertainment at the Cotton chase Bugs Bunny around another urban Club. The first signal of this is a slow motion court. (Note the spots with Jordan and Larry shot of 14-year old William soaring through Bird are shot instead in an arenaBird is the air to dunk the ball on a netless rim. The associated with rural Indiana basketball and lack of a net gives this particular dunk an would seem incongruous in an urban setting.) ascetic qualityno frills, we are not in the Perhaps the biggest fantasy commercials are suburbs, these are mean streets.The slow the ones where we see ethnically balanced motion and the repetition of the shot are the teams playing, with white male models with filmmaker's stylistic signature.They know GQ looks interspersed with black and latino this single act is the essence of the film, the playersas if the ghetto playground were a dream that starts on an inferior court and true melting pot experience. somehow ends at Marquette University's state Most amateur pick-up game players will tell of the art arena with thousands cheering and you that playing outdoor basketball does have lucrative pro contracts in the wings. a way of leveling racial and class distinctions. Though Hoop Dreamsiscertainlya Blacksandwhitesco-existfarmore documentary, its success turns on a Horatio harmoniously on the basketball court than in Alger narrative worthy of any Hollywood otherarenasoflife.Therulesof the film. It tracks the lives of its two subjects playground game are easier to understand than from an eighth grade tryout for high school the etiquette of societal interaction between basketball powerhouse St. Joe's up to their the races, and weekend warriors can generally entrance in collegeWilliam at Marquette, count an array of racial types as friends. Arthur at the Mineral Area Junior College in However,theparticularplaygroundthat Missouri. The five year time span is crucial Arthur Agee, William Gates, and countless to the film's success. Had the film traced only black players before them compete on day in the first two years through their sophomore day out is for allintents and purposes a season, it would have ended with William's segregated, ghetto playground.It is a place dreams derailed by an injury and Arthur that whiteplayersfantasize about being 151 157 ,

shuffled off to a lesser high school because remind the more reflective viewer that there his parents could not afford the tuition. Such are limits to how well weknow these two an ending would have provided astrong people through the medium of cinema verite indictment of the system that used the boys documentary.' and gave them little in return except heart Whilethe filmsuggeststhatthe ache.However, American society does not environment the boys grow upinisa really want to hear that version of the story dangerous oneArthur's mother says it is an anymore than it wants to hearthat Michael accomplishment to live to the age of 18our Jordan is an arrogant, self-involved prima view of their interaction with ghetto life is donna with a gambling addiction. circumscribed. Off-screen, Arthur is held up So the narrative stays with the boys for by a crack-head, which becomes the final another three years and more drama unfolds. straw in his deciding to sign with thejunior William rehabilitates his knee but comes up college. Off -screen Arthur's father beats his short of his dream of winning astate mother, leaves the family, serves jail time. Shannon, championship. Arthur,atthealsoran, Off -screen Arthur's best friend, predominantlyblack high school, succumbs to a life of drugs and crime. These unexpectedly gets involved with a cinderella are events we are onlyprivy to through the team that goes to the state semi-finalsafter voice-of-God, off-screen narration performed beating the previous year's best team inthe by the film's director,Steve James. A nation. Again, it would seem that such a turn different stylistic choice would have been of events would provide an appropriately letting Agee and Gates narrate the filmthey majors after all. dramaticfinish. Now, however, the film are both communications would be unduly optimisticArthur's team However, in the final analysis we see the lives vindicating the dreams of the previousfour ofGatesandAgeethroughawhite years and possibly supplying anargument for filmmaker's lens, and perhaps it is thus more black players staying away from the wealthy, appropriate that the narration reflect that white high schools that recruit blackstars.' positioning. But another twist occurs. AlthoughWilliam The filmmakers have admitted to being is bitter about his St. Joe's experience,there completely surprised at finding out Gateshad That there are seems little question that itis the advantages a three-month old daughter. subject of a superior high school and an Encyclopedia limits to how well we can know a Britannica training course which theyhave when three hours of film time representsfive arranged for him that helps him to get a17 on years of two people's livesshould not surprise his ACT and to enroll at Marquette.Arthur, us.' However, this seemed to escape a on the other hand, can not getthe 17, barely ChicagoTribunereviewerwhowrote finishes high school, and enrolls in anobscure enthusiastically: "Hoop Dreams digs farbelow junior college, where six of the sevenblack thesurface...showinguseverythingthe students at the school are on thebasketball games, practices, home life,friendships, the I might team.The film leaves us there, William good times and bad times..." seems bitter, but he assures usthat he has modify his word choice from "shows us learned that he can have alifewithout everything"to"shows us everything the basketball and be happy.Arthur seems to filmmakers want us to see," although even in a that statement is complicated by thefact that cling to the dream although a stranger bit of strangeland.Neither player seems now therecertainly must have been a destined for the NBA, but they both seem to negotiations between filmmaker andsubjects have more maturity and wisdom; we sense over when and when notto turn on the that they can survive without basketball.The camera. bittersweet quality of the ending is further The camera reality that finally is ondisplay the developed by the revelation that both boys isfilteredthroughthebiasesof have become unwed fathers.This should 152 1 52 filmmakers. Thatthere isan quasi- fatherhood are paralleled between William ethnographic concern on the part of the white and Arthur. William's father has been absent filmmakers travelling to Cabrini Green and since he was a young child.In one scene he the Chicago west side is best demonstrated in goes to visit the lost father's auto repair shop some of the editing choices.(Editing, of accompanied by the off -camera filmmakers. course, was what produced the film's lone William is skeptical of the father's sudden academy award nomination.) In particular, interest following his basketball fame, but the montage juxtapositional editing, or "collision" presence of white cameramen must have put editing in Eisenstein's terminology, is used in an additional strain on the reunion that is sections dealing with the state championship never commented upon. One wonders if the tournament. Agee is competing for the black, filmmakers directly or indirectly persuaded inner city high school, Marshall, coached by William to go through with the emotionally Luther Bedford. Gates plays for the majority charged event. white, Catholic, well-funded high school, St. Agee's father is a more frequent presence in Joseph's, coached by Gene Pingatore.The the film.At one point we see him in the mostvividjuxtapositioncutsthetwo distance athis son's playground scoring respective bus trips together.Pingatore in a drugs. In another memorable scene, the father somber, funeral like atmosphere admonishes andson havea one-on-one gamethat the boys to think quietly about the upcoming threatens to get ugly with emotions they game.Bedford's bus, on the other hand, is respectively invest in the game.As was raucous, party-like, and the boys boisterously mentioned earlier, for a period of time Agee's bragabouthow theywillbeattheir father leaves the family and is in jail.He opponents. To many viewers, there must be returns a born-again Christian, although a satisfaction in the fact that itis Bedford's strain remains evident in the family which the basketball-is-fun attitude that prevails in the filmmakers treat tactfully. tournament and not Pingatore's win-at-all- Fatherhood isalsomanifest inthe costs. relationship between Gates and his older The filmmakers make otherinteresting brother and in Gates relationship with his juxtapositions: shots of crowd behavior at illegitimatedaughter. Curtis,theelder Marshall versusSt.Joseph's. Shots of brother,triesto be a guiding figurefor students dancing to R and B music at William, but it is clear that the filmmakers are Marshall are cut against the more stilted pep more interested in Curtis as a casualty of band playing at St. Joseph's.The school basketball dreams. He was a former junior atmosphere shots are also juxtaposed. In one college star who is now unemployed until of the betterscenes, two cultures come William's Encyclopedia Britannica patron gets together in a single shot.Black parents of Curtis a job in the packing room. His Marshall players joke good-naturedly with presence in William's life seems to fade as white parents from an opponent at a restaurant Coach Pingatore becomes more dominant. "down-state" where the tournament is taking William in several scenes is seen playing with place. The respective parents' pride in their his daughter and promising that he will never children seems to transcend the racial and desert her as he was deserted himself.It cultural differences. seems the filmmakers want to close on this The editing also uses linkage montage to optimistic note, and William's relationship suggest similarities and parallels between with his daughter's mother is not explained at Gates and Agee that are of no small interest much length.' to a sociology of the black family.The 2 The mothersof the twoplayersare disappearance of the black father is one of the presented as the bedrock of the respective more salient aspects of the culture of poverty families. In an extraordinary scene, Arthur's in black America.Throughout the film, mother gets the highest grade in her nursing imagescenteringaroundthetheme of class and breaks down and weeps for joy. By 1 53 15.9 this point the audience for the film is firmly market himself Both are finishing their in her corner.When Arthur turns 18 she college degrees.All that hard work on the loses her ADC support for him and the asphalt courts paid off for these two even if filmmakers tape her complaining about the they ultimately will be denied Michael Jordan difficulties this presents to their survival. status. Even in an age of Republican slashing of the On the other hand, there were some more Welfare system, I think most of the film's intangible results about which we can only audience are sympathetic to her complaints. speculate. White America got a close-up look Hoop Dreams opens up two black families at black poverty; maybe the film produced to our inspection for three hours. Some some empathy and understanding in a racially critics have complained that what American polarized country. One reported phenomenon society really needs is a film about black kids was that across the country coaches at all struggling to attain careersin teaching or levels were taking their teams to view the medicine.This complaint, however, points film, apparently as a motivational tool or directlytotheproblematic statusof maybe to compare themselves to Coach documentary's truth claim.Documentaries Pingatore. Or maybe it was to show that kids purport to be about what is rather than what of all colors and socio income brackets share should be.Even had the filmmakers found something and thatis a love for playing two aspiring physicists in Cabrini Green high basketball.The uses and responses to film schools, would audiences for the resulting are many. The final use will be Spike Lee's; film be inclined to believe the hypothetical he will produce a fictionalized version of the students stood in representationally for a story. larger demographic group in our culture? The There was nothing predictable about Hoop fact is we know this hoop dream exists, our Dreams. Threebabyboomer,white, mass media is drenched in it and ourchildren independentfilmmakerswithverylittle reconfirm it every time they lace up their Air moneygotanideaaboutmakinga Jordan tennis shoes. documentaryfocusing on playground Whether Hoop Dreams the film critically basketball culture. They crossed a cultural challenges the siren song of athletic glory that divide and befriended two families who took obsesses so many black children or whether big risks with them. They spent five years on the moderate success of the two protagonists the project, a substantial chunk of anyone's only reconfirms the notion that basketball is life,andthey. createdsomethingquite the best way out of poverty is what is at uniqueanalmostthree-hour long issue.In the aftermath of the media frenzy documentary thathad people purchasing that surrounded the film's initial success, the tickets on a Friday night in suburban malls. answer seems fairly clear.President Clinton Its success is a testament to good filmmaking, arrangedphoto ops withthe boys with as well as to the fact that Americanculture is rhetoricabouthowtheywere ideal desperate for messages that will bring races Americans. Arthur Agee has signed on with together rather than pushing them apart. theContinentalBasketballAssociation. William Gates has started his own company to Endnotes

1. I use the term "The Other" in the sense that About 87 percent of all students, and 92 percent Bill Nichols does in Representing Reality of all basketball players, in the last fiveyears at

(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress, the school have gone on to college...." Poe, J. 1991), pp. 202-209. (1994, October 6). "St Joe's calls foul on film," Chicago Tribune (section 2C),p.8. The 2. David Denby, New York.(v. 27: October statistics on students going to college suggesta 24, 1994), p. 60. high income bracket clientele. 3. David Bordwell, Making Meaning (Harvard 6. For a discussion of American cinema University Press: Cambridge, 1989). verite's tradition, see Richard Barsam's Non- Bordwell writes: "Taking meaning-making as Fiction Film (Bloomington: Indiana a constructive activity leads us to a fresh University Press, 1992), pp. 300-308. model of interpreting films. The critic does not burrow into the text, probe it, get behinds 7. Aboutthesurpriseannouncementof its facade, dig to reveal its hidden meanings; William'sbabydaughter,Mike Gower the surface/depth metaphor does not capture comments"William has clearly set the the inferential process of interpretation.... agenda for when this part of his life should be An interpretation is built upward, as it were, revealed to the world.""Hoop Fantasies," gaining solidity and scale as other textual Sight and Sound (v 74, n. 5July 1, 1995) p. materials and appropriate supports (analogies, 64. extrinsic evidence, theoretical doctrines) are introduced."p. 13. 8. MichaelWilmington,"The'Dreams' Team," Chicago Tribune (January 1,1995: 4. Richard Corliss makes a similar observation Section 13, p. 4). to Denby's: "Hoop Dreams isn't mainly about sport, or even about life and death in the inner 9. Paul Arthur and Janet Cutler found the city.It's about families hanging tough on strategy of what is revealed about the two nerve and prayer.It's about what passes for players to be obsessively focused on their the American dream to people whose daily basketball careers: "Do they listen to music, lives are closer to nightmares." Time (v 144, watch TV or so to the movies, worry about p. 76: October 24, 1994), "Hoop Dreams." dating, talk about clothes or crime? Hoop Dreams either suppresses this information or 5. When saying St. Joseph's is a white high treatsit as ammunition for surprising plot school, I am overstating the case, just as most twists." "On the Rebound: Hoop Dreams and critical commentary on the film has.The Its Discontents," Cineaste, (v 21, n. 3-1995) ChicagoTribunereportedthefollowing p. 23.Arthur and Cutler also feel the film statistics, which were released to them by the could be more didactic; they complain that no school: "The school's enrollment is about 20 statisticsarepresentedconcerningblack percent African-American, 18 percent basketballplayergraduationrates,for Hispanic and 2 to 3 percent Asian-American. instance.

155 161 Mapping The World Through Science And Art by Lydia Dambekalns Abstract One of the most interesting challenges facing educators today is how to engage students in meaningful study of the environment in which they live. This paper presents the rewards of studying scientific data from an aesthetic point of view. The visual display of the earth's surface throughaerial photographsandsatellite map images becomes thebasis for interpretive art works created with dyed silk by high school students at the Pennsylvania Governor's School for Agricultural Sciences.Included in discussion are the pedagogy and practice of visual literacy skills and interdisciplinary ties between art and science.

Agricultural Sciences (PGSAS) located on Introduction the campus of Penn State University. Every For years I have noticed the beautiful summer sixty-four outstanding high school images of earth generated by Geographic scholars are selected for six intensive weeks Information Systems (GIS) remote sensing of primarilyscienceorientedcurricula. studiesThey have appealed to me for a However, the director of the program was numberofreasons:fromanartistic particularly interested inpresenting these standpoint based on their colorful designs, studentswithafullcompendiumof from a cultural standpoint derived from the challengingexperiences. Partofthat complexity they show of our life on earth, involved usingvisual/spatialintelligence and fromascientific standpointasan (Gardner, 1993).As such, I developed an interesting source of data on world ecology. elective offering for those students based on As an artist, I wondered how I might use using GIS and map imagery tocreate them in my own studio work, and as an aesthetic representations of the earth. educator I began to think of opportunities Thepedagogy behind the artistic to introduce students to these images. production of these images is particularly In 1995, I saw an exhibit of work by interesting.Inthispaper,the PGSAS Mary Edna Fraser in Washington, DC at the classroom example serves as one model o f Smithsonian'sNationalAirandSpace possible application.Unfortunately, due to Museum. An amazing arrayof huge lackofcolorreproductioninthis banners hung from the ceiling in one large publication, images of the final art pieces gallery depicting Fraser's artistic createdarenotshown. However, the interpretations of land forms based on her problem set before the artist is discussed piloted flights over the East Coast.These along with the background rationale for large maps of waterways, ridge and valley visual challenges and how the resulting provinces, and coastal areas were inspired works emerged. Althoughthetechnical byaerial photographstaken by Fraser procedures for working with the dye and herselfcombinedwith remotesensing cloth were important in this experience, it is images from areas she could not reach. not the focus here since concepts relating to One of the most exciting aspects of the visualliteracytake precedenceinthis exhibit was its existence as an aesthetic instance. representation of artistic endeavor in the midst of atraditionallyscience-oriented Background and Rationale museum. Thus, directly in the public's gaze Despite efforts by some to separate the wasan exampleofinterdisciplinary two, art and science may present similar connection between science and art.My challenges for study. Science attempts to own background as a fiber artist helped me solve problems and explain events in the to see the potential of using these map universe as a way to reveal and/or gain images on a smaller scale, possibly in an knowledge about the physical world.While educational setting. But where? art may also be used to investigate the The opportunity to work with maps in an physical world, it also serves to express an artistic venue came my way a year later individual's thoughts and feelings about the when I becameassociatedwiththe world and one's own reality. In other Pennsylvania Governor's School for words, art may be partially defined as an

157 162 aesthetic representation of an individual's artisticcapabilities. The immediate view of the universe.In either case, both problem was simple enough:how to use thescientistandartistrelyonkeen data gathered through GIS images as a observation skills and an ability to work launch for interpretivevisual images o f creatively. This notion underpins how a place, be it local or global.Beyond that, person looks at data and interprets that into students' final pieces would have to exhibit understandable form. For the considerationofanumberofvisual scientist/geographer this means mapping the challengesincludingperspective,scale, earth's surface. For the artist in this case it attentiontohueandvalue,emphasis, means celebratingthediversityof our abstraction, simplification and layering. To planetthroughvisualdepictionof the makethisclearerforthestudents,I earth's characteristics. consolidated these concerns under three Rudolph Arnheim, Professor Emeritus of larger umbrellas: a) use of color, b) design the Psychology of Art at Harvard wrote in (composition) and c) approach (meaning). Visual Thinking (1969) that These would be our criteria in evaluating fit would be misleading to] pretend the final pieces. that in science the senses serve only to record data in the manner of a Application/Approach photographic camera and that the Any complex visual problem involves the processing of the data is left to synthesis of a number of components. For laterandperhapsnon-sensory the PGSAS students this meant combining operations.We find instead that basicknowledge,technicalskills,and direct observation, far from being a uniqueperspectivestocreatetheirart mere ragpicker, is an exploration works. First, students needed to have some by the form-seekingand form- comprehension of how the original images imposing mind, which needs to were created. The two main categoriesfor understand but cannot unlessit most of these maps were divided into use of casts what it sees into manageable digital images versus a photographic film models." (Arnheim, 1969. p. 278) system.Theearth'ssurfacemay be Arnheim continues by explainingthat recorded throughinfraredphotography, centraltounderstandingtheshapeof through "false color" images, or through existence in bothart and science is "an more naturalistic hues (as the unaided eye unselfish dedication to what is.Neither of might see). The selection of a mode by them can tolerate capricioussubjectivity geographers and scientistsdepends upon because both are subject to their criteria of the purpose of the data collection, whether truth" (p. 300).In our post-modern era of for urban planning, environmental constructivist thought we might tendto monitoring,national defense,agricultural challenge Arnheim on the use of "truth" land use, or weather patterns (Smithsonian, here. Nonetheless, the point stands that both 1992). science and art require disciplined inquiry As a group, the PGSAS students visited and possess an order to that inquiry. And in the GIS labs at Penn State where map the case of studying map data, how might specialists explained how GIS information this be used to form a visual problem for is applied in agricultural studies. From the the artist to solve?Arnheim's attempt to collected images of the earth, a variety of dispel the dichotomy between perceiving maps in diverse pictoralstyles present data andthinkingservesasabasisfor inaclearandinformativemanner. combining sensory information with Examples at Penn State included land use in theoreticalideas. The provision of a the Allegheny Forest, a breeding birds atlas, "unitary cognitive process" can lead the non-pointsourcepollution,population learner to analysis or abstraction of the centers, soil types, livestock concentrations, visual image (Arnheim, 1969). And so to groundwaterpatterns, andlanduse communicate this to the students/artists. (cultivated, grasslands, evergreen or deciduous woods) among others. Statement of the Problem The processof moving fromdigital images or photographs of the earth to a In the particular case of the PGSAS an Iwas facedwithaprimarily meaning-constructed map presents students, the science-orientedpopulation whoheld interesting progression of stimuli for varying degrees of confidenceintheir artist.I wanted students toview their map

158 3 BEST COPY AVAIIABUE interpretation experience more asa visual the opportunity to interact with each other challenge than as an isolated activity taken and refine their own ideas as the works out of context. progressed, a cleardemonstrationof Nicholas Roukes has written two books, Roukes' three "R's"in practice.On the Art Synectics (1982), and Design Synectics final day, we held a group critique and (1988)thatareusefulinsuggesting examined how each person had chosen to guidelines for creative dilemmas. Through solve the visual challenge I had posed.In analogical thinking Roukes (1988) outlines many cases, we found problems students three basic "R's"in the creative process: had created and overcome for themselves. "Referring"where the thinker poses the problem and sets the goals, "Reflecting" Results where ideas are incubated, paths followed, The artistic map images in the end were abandoned,etc.and"Reconstructing" stunning. Students demonstrated a wide which is the process of re-inventingor range of solutions to each of those issues transforming. These three gerunds (perspective,useofcolor,abstraction, summarize well the process necessary to emphasis, etc.) discussed at the beginning. transform the map images to art work.If Perspectives in the final pieces ranged from thoughtfully undertaken, theproduct a vastly distant viewpoint to flat up-close becomes more metaphoricaland more interpretations of the earth's surface. A few sophisticated as a result of such problem artists chose to tip their work to reflect the solving. three-quarter interpretation one might find Generally, the most successfulartistic while flying over the earth in an airplane. examplesaretheproductofstudied Color use varied from monochromatic to consideration.In the case of these maps, multi-hue,fromnaturalearthtonesto challengesfortheGovernor'sSchool electric vibrancy. Design schema students included perspective, composition, incorporated a range of shapes from the color selection and use, scale, abstraction, exquisitely simple yet elegant to splotchy simplification,emphasis,layering,and aeoemba-like amorphous complexity. discrimination,all aimedat obtaininga Some overall interpretations of the map meaning or ordering for the final image. data were very abstract while others literally The limited amount of time allowed in the portrayed the earth forms as the original PGSAS schedule prevented us from going image had shown. The aesthetics of images into too much depth for each of these, but also varied. For example, one student as a group students discussed how these created two pieces both portraying the earth visual concepts could be used in their own from outerspace. Inone,the earth works. For instance, we reviewed the color appeared relatively insignificant as it sat wheel for some basic principles of color suspended in the gentle grip of two dark theory--how vibrancy results from arms.In the other, an almost sinister-like juxtaposingcontrastingcolorsorhow atmosphere of half-human half-planetary neutralsmay be made frommix of faces surrounded our familiar swirling blue complementaries. and green planet. Some finalart pieces As a group, students learned about the suggested a docile earth of meandering technical aspects of how to handle fiber waterways,pastelcolors,andbalanced reactive dyes which do not react like paint, nature while othersdepictedMankind's and how to treat silk as a ground for image- hand upon the land and how that has making.Eachstudentpracticedcolor changed the natural scheme of things. mixing on paper, prepared one sampler to learn about the interaction of dyes and silk, Conclusions and sketched out their final design on a Final evaluations of the course suggested large piece of prepared silk.All students that it was a very satisfying experience. The producedat least one large final image products were powerful visual statements, either in a square or rectangular format. but more importantly, through the process Some chose to design two un-related pieces the students began to gain confidence in and some createdtwocomplementary their ability to use data beyond a scientific pieces which acted asa diptych when literalism. Theywereabletomake displayed side by side.. connections in the way artists and scientists The actual fabrication of the work took think alike and how the processes differ. several days during which time students had And for many, ran the unifying theme of

159 164 wonder and reverence for the diversity of Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple geological formand biological mass on intelligences. NY: Basic Books. this planet. The focus of this project as presented in NationalAirandSpaceMuseum. this paper involves visual literacy in art and (1992).Looking at earth.Atlanta, science.However, the concept of viewing GA: Turner Publishing. the earth in all its diversity lends itself well to an even larger interdisciplinary On, D. (1992).Ecological Literacy: framework. Inhisbook Ecological Education and the transition to a Literacy, David Orr writes about how our postmodernworld.Albany, NY: world view may encourage a sustainable State University of New York Press. lifestyle through modest use of the planet's resources.In his discussion of place and Roukes, N. (1988).Designsynetics. pedagogy, Orr calls for the integration of Worcester, MA: Davis Publications. place into education and the"dialogue between a man and a place" or "the art of Roukes,N. (1982).Artsynectics. living well in a place" (On, 1992, p. 126). Worcester, MA: Davis Publications. As educators, we can find a way to integrate the conceptof valuingearthand our "place" into our curriculum by integrating knowledge from the disciplines with ethical and philosophical considerations. The type of visual inquiry reflected in this paper andappliedatthe Pennsylvania Governor's School for Agricultural Sciences holds just such a potential.By integrating several disciplines and allowing students to pursue a theme related to the earth'sdiversity and naturalresources, students gain a sense of interconnectedness betweenartandscience,ecologyand aesthetics. Insummary, some of the outcomes gained through the exploration of mappingas described in this paper include 1) thedevelopmentofvisual literacy skills including an ability to read symbolsand layerinformation,2)an increase in knowledge pertainingtothe origins and use of remote sensing data, and 3) continued development of an aesthetic eye in the creation of unique worksof art. Hopefully, this project acts as a catalyst for further explorations into the disciplines.

References Arnheim, R. (1969).Visual thinking. Berkeley,CA: Universityof California Press. Fraser, M.E. (1989).Islands from the sky. Charleston, SC: Video Production.

160 65 Light Skinned With Good Hair: The Role Of The Media And Christianity In The Maintenance Of Self-Hatred In African Americans by Omowale Akintunde Abstract Most African Americans deny or are at least unaware on a conscious level of the impact of the media and Christianity on the formulation of their self-image. The phrase "light-skinned with good hair"isstill commonplace within the African American vernacular. What is particularly remarkable about this reality is the lack of recognition of this cultural phenomenon as indication of a deep, subliminally anchored self-hatred. This paper explores how feelings of self-hatred in African Americans are perpetuated through media and the standard physical and ideological manifestations of Christianity.

Light-Skin, Good Hair: What's The Americans have such a low perception of Media Got To Do With It themselves. On the surface, the import of There has been little attention paid to the such a basic acceptance of a group of people politics of hair texture and skin color within isnotevident--not eventothemselves. thecontextoftheAfrican-American Becausethenaturalhairanddarker Experience.Most African Americans deny complexions of African Americans are in or are at least unaware on a conscious level and of themselves considered unattractive, of the impact of their perceptions of these the resultant psychology and social attitude phenomena on the formulation of their self- arethat being an African Americanis image. The phrase "light-skinned with good unattractive.Conversely, since light skin hair" is still commonplace within the African and straight hair are considered in and of American vernacular.What is particularly themselves attractive attributes, the resultant remarkable about this reality is the lack of psychology and social attitude is that being recognition of this cultural phenomenon as white is attractive. indication of a deep, subliminally anchored The consequences of such pervasive beliefs self-hatred. erects a terrifying social, psychological, and This, however, is not to lay blame on culturalconstructwhichleadsAfrican African Americans.These perceptions are Americans to believe that they are inferior by born out of the oppressive state in which virtue of their birth status and European African Americans are forced to live and as Americans to falsely believe that they are with any society based on an oppressor- superior by virtue of theirs. These feelings, oppressed relationship, the oppressed are not constructs, and social interactions are not to be blamed for their own oppression. The always conscious and deliberate. In most all self-hatred as expressed throughAfrican' instances they are so deeply entrenched in Americans' obsession and affirmation of the very fibers of our psyches thatitis "light skin" and "good hair" is a reaction to impossible to be aware of when and how racism. Thus, this and similar conditions are these inclinations manifest themselves.A bestcharacterizedas"racist-reactionist few minutes of video-watching on BET phenomena." These phenomena though (Black Entertainment Television) will clearly directly resultant from overt racism are now demonstrate what I mean. perpetuated through other conduits such as Here, one may view hour after hour of self- the media. hatred conditioning. Light-complexioned Given the preponderance of media images African American women with long (often and racist dogma that continually portray the synthetic) hair writhe suggestively in scant skin and hair of African Americans as ugly attire. Theselight-skinned,longhair and unattractive, it is no wonder that African "beauties" are often depicted as objects of

161 168 desire for African American men, while the variations of this same theme with other African American men themselves are often noted African American male performers. depicted as the embodiment of White sexual The Bill Cosby Showisalsoa prime fantasy: black, bald, muscle-bound, and example of thisphenomenon. Inthis virile. While this depiction appears the situation comedy, Bill Cosby, a dark African antithesis of the lig'itt-skinned with good hair American male is married to a light skinned syndrome, it is not.In depicting only light woman with long, straight hair.All of the skinned,long-hairedAfricanAmerican daughtershavethesesameattributes. women as desirable to African American However, the other black male in the family, men, these attributes are reaffirmed. To the son, is dark like the father. apply the concept of light-skin with good Of course African American men and hairasattractiveattributesof African women both suffer tremendously from such American men as the norm is contrary to the images but perhaps the African American historical image of African American men as female suffers even more. For in addition to brainless, animal-like, studs whose ultimate being portrayed as being beautiful only when desire is the acquisition and deflowering of she is light complexioned with long hair she the White female for whom these attributes is also made to suffer the woes of sexism. In are the norm. such videos she is reduced not only to being This concept of the "black buck" whose a facsimile of herself but also a sexual sole life endeavor is "having a white woman" object.Given the preponderance of such has been a popular visual media image since imagesandacceptedattitudes about the inception of the form.D.W. Griffith's ourselves,itisa wonder thatAfrican "Birth of a Nation," one of America's earliest Americans prosper at all. One may only say filmproductions,clearlyillustratesthis that the fact that African Americans are cultural view. In one segment of this film, a surviving is an undeniable indication of their white woman is pursued relentlessly by an tenacity. African American male (actually played by a More important than the fact of media white actor in "black face"). As the woman depiction of African Americans as desiring runs desperately through a forest, shefinds to be Europeans, is the horrible side effects herself at a cliff.Her pursuer approaching of suchaninclination. Most African her from the rear, she is faced with a horrible American women will straighten their hair dilemma: stand there at the edge of the cliff their entire lives without ever allowing it to and await the "dehumanization" of being revert to back to its natural state. Hair in the "taken" by the African American male or natural state is considered "nappy" and most jump off the cliff.Of course, given the undesirable. Contrast this to the social "catch-22" of such a situation she decides perception of white women whose hair is death is preferable. considered beautiful in its natural state which Contemporary Rhythm and Blues and Rap isstraight. It then becomes clear why videos are merely a variation upon these African American women spend millions of themes. SinceAfrican American men dollars each year on products to make them engaging in romantic liaisons with white look like white women naturally. One can women is still taboo in the film world,the easily see how such thinly-veiled selfhatred next best thing will have to do: He pursues can only yielddevastatingresults. In the African American woman who appears rejecting that which is natural to you is to white. Video after video reinforces this reject one's self.There is a subliminal notion. An excellent example is the Melvin message here: You are naturallyugly. Riley video "Whose is It?"In this video, a Contrast this with the psyche ofwhite shirtless, bald, black, Melvin Riley asks a women. White women maywake up in the very light complexioned womanwith long morning knowing that their hair isbeautiful hair over and over "whose is it?" We can see as it is.The hair need only be styled--not 162 167 "fixed." Add to that the fact that millions of hair is now straight. The young girl in this African American women spend millions of ad is smilingverybroadlyseemingly dollars a year to have hair that looks like especiallycontentthatthereisahair yours.There is a subliminal message here, straightening product "just for her." too: You are naturally beautiful. There is no Ironically, such ads are quite prominent in waythatpersonsengagedinsuch a African American publications and during syndrome can be considered of healthy mind. television shows that are targeted to the For such a syndrome sets up a negative self- African American population. Since Madam image for the African American woman and C. J. Walker, who became the first African afalse sense of self for the European American womanmillionairewiththe American woman. invention of the straightening comb, there The Clark Doll Study is clear illustration have been many other African American that the syndrome of self-hatred in African companies and entrepreneurs who have made American women starts at an early age.In quite lucrative livings selling such products this study of four-year old African American of self-hatred to themselves. girls, the researchers found that there was a Because African Americans harbor such a clear majority preference for white dolls. deep resentment of themselves and because One only need look in a classroom of this self-hatred is so deeply enmeshed within African American elementary children to see the very fabric of their consciousness, they this phenomenon in effect. If one were to do unknowingly perpetuate the very conditions so, you would see young pre-teen girls with which oppress them. It is my contention that straightened hair and even hair additions. because of this deeply entrenched self-hatred How can we expect healthy adult psyches to that the liberation of African Americans is result when at a such an early age it is being not eminent because in order for a people to communicated to you that you are naturally attain liberation they must first feel worthy ugly. This is further important in that it of such liberation.In short, you must first illustrateshowAfricanAmericans are love yourself. We must ask ourselves why it contributing to their own self-hatred which is is that for most African Americans Robin a necessary component of oppression. Givens is beautiful and Whoopi Goldberg is The African American male contributes not. We must seek to understand how the equally to this phenomenon in that such light-skinned, good hair syndrome causes attributes in African American women are African Americans to disenfranchise other his expectation. One student that I worked African Americans and dissipates the unity with at the University of Missouri, who that is necessary for the liberation of African himself is very dark complexioned, defended peoples. hisattractiontoonlywhiteorlight Videos are not the only medium through complexioned women in that he wanted to which self-hatred in African Americans is have "pretty" babies. The media perpetuated. "Def Comedy Jam," a popular unequivocally supports such notions. In HBO comedy show, is a prime example. addition to ads for products that straighten Week after week African American the hair for adult African American females comedians come out and tell jokes reeking of such as "Bone Strait" and "Dark and Lovely" self-hatred to a mostly African American are ads pushing hair-straightening products audience who guffaw uncontrollably.The targeteddirectly atAfricanAmerican comediansoftenaddress theaudience children. One such product is "Just for directly with quips like "Nigger you so black, You."In one ad for this product, a young for a minute I thought your seat was empty" African American girlis pictured with an or "Man, you so black you would leave a adult African Americanwoman, both with fingerprint on charcoal."Not only do the long, straight hair.They are both smiling, audience members not find these "jokes" obviously proud of the fact that their "nappy" offensive, they, too, revel in the laughter.In 163 168 one episode a comedian pointed to one Americans banned together to demand their female African American wearing her hair right to equal citizenry, most are unaware of naturally and quipped, "Your hair so short, I the contingents of African-Americans who can see your thoughts!" More laughter. had to patrol the bus stops daily often having Ironically,eventheAfrican American to physically assault other African women who try desperately to live up to this Americans to prevent them from boarding African American male beauty expectation the buses. Their reason for having to board of long, straight hair fare no better. Weave the bus: money.It seemed survival for the and extension jokes are also par for the moment for some was more attractive than course.In another episode one comedian life-long liberation and the assurance of a targeted an African American female in the better life for their offspring. audience with long, artificial hair and joked, Because one frail woman refused to be "I bet ain't a horse in Central Park got a tail treated as second-class citizenry, despite the tonight."Thus a vicious cycle is in place economic woes it must have caused her, all here where theAfrican American male African Americans have earned that right. expects the African American female to look That is short term sacrifice for long term like a white woman who in turn uses every gratification.No one seems to remember cosmetic deception to realize this expectation these events now. Ironically,it was a and is then demeaned for the artificiality of Whoopi Goldberg movie, "The Long Walk her looks.On the other hand, the African Home," which illustrates these events from American female who opts for her own the perspective I have presented. In the film natural beauty is also ridiculed mercilessly. she portrays a maid who got up very early in Another HBO comedy show, "Snaps!" the morning to walk to work because she made no attempts to be anything other than a refused to support a system that oppressed vehicle of self-hatred. Here teams of African her. Her own family was very poor while the Americans went center stage and said the white people for whom she worked were most derogatory things that they could to quite well off.At the beginning of the each other.Of course "You so black..." boycott, her boss' wife, played by Sissy jokes were rampant. The person who Spacek, would drive her to work each derided the opponent best received "snaps" morning. But even after she stopped driving (scoring points) and the derided opponent her, she continued to walk. was eliminated.This continued until the In this instance the media provided us with mostdespicableput-downofAfrican a powerful message:not even money can Americans imaginable had been spoken and compensatefor oppression. If African allof one team was eliminated. The Americans in that era had giveninto remaining African Americans were declared economic pressures we would still be riding "the winners." on the back of the bus. And so I ask,"Would Of course, capitalism plays a role here, too. it have been worth it to ride the bus and we Many African Americans will defend such still be in the same social and economic horrid shows asthe aforementionedas status of African Americans in the 1950's?" vehicles to stardom for African American entertainers. Here the age-old American Light Skin, Good Hair: What's God concept that money, that is, slips of papers Got To Do With It with pictures of former white male slave- Feelings ofself-hatred in African owners, is reason enough to perpetuate your Americans are perpetuated and ensconced in own oppression, rears its ugly head.This thestandardphysical and ideological propensity was illustrated best during the manifestations of Christianity.Statues of Montgomery Bus Boycott of the1950's. white men on crosses depicted as Christ,the While most African Americans are pride- "saviour" are, for example, commonplacein filledwiththethoughtthatAfrican- 164 1,69 the African American Christian church. A dogma they comprise the "Holy Trinity" and greatmanyAfricanAmericansgather are to be considered and conceived of as one. frequently to kneel before such images and This is important because if one were to pray for salvation. Children are taught argue that our cultureoffers a physical mythological tales in storybooks illustrated representation of Christ but not God himself, with all white characters: angels, saints, and this argument must be countered with the even the mother of Christ herself. charge thatitis Christian doctrine which On a superficial level the contribution of clearly states that God and Christ are the the aforementioned practices to the same. destruction of the African American psyche On a another level, one might counter the and their subjection to subsequent argument ingenetic terms. If Jesusis unrelenting oppression may not be portrayed in our culture as a white man and immediately apparent.However, when one the mother who gave birth (but not humanly begins to understand the operative conceived) him is also a white woman, is it psychology behind the worship of images really such a leap then to extrapolate from contrarytoone'sownattributesand this that God himself is a white man. Of additionally takes into account the historical course, deeply entangled inthis kind of oppression of African people in America dogma is a very sexist stance also. God of based on the very Christian-Judeo doctrine course is a man. He is God the Father. Also from whichtheyseek"salvation,"the important is that his first born and only child detriment not only should become apparent is a male child.Since in Christian doctrine but ruefully despised for its cunning and mostoftenwomenareportrayedas contradiction. despicable sexual beings who by virtue of One might argue that God is "colorless." their inherent prodigious animal-like That is, that he is exempt from any of the sexuality have corrupted men and because of socialstigmas,stereotypes, and negative that sexuality have posited themselvesas the social connotations that we as a society have veryobstacletomalechastity,the come to regard as concomitant with human conception of Christ had to be throughnon- existence.But it is this very assertion that sexual means. How could God himself fall Godiscolorlessthat supports the very for the temptations of woman who has argument which purports itself to be the caused the failure of mortal men. Consider antithesis of racist dogma and oppression. If the following biblical scriptures: colororracewerenotanimportant consideration in the practice of Christian "And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to indoctrination why isit even important to fall upon Adam and he slept, and he took one establish God's freedom from such a system of his ribs and closed up the flesh instead of thought or ideology? The reason is clear: thereof And the rib, which the Lord God Raceisimportant to the acceptance of had taken from man, made woman, and Christianityasthebasisforhuman brought her unto the man. And Adam said experience. this is now bone of my bones, and flesh ofmy If religion were only an ideological practice flesh, she shall be called woman, because as it is sometimes professed to be then how she was taken out of man." Genesis 3:22,23 the image of God or Christ, the son of God, is manifested in reality would be unnecessary "Unto the woman he said, I will greatly or at least insignificant.Thus individuals multiply the sorrow and thy conception in would be free to construct for themselves sorrow thou shalt bring forth children, and what the physicalization of God would be. It thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he is also important to note that whenwe speak shall rule over thee. And unto Adam he said, of God, we are speaking concurrently of Because thou has hardened unto the voice of Christ and the Holy Ghost as in Christian thy wife, and has eaten of the tree, of which I 165 170 EST COPY AVJABLE commanded thee saying, Thou shalt not eat Europeans. Theillustrationsintheir of it cursed is the ground for thy sake, in treasured bibles depict Christ and all of his sorrow shalt thou eat all the days of thy life". contemporaries (eveninEgypt) as being Europeans.Many have Michael Angelo's ThusaccordingtoChristianbiblical depiction of Christ prominently displayed on doctrine not only is woman the cause of the the walls of their homes. The April 8, 1996 fall of "mankind", she is robbed of her role cover of Life magazine was of a blonde, of generator of human life. Christian dogma European male, as Christ.Black Catholics would have us to believe that humankind regard the pope, a white European male, as originated from the "collaboration" of two being God's liaison to common humans. white men. No. God cannot copulate. This Now, I say, how can you expect a people humanizes him and causes him to be victim whose belief in Christianity is the anchor in to the female sexuality that has corrupted their lives to escape this cycle of self-hatred, males from the beginning.This image of victimization, and oppression when they woman as being the species responsible for worship the very force that enslaves them. the whole notion of human suffering must Thus, in physicalizing Christ in a human remain sacrosanct.And please note that image certain belief structures are inherent. woman the species is responsible according God is a white man. The preceding cancels to such dogma--not Eve the person. For to out two very broad groups: people of color regard this as an act of an individual would and women. Thus the oppression of such be to undermine the motive in this scenario groups become not only justifiable but a which is to paint women as a whole as evil, Christian duty.I bring in the issue of sexism sexual beings who corrupt men that would not to confuse but to clearly illustrate the otherwise be "Godly." commonality of oppression through Christian Ithas been my experience that many dogma and biblical depictions and how the African Americans who are devout in their inability to see this connection helps to belief in Christianity, when confronted with perpetuate the oppression of the theseissues oftheinvolvementof disenfranchised regardless of the determined worshipping white male images as God, "affliction." respond by saying that the physical depiction Endemic tothissyndromeispeople's of Christ in our culture is not relevant. This refusalto recognize the commonality of is an assertion that for me transcends logic. oppressions. Hence, not only are there EndemictoChristianideologyisthe oppressed people in the world, oppressed understanding that God created man in his people are oppressing each other! When own image: Colin Powell supported the ban of gays in the military, I gasped with horror.He, a "And God said, Let us make man in our own black man. Obviously he saw no connection image. So God created man in his image. In between his oppression as a black and the the image of God created he him" Genesis oppression of gays. What oppressed people 2: 26, 27 mustcometounderstandisthatin This is an issue of some importance.For oppressing others they are fueling that very again, if Christ and God are one then the force which oppresses them. physicaldepiction of Christinaracist For oppression is one thing.It is not a society bears heavy implications. Race multiplicitous entity which manifests matters. autonomous selves.It is a singular entity. These same African American Christians No practice of itis excusable nor more who claim that the depiction of Christ in heinous than the other. To be a bitch, a society is irrelevant often attend churches nigger, a fag is the same thing. We livein a where "biblical" scenes in stained church society in which being White, male,rich, glass windows depict the events only with heterosexual and Christian are the supreme 166 1..71 attributes of human actualization. instature.For it becomes impossible to Consequently, all who lack one or more of think of God in our own image. these attributes is relegated to a diminished This notion is clearly evidenced, role in society. reinforced, andcommunicatedthrough WithinthesesameAfricanAmerican common epitaphs in the African-American communities where such devout worship of community such as "a nigger ain't shit" and white men as God is commonplace, are "niggers and flies, I do despise." What is remnants of other expressions of self-hatred. further ironic of this Christian syndrome of Some deeply entrenched and psychological self-hatred and domination is that African while others are clearly articulated verbally Americans have become not only the victims andinother overt ways. St.Thomas but also the perpetuators of their own social Aquinas said "The quality of being the image and psychological oppression. of God is co-essential to man because it is I am not asserting that African Americans one with the rationality of his nature (Gilson, are responsible for their own oppression.I 1957). Race matters. am not asserting that these notions of self- hatred and white male worship are originated Summary by African-Americansinanattemptto Terms such as "light-skin" and "good hair" subjugate themselves. These are all "racist- are still very much common in the jargon of reactionist"phenomenaresulting from African-Americans.The notion that skin centuries of physical and psychological rape. that is closer to white and hair that is closer However, despitethisunderstanding the to white are both more desirable attributes results are no less devastating. arestillquitedominant themesinthe Again, we must notholdresponsible African-American experience. That such African Americans for the creation of such ideologyissymptomaticof thedeeply ills among them.I also understand the bitter entrenched self-hatred in African-Americans protest with which my arguments will be is secondary to the resultant, multiplicitous, initially met. One cannot undo such demonic negative side-effects of such psyches. racist machinations with a simple untying of Such a notion of light skin and good hair aknot. Theremustbearadical cannot function as a singular pejorative idea. deconstruction of the slave mentality with It must be reinforced from every possible whichAfricanAmericanshavebeen social milieu.Supreme among these is the burdened and a complete re-education. It notion of how an oppressed people conceive will not be easy to show a people how the of their god.Central to Christian dogma is white Christ that they proclaim as savior is the concept of Jesus as the son of God. Thus the primary nemesis intheir oppression. Jesus cannot be regarded as black with Brainwashing and the strong binding of "nappy" hair by African-Americans. To look socializationarenearlyinsurmountable so would be to mean that his father, God, is constructs.Self-hatred and oppression has black. And if he is black he's oppressed. been induced andismaintained through Certainly, we cannot pray to an oppressed Christianity. god. That would be useless. Those who are One of thewaysinwhich we are like me are as powerless as I am. No, we maintainedinoppressionisthrough the must pray to our oppressor for freedom--for assertion that there are races in the first deliverance from oppression. Jesus, the son place. For in order to have racism we must of God, is a white man. He is a part of the have race. "The existence of races in a power structure.From him it is possible to given society presupposes the presence of attain salvation.And because we believe racism, fofwithout racism,physical that God is white we ourselves are demeaned characteristics are devoid of social significance Itisnot thepresence of objective physicaldifferencesbetween 167 172 groups that createsrace,but thesocial throughthemediaandthetenetsof recognition of such differences as socially Christianity have been profound.Thus it significant or relevant (van den Berghe, becomes incumbent upon us to eliminate 1967)."It is important that we are forever racially-biased images from all vestiges of led to believe that there are races.This is our culture.Until such efforts are made we necessary before one may begin to assert that willcontinuetoconsciouslyandsub- there are innate differences amongst these consciously promote thenotionthatall races that justify the superiority of one to the humans are not equal and in so doing prevent other. This must be made to be despite any our society from being a positive place for all very obvious evidence to the contrary.It is the world's citizens. clear that there is no genetic, biological, or anthropological, support to any such reality References as "race." It is purely a mental practice. Itis Chang, Harry (1985).Towards a Marxist here solely to justify oppression and the Therory of Racism.Review of Radical advancement of the white male capitalist Political Economics. Vol., 17(3): 34-35. ideal.The concept of race is a portentous, iniquitous, socially-contrived construct Gilson,Etienne.(1957).TheChristian rooted in fictitious ideology. Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. London. Liem and Montague (1985) state "A theory pp. 345-346 of racism is merely theory.Clearly it will take a mass movement to abolish racism. Van den Berghe, Pierre L. (1967). Race and Yet anti-racists have struggled for so long as Racism: A Comparative Perspective. New 'Black' activists or 'White' activists, each York: John Wiley and Sons. with their own 'separate but equal' roles, that to posit the racial distinction, itself, as an object of struggle, as a 'racist' distinction bornof thepre-human,'civil',ageof humankind, must be regarded as an advance in strategy as well as in theory." Such rhetoric as I have presented in the assertionthatracialcategorizationisa psycho-social construct is not to deny that therearephysicaldifferencesbetween peoplebutrathertoexplainthatsuch differences become incidentaltoa race argument only in retrospect. "The reification of racial categories into skin color, [eye shape,lipsize,hair texture,]etc.isan integral part of the racial logic, and a careful critique of it will show us, for instance, the historical specificity of racism. Simply put, racialcategoriesaresocialdistinctions devised in such a way that their differential moment canbelefttoa'superstitious' conception of nature.This engenders the illusion that nature itself has dictated racial categories for us (Chang, 1986)." The devastating effects of white supremacist ideology on the psyche and self- concept of African Americans as perpetuated 168 173 The Growing Need For Visual Literacy At The University by Jerry T. Christopherson

Abstract Current research at Brigham Young University determined visual literacy is important to Engineering, Nursing, Business, Social and Family Sciences, and Fine Arts and Communications. The research also determined that an intermediate level of proficiency creating visual communication is necessary for students in all five colleges. An honor's course providing theory in the basic design of visual communication and hands on production in desktop publishing and desktop multimedia is being piloted and evaluated. The course fills an Arts and Letters or Social Science general education requirement and a faculty survey determined more than 1500 students a semester need this type of course.

Introduction Reading, writing and arithmetic has typically responses that often lead to predictable behavior been consider the basic components of literacy. And yet, in the mist of this image explosion However, today the word literacy has taken on visual literacy is still not considered basic to an a much broader definition including computer individuals general education (Lester, 1995). literacy, media literacy, ecological literacy, In Towards a Psychology of Art, Arnheim financial literacy and so on. Educators, parents states that visual literacy is the attribute we and politicians often cry for a return to the would hope to find in every well-educated adult basics. But now the question is: what is basic in our society, because our culture is increasingly (Postman, 1995)? Is reading and writing enough represented and perceived in visual terms to be literate in what has come to be called the (Arnheim, 1967). Perhaps more than any other technology age? Or do individuals need a whole time in history, we need to teach people how to host of other skills to be labeled "literate"? develop a critical ability which will enable them Along with massive advances in technology to judge visual images accurately and behave has come a significant increase in visual imagery. appropriately (Forsberg, 1993). Each day we are bombarded by a steady unrelenting stream of visual images from 260,000 billboards, 11,520 newspapers, 11,556 Visual Literacy At Brigham Young periodicals, 23,237 movie theaters and drive- University ins. More than 27,000 outlets are available for The number of individuals at Brigham Young renting videos; 162 million television sets each University (BYU) creating visual images is play for 7 hours every day (Forsberg, 1993). increasing exponentially.Lower prices and Between the ages of three and eighteen, the simplification of operations are making it easier average American youngster will see about for more departments to do their own desktop 500,000 television commercials, which means publishing and desktop multimedia. However, that the television commercial is the single access to equipment and ease of production most substantial source of values to which the does not imply increased effectiveness. Few young are exposed (Postman, 1995). individuals, outside of the visual arts ever receive Years of research and experience have gone training in how to apply the basic principles and into learning how to manipulate the elements of concepts of design to visual communication for design (color, line, size, shape, value, texture, their specific discipline. light, sound, and movement) to elicit certain "I'm visually illiterate" was a statement I emotional responses from the viewer, emotional heard over and over again in the past three years

169 174 as I interviewed faculty from Business to Botany, developed by Brigham Young University and from Engineering to Economics, and from commercially distributed through Echo Computer Science to Communications. If so Solutions corporation of Orem, Utah. When the many "well educated individuals" outsidethe data was plotted three dimensionally one best arts are feeling visually illiterate the question term was difficult to identify.The graphs needs to be askedwhy isn't visual revealed the extreme multidimensionality of communication part of the university this area of study. Depending on the dimension curriculum? you choose Visual Communication, Visual Literacy or Multimedia Design, could be The Definition Problem considered the better term. According to Roberts A. Braden, part of the problem has been the lack of agreement among Visual Communicationwas the better term experts as to what term to use in reference tothis when emphasizing the development of area of study. Cassidy and Knowlton wrote a traditional visualization skills, learning the basics major paper in 1983 entitle "Visual Literacy, a of color theory and typography; understanding Failed Metaphor?," (Braden, 1995) and Moore the vocabulary of visual design, using visuals and Dwyer included a chapter in their visual for the purpose of creativity and aesthetic literacy textbook titled "Visual Literacy: The expression, and using visuals for the purpose of Definition Problem" (Moore & Dwyer, 1994). communicating. If "Visual Literacy" is a failed metaphor is there a better term? With the assistance of Multimedia Designwas the better term when Professor Dillion Inouye (Instructional emphasizing the combining of visuals with Psychology) an instrument was developed to words, movement, sound, music, and time; and measure the effectiveness of one term over proficiency using personal computers with another. Individuals were asked to rate on a multimedia technology. seven point Likert scale howwell six terms: Media Education, Visual Literacy, Visual Visual Literacywas the better term when Communication, Media Literacy, Visual focusing on critically viewinginterpreting, Thinking, and Multimedia Design captured the analyzing, evaluating meaning, and judging the concepts, principles, and competencies quality of visual media. Visual Literacy isthe of associated with this area of study. best term for encompassing the dimension Judith C. Baca's dissertation Identification visual thinking, visual learning, and usingvisuals If we by Consensus of the Critical Constructs of Visual for the purpose of constructing meaning. Literacy: A Delphi Study was used as the bases include the general need to develop an awareness and the for the list of targeted competencies (Baca, and defence against visual manipulation visual 1990).Surveys were completed by BYU historical and social aspects of students and faculty as well as individuals communication "Visual Literacy" is stillthe participating in the 1994 Regional 8 AECT best term. Conference.The data was entered into a traditional statistical software program Statview Though Baca's research madesignificant and the analysis of the data identified"Visual strides towards bringing experts intoagreement Communication" as the better term to use in on what it means to bevisually literatebrevity needed if referring to this area of study. and conciseness of definition is still general However, another statistical software program visual literacy is to be accepted as outside of called DataMax was used to conduct further education among those in disciplines experimental analysis on the data. DataMax the arts. was used because of its ability todisplay multidimensional and multivariate data in a Identifying The Need designed visualized graphic display. The program was Beginning in the spring of 1993 I 170 75 and conducted a technology needs assessments of course. The main concern was how to add for B YU. Surveys were filled out during personal this needed course to an already bulging interviews asking participants to identify the curriculum. The critical issue was to get the need for multimedia production, computer course approved as a general education course. classrooms, and basic instruction in design The proposal to pilot the course as an honor's theory. One faculty member from each of the 83 general education Arts and Letters course was departments at BYU were randomly selected. submitted to the University. The course was Three major needs at the university were approved and piloted Winter Semester (January identified by this study: through April) 1996. The success of the course depended on the collaboration of five different Training for faculty and students in desktop academicdepartments(VisualArts, publishing and desktop multimedia is needed Communications, Film,Business, and Communications) and six service departments General education credit needs to be given for (Media services, Print services, KBYU a course in basic design television, Computer support services, Continuing Education and the L.D.S. Church Faculty and students want access to production Motion Picture Studio).The lectures were equipment presented by full-time, part-time, and retired faculty while the desktop publishing and After the results were reported Dr. E. Curtis multimedia production was taught by full-time Fawson, director of BYU's Instructional working professionals.The faculty student Technology Center and his staff moved forward evaluation rating was exceptional and the and developed a "QuickStart" training series to students gave the course an excellent rating. meet the need for faculty training in multimedia production. Monty Shelly the director of B YU' s Instructional Application Services (IAS) What Level of Proficiency in Visual doubled the number of computer classrooms Literacy Is Needed available for instruction. However, the demand Besides providing lectures and instruction to for access to the desktop publishing and desktop increase visual literacy research needed to be multimedia computer classroom has already conducted to determine the level of importance exceeded its capacity. To meet the needs for and the level of proficiency need in visual student instruction Bruce Christensen, the Dean literacy for the different disciplines.With of the College of Fine Arts and Communication, direction and encouragement from Professor agreed to fund the development and Victor Bunderson, an expert in the area of implementation of an Honor's general education instructional measurement, another survey was course focusing on teaching the basic design of designed and conducted using Baca's six visual visual communication to non-artists. literacy constructs. Five of BYU's 12 colleges were selected. The sample size was set at 50, ten participants from each of the five colleges. A Visual Literacy GE Honors Course The colleges selected were: A proposal was drafted laying out the Nursing objectives and the content for the new course. Dean Christensen requested an additional needs Engineering assessment be conducted to determine the Social and Family Sciences interest in offering such a course. Once again a Business study was designed to surveyBYU's 83 departments. After completing just 15 interviews Fine Arts and Communications the numbers had all ready become staggering. Combining personal interviews with a survey Over 1,500 students a semester needed this type had been so well received in the previous needs

171 Figure 1

LEVEL OF IMPORTANCE of Visual Literacy for Five Colleges

Fine Arts and Communication

Engineering

Business Management

Nursing 111111111111111111,1113

Family and Social Sciences Iunimportant I not very I somewhat very important important important 0 1 2 3 4

Visual Literacy is somewhat important to all of the disciplines within the five colleges. The overall level of importance is 3.00. Not surprisingly visual literacy is more important to the disciplines within theCollege of Fine Arts and Communications. Figure 2

LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY in Visual Literacy for Five Colleges

Fine Arts and Communication

Family and Social Sciences

Nursing 111111111111E1

Engineering

Business Management

I beginner 'intermediate advanced

0 1 2 3 =m, The overall level of proficiency for the five colleges is 1.84. This level of proficiency washigher than expected. The GE course is meant only to be an introduction, a beginning level course. 172 assessments the method was repeated. Seventy- an individual can obtain the level of proficiency one personal interviews and surveys were necessary for their specific discipline completed. Figure 3 Results The statistical analysis of the data revealed Student Newsletters visual literacy to be somewhat important across all the disciplines and identified an intermediate level of proficiency is needed by students in all five of the colleges.The data analysis also facilitated regrouping Baca's 167 items into A-Sehool Reh Hatelney and the thlerNef nrr111sror tit four constructs rather than six. mowk 01,1100wara4;',:. 6,44..4.wisilMaii*. +me, rwY A more concise answer can now be given AMMINSIMIIIMon1141m4...1=48,*1.amOiledIM01.....,Ald,o1.11,,:..: woo.. mrialme V. ajar liaahmliesbAkri.d..4...M.a when asked: What does it mean to be visually ovelisszatn Map we molt =parbaLkir Zor auk liZime tabiso-a4 *AY ." literate? A visually literate person is able to: ?tol.Malowiflealtpowrwpasearamotsesqesse, ea.oplunow... .twarrerwkawar ,14.940Fal mo. tb,

Interpret, understand, and appreciate the mow. ammo rol.M.P. meaning of visual messages boblatasoLloot op.-1 .rsa=os.roni).: am asosalmoth. daiokariamontalee Communicate more effectively through '''.;;Mologlad'Setinap Wel losite TechnologyNiElemensary'Ecluestion applying the basic principles and concepts of dyW.iidivola4711.111millsoladirs...leari.k.!. "soles Utiolsog at611 MO AI brasinow nftm visual design ,=7:::41111100k. aat.0141i0.10. =roma, sce,WA aloft tot =" WI= ; *seammost...... -1epor.aly arm Produce visual messages using the computer Als# .14.11...110...1014101rimirmirk adAr .111:^; and other technology ;fr.. *."4"".. "^".""^- 1"6".""

Use visual thinking to conceptualize solutions These are examples of newsletters created to problems by students who have only had four one- hour lectures on the basic principles of Problems document design

Only A Beginning Level Of Proficiency Though the Honor's GE course received a

very positive evaluation, this one course can AA-AS ;54A .AAA ktt4 `1AZA,"4,," only provide a beginning level of proficiency. iroket`mto courAnaerivo4fesofse7;{ Each student completing the course produce a 79. newsletter (refer to figure 3), a five minute flit emir ism way 7411mmaror,r4o. E Ihre IPMA.AfMerem1111111111:::: raii OM Opa art' pawn Imulawara O,Cmar computerized presentation and a Quicktime 01.1, .11.01.14 I_....* le Ive POW* tarty r 0. * FP movie. These projects look pretty impressive when compared to what the students have been 6.0 4.1:4"erlt"."":71 teemoibplbaftreasko I. gaiOn es Mpg,".1' boa .,..-4001010, 111Mori. t.ttii.k.ftwa* WM able to produce prior to the course. A concern lowoOst IlpoiefteRsC '1"ft" ONTO Outam WI be EY to dm Pair Wise MOO 011=111,7: 11161.010.00ismAk., by some of the Visual Arts faculty is students ,7r,q 0104111011111r.114/rt.;:e.=.011thetimiltg=rt, are..L'AC " molo woad AnnommArdslalwa may feel they have acquired an intermediate or Mal 0E011 Zerommatos.xelmrimmt.r.i, advanced level of proficiency. P.eL A reliable and valid means of measuring each students level of proficiency prior to taking the course and after completing the course is critical. Additional instruction, self instructionalor in- class with a teacher, must be made availableso

173

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 17,8

1 Does The Need Justify The Cost? in the disciplines of these five colleges. Del Scott, the Assistant Academic Vice- According to Becky Beus, an instructor at Boise President of computing at BYU, agrees every State University and part of the public relations student would benefit from a general education team at Micron Technology, students with visual course in visual literacy. But his concern ishow communication skills are more marketable. The do you provide the computer support for such a standards for corporate presentations are course. Two thousand students a semesteris a changing today visuals are expected and conservative estimate in his opinion. If each computer skills have become "basic" to our student were given just 6 hours a week of society. Change is often referred to as the one computer time this would amount to 12,000 constant in our society and Neil Postman hours a week, at least 10 labs with 24 computer indicates change in educational curriculum stations, 240 site licences for desktop publishing comes slowly but it does come. and an equal amount for multimedia production. Brigham Young University made a change so Then you have to add the cost of training the 31 students could receive Arts and Letters 2,000 students each semester. He didn't say the general education credit for a visual literacy University couldn't do it but that costs and needs course. Starting in January of 1997 sixty more must be justified. students will be able to enroll in An Introduction to the Basic Design of Visual Communication Giving Individual Feedback and receive GE credit in either Arts and Letters Providing equipment and paying for or Social Science. Persistence andpatience will instruction for large numbers of students will be be necessary if we hope to see visual literacy a challenge but so is developing effectivelarge become basic to a university education. group instruction. Paul Merrill, thedepartment chair of BYU's Instructional Science Department References in the College of Education ask if the instruction Arnheim, R. A. (1969) Visual Thinking. in basic design concepts and principles, being Berkeley, California: University of California developed for the GE course, could be piloted in Press. the Instructional Technology in Education Baca, J. (1990). Identification by Consensus of course. Approximately 300 Elementaryand the Critical Constructs of Visual Literacy: A Secondary Education majors take this course Delphi Study Unpublished doctoral each semester and need instruction in visual dissertation. East Texas State University, literacy. He realized it could be several years Texas. before the GE course would be available for Braden, R. (1995) Twenty-Five Years of Visual more than just a few students. Literacy Research. 24th Annual conference The newsletter assignment has been given to of the International Visual Literacy approximately 900 education majors over the Association (IVLA). 1-4 past several semesters.Evaluating each Forsberg, G. Critical Thinking in an Image newsletter and giving students individual feed World. Landham: University Press of back on the effectiveness in applying the basic America. principles of good design has been Lestr, P.M. (1995) Visual Communication, overwhelming. However, feedback is critical Images with Messages. Belmont California: to the learning experience. This semesterthe Wadsworth Publishing Company. student lab assistants are being trained to evaluate Moore, D.M., & Dwyer, F.M. (1994).Visual the newsletters, give students feedback and Literacy, A Spectrum of Visual Learning. grade the newsletter Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. Visual Literacy Requires Change Postman, N. (1995) The End of Education, The research conducted at BYU over the past Redefining the Value of School. NewYork: three years shows that visual literacy is important Alfred A. Knopf. 33-35

174 1 7 9 Imagery and Synectics for Modeling Poetry Writing by Jeanne L. Dykstra and Frank E. Dykstra

Abstract In this paper, Gordon's synectic mechanisms (1961) are incorporated into introductory poetry writing instruction. Some students have difficulty with the concept of metaphors (McClure, 1986), an element that distinguishes poetry from prose (Lukens, 1995). Gordon and associates isolated means to think metaphorically by using mechanisms most people possess in their experiential background. The method of poetry instruction demonstrated in this paper was developed using theories and research findings of Gordon (1961), McClure (1986), Rosenblatt (1983), and Lukens (1990, 1995).

Background of Synectics suggest a means of beginning instruction on Synectics, translated from Greek, is "the poetry writing. joining of different and apparently irrelevant elements" (Gordon, 1961, p.3). In1961, Why Gordon's Synectics Mechanisms? Gordon described the creative process he and It is the increased use of metaphoric language the other members of the Cambridge Synectics that distinguishes poetry from prose (Lukens, group used as a means for problem-stating and 1995).Therefore, instruction on metaphors problem-solving. This creative process was would be desirable. Although some research labeled synectics, the use of thinkingin findings such as McClure's (1986) concluded metaphors to see the familiar in unfamiliar ways that the concept of metaphors may be difficult or the unfamiliar in familiar ways. Metaphors for some children to understand, who have not are broadly defined in this paper, as being all reached Piaget's concrete stage of development. inclusive of figurative language such as similes, Since Gordon's synectic mechanism uses the andpersonification, as well as metaphors. types of metaphoric analogies which most Gordon states that "Synectics defines creative people have experience with to some degree process as the mental activity in problem- from their everyday life, it would be logical to stating,problem-solvingsituationswhere include Gordon's synectics mechanisms in artistic or technical inventions are the result"(p. beginning instruction on metaphors. Gordon's 33). Couch (1993) and Joyce & Weil (1986) synectics mechanisms include personal analogy, suggested that synectics be incorporated into direct analogy, symbolic analogy and fantasy public school instruction. We will take this one analogy.It is through the inclusion of these step farther by describing how synectics analogies that the concept of metaphors begins mechanisms may be used in introducing poetry to be understood by students. writing to public school students. Joyce and Weil (1986) incorporated personal analogy, direct analogy and use of oxymorons Purpose of Paper labeled as "compressed conflict"(p. 167) in The purpose of this paper is to show how their variation of Gordon's synectics for public synectics mechanisms can be used to instruct school instruction. Some children, who are not students who are beginning to write poetry. at Piaget's concrete stage of development may Research findings and theories on beginning not comprehend the concept of symbolic poetry writinginstruction(Graves,1992; analogy (Lukens, 1990) and may become Rosenblatt, 1983; Lukens, 1990; McClure, confused with oxymorons, the joining of 1986) was combined with a variation on contradictory terms,therefore,thispaper Gordon's synectics mechanisms (1961) to

175 180 concentratedonpersonalanalogy,direct imagery is related to the amount of experience analogy and fantasy analogy. as well as age. Therefore, more experience with working with metaphors should increase the Introduction to Poetry students' ability to self-generate imagery. Instruction for students should begin with reading poetry aloud tostudents without Application of Synectics Mechanisms analyzing it.Plenty of wait time should be When students reread their prose piece, they provided for students to respond to a piece of may find using Gordon's synectic mechanisms poetry. What is important is their reaction, their of personal analogy, direct analogy and/or connection with the poetry, not the teacher's fantasy analogy helps them to rewrite with the interpretation (Rosenblatt, 1983).Without addition of metaphors. The student writer tries direct influence of the teacher, students have to imagine what he/she wrote in a different light more opportunity to reflect and form their own using these mechanisms.Success is more interpretations, reactions and attachments. certain if the teacher models using one or all of the analogies to rewrite a prose piece with Introduction to Writing Poetry metaphors. For example, the following piece of One of the easiest ways to begin writingprose was quickly jotted down from thoughts poetry is with a list poem (Graves, 1992). The about a frog: teacher might model imagining a scene or object paying attention to his/her senses in order There he sat this frog of mine, green, to include descriptive words or even metaphors slippery and long-legged.Those eyes in the list. The advantage of one word lines is watching mineasiftryingtosay that it helps the student writer to focus on how something.I never anticipated the hop, each line triggers another. Students should be then the kiss from his lips. encouraged to include words which describe their feelings while imagining a scene from the The prose is just a gathering of thoughts/ideas topic of their choice. Words are jotted down that can be transform into a poem by including just quickly as they are perceived without metaphors, shortening the sentences into brief worrying about the final composition. phrases then rearranging the spacing for lines. Another way to begin instruction is with writing prose (Graves, 1992). This gives the Using Analogies students the freedom to follow the flow of their Concentrating on the first sentence, I become words, without worrying about line breaks. the frog by using a personal analogy, that is, Topics come from the students, thus increasing asking myself what is it like to be a frog? I am thechanceforinterestbecauseof the green. This is good, because I can hide among opportunity for relevancy. They should write the green grasses.I could phrase this as quickly, not changing the words as they write. "greened himself among the leaves and became Rereading the prose may trigger their thinking unseen." about a few metaphors for their poem. In the In the second sentence, I could use the last step, the students take some of the notions personal analogy by becoming the eyes. What from theirprose and change theminto would I want to do? I want to speak and what approximately three to six-word phrases per I want to speak about is hoping the narrator line. would love me. This can be written as "his eyes spoke of wanting to be mine." The Connection of Metaphors to Self- Direct analogy can be used to compare the Generated Imagery image of the frog's hop as a rabbit's quick hop. Students may increase their ability for self- Finally, I could make a fantasy analogy by generated imagery when they think asking myself what would be something I metaphorically.Pressley's (1977) research would wish for in this poem? I would wish that indicated that theabilitytoself-generate the kiss was not from a frog but from a prince. 176 181 I could write the "kiss was soft as a prince." (Eds.), Art, science & visualliteracy: The final steps would be to remove any Selected unnecessary words so therearephrases approximately three to six words long. Then readings.Blacksburg, VA: International break the lines where my voice naturally fell or Visual Literacy Association. paused for a breath. Frog of Mine There he sat Gordon,W.J.J. (1961). Synectics:The this frog of mine. development of creative capacity. New York: Greened himself among leaves Harper & Row. and became unseen except for his eyes which spoke Graves, D.H. (1992). Explore poetry. of wanting to be mine. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Being long-legged Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (1986). Models of he popped-up quick teaching (3rd ed.). Englewood, NJ: Prentice- like a rabbit. Hall. Slipped a kiss, a kiss soft as a prince. Lukens, R.J. (1995). A critical handbook of I opened my eyes children's literature (5th ed.). New York: and he become one. HarperCollins College Publishers.

This poem used all three analogies but all three Lukens, R.J. (1990). A critical handbook of do not have to be used in creating a poem. children's literature (4th ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott,Foresman/Little,BrownHigher Conclusion Education. In conclusion, the concept of metaphors can be difficult for some students to understand. McClure, A. (1986). Children's responses to Yet metaphors are necessary for creative poetry poetry in a supportive literary context. Paper writing. Therefore, instruction on metaphors presented at the Annual Meeting of the should be included. Gordon (1961) has isolated National Council of Teachers of English, San a means of thinking metaphorically by using Antonio, TX.(ERIC Document Reproduction synectics mechanisms which most people have Service No. ED 284 279) already experienced in some degree in their daily living. Thus including these mechanisms Pressley, M. (1977). Imagery and children's in instruction would seem to be the simplest and learning: Putting the picture in developmental most likely the most effective way to introduce perspective. Review of Educational Research, metaphors into students' writing. 47

References Rosenblatt, L. (1983). Literature as exploration (3rd ed). New York: The Modern Language Couch, R. (1993). Synetics [sic] and imagery: Association of America. Developing creative thinking through images. In R. Braden, J. Clark Baca, & D. Beauchamp

177 182 Virtual Courses And Visual Media William J. Gibbs Patricia J. Fewell Abstract There are a number of issues that must be addressed when delivering courses entirely on-line such as designing effective user-interfaces and using the visual medium of the WWW effectively for instructional purposes. This paper discusses the implementation of a on-line course and reviews issues related to the visual design and development of instructional materials for use on-line.

Introduction Virtualcourses are typically The Internet and the World Wide Web asynchronous which means that there is no (WWW) are greatly impacting education. prearranged time or place of meeting. The vast network of networked computers Synchronous learning occurs when the known as the Internet enables, among other instructor and students agree to meet at a things, access to a worldwide database of particular time and place to engage in some information in a variety of mediated forms. form of learning activity.Most traditional The accessibility of information over the instructiontakesplace synchronously. Internet affords educators many advantages Asynchronous learning, on the other hand, and challenges in terms of instruction and typicallyprovidesinformationand learning. The advent of .the WWW enables instructional materials which are accessed at thedistribution of on-line courses and a time and place that is convenient to the entire degree programs. Class materials can student.For example, when the WWW is be made available 24 hours a day from used to present a lesson, instructional anywhere in the world.This makes it materials and activitiescan be made possible for learners to enroll in courses available for students to access at any time, regardless of their physical location. from any location in the world provided that they have the appropriate hardware and software. What is a Virtual Course It should be mentioned that not all A virtual course is a learning experience instructional uses of the Internet and WWW deliveredwithina computer-based are courses delivered completely on-line. information system. There are no walls or Manyinstructorsutilizeweb-based chalkboards but rather work environments; materials toreinforce, supplement and facilities and group communications are compliment information presented during facilitated through software and hardware in-classroom lectures. (Hiltz, 1995).Instructors and students can be in non-centralized locations so that instruction is distributed independent of Purpose of Paper time and physical distance.Consequently, In the Spring semester of 1995, Eastern students do not travel to the university or Illinois University offered "Technology in college but participate by interacting with a the Classroom" (EDF 4998) as a "virtual personalcomputer connectedtothe course". The course emphasized various Internet. Course content can be accessed at aspects related to the theory and practice of any time from any location in the world. technologyandmedia(specifically The virtual classroom is comprised of computers) for learning.It focused on many of the same learning tools and forms relevant issuesrelatedtothe design, of interaction that occur in the traditional development, and evaluation of computer- classroom."All of these things exist within based learning programs.Instructional the virtual classroom, too, except that all the communications among studentsand activities and interaction are mediated by instructor were done asynchronously via the computer software, rather than face to face Internet. interaction." (Hiltz, 1995 p. 5) 179

1,8 3 disseminator of information is notalways There are a number of issuesthat must be addressed when delivering courses effective for on-line courses.Adapting effective instruction to the virtual courserequires entirely on-line such as designing methods user-interfaces and using the visualmedium modifying traditional instructional instructional and media. Much of theelectronic of the WWW effectively for dialogue that took place in EDF4998 was purposes.Thispaperdiscussesthe EDF conducted through facilities such asemail implementation of an on-line course, The WWW was used for 4998, Technology in the Classroom. It and listservers. design weekly lecture notes, assignmentsand reviews issues related to the visual These media forms are visual in and development of instructionalmaterials projects. natureand using them tofacilitate for use on-line. interactions and convey course content requires, among other things, aclear toconvey Course Overview: Interactions understandingofhow by information visually. Figure1 below There were four primary means 4998. which the instructor, student, and peer-to- shows the home page for EDF peer interactions tookplace in EDF 4998: 1) electronic dialogue via emailand listserv, 2) the WWW, 3) the telephone,and 4) the Figure 1 postalsystem.Mostinformation EDF 4998 Home Page students disseminated from the instructor to Netscaoe Technology In The Classroom Nome Page11012) occurred by electronic mail and theWWW. Ms. jitr.4g Each week lecture notes weredelivered over trasiaArol the WWW, the purpose of which wasto illustrate concepts and ideas,summarize topics,posequestions,andpresent assignments. Students reviewed these materials at a time convenient tothem and responded with reactions, comments,and questions through electronic mail. Students turned in weeklyassignments which were sent to a listsery forthe entire class to review and discuss. Thefinal exam and other confidential assignments were sent directly to the instructorby electronic of mail. A few students opted to send some introduces rturlents to educational their major assignments through thepostal Technology in theClassroom (EDF 4498) system. The majority of interactionsbetween weredone Electronic Dialogue instructorandstudents One of the most important factorswhich electronically.Occasionally, students used determines whether students perceivethe the telephone for personalquestions and virtual class to be better or worsethan comments (e.g., not being able tocomplete but this traditional instructional modes is the extent work by the assigned deadline, etc.) to which they interact andthe quality of was limited. their interaction (Turoff, 1995). Most student-to-studentinteractions the and by The mode ofinteraction and occurred through electronic mail interface between instructor and studentis telephone. The telephone wasparticularly much different in a virtualclass.For useful in emergencies.For example, to tothe students example,insteadof listening complete a group assignment, two studentsnavigatethrough had not received email from their partnerin instructor, inquire as computer-mediated content and exchange two days and thus telephoned to electronic dialogue. In a traditionalclass, to his whereabouts. studentquestionscanbe managed effectively with verbal responses butin the virtual class this dialogue must betyped, a Modifying Materials far more laborious task. Posing aquestion Conventional expository instructionin effort and primary verbally requires less physical whichtheinstructoristhe time than if the same question wastyped. 180 BEST COPYAVAILABLE 1.84 Moreover, when a message is typed it has a and students type electronic messages in degree of permanence compared to a verbal upper case.This should be avoided not message which diminishes after the words only because it is more difficult to read but are spoken.Consequently, an author may also, depending on the nature of the exert more time and effort composing message, capitalization is often associated his/her thoughts for a typed message than with "shouting" on the Internet. one that is conveyed verbally. Also, the Text lines should not be too close nature of the virtual course is such that together or separated too far apart (Heinich, responses to questions do not have to occur Molenda, Russell, Smaldino, 1996). Some immediately. This may promote a tendency students will place a blank space between to spend more time and energy reflecting each typed line.This can make the text and developing elaborate responses. lines appear disjointed and difficult to read. The virtual classroom enables students to Use headings and whitespace effectively. ask questions privately and at any time of When students submit an assignment day or night. Students who would never electronically, they may be more informal venture tospeak outina traditional than if it was submitted on paper.For classroom may be inclined do so under instance, terms might be abbreviated or less these circumstances.This combined with formal language used. Also, the appearance thefactthatmost dialogueissent of documents may not be comparable to electronically produces a large amount of those submitted on paper. There is often the electronic mail.If 20 to 30 students enter a tendency to send electronic documents minimum of 5 questions or comments a (e.g., mail messages or assignments) as a week plus assignments, the number of single block of text.While this is not a entries per week grows substantially. problem for short email messages, itis problematic as text documents get longer. Guidelines For Electronic Dialogue Inthevirtualclass,students need to Unless the course requires a specific organize informationwithdescriptive email application, instructors may not be headings and text segmented by whitespace. able to control, to any great extent, how Because so much electronic dialogue is students'electronicmessagesappear exchanged, instructors should encourage visually.The type of programs used for students to identify themselves as the author receiving and sending mail will vary from of the information submitted. At minimum, student to student.Nevertheless, there are request that students type the following at some things that instructor and students the beginning of each document: should keep in mind. To maintain interest, instructors should From: Student's Name use written language in a skillful way Topic: including the use of humor and metaphor (Turoff,1995).Studentsshouldbe This helps instructors identify the author of encouraged to do the same. This applies to the assignment and prevents documents both email and WWW materials. The form being lost or deleted. dynamics of class interactions will change dramatically when creative dialogueis shared. For example, in one class a student The World Wide Web constantly interjected colorful analogies In addition to electronic mail, the WWW and examples. As a result, other students is another primary means by which to began to react to his colorfulness.While disseminate informationinthevirtual this dialogue was not always related to course. The WWW like other hypermedia course content (in the instructor's opinion) environments,frequentlycontains it helped build class cohesiveness. documents designed as scrambled, content- When possibleuseshortconcise free information or gibberish (Stanton & sentences and simple vocabulary (Hartley, Baber, 1994).While technologically web 1985). Remember students will be reading a site developers have the capabilityto lot of information. include pictures, text, audio and video in "For best legibility, use lowercase letters, documents, design protocols for doing so adding capitalsonly- where normally differ from one site to the next. This required."(Heinich, Molenda, Russell, confuses users and increases the possibility Smaldino, 1996, p. 76).Often instructors of users getting disoriented. As the number

181 1E5 of nodes and the complexity of their links found information. Maps also demonstrate increase, it is not unusual for the users of a structural knowledge or how a particular complex hypermedia program to get lost topic or concept is structured relative to (Park, 1991). other topics and sub-topics. The leveloffrustrationand WWW documentsoftenpresent disorientationusersexperience when numerous options/linksfrom which to viewing web-based instructional materials is choose.This can confuse learners and often contingent on anintuitiveuser make it difficult for them to decide where interface and the user's familiarity with the to go next. To address this issue categorize WWW. Depending on the nature of the links into two major groups: 1) essential virtual course, student skills may range links which lead to essential information, from novice to expert.Itis especially and 2) supplemental links which provide important forthe novicethat WWW related but divergent information. An documents be effectively designed and that example could be a hypertext version of a the interface be intuitive. Well designed technology textbook.Links that lead from documents that have a clear and uniform page one to page two or fromchapter 1 to user interface enable students tonavigate chapter 2 are essential links. References or content more easily (Knupfer & Clark, citations on a particular topic, author or 1996). experiments are supplemental links. Inthevirtualcourse,peer-to-peer Create a consistent navigational design interactionsandinstructor-to-student that enables studentstoeasily obtain interactions are generally on-going and not documents that relate to the document limited, for example, to a 1 hour block of being viewed. This can be done by time as in a traditional course.In most providing access/links to the original table cases, students and instructorexchange of contents or main home page. Another dialogue at all hours of the day on a daily technique is to designate a portion of the basis. While such dialogue is on-going, it is screen (top and/or bottom ofscreen) for often not immediate. A student may pose a navigational elements. In this area, position question, idea, or comment and not receive links that relate to the document being a response for hours.This is one reason viewed. why every attempt should be made to Do not make documents longer than reduce interferences to instructional content necessary if they can be segmentedinto (e.g.,poorly designedinterface)and more then one file.The length of time frustrationtothelearner.If students involved in retrieving long documents can become disoriented by WWW documents or beconsiderable depending onusers' do not understand how to access content, hardware. Students in the virtual course they may not be able to find a solution for often have modem access and therefore it several hours which can increase their takes them longer' to download WWW anxiety and frustration. documents.This problem is compounded In developing course materials for the when graphics and pictures are added. WWW, there are several things to keep in Muchlikeelectronicmail,long mind. The items discussed below are some documents can be visually overwhelming to basic suggestions that virtual instructors users.Instructors need toreword or may find useful. abbreviate text so it will fit within the visual Presentasensibleorderingof design of the screen (Knupfer & Clark, informationbytopic.Learnersoften 1996)1Additionally, reading a computer visually scan WWW documents without screen is more difficult than readingfrom reading detail and thus need a means by paper. It is preferable to use larger font whichtoeasilylocatenecessary sizes (e.g., size 4 in HTML coding)for easy information. Instructors should provide a reading. good visual overview that allows students to While WWW documents are non-linear, quickly find a particular topic or document. readers often read them linearly. Thus, it is Provide a topic listing or table of contents, a a good idea to provide a linearpathway hierarchy of topics, or a means by which to through documents. This could be search for a topic. Where possible, create accomplished by providing links that allow conceptual maps for instructional content. users to proceed from one screen ortopic Maps illustrate node and link relationships to the next. (Tilton, 1996). and provide a visual guide to the to-be- Users make navigational decisions based

182 on informational content.They read the increases, confusion may result. This has text on-screen and made inferences as to implications for virtual courses. Itis wheretheymightfind more related important for students to understand the information.Visual cues and navigational pathsthroughwhichtheytraverse links should support and/or coincide with instructionalcontent. When students the informational content. Descriptive become confused or disoriented or do not heading, titles and links are important know how they arrived at a particular during information searches. destination, they will be less likelyto acquire the presented information and more likely to become confused. Using Frames Using frames in WWW documents can It is a challenge for instructors to create help circumvent this problem. For instance, well-designed web-basedinstructional imagine a document dividedinto3 materials. Among otherthings, the separate sections. At the top of the screen, a computer screen restricts students' view of one inch "Title" frame contains the title of a the overall instructional content (Knupfer & particular week's lesson. On the left side of Clark, 1996). the screen, a two inch wide "Menu" frame Frames enable several web documents to lists topics for the week.The remaining be opened simultaneously in the computer portion of the screen is the "Content " frame screen area. Each document is apportioned used for the presentation of instructional a segment of the screen for display. From content. When users selects any of the links the experience in EDF 4998, frames served in the Menu frame, information displayed two primary functions.First, they helped to in the content frame changes.The Menu visually organize information. Second, does not change.Therefore, students are frames enabled consistent visual referents provided a constant visual referent to the (e.g., menu selections) to be used which week's topics and the sequence in which assisted user navigation.Figure 2 below they are organized and presented. Students shows an example of a screen using frames. can navigate across instructional content without loosing sight of how to get back to the Menu list or how to select a new topic. Figure 2 Frames: Sample Screen Summary ',temps (OF t 20 The Internet and the World Wide Web rorFe/j ilFfWti4E4990.1P , offermanynewopportunitiesfor ow;:i wort Paiiit 41w4kweb "..,..,. , educators.This is a medium by which RtbriOloW .kp0 -F,": learners have access to information around i the world 24 hours a day. The classroom as gym, 0 ,-... itsuataaranaristv 4 tie, eei' we have known it is expanding to world- nom wide proportions. Classes can link to other &imam= classes at distant universities to exchange a eifwegtex

601224111CL ideas, solve problems and discuss various 1 =Mali topics.Likewise, regardless of physical 111511i location, scholars and business professionals 7,2.1,, ' .17.0a78,2 can, with relative ease, enter the classroom 'assaurm,0,,a,. =MU f-:):4,,,i c-...fi to share perspectives and knowledge. ', . . ;AA,a,et,=t-1::,,4 The virtual course is visual in nature. Typically no verbal dialogue is exchanged between instructor and students. Most Typically in WWW documents, a user communication is done visually through the makes a selection andistakentoa WWW and text messages using electronic document in which a new screen of mail. Given the visual nature of the virtual information is presented.Information at course, instructors need to think visually the previous location is no longer visible. while at the same time understanding the Commonly, users of the WWW make current limitations of the medium.While selections superficially and when arriving at graphics and pictures may, for example, be the destination document, they no longer more effective at conveying meaning than remember their previous selection. As the long scrolling screens of text, too many amount and complexity of information

LEST COPY AVAILABLE 183 187 picturescause problemsforstudents Knupfer, N. and Clark, B. (1996). accessing class materials through a modem. Hypermedia as a separate medium: Despite current limitations, the Internet Challenges for designers and evaluators. and the WWW hold great potential for In M. Simonson, M. Hays & Sara Hall instruction and learning.As educators (Eds). The 18th annual proceedings of become involved with the "virtual course" it the selected research and development is important to remember that it is a visual presentations (pp. 336-352), Ames, Iowa: medium. Sound principles of visual design AECT. can improve, among otherthings,the aesthetics of on-line materials, how they are Park, O.C. (1991). Functional Features and organized,andtheireffectivenessat Research Issues. Educational Technology, conveying course information. August, 24-30. Stanton, N. A., & Baber, C. (1994). The References myth of navigating in hypertext: How a Hartley, J. (1985). Designing instructional "Bandwagon" has lost its course! Journal text. New York: Nichols. of Educational Multimedia and Hyper- media, 3(3/4), 235-249. Heinich, R., Molenda, M. Russell, J. D. and Smaldino, S. E. (1996). Instructional Tilton, E. (1996). Composing good HTML. media and technologies for learning. Addison-Wesley Developers Press. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Reading, MA. Jersey. Turoff, M. (1995). Designing a virtual Hiltz, R.S. (1995) The virtual classroom classroom. 1995 International learning without limits via computer Conference on Computer Assisted net-works. Ablex Publishing Corporation. Instruction. National Chiao Tung Norwood, New Jersey. University. Hsinchu, Taiwan.

184 EST COPY AVAILABLE Travellers And Cowboys: Myths Of The Irish West by Gretchen Bisplinghoff

Abstract The recent Irish film "Into the West" (1992) explores the myth of the West on two continents. The image of the horse operates as the common denominator to the exploration of both myths. The horse as visual icon crosses boundaries of space, time and culture to explore the elements of Hollywood genre in the Irish landscape.

The West Of Song And Legend from the boys' evocation of key elements and After spending the night in town, two re-enactment of archetypal situations to the young "cowboy-bandits" wake up to find constant presence of scenes on mass media themselves surrounded by the law. To escape, screens. the duo jump down from a balcony onto the back of their trusty mount, a fiery white Mass Media Referents stallion. To their cries of "Hi Yo, Silver," the Images on mass media screens appear as a magnificent horse rears up, pawing the air, visual reference point throughout the film. beforeleapingforwardtomaketheir Near the beginning of the film, the boys getaway. In an earlier scene, horse and riders watch scenes on television of cowboys and are foregrounded against the majestic sweep Indiansbattlingwhile racingacrossthe of distant mountains. As they approach, American desert. They watch the television riding straight down the dusty road toward while seated on the back of Tir na nOg whom the camera, the "cowboys" are singing. The they've smuggled into their cramped projects camera slowly tilts down to the great horse's apartment by way of a service elevator. When hooves, as he prances in time to their song: their television is taken away, they seize the "Let's go riding way out West. Let's go opportunity to surreptitiously watch the next riding way out West." However,these door neighbor's television, which is showing cowboys are riding into the West of song and scenes from "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance legend, of myth and mountains not on the Kid." Later, they sneak into a movie theater great white horse Silver, but on the magical after hours; there the three adventurers eat steed Tir na nOg, and they're not headed for popcorn and watch "Back to the Future," the Rockies, but for the Wicklow Mountains specifically the scene in which the time and Killarney. machinecarischasedbyIndianson The recent Irish film"Into the West" horseback. Boys and horse are framed from (1992) explores the myth of the West on two behind within the large screen action; Tir na continents. The riders on horseback are two nOg's shadow fallssharply in silhouette young Irish boys, Tito and Ossie, who have across the projected visuals. heard their Grandpa Reilly tell stories around TheiradventureintotheWest is the campfire about the magical land of eternal precipitated when the authorities seize the youth beyond the mountains and over the sea. horseand a wealthy unscrupulous Grandpa's stories of the Irish West of legend businessman arranges to buy him illegally. become intertwined with and filtered through The boys search for him fruitlessly until the the boys' fascination with the American West day that they go into a video store to find a of cowboys and Indiansasdepictedin Western. As they search the shelves for one countlessHollywood-versions.The that they haven't seen yet, the television Hollywood versionof American history screen in the background shows scenes of the informs the action in Ireland throughout, Grand National Championship and the new 185 F2 wonder horse of the jumping world, National Figure 1 Security. The boys recognize Tir na nOg at Horsemen in Landscape once. In the next scene, the police roust Papa Reilly and take him to the police station to question him as to the whereabouts of his sons. They force him to watch a tape of the Grand National which revealsthe boys disrupting the proceedings and galloping off on Tir na nOg. Following their escape, Tito and Ossie decide that since they are wanted "horse thieves" with a price on their heads, they will of course make their getaway as Tito says, "To the West! The Wild West!"

The Horse As Visual Icon The image of the horse operates as the common denominator to the explorationof both myths. The horse as visual icon crosses boundaries of space, time and culture. As a visual symbol, this icon functions to define the parameters of the Western genre in theme and style. Defining stylistic features of the Hollywood Western include long shots and extreme long shots of figures on horseback against the distinctive landscape, whether they arecavalry,posse,cowboys or Indians Figure 2 (Cawelti,1970, pp. 42-43).(Fig.1) As Horses And Men In Movement Robert Warshow pointsout,"These are sharply defined acquirements, giving to the A figure of the Westerner an apparent moral clarity which corresponds to the clarity of his physical image against his bare landscape; initially,at any rate,the Western movie presents itself as being without mystery, its whole universe comprehended in what we see on the screen" (Warshow, 1962, p.139). (Fig. 2) Another distinctive stylistic feature are the chase scenes of posse and bandits, cavalry and Indiansand stagecoach and Indians captured in rapid travelling shots: "...those 'cinematic' elements which have long been understood to give the Western theme its special appropriateness for the movies: the wide expanses of land, the free movement of men on horses...land and horses representthe movie's material basis, its sphere of action" (Warshow, 1962, p.139). At one point in "Into the West" while the boys are riding through the forest, they look up to see riders

186 120 BEST COPY AVAILABLE coming over a ridge, silhouetted against the tinkers. Even though many of them now live sky. Tito immediately assumes that it's either in small trailers, they still buy, sell and own Indians or a posse and they take off at a dead horses which form a livinglink tothe run, apparently pursued by the other riders. travellers past when they pulled the colorful However, the audience and the boys discover gypsy carts and wagons (Maslin, 1993). The their mistake when they realize that they are nomadic gypsylifeasopposedtothe sharing their eventual -hiding place in the structured existence of the "settled" people in underbrush with a fox, the real quarry of that largepartwas made possibleby and hunt. depended upon their horses. In the beginning of the film, Tir na nOg Workhorses And Stars approachesGrandpawho, withhis In the depiction of its role in the Western as horse-drawn cart, still lives by the old ways. a draft animal, the horse pulls the buckboard Tir na nOg follows Grandpa and the cart back into dusty "one-horse" towns, the stagecoach to a travellers' encampment in the urban across the vast expanse of Monument Valley, wasteland outside the Ballymun projects of and the covered wagons of settlers searching the northern Dublin suburbs. All of the other for a new life in the West. (Fig. 3) Although horses at the encampment are obviously of heavier draft stock reflecting such breeds as Figure 3 Belgians, Percherons and Clydesdales. The Horses and Driver kids in the encampment clamor to be allowed to ride these animals when they have been unhitched. Tir na nOg's light color and finely chiseled features contrast sharply with the appearance of these other animals. His flashy, spirited movement, head and tail held high, together with his fine conformation indicate his thoroughbred blood. As in the depictions oftheHollywood Western,thisvisual differencebetweentheanimalsreveals important thematic distinctions.

Cowboy Identity C The emblem of the horse, a certain kind of horse, represents key elements of the identity of the cowboy, especially the cowboy star. Popular cowboy heroes were double-billed as partners in an inseparable team of horse and man: Tom Mix and Black Jack, Roy Rogers and Trigger, the Lone Ranger and his great horse Silver. These horses all shared the same common characteristics of being fine-blooded, flashy-gaited animals which separated them from the other horsesin the films and demonstrated the status of their owners: "...in he is the magical magnificent star of "Into the color, features, 'intelligence' no other horse West," Tir na nOg is by no means the only isthematchofTrigger,Silverand orse in the film. The Reilly family belong to company...It almost seems as though the an Irish group euphemistically known as the horse enhances the star's qualities as much as travellers, formerly known as gypsies or the star enhances the horse" (Brauer, 1975, p. 36). At the encampment, Tir na nOg is

187 191 BEST COPY AVAILABLE immediately accepted as yet another horse for despised "settled" people. Although nominally the children to ride. No one comments about the head of the family, he can no longer his strikingly different appearance, however, provide for or protect his sons. When the this difference resonates at once with the authorities come for Tir na nOg, the horse audience in terms of these themes of cowboy reacts violently, bucking and kicking holes identity. through the walls. The boys scream again and Traditionally,thetraitsof power and again for their father to save their horse, but freedom associated with the depictions of the he hides in the bedroom, burying his head in horse shape the masculine identity of the pillows. Finally, once again only Ossie can cowboy. As Parker Tyler notesin "The calm Tir na nOg; he leads him out of the Horse: Totem Animal of Male Power," the building for the authorities. image of the horse has been interpreted as a On Tir na nOg's back the boys can imagine "power symbol...an extension of the man's that they have become cowboys journeying personal power, and more specifically, of his into the Hollywood West. However, a central sexual power" (Tyler, 1947, p. 112). Thus, question which the boys ask at the beginning in his mastery of the horse the cowboy claims of the film and again at the end concerns its powers as his own. Throughout the genre, whetherthetravellersarecowboysor this is nowhere more apparent than in the key Indians. Although the boys can be cowboys in scenes which depict the cowboy taming a wild their imagination, as travellers the Reilly stallion, thereby acquiring its great speed and family is also visually associated with and strength. To name only a very few of the discriminated against asthe"Indians" of many films in which this mastery of the wild Ireland. As Gabriel Byrne, the actor who horse occupies a central role in the narrative, plays Papa Reilly points out, "The way we these include: "Smoky" (1933, 1946 and 1966 treat the travellers in Ireland is hypocritical. versions), "King of the Wild Horses" (1949), We say we're a free society in which all are "King of the Stallions" (1942), "King of the equal, but we practice apartheid. They are the WildStallions"(1959),"WildStallion" blacks, the Indians of Ireland" (Clarity, 1991, (1952), "Wild Fire" (1945), and the films p. 20). The image of the horse provides the based on the Zane Grey novels such as common basis for the complex interaction of "Lightning" (1927) and "Wild Horse Mesa" allthree culturescowboys, Indians and (1925, 1932 and 1947 versions). travellers. The boys face slurs as they lead Tir na nOg through the crowded Dublin Male Rite Of Passage streets; Pap's self-esteem fails under constant This bonding process of horse and man assault by a bigoted policeman. frequently represents a rite of passage for youngWesterners, an initiation into Cowboys, Indians and Travellers manhood. The horse functions as a "totem The policeman leads the pursuit of Papa to animal in the primitive initiation ritefor anotherencampmentoutintheIrish pubescent boys" (Tyler, 1947, p. 112). Tir na "wilderness," where he has gone to seek help nOg's arrival at the travellers' encampment in tracking his sons. The cop arrives just after signals the fact that Papa Reilly, once King of Papa joins some dancers around the blazing the Travellers, has lost "his gift" with horses. campfire. Reluctant at first, Papa eventually The wild horse will not let Papa approach begins to express his suppressed emotions in him; however, he immediately bonds with the exuberance of lively music and dance. Ossie (who has "the gift"), allowing the boy The cop immediately halts the action of the to begin riding him at once. This early scene scene (which initsfilming recalls many shows the failure of Papa's authority and the Hollywood scenes of Indian braves dancing beginnings of Ossie's journey. After his around the campfire before an important hunt wife's death, Papa started drinking, moved or an upcoming battle), commanding them to into the Dublin slums and became one of the "Stop it! Stop it! Dancing around like animals 188 while your kids are out on the road..." As he to the traveller's cart used by Mary and him, departs the campsite after berating them for thereby setting her spirit free. As thecart not providing "proper" homes for their kids, burns, Tir na nOg magicallyappears within the cops gives orders to his subordinates: the flames as they reach the end oftheir "Call me when the animals leave." Inthe journeys. earlier scene at the apartment, thissame policeman makes it clear that hesees it as his Selected References duty to protect civilized people from such Brauer, Ralph. (1975). The Horse, TheGun "savages." and The Piece of Property. BowlingGreen As in other Western sagas, the journey of Ohio: Bowling Green UniversityPopular Tito and Ossie on Tir na nOgrepresents both Press. physical movement across the landscape and spiritual quest (Kitses, 1970). The magical Cawelti, John. (1970). TheSix-Gun horse carries them over the ground and into Mystique. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling the past on several levelsthe past oftwo Green University Press. cultures in myth and legend, the past of their people and the past of their family. Papa,too, Clarity, James. (1991). "Into the West" Taps must follow them on horseback across the Irish History. The New YorkTimes, countryside into the wildernesson his journey Sunday, December 29, 10 & 20. of redemption. He must returnto the old ways to regain his children and his manhood. Kitses, Jim. (1970). HorizonsWest. Tir na nOg disappears back into thewaves of Bloomington: Indiana University Press. the ocean carrying Ossie. His father finally bursts free of the police nets that literally Maslin, Janet. (1993). Traveller Boysand bind his freedom to save hisson. But the Their Magical Horse. The NewYork rescuer's hand that the audience sees Ossie Times, September 17, C17. grasp first appears as the horse's flowing tail which then metamorphosizes into his mother's Tyler, Parker. (1947). The Horse:Totem hand. Although initially Ossieappears lifeless Animal of American Films.Sight and when Papa brings him out of the surf, he Sound, 16 (63), 112-114. eventually responds and reports that he has seen his mother, who died giving birth to Warshow, Robert. (1962). The Immediate him. In the final scenes of the film, Papa Experience.GardenCity, New York: Reilly returns to the old ways by setting fire Doubleday & Company.

189 9.3 The Development And Demise Of 8 MM Film Loops In America by Rebecca P. Butler

Abstract In this paper, I looked historically at the primarily visual medium known as the 8 mm film loop, why and how it developed, and what contributed to its decline. In addition, I studied a variety of these film loops to ascertain whether or not gender representations of the time applied to this medium, and thus to visual and educational technology in general.

I medium was toted as the library's non print tzin caoia. answer to the book. What happened? :ftum.cro ...J.'s...wk."! AA No. NaA.altMe 101:kimao 90 mrfreryier .04.Anea:calaia if. tOr.341-411 8 and Super 8 Film Loops ,0,T76114e74.itraf401% :ex re See worm tal I Mi. "Some educators have called the 8 mm car- WS SW Ail& .4.1.4,54.40...02 .06.4.001:0119401.940.12M,R% Ispit ft10.051111. tridge film the 'paperback' of the film format since it is so readily available, so inexpensive (compared with the more common 16 mm Introduction films), and so easy to use" (Gerlach and Ely, 1971, p. 347). In In the early 1970s, as a college student study- While 8 mm films could be in open-reel form, ing to be a school library media specialist, one of my biggest fears was learning how to use the more popular 8 mm format (in its heyday in audiovisual hardware and software properly. the late sixties and early seventies) was the end- Because I had grown up in a rural area with less film loop (also called the film cartridge). Housed in a cartridge and never removed ex- little instructional technology in the schools, the thought of a diazo transparency, dry mount cept for cleaning and/or repair, it was very easy to use. Employed most often for educational press, or laminator sent shivers up and down my spine. Especially anathema to me was the or training purposes, the student or teacher sim- 16 mm projector.I approached this piece of ply inserted the cartridge into the projector and hardware with fear and was soon reduced to turned the machine on. The film, itself, was never touched and never needed to be threaded sneaking out of the university's hardware demonstration area after ruining yet another prac- into the projector. In addition, film loops/car- tice film. It was then that I discovered a fantas- tridge films were easy to store. Available at tic machine -- the 8 mm film loop (cartridge) first in a black and white, silent format-- and projector! Together with its corresponding soft- later also in color and sound -- the silent, one- ware, I was suddenly invincible! I could teach concept film loop, proved the most popular. This popularity may have been because of its with technology! I could pick it up and carry it from room to room, from home to school. And cost:as little as $8.00 per film (compared to best of all, it made me unafraid. Once I had approximately $35.00 for sound film loops), proven to myself that I could master that one plus the fact that it could be used in a busy class- piece of equipment, I now knew that I could room with little disruption to the rest of the stu- learn the others as well. Today, the chances of dents (Gerlach and Ely, 1971; Reinhart, 1974; finding an 8 mm or Super 8 mm projector and/ Romiszowski, 1988). Additionally, all 8 mm film loops were three to four minutes in length. or compatible software are slim. If one is lucky -- or unlucky enough to do so -- they are usu- There were inconsistencies among film loops, ally found tucked into a corner of some forgot- however. The dissimilarities between the Stan- ten closet, covered with dust and spider webs. dard (also called the 'regular 8 mm film loop' And yet, at one time this almost wholly visual or just the '8 mm film loop') and Super 8 mm

191 124 cartridge films was the most prominent ex- We made it very clear to ourselves that we didn't ample. really care in what form that accessible mov- Introduced in 1966 by Eastman Kodak ing image came, as long as it truly was acces- (Wittich and Schuller, 1973, p. 452), the Super sible" (Forsdale, 1979). 8 mm film cartridge was faster than its older To Forsdale and his colleagues, accessibility counterpart. Speed: 16 frames per second for meant that anyone -- even a young child -- could the standard film loop compared to 18 frames use the medium. Because film at that time had per second for the Super 8 film, made the Su- a lead over television, preliminary thought was per 8 mm film loop more popular. Another dif- that 16 min cartridge loading projectors might ference was in the size of sprocket holes. Be- also be developed. A study of three such proto- cause Super 8 mm film reduced the size of the types soon proved, however, that this was not holes, it was able to obtain more room for each economically possible. (16 mm cartridges cost picture than was the Standard 8. This resulted more than the film they contained, and needed in a better picture for Super 8 mm films power within the cartridge to move the film into (Romiszowski, 1988). Indeed the better qual- the projector.) After talking to a number of ity pictures produced by the Super 8s soon put engineers, Forsdale came to the conclusion that them in the lead for educational uses. As Wittich the largest feasible gauge of film that could be and Schuller stated in 1973, "More than 100 placed in a cartridge and moved passively film producers throughout the world, most of through the projector by claw action alone was them long experienced in the production of the 8 mm. The 8 mm cartridge was also less 16mm silent and sound films, are now engaged expensive: fifty cents compared to $25.00 for in producing silent 8mm film cartridges on vari- a 16 mm cartridge (Forsdale, 1979). Thus 8 ous subjectsthe subject of 8mm films paral- .mm film loops and cartridge projectors began lel closely those available in 16mm film" (p. their ascent in the annals of American educa- 454). tion. Indeed, as late as 1973, Walt Wittich and Charles Schuller, authors of the fifth edition of A Short History Instructional Technology: Its Nature and Use, "....the portable machine period is probably state that 8 mm film production in the early the most important thing that 8 mm has been 1970s is outstripping 16 mm titles and that used for" (Forsdale, 1979). "With the exception of the cassette tape re- The 8 mm film loop was first introduced into corder, the 8mm silent loop cartridge projector the United States in the early 1960s. Accord- is the piece of audiovisual equipment most fre- ing to C. Louis Forsdale (1979), he was ap- quently added to the equipment of schools" proached by the head of the Horace Mann Lin- (Wittich and Schuller, 1973, p. 473). coln Institute for School Research at Teachers' College, Columbia University and asked if he Development would be interested in funding to do research Educators in the late sixties and early seven- on a Japanese 8 mm cartridge loading projec- ties found that 8 mm film loop cartridges en- tor. After looking at the drawings -- there was couraged learning techniques such as self-tuto- not yet a prototype for the machine -- Forsdale rials, individualized instruction, and small group agreed. Thus for a period of approximately participation. The simplicity of the 8 mmequip- seven years, Forsdale spend half his time in- ment and materials ensured that almost anyage vestigating the possibilities inherent with 8 mm group from about 4 years oncould be comfort- film. As he later stated to Bill Hugg, who in- able in its usage. Its portability,indestructibil- terviewed him as part of the 1970 Educational ity (both the hardware and software werehard Communications and Technology (ECT) Oral to damage), and low cost alsoadded to its popu- History Project, "....the basic idea which we had larity. In addition, the single conceptapproach in mind....in those days can best be expressed used in the production of most 8 mmcartridges, in the phrase, 'the accessible moving image.' contributed to alternative learningstrategies in

192 BEST COPYAVAILABLE 9 5 small group and individualized instruction tories had great difficulty in deciding which (Wittich and Schuller, 1973). Also to come out standards to go with what kind of a machine" of the 8 mm concept was using visual commu- (Forsdale, 1979). Forsdale also stated that he nication to its best potential. This was a direct felt people were concerned the 8mm quality was result of the short length of silent 8 mm film not good enough for a whole class size (unlike cartridges. As Romiszowski (1988, p. 172) 16 mm films and film projectors which worked says, " many instructional situations may well with large groups).But, said Forsdale actually benefit from very short self-contained (1979), that factor was "more in peoples' presentations and from reduction or indeed to- heads than it was in terms of the actual capabil- tal elimination of the audio commentary." Thus, ity of the film" (Forsdale, 1979). Forsdale then the 8 mm concept strongly promoted a word- described "a specially built arc projector," for less instructional medium. Super 8 mm film on thirty foot screens that created "beautiful, beautiful images" (Forsdale, Demise 1979). However, the dilemma of which way to In the mid to late seventies, the Standard and go in the film loop market continued, and ulti- Super 8 mm film loops/cartridges began to go mately, the short life of 8 mm hardware and into a decline. Reasons included:(1) many software drew to a close. schools and libraries had already made an investment in 16 mm equipment; (2) many pro- Conclusion: Generalities ducers were unwilling to make the shifts nec- Although Standard and Super 8 mm film essary to develop 8 mm prints from 16 mm loops and cartridge projectors were compared negatives; and (3) the advent of the videocas- to a book in terms of accessibility and were a sette made the film loop less versatile and more strong promoter of visual instruction, they re- expensive (Romiszowski, 1988, p. 171).In mained only a short time on the educational addition, there were other concerns. scene.' Lack of standardization and versatility, Another problem was that dealing with mul- plus a number of economic issues, translated tiple film loops on exceedingly more difficult into early extinction for this non-print medium.' parts of the same subject. In such cases, it was not uncommon that only the first loop contained Gender Analysis of Studied Super 8 the title and introduction, and additional loops MM Film Loops might not have a recapping of the previous film Why and How (Iowa State University, n.d., Preparation of less Why analyze gender issues in an audiovisual tender beef cuts, Parts 1, 2, and 3; Iowa State medium that has not survived the test of time? University, n.d., Preparation of tender beef cuts, Perhaps this is best understood with my disser- Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4). Such lack of information tation research, Women in Audiovisual Educa- feasibly caused confusion among users. tion, 1920-1957: A Discourse Analysis (But- Yet another problem was the absence of stan- ler, 1995), in mind. While doing this research, dards between the various companies which I became interested in the roles played histori- produced Standard and Super 8 mm hardware cally by women and men within the field of and software. "It is a higher quality medium, audiovisual education. Thus, when I began Super 8 than regular 8, but that also stalled viewing the many 8 mm film loops used for the development of the 8 mm movement, for this study, I found that I was constantly whatever you're going to buy, Super 8, regular aware of the sex of the characters in each film 8...." (Forsdale, 1979). The standardization is- car- tridge. Because all of the film loops I analyzed sue also killed a dream of Eastman Kodak's were silent, it was impossible to attempt a dis- John Florry. Florry's visionwas to make thousands of 8 mm prints which could course analysis. However, it was possible to be sold to visually place where and how men and schools inexpensively. However, "....it's women one were portrayed within the subject content of that never came topass .... because the labora- each film loop. 193

196 ti The film loops used in this study were origi- although on a variety of subjects -- such as art, nally purchased by a university Instructional science, biology, outer space, or food prepara- Media Center. When personnel of this IMC tion -- all cartridges were instructional; (6) while expressed an interest in removing these mate- all loops were silent, a few did have text on the rials from circulation, I immediately said that I screen, thus explaining whatthe viewer was would take the entire film loop collection. As a seeing; and (7) all were in color. result, I found myself with eighty-seven 8 mm Gender Issues film loops, some Standard and some Super 8. I Almost two-thirds of the film loops contained which to next pursued finding the hardware on people. Of these, all were composed of one view this software. Only one machine on cam- adult person, excepting for one film loop which these films: a pus proved able to show any of contained a group of boys and girls (Herberholz, silent Super 8 mm cartridge projector. Because D. and Filby, L., Puppet stages, n.d.). I deter- Super 8 parts of my collection were other than mined the sex of each person in the films, when immediately mm film loops, the study size possible, based on his/her physical characteris- shrank to sixty-eight cartridges. Those left were tics, wearing apparel, hair style, and/or jewelry. all Super 8 mm silent films. My next action These determinations were established, given was to view each film loop with anumber of my perceptions of masculineand feminine char- criteria in mind. acteristics in our culture, especially during the In order to analyze all film loops in a similar time period under study. [The late sixties and manner, I created a short evaluationform which early seventies were part of an age where included the following areas: women were demanding, but notalways receiv- 1) Title ing, equality in the work force and society,in 2) Copyright date general (Baxandall, et al., 1976)]. In somein- 3) Publisher/producer stances, it was not possible to determinethe sex 4) Documentation of an individual -- for example, whenall that 5) Length could be seen were parts of someone'sfingers. 6) Content However, when possible, observations were 7) Black and white or color made concerning sex and gender assignments. 8) Gender issues For example, in all food preparation films,the a) Are the individuals shown male or female? individuals shown were female (Iowa State the b) What are they wearing? (i.e., Is what University, 1971; IoWa State University, 1972). sex?) person wearing affirming his/her In film loops dealing with science and/or ex- film? c) What is each individual doing in the periments, only males were shown (Adler, d) If only hands are shown, can an educated 1969; Herbert, 1968; Walters, 1967). Andin "guess" be made as to the sex of the individual? some film loops, such as StitcheryI and II (n.d.), If so, what is the criteria for making this males were depicted demonstrating theactiv- "guess?" ity even though sewing was morelikely to What I Found be considered a "typical" female occupation Using the above evaluation criteria, several (Tierney, 1991, p. 392) in the sixties and sev- generalizations were made: (1) the majority of enties. Possibly this assignment of a member the film loops were produced in either the late of the opposing sex to a gendered role mayhave 1960s or the early 1970s; (2) while a varietyof been an anomaly, or perhaps it was a reply to publishers were represented in the collection, women in the seventies whodemanded female most of the film loops came from oneof three equality (Solomon, 1985, p. 188). Stillanother places: BFA Educational Media, Film Associ- reason may have been avisual extension of a ates, or Iowa State University; (3) themajority verbal message of the time, which placed men had little or no documentation; (4) all loops were or male terminology inroles in which a spe- between three and four minutes in length; (5) cific sex was not determined (Black andCow-

194 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 197 ard, 1981). Without interviewing those who Adler, R.B. (Producer). (1969). Uniform and wrote and developed these film cartridges, it is non-uniform fields. [Film loop]. New York: impossible to specifically determine why such Harper and Row. Baxandall, R., Gordon, L., and Reverby, S. (Eds.) choices were made. (1976). America's working women: A Conclusion: Gender Issues documentary history - 1600 to the present. Altogether, twenty-two film loops contained New York: Vintage Books. Black, M. and Coward, R. (1990). Linguistic, a male interacting with the subject environment, social and sexual relations: A review of Dale and sixteen cartridges consisted of women dem- Spender's man made language. In D. Cameron onstrating a skill or technique. In addition, one (Ed.), The feminist critique of language: A loop contained both girls and boys; seventeen reader (pp. 111-133). New York: Routledge. were composed of individuals whose sex I was Butler, R.P. (1995). Women in audiovisual unable to determine; and twelve had no humans education, 1920-1957: A discourse analysis involved in the instructional process. In the (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wiscon- studied film loops, it was possible to find a male sin-Madison, 1995). in a "feminine" role (see above discussion) or Forsdale, C.L. (1979, May). [Interview with Bill in a more neutral role, such as an art teacher/ Hugg]. Gerlach, V.S. and Ely, D.P. (1971). Teaching and demonstrator. However, while women, too, media: A systematic approach. Englewood were portrayed in gendered roles such as cook- Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ing or meat cutting, as well as in neutral roles Hartman, S.M. (1989). From margin to main- (for example collage construction), no women stream: American women and politics since were found in subject areas seen as masculine 1960. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. (scientist, etc.). These perceptions reflect the Herberholz, D. and Filby, L. (n.d.). Puppet times in which the studied film loops were cre- stages. [Film loop]. BFA Educational Media. ated and produced: a era where politically the Herbert, D. (Producer). (1968). Conservation of gender gap was beginning to, but had not yet mass. [Film loop]. New York: Harper and declined (Hartman, 1989, p. 72). Row. Herbert, D. (Producer). (1968). Gas diffusion Conclusion rates. [Film loop]. Prism Productions. Regardless of the fact that 8 mm film loops Herbert, D. (Producer). (1968). Heat of fusion. [Film loop]. New York: Harper and Row. and projectors had a short life span, their exist- Herbert, D. (Producer). (1968). Motion of a ence on the audiovisual scene makes them a molecule. [Film loop]. New York: Harper and viable part of our visual literacy and educational Row. technology history. Gender issues within this Herbert, D. (Producer). (1968). Radioactivity. medium provide us with another view on a past [Film loop]. era. As C. Louis Forsdale (1979), one of the Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). fathers of the American 8 mm film loop con- Classes and properties of dispersions. [Film cept said, "we....believed....that if the moving loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. image was indeed accessible to everybody: Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). child, teacher, housewife, anybody, that it would Controlling crystallization. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. then come closer to the role that the book has Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). played, and the book has played its role in large Gelatinization of corn starch. [Film loop]. measure....because it is accessible." Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Iowa State University (Producer). (1972). Gluten References development. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa Adler, R.B. (Producer). (1969). The field from a State University. steady current. [Film loop]. New York: Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). Oil -in Harper and Row. water emulsionsformation & stability. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University.

195 I9S Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). The Kincaid, C. and Madeja, S. (Directors). (n.d.). effect of cooking on plant pigments. [Film Stitchery II: Applique. [Film loop]. Hester loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. and Associates. Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). The Reinhart, B. (1974). Vocational-technical perm ability of plant cell membranes. [Film learning materials. (2nd ed.). Williamsport: loop]. Ames, IA: Towa State University. Bro-Dart Publishing. Iowa State University (Producer). (1972). Romiszowski, A.J. (1988). The selection and use Preparation of less tender beef cuts. (Part 1). of instructional media. (2nd ed.). New York: [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univer- Nichols Publishing. sity. Solomon, B.M. (1985). In the company of Iowa State University (Producer). (n.d.). Prepa- educated women. New Haven: Yale Univer- ration of less tender beef cuts. (Part 2). [Film sity Press. loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Tierney, H. (Ed.) (1991). Women's studies Iowa State University (Producer). (n.d.). Prepa- encyclopedia. New York: Peter Bedrick ration of less tender beef cuts. (Part 3). [Film Books. loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Walters, A.E. (1967). Charge distribution: The Iowa State University (Producer). (1972). Faraday ice pail experiment. [Film loop]. New Preparation of tender beef cuts. (Part 1). Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univer- Wilhelm, R.D. (1996). Strengthening the visual sity. element in visual media materials. Techtrends, Iowa State University (Producer). (n.d.). Prepa- 3, 24-25. ration of tender beef cuts. (Part 2). [Film Wittich, W.A. and Schuller, C.F. (1973). instruc- loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. tional technolog,' v: Its nature and use. (5th Iowa State University (Producer). (n.d.). Prepa- ed.). New York: Harper & Row. ration of tender beef cuts. (Part 3). [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. 1 By the time C. Louis Forsdale was inter- Iowa State University (Producer). (n.d.). Prepa- viewed for the ECT oral history tapes in 1979, ration of tender beef cuts. (Part 4). [Film 8 mm film loops and projectors were no longer loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. a constant in education. Instead, growth in this Iowa State University. (Producer). (1971). format had taken a new turn: away from the K- Preparing an amorphous candy - butterscotch. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univer- 12 curriculum and towards hard core pornog- sity. raphy: "By the way, fascinating little side note Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). on this thing. I don't have any figures on this Preparing a crystalline candy. [Film loop]. but I would be willing to guess that maybe the Ames, IA: Iowa State University. greatest market for Super 8 mm distribution in Iowa State University (Producer). (1971). this country is hard core pornography. And I Protein food foams. [Film loop]. Ames, IA: literally mean that. The pornographic field, the Iowa State University. sales stores, have gone in the direction of 8 mm Kincaid, C. and Madeja, S. (Directors). (n.d.). and Super 8 mm, and from what I gather their Stitchery I: Cardboard and screen. [Film turnover is very large indeed" (Forsdale, 1979). loop]. Hester and Associates.

196 Women's History In Visual And Audiovisual Education, Where And How To Find It by Rebecca P. Butler

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to (1) briefly describe dissertation research covering the history of women in visual and audiovisual education, 1920-1957; (2) convey the manner in which an historical methodology may be reached; and (3) trace sources for such research. Special emphasis ison where, how, and why visual literacy and educational technology historians can and should makeuse of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Archives. Introduction Non-print media use in U.S. public schools sertation research would be to document the began as early as 1905. It was during this year creation of subjects within the dominant dis- that St. Louis, Missouri, assistant school super- courses of audiovisual education, 1920-1957, intendent, Carl Rathmann purchased exhibits especially the role of United States' women from the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition during that time period. (I chose this specific (World's Fair) for use with the school children set of dates because of its proximity to the be- of his city. Overwhelmed with sets of lantern ginnings of visual and audio education, as well slides, stereoscopic views, and realia, he cre- as its closeness to some of the greatest growth ated one of America's first audiovisual pioneers: periods in the history of the field: World War Amelia Meissner, an elementary school teacher, II' and Sputnik.2). As such, I reviewed repre- when he placed her in charge of the collection sentative samples of oral history tapes of (Golterman, 1976). From this inauspicious founders in the field3 and textbooks authored beginning, came visual education, audiovisual by various audiovisual pioneers to ascertain the education, and educational technology. Another manner in which these texts constructed their pioneering effort in the field occurred in 1923, subjects (positioned their readers).I also as- when Anna Verona Dorris and eighteen others sessed critically the discourses running through penned the first visual education textbook to audiovisual education, 1920-1957; and defined be published in the United States: Visual In- the formation of men and women as subjects in struction: Course of Study for the Elementary the early texts and dominant organizations Schools. Including the Kindergarten and First within the field. Studying the various histories Six Grades. With this modest textbook, a vari- in the context of the time in which they oc- ety of texts dealing with both visual and audio curred, I established that the dominant percep- education began changing the way educators tion of women in audiovisual education, 1920- across the nation viewed instruction in K-12 1957, was that of helpmate to male audiovisual schools and higher academia. Who were these specialists, BUT alternative discourses with a women mentioned above? Why is it that most more humanistic bent ran as sub-texts through of us have never heard their names before? much of this. These alternative discourses pro- When we think of pioneers in audiovisual edu- vided readers with choices -- they were invited cation, for what reasons do mostly male names to view the world in more equitable terms. come to mind? How and where can we find out more about both the male and female Historical Methodology founders of our field? The most prominent type of historical methodology is. descriptive history; a recording of Dissertation Research past events (Gray, et al., 1964). However, such After asking myself the above questions and a traditional history does not always fit the sub- more, I determined that the purpose of my dis- ject matter or the research materials available.

197 200 In such instances, it is necessary to develop al- often reveal why they wrote the text, thus re- ternative research strategies. Such is the case vealing their voice); chapters one and two for my dissertation research: "Women in Au- (which are introductory and lay foundations, diovisual Education, 1920-1957: A Discourse also disclosing voice); and summaries and con- Analysis." clusions. After examining early textbooks and There is no standard methodology for a dis- manuals, I turned to the oral histories. course analysis of historical audiovisual texts. Similar criteria to that used for the audiovi- Therefore, working concepts of text, reader, sual textbooks and manuals discourse analysis author, subjectivity, sex, and gender were drawn decided which of the oral history tapes of vi- from a number of sources: social reader theo- sual, audiovisual, and educational technology ries ala Stanley Fish;4 critical feminism via founders would be analyzed. In total, twenty- Judith Butler,5 Maria Black and Rosalind Cow - three tapes were perused: twenty male and three ard'6 and Sandra Harding;' and discourse as in- female. These were studied to understand the formed by post-structural concepts.8(These construction of men and women in audiovisual theoretical constructs have similar and non- education, 1920-1957, as positioned by the in- competing epistemologies: belief in the social terviewed founders. This methodology ascer- construction of knowledge and relationships.) tained the rhetorical direction the authors and Rhetorical findings were positioned, via dis- founders took in shaping the base of knowledge course analysis, in the discourses which pro- constituting audiovisual education and gender duced them. Thus, the methodology was a dis- and sex equity issues within the field during course analysis of selected audiovisual text- the first half of the twentieth century. books and audio-tapes of founders in the au- AECT Archives diovisual field, 1920-1957. Prominent in information provision for the Given this discourse analysis, I chose to ana- above dissertation discussion are the AECT lyze early audiovisual texts (textbooks and oral Archives, housed with the National Public history audio tapes) to ascertain the rhetorical Broadcasting Archives at the University of direction the authors/founders took in shaping Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Types of the base of knowledge constituting audiovisual items currently found in the AECT Archives education and gender/sex equity issues within include: conference reports, audiovisual guides, the field. I explored the authors' discourses to software and hardware manuals, film catalogs, discover which ideas and concepts were in- private correspondence to and from founders cluded or excluded from their writings and con- in the field, and reel-to-reel oral history tapes versations, examined how the authors spoke and (Conners, 1996). The AECT Archives can be with what authority, described the discourses accessed by contacting: Thomas Connors, Cu- they offer their readers, and discussed how these rator, National Public Broadcasting Archives, authors construct their readers/listeners through Hornbake Library, University of Maryland at the discourses they use. College Park, College Park, Maryland 20742. For the early audiovisual textbooks and manu- They are open to all those interested in histori- als section, authors were selected if they were cal research in the field(s) of visual literacy and in more than one of a number of related areas, educational technology. including: audiovisual professional periodicals (1920-1957); early audiovisual conference pro- Conclusion grams, proceedings, and publications; on AECT oral history tapes; and/or if referenced or quoted Dissertation Research in more than one early audiovisual education The dissertation study, "Women in Audiovi- textbook. Textbook sampling procedures in- sual Education, 1920-1957: A Discourse Analy- cluded looking for the author's voice and tone sis," analyzed the creation of subjects within in areas where I felt they would be most evi- the dominant discourse of audiovisual educa- dent:prefaces and forwards (where authors tion, 1920-1957, and the role of women in par-

198 ticular. Authors' discourses were explored to References uncover which ideas and concepts were in- Attridge, D., et al. (Eds.) (1987). Post cluded and/or excluded from their writings and structuralism and the question of history. conversations. Because there is no standard New York: Cambridge University Press. methodology for a discourse analysis of histori- Bove, P.A. (1992). Mastering discourse. cal audiovisual texts, working concepts of text, Durham: Duke University Press. reader, author, subjectivity, sex, and gender Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the were drawn from a number of sources: social discursive limits of "sex." New York: reader theories, critical feminism, and discourse Routledge. as informed by post-structural concepts. In Butler, R.P. (1995). Women in audiovisual addition, rhetorical findings were positioned, education, 1920-1957: A discourse via discourse analysis, in the discourses which analysis (Doctoral dissertation, University produced them. This study established that the of Wisconsin-Madison, 1995). dominant perception of women in audiovisual Cameron, D. (Ed.) (1990). The feminist education, 1920-1957, was that of helpmate to critique of Language: A reader. New York: (male) audiovisual specialists. Factors which Routledge. created and fed such a perception were the re- Conners, T. (1996, September). [Interview sults of, among other things, the two world wars, with Rebecca P. Butler]. the military establishment, the corporate world, Craver, K.W. (1986). The changing instruc- and the federal government (for the most part, tional role of the high school library media all patriarchal/male- dominated institutions). specialist: 1950-1984. School Library Although societal and cultural influences of the Media Quarterly 3, 183-191. 1800s were changing in the first half of the DeVaney, A. (1994). Doing educational twentieth century, societal perceptions still es- technology research in the postmodern tablished that men were providers while women academy. Chapter. Forthcoming. cared for home and family. However, within Golterman, E. (1976, May). [Interview with this environment, existed alternative discourses Calvin Owens]. influenced by Edgar Dale, John Dewey, and the Gray, W., et al. (1964). Historian's hand- child-centered learning theory movement. book: A key to the study and writing of These alternate discourses provided their read- history (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton ers with choices; they were invited to view the Mifflin. world in more equitable terms. Such percep- Harding, S. (1991). Whose science? Whose tions, and the discourses influenced by them, knowledge? Thinking from women's affected how both sexes were viewed within lives. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. audiovisual education, 1920-1957 (Butler, Heinich, B. (1994, March). [Interview with 1995). Rebecca P. Butler]. Kliebard, H.M. (1987). The struggle for the AECT Archives American curriculum 1893-1953. New The Association for Educational Communi- York: Routledge. cations and Technology Archives materials' National Defense Education Act, P.L. 85-864. collection, ranging from oral history tapes to (1958). U.S. statues at large 72, 1580. conference proceedings to the private correspondence of audiovisual education founders, 1 During World War II, the field of audiovi- provided a wide variety of resources instrumen- sual education boomed with the realization that tal to my dissertation research. For current and training films were a quick and easy way to in- future visual literacy and educational technol- struct thousands of men and women in both the ogy historians, the AECT Archives represents armed forces and industry (Butler, 1995). a major information provision source. 2 Sputnik created a mass concern in the United States that Soviet technology had defeated the 199 202 American education system. The National Judith Butler theorizes that sex and gender Defense Education Act (NDEA), which pro- are both social and cultural constructions and vided monies to introduce audiovisual materi- that these constructions are formed in discourse als into the educational curriculum, was a di- (Butler, 1993, p. 10). rect result of Sputnik (Craver, 1986; Kliebard, 6 Black and Coward postulate that discourses 1987; National Defense Education act, 1958). create and cultivate the positioning of men and These tapes came from two sources: De- women in a society (Cameron, 1990, p. 124- partment of Audio Visual Instruction (DAVI) 132). oral histories commissioned in the 1950s and Sandra Harding's feminist standpoint theory Association for Educational Communications promotes knowledge as socially constructed and and Technology (AECT) oral histories of DAVI focuses on gender differences (Harding, 1991). and AECT pioneers taped in the 1970s 8 Bove describes discourse as invisible sys- (Conners, 1996; Heinich, 1994). tems of thought which operate at a linguistic 4 Stanley Fish's earlier works promote inter- level to produce and regulate knowledge. In pretive strategies -- a social reader theory which addition, he argues that all communications are postulates that a community of readers may discourse specific (Bove, 1992). share textual interpretations based on discursive influences (Attridge, et al., 1987; DeVaney, 1994).

200 2O3 Visual Productions And Student Learning by Marilyn Bazeli Abstract When students become actively involved in technology productions they develop learning skills, communication skills, and visual analysis skills, all of which are applied to real-life learning within the classroom curriculum.Students participate in the planning, production, and evaluation of production projects, which proves to be motivating for the studentsand allows the teacher and students to work together personally and collaboratively.This is a different way for educators to think of classroom structure.Some ideas are presented for student visual productions that are integrated directly into classroom curricularareas.

Introduction which they can be proud, their learning is Many teachers want to use technology in not only enhanced but they also become theirclassrooms. However,designing highly motivated. class roomactivities involving various In our present visual world, itis more media is time-consuming and busy teachers necessary than ever to help students to be rarelyhaveextratimeforadditional able to apply critical thinking skills to all of planning. When students become a part of the visuals they are bombarded with ona theplanningandimplementation of daily basis. Visualliteracy is quickly technology into the classroom, the burden becoming as necessary as verbal literacy. is lifted from the teachers and the learning Engagingstudentsinproducingvarious process becomescollaborative,with the kinds of visuals provides them withmany teacher assuming theroleof facilitator opportunities to analyze visuals and, even rather than disseminator of information. more importantly, to apply problem-soving Further, as students are actively involved in and critical thinking skills to real situations. technology productions, they gain critical Communication skills have been thinking and problem-solving skills along recognizedtobe extremelyimportant, with curriculur learning. especially in the coming century. Psychologists have long investigated the Corporations aswell as educational learningprocessinhumans,andthe institutions have stressed the need for more following have been found to be important effective communication among employees elements in that learning process: and students. As students become involved Clear statement of learning objectives in technology production activities, they Organization of content develop cooperative skills and Participation communication skills because they do not -Practice and repetition work alone on the activities.Either they Feedback are working incooperativegroups with App 1 i cation other students, or they are working with the - Motivation teacher on a one-to-one basis to plan and (Bell-Gredler,1986;Kemp & Smellie, complete the production activity.Further, 1994) When students are actively involved problems are solved in a collaborative way in their own learning, through technology and in a real-world setting, as students find productions, each of thoseelements of ways tosolve planning and production learningisaddressed directly(Bazeli & problems. Heintz, 1997). Students help in Students need to be actively involved in determining clear objectives of the project, their own learning experiences. When they and in the organization of content.They are a part of the planning, researching, aredirectparticipantsintheproject, producing, and evaluating of technology dealing constantly with practice, repetition projects, they become highly involved in and feedback. As they apply their learning their own cooperative, creative, integrated, toa real-lifetechnologyproduction of and authentic learning.Additionally, the

201 204 teacher's time can be focused more o n creatingeffectivephotographs should personal involvement and facilitation of occur.Guidelines could include such things learning,ratherthanonplanningand aseliminatingextraandunnecessary evaluation. elementsin the background, placing the There are more and more books and central object off-center, using foreground articlesappearing,fromavarietyof objects to provide depth, and so on. publishers,focusing on the useof technology in the classroom. Many of Reading those booksdeal with technologyas a As new vocabulary words are presented, learning tool, but do not involve students in students select or are assigned specific technology productions.Those thatdo, vocabulary words to work with. Each however, often utilize only the computer. student(orgroupofstudents)then Research on the Internet, and multi-media identifies some type of visual that would productions are wonderful, but have some clearly define their words.The discussion drawbacks. Toooften,theinstruction and selection process provides experience centers on the technology itself, and not on withvisualliteracy,aseachwordis the curricular applications of the interpreted visually.Students use either a technology.For example, if we want to traditional camera with film or a digital teachstudentstocreatemulti-media camera to take the picture of the selected presentations, then that is goal.However, visuals to define their words. Finished if we want to teach students to organize photographs can be placed in a classroom their learning into a visible and presentable dictionary, with definitions printed beside form, usingeven simple formsof each, or on a classroom bulletin board: technology, then their learning is the goal. The type of technology employed is not as Science important as the curricular applications of Students can create visual weather records technologyproductions. Ifweteach by photographing weather conditions at a researchskillsusingtheInternet,for specific time each day or once each week example,we needtofollowupwith for a designated time period.These would engaging studentsinsometype of be assembled either in a book or a chart, to demonstration of what they have learned. visually show changes in weather. Changing the way classroom instruction is Alternate activities could be to have groups organized, so that students are involved in of students focus on specific aspects of and demonstrate their own learning, is the weather, such as cloud formations,drifts in importantthing. Engaging studentsin snow caused by wind patterns, rain run-off authentic, real-life experiences, building on locations, etc.Over time, and combined the classroom curriculum, can be effectively with weather statistics in the newspaper, accomplished with technology productions students would be able to apply thinking of all kinds. skills regarding impact of weather on our dailyenvironment,weatherforecasting Practical Ideas for Visual Productions cues, effects of a falling barometer, and so by Students on. Someideasforclassroomactivities centering around specific curricular Social Studies applications will be presented here (Bazeli Students could take pictures of various & Heintz, 1997). Each of the activities buildings, places, people,eventsin their provides opportunity for students to link community.Different groups of students theirclassroomlearningwithavisual would focus on a different components of presentation of their learning in a real-life the community, and carefully select and setting. decide upon theobjectsorpeoplet o photograph. The decision process would Photography develop the research skills of the students Before beginning any of theactivities astheyfindoutabouttheirchosen discussed here, a disussion of guidelines for component of the community, and would

202 205 BEST COPY AVAILALE also develop their critical thinking skills as to aid in encoding information into long- they decide upon specific visuals to use in term memory. order to effectively depict the component. For example, students working on buildings Video in the community would need to research Student television productions in various architecture types, dates of construction, curricular areas help to develop the skill of etc., and then select those buildings which anlyzing television and also aid in cognitive would depict a variety of architectural and development withinspecific curricular historical representations in the areas.As students think about what t o community. The photographs would be present visually and auditorially in their mounted on poster board and appropriately television production, they alsoare labeled or described.As each group of developingcomprehensionandanalysis students completes their display, the many skills regarding the topic (Bazeli & Heintz, elements making up the community would 1997). be evident. TelevisionDocumentary(allcurricular Organizational Visuals areas) Visualsofallsorts,fromgraphic Studentsplanandproduceashort organizers to graphs, can be produced by television program about some aspect of a students to give meaning to their learning topic being studied in class. For example, if experience, and provide an effective way t o the class is studying animals, students' could present their learning.Following are some selectbirds or small mammals of their ideasforstudentstobeinvolvedin geographic area as a subtopic to investigate. producing organizational visuals. Students would find out about that subtopic (throughreseachinbooks, Internet, Word Sorts (all curricular areas) magazines, etc.), and then videotape real Word Sorts is an activity involving visual birds or mammals found on a field trip in sorting of vocabulary within a familiar and the woods. They could also interview on comfortable group setting. 011e (1994) video local people who are knowledgeable statesthatstudents use thisprocess to about the selected subtopic. rehearse new vocabulary, to discuss with peers various classifications of words, and Language Arts to develop thinking through defming the Students write an originalstory,create words. Students work collaborativelyt o illustrationsfor thestory, and read the define given vocabulary words, to sort the story while someone holds the illustrations wordsintocategories,and topractice infrontof a video camera. Because pronouncing each word.This provides a studentsareoff -cameraandusinga hands-on, visual experience with new words. microphone, they can focus on reading theirstoryinsteadof lookingatthe Language Arts camera, and can thus concentrate on such Story mappingisavisualwayt o things as vocal expression,tone of voice, understand how a story is organized.This enunciation, and so on.The illustrations strategy can involve the use of both words they created (with a computer or drawn by and pictures.Students select main ideas, hand) would keeptheattentionof the supporting details, and characters, and then listeners and enhance the comprehension of organize them into a visual map. This is a the story. very effective tool for developing comprehension.It can be applied to other Health curricular areas, also. For example,as Students, working in groups, write a script students read new material in science, they for a commercial to promote or sell a food canalsouse a mappingtechniquet o that is good for them, but one that they organize the information visually.This is findundesirable(suchascauliflower, often more effective than traditional note- broccoli, or liver). The students would first taking because of the added visual element 203 206 do research to find the benefits of their favorite foods of their classmates.Graphs selected food, and use those findings to could also be constructed to visually show write an effective commercial promoting the information on the data base. the food,utilizingpersuasivewriting techniques. After assembling any necessary Sound/Slide Productions propsandrehearsingthescript,the Students can use several media combined commercialisthenvideotaped. The toexpressinformation. Theactivities completedvideotapecouldbe used by described here involve the combination of students in other health classes to develop slides and recorded sound. However, any of nutritional knowledge. Limiting students to these activities could easily be converted t o a specified time limit (30 or 60seconds) computer multi-media productions requires the development of precise and involvingvideodiscimagesorscanned concise scriptwriting skills. images, combined with a computer created text.The media used are not important; Computers what is important is how they are used to Students need to view computers as a tool engage students in their own learning. for learning, and to investigate the many Language Arts applications of computers in organizing and Unfortunately, the The teacher selects a groups of slides, displaying information. either on a particular topic or completely computer is often a separate entity, not an Students write a script for those integrated part of the curricular areas of a unrelated. slides, selecting an appropriateobjective, Theactivitiespresentedhere school. and arranging' theslidesintoalogical involve the students in computer activities sequence. Students can work individually or that are directly related to classroom study. in cooperative groups.Upon completion Math of the scriptwriting, students rehearse the In thisactivity,students use a simple narration, and then record it.The students spreadsheet to calculate their grade average. share their completed sound/slide An understandingoftheformulafor presentationand discussthe various computing average is necessary, and then interpretationsofthesetofslides. students apply that to the concept of a Implications of varied interpretations or spreadsheet.Students can predict changes perceptions of everyday visuals, such as in averages if one score were to change, or news, TV shows, should also be discussed. added. Students can also a new score Social Studies preparegraphstorepresentaverages calculated each week. Students create a visual presentation of the community by combining slides made of Language Arts old photographs from the past with new Each student enters information about slides or video from the present.Students him/herself into a database.Information select a theme to represent visually, such as such as number of brothers or sisters, pets, schools in the community, or businesses. favorite foods, favorite TV shows, favorite Old.photographs would be located showing books, etc., could be included. Students the selected theme. Students make slidesof learn to do searches to find all students who the photographs by takingpictures using a have dogs as pets, or who like to read. Not copystand.Then, new slides or videos are only do students become better acquainted taken to represent the theme in present with eachother,but theylearnina time. The old and new would be combined, concrete way how to manage a data base. with appropriate narration written. Finally, students read the data, and then use Conclusion data to write a news report about their few the word-processing The activities described here are just a classmates, using students capabilities of the computer.For example, that could be designed to involve one student might write about the petsof activelyin technologyproductions that the students, another might write about the directly relate to curricular areas(Bazeli 204 207 Heintz, 1997).As students work together learning and enthusiastic guide for life-long toproduceavisualrepresentationof learning skills. information gathered in a specific curricular area, they not only use the technology as a learning toolbut theyalso demonstrate References comprehensionofthesubjectstudied. Helping students learn how to learn, and t o Bazeli,M. & Heintz, J. (1997). love learning is a goal of schools; we want Technology across the curriculum: our students to become life-long learners, Activities and ideas. Englewood,CO: with a knowledge of the tools to aid them. Libraries Unlimited. One way to do that is to change the way we structurelearning inthe classroom, Bel 1-Grodler, M. E.(1986). Learning and engaging students in the planning, instruction:Theory into practice. New researching,and demonstratingof their York: Macmillan Publishing Company. learning. As students feel ownership and accountabilityfortheirlearning,they Kemp,J.andSmellie,D.(1994). become moremotivated. Technology Planning, producing, and using productions by students enpower them t o instructionaltechnologies. New York: take some control over their own learning HarperCollins CollegePublishers experiences, and provide them with real- life, relevant learning experiences.Finally, 011e, R. (1994). Word sorts: Vocabulary thecollaborationbetweenteacherand development with adult literacy learners. student as such productions are developed Journal of Reading, 38(3), p. 230-231. allows the teacher to be a true facilitator of

205 208 A Cartographic Interpretation of Visual Literacy: An Historical Perspective by Cindy L. Kovalik and Kim Lambdin Abstract This paper presents findings from an historical investigation of visual literacy. The unique aspect of this historical inquiry was that the approach relied on the marriage of two disciplines, geography and history, both of which involve the study of changeover time. Maps, the interpretation of data by cartographers, tend to provide a foundational context that can illuminate and establish connections between the past and present world. Usinga variety of sources, historical aspects of visual literacy have been mapped usinga geographic information system (GIS). By overlaying a map depicting one data source witha map depicting another data source, relationships between the two data sources may becomemore apparent than if the two data sources were described solely in a written format.

Introduction perspectives. Interrelationships may Visual literacyis an eclectic blend of become more apparent, or less so. disciplines including linguistics, philosophy, The ability to create maps of historical art (Jonassen & Fork,1976), semantics, data has been made more accessible through and the scientific investigation of vision. the use oftechnology, specifically Tracing the development and history of geographic information systems (GIS). Such visual literacy from a historical perspective systems are capable of acquiring, storing, encourages a mingling of diverse manipulating, and analyzing large amounts approaches that attempttocharacterize of data and presenting them in the form of theimpactandimportance ofpast digital or paper maps. The visualization and research,seminal writings, and practical consequentanalysisofhistoricaldata implementationsin an efforttobetter through maps offers a unique perspective grasp the diffuse nature of visual literacy. oninformationthat,if viewedsolely Important to this effortis placing the tabularly or through a trail of words, may development and growth of visual literacy remain obscure. in a context.Multiple constituents have contributed, and continue to contribute, to Investigative Strategy thefield of visualliteracy.Identifying Recognizing that fields of research and categories that impinge on a contextual study such as visual literacy do not exist in representation of visual literacy was a first isolation, but rather are intertwined with step in an effort to look at visual literacy existing systems, sources were chosen to from a historical perspective. provide a representative sampling of data. A second step was to identify a vehicle Thesevarieddatasources placevisual through which to convey historical data. literacy within a contextual framework. the The goal was to use a visual representation purpose of this approach was to determine of historicaldata ratherthana verbal if geographic locationprovides a visual description. The multifunctionality of maps basisforformulatingquestionsabout led us to choose a mapping strategy for relationships and connections between and graphicallyrepresentingthedatawe among the data sources. Included in the collected. historical investigation were: a time line of Geographyprovides,a way tojoin seminal works in visual literacy; historical individual data elements within common archival research through primary source boundaries.Blending historical data with data from one public school educator who geographic reference points provides a way has concentrated on improving perception of lookingatinformationthatmay in children; identification of governmental generate new questions and new influence on visual literacy through funded educationalprograms;asamplingof 207

2O scientific research relatedtovision and formation of a new 4H program.First perception; the collection and preservation announced in 1961, the studyof of a media format; and current non-school photography through the auspices of 4H programs concerned with visual literacy. has since evolved into the largestprogram Historicalinvestigationsmaybenefit of photographic instructionin the world from the inclusion of a rich diversity of (Debes & Williams, 1978). data sources. Each source provides not only In 1962, Paul Wendt (1962) postulates its own unique perspective of the area under that the meaning of pictures lies in what study,butalsocontributestoa more the viewer brings to them. This beginsto comprehensive delineation of a particular focusstudyinvisualliteracyonthe timeinhistoryas each data sourceis individual's perception of the message that juxtaposed with other data sources. is being conveyed visually. The mid-1960's to the mid- tolate- During the mid-1960's, Jack Debes began 1970's served as the focal point for our work on slide shows created for educational investigation.Limitingthetimeframe purposes. These became known as The enabled a cohesivestructuretoemerge. PhotoStoryDiscoverySetsandwere Thisemergentstructureservedasthe primarily used to educate school children background upon which successive layers of about photography and the interpretation data were placed. The next sections briefly of photographs. Jack Debes and Kodak were describe each data source. also instrumental in the publication of a magazine called Visuals are a Language Time Line of Seminal Works that encouraged educators to think about Plottinghistoricallyrelevantevents theimpact and meaning of visualsin against the backdrop of seminal works may education (Debes & Williams, 1978). reveal relationships,highlight clusters of .Rudolph Arnheim's Toward a psychology events,andilluminatekeytheoretical of art was published in1967 (Arnheim, aspects in the evolution of visual literacy. 1967).Arnheim'sthesisassertedthat This section encapsulates the work of reasoning is not limited to the manipulation Debes and Williams (1978)and Hortin of words andnumbers.Arnheimwas (1994) on the theoretical underpinnings of concernedthat educationtended to visual literacy. The early history of visual overemphasize verbal language while literacy is designed to provide a backdrop downplayingthesignificanceofvisual fromwhichtoexploretheZeitgeist "language" on creativity and learning. surrounding thedevelopmentofvisual The growing interestin the connection literacy. between visual literacy and education led to Before visual literacy was actually a term, the formation ofa visual literacy magazines such as Life and Look, published association in 1968. The first conference in the 1950's and 1960's, played key roles of the visual literacy association was held in in telling a story or delivering a message 1969 in Rochester, New York. Proceedings throughphotographicessays.Thereal of the first conference were subsequently impetus, however, for gaining an published in 1970 (Debes & Williams). understanding of visual literacy emerges as In this same time period, Noam Chomsky television moves into the American home wrote Language and mind (Chomsky, in the mid- to late-1950's. Visual images 1968) which explores the concept of a bombard the American publicas never universal grammar thatconstitutesthe before. Concern over children being passive study of the nature of human intellectual receiversofinformationhelpsfocus capacities.Arnheim,in1969,authored attention on the need for visual literacy Visual thinking (Arnheim, 1969) in which skills (Jonassen & Fork, 1976). he contends thatall thinkingis basically For those immersed in the creation and perceptual in nature. ForArnheim, use of visual images, such as Jack Debes of perception is a cognitive ability. the Kodak Company, such concern over Colin Murray Turbayne, an Australian the need toexposechildrentovisual philosopher, wrote The myth of metaphor literacyskillswas translatedintothe in 1970 (Turbayne, 1970). This work had a 208 210 tremendous influence on the development Alsoduring1978J.Flory(1978) of visual literacy theory. Turbayne (1970) identifiesfourprimaryconceptsthat posits that man uses metaphor to illustrate support the study of visual literacy: ideas,control thoughts, and induce 1. a visual language exists; behavior. Turbayne (1970) defines 2. people can and do think visually; metaphor as the pretense that something is 3. people can and do learn visually; and the case when it is not. 4. people can and should express The 1970's saw the inception of the themselves visually. Visual Literacy Newsletter and the This abbreviated identification ofseminal establishment of the "Rochester School," worksinvisualliteracy provides a where Jack Debes, Clarence Williams and framework upon which toplaceother Colin Turbayne worked together to clarify aspectsofvisualliteracythat were and define the theoretical foundations of occurring during this time. The work ofDr. visual literacy (Debes & Williams, 1978). Henry Ray (Ray, 1965; Ray, 1967; Ray, The mid-1970's see further refinement of 1971) provides a startingpointin this visual literacy precepts. D. A. Dondis' A endeavor. primer of visual literacy is published in which differences between visual and verbal Archival Research language are identified (Dondis, 1973). P. Kent State University is in theprocess of A. Gozemba (1975)hypothesizesthat acquiring Dr. Henry Ray'spapers for the Chomsky's universal grammar ideasare tied Kent State University archival collection. tothetheoreticalconstructsof visual Alreadyinthecollectionarefilesof literacy and that the study of visual literacy correspondence dating from the mid-1960's may yield data on relationships between throughthemid-1970's.Requestsfor speaking, writing, visualizing, and learning. information and advice came to Dr. Ray A program aimed at learning from media not only from within the United States, but and pictures was produced by the New York also from around the world, including India, State Department of Education in 1976 Japan, South Africa, England, Israel, and (Hortin, 1994). In that same year, E. B. Australia.Notableinthecollection is Feldman (1976) listsvisualliteracy correspondencewithRudolph Arnheim, implications for education: who visited with Dr. Ray in the unique there is a language of images and learning environment Dr. Ray pioneered, it can be learned; the Special Experience Room at McDonald much of what we know about the Elementary School in Warminster, world has been learned through visual Pennsylvania. images without benefit of formal Henry Ray graduated from Kent State instruction; and College, (now Kent State University) Kent, several disciplines that study art Ohio, with a 2-year teaching diploma in constitute ways of reading visual 1934. In 1945 he received his bachelor's language. degree from Kent. By 1955, Dr. Ray had According to Feldman (1976), the key is earnedhisdoctorate from Teachers whether perception of visual imagescan be College, Columbia University. regarded as critical thinking rather than After receiving his doctorate, Dr. Ray programmed responses. became Assistant Superintendent of Schools In 1977, Harry S. Broudy (1977),an art inBucksCounty, Pennsylvania and educator,arguesfortheinclusionof eventuallymovedtothepositionof aesthetic education in schools. M. Fleming DirectorofTeaching and Learning and W. H. Leviepublish Instructional ResourcesfortheCentennialSchool messagedesign:Principlesfromthe District in Warminster, Pennsylvania. behavioral sciences in1978 (Fleming & Dr. Ray's career and life have centeredon Levie, 1978) and J. E. Hill (1978) calls for his love and enthusiasm for perception and more cooperation between communication what he calls "relational thinking." As Dr. theorists and instructional technologists. Ray (personalcommunication,June3, 1996) says, "I feel that if the kidsare going 209 211 to be motivated and triggered to learn, or to spentalmosttwoyearsin [participate]in thelearning experience, Afghanistan asan educational they ought to have a setting [where] they consultant. could do this and that's why I wanted a An accomplished artist in several media, special experience room." Dr. Ray has had TheSpecialExperienceRoom (now his own radio program in which calledThe Dr. HenryRaySpecial he played the piano; Experience Room) engulfs children with twooriginal fingerpaintings images and sound. It is a domed structure, included in a book by Virginia Betts the center hub ofthe McDonald on fingerpainting (Betts, 1968); and Elementary School, built with a one-man photography exhibit governmental grant money in 1968. at a college in New Jersey. In the mid-1960's the Centennial school And Dr. Ray isstillactively creating district needed a new school to visual experiences for children through his accommodate its growing population. The photography and other artistic endeavors at local superintendent asked Dr. Ray, "What the age of eighty-seven! would you like to see in this new school?" It is the correspondence portion of Dr. Dr. Ray responded by saying, "I would like Ray's papers that furnished mapable data a room where I could surround the kids with for this historical look at visual literacy. vision and sound and color..." (personal The location of each correspondence_ was communication, June 3, 1996). plotted on a map of the United States. The Thus was born theSpecial Experience resultantmapprovidesageographic Room. Central to the programs conducted interpretationofDr. Ray'spossible intheSpecialExperienceRoomare influence in the area of visual perception numerous slide sets assembled by Dr. Ray (see Figure 1). thatfocusonteachingtheartof perception. Consisting almost entirely of Figure 1 photographstakenbyDr.Ray,the Dr. Henry Ray Correspondence programs range from dinosaurs to the zoo 1967-1975 to spring skies to scarecrows. Throughout the late 1960's and 1970's Dr. Ray published a number of articles about his work withstudentsintheSpecial Experience Room. Perception, creativity, and the utilization of media in education have been the major themes in his writings. His articles appeared in journals such as Audiovisual Instruction (Ray, 1965), NEA Journal(Ray,1967), andChildhood Education (Ray, 1971). While he was actively involved in the operation of the Special Experience Room, Dr. Ray Governmental Influence was sought out as a speaker at Governmental funding can provide the numerouseducationalconferences means to implement programs thatwould throughout the country; be virtually impossible to attempt without served as a consultant to school sizable monetary grants. Title III of the districts as far away as Alabama; Elementary and Secondary Education Act was asked tobe on a U.S. awarded money in 1968 to the Warminster government project headquartered in County Schools, for example, that wasused New Mexico on improving visual to buildand maintain the Special perceptionin young deaf children; Experience Room mentioned above. and TitleIIIof ESEAwas originally established under the rubric of Projects to 210 EST GORYAVAILABLE 212 Advance Creativity in Education in 1965. Scientific Research Related to Vision and Public law 89-10, frequently referred to as Perception PACE, funded local educational agencies for Government funding also extends to the "planning imaginative solutions to research communityas a whole. The educational problems,fordemonstrating scientific study of vision, ranging from eye worthwhileinnovations in educational movement to color sensitivity to practice through exemplary programs, and perceptualcoding, impacts thefield of for supplementing existing programs and visualliteracy.Thestrongrelationship facilitiesthroughmodelcentersthat between scientific research and growth in provide services and/or materials" (Ohio thefield of visual literacy prompted a Department of Education, 1967). In one preliminarydocumentationofscientific sense,TitleIIImoneywas aimedat research supported by the U.S. Department narrowing thegap betweeneducational of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW). research and educational practice. Information from one fiscal year (1969) Title III money has been distributed to indexed as research related to education, programs having a visual literacy audio-visualaids;eye,vision,optical componentorrelationshipin Alabama illusion; eye, visual feedback; and eye, visual (Hawke, 1974),Minnesota (Minneapolis perceptionwere tabulated.Theseindex PublicSchools, 1972), Massachusetts categories yielded approximately eight-five (Ziegler& Schulz, 1965), Michigan individual research activities. The map in (McC lafferty, 1969), Oklahoma Figure 3 shows thelocationsof these (PACEReport,1968),California (1968), various research activities. Not all eighty- and Nebraska (Wayne-Carroll Public five locations are unique, nor do they all Schools, 1974). fall within the contiguous forty-eight states. Whileitisdifficult toidentify every Upon close inspection of the map one can program funded through Title III that had a ascertain a few locations where indicators visualliteracycomponent,government arestackedoneontopofanother publications occasionally included titles and indicating multipleprojectsoccurringin brief descriptions of exemplary programs onephysicallocation.Diamond-shaped (Program DisseminationSection,1969a; objectsonthemapdenoteresearch ProgramDisseminationSection,1969b; categorized under the main heading of eye, Time for a progress report: ESEA Title III, vision. Star-shaped objects denoted research 1971).From thesedescriptionsitwas activities or projects classified under the possible to cull a handful of additional Title heading of education, audio-visual aids. III programs that made mention of media, art, perception, and the like. Figure 3 Though few innumber, theTitleIII Locations of HEW-funded research programs thus identified were mapped as related to visual literacy shown in Figure 2. 1969 Figure 2 Locations of Selected Title HI Grants 1969, 1971, 1974

Iowans of 116W-funded Rocarch misled to Visual 1.8k-racy ,LP 1969

Selected14xations Tide III Grants 1969,1971,1074

211 213 Preservation/Protection of Media Figure 4 The importance of historical data can Locations of current sometimes be enhanced by analyzing efforts Photography Collections in the present. Two avenues were pursued through which to document the status of visual literacy today. The first was through institutions involved in the preservation of visual history,thesecond was through current efforts in increasing understanding about visual literacy. The role of protecting and preserving media overtimetraditionallyfallsto libraries and museums. Collections of verbal and visual works are normally acquired and housed ininstitutionsaccessibletothe public, although there are instances where collections are available only for scholarly research. Current Efforts in Visual Literacy Theaccessibilityand preservationof Education in Non-school Settings visual media is a criticalaspect of the The final area investigated was visual historyof visualliteracysinceitis literacy in non-school environments. frequentlyonlythroughtheactof The impact of visual messages on societal experiencinga mediaformthatone communication raises the issue of the role developsabetterunderstandingand of non-schoolinstitutionsinincreasing appreciationof thesignificanceofa awareness andunderstandingofvisual particular work. literacyconstructs.Whateffortsare In this regard, photography was selected currently in existence that work to broaden as the medium to investigate because of two the public's knowledge and understanding of reasons:(1)itstremendousimpact on visual messages? Are there institutions that education and learning and (2) Dr. Ray's supplement the visual literacy educational work which relies heavily on photographic efforts that typically reside in the school images. As Janis (1989) states, it is through environment? In an attempt to formulate a viewing photographic collections that tentative response to questions like these, a "we begin to ponder on all that is questionnaire was devised to survey libraries known, and how we know it,and and museums on their existing or planned what to believe because of it. And we visual literacy programs. learn how othershave come to One hundred museums and one hundred interprettheworld around them libraries were selected from theOfficial through photographicimagery. In Museum Directory (1996) and American the very structure of the camera Library Directory(1995),respectively. image, in the very atmosphere of Two museums and twolibrarieswere the chemistries, a world lies randomly selectedfrom each state. suspended forever in the Questionnaires were mailed to the attention photographic cocoon" (p. 16). of the Director of Educational Programs. An indexto American photographic The six-item survey asked respondents to collections(McQuaid, 1982) contains indicatewhethertheirinstitutionhas recordsof 458publiccollectionsof developed anyeducational programsin photography. Over 19,000 photographers visual literacy and, if so, the name(s) and are represented in these collections. Figure description(s) of the program(s), the length 4 shows the locations of these collections of time the program has been in existence, across the United States. numbers of people participatinginthe program per session, age of thetarget audience, and the frequency in which the course is offered. 212 214 A total of fifty-five surveys were returned Unanticipated outcomes from thesurvey fora responserateof 27.5%.Library also yielded interesting information, surveys returned (34) far exceeded those including returnedbymuseums(21),however, a telephonecall from a librarian in museums tended to have developed visual Wyoming who had never heard of visual literacy programs at a much higher rate literacy. As aresultof thetelephone than libraries. Of the twenty-one museum conversation, she received acopy of the surveys returned,fifteenindicatedtheir brochure describingthe 1996 IVLA respective institutiondid have programs conference. related to visual literacy. In comparison, thereceiptofseveralbrochures only one library indicated a program in describing specific visual literacyprograms. visual literacy. indication from at leastone museum Locationsoflibrariesandmuseums thattheschoolsysteminwhich the responding to the survey were mapped using museum is located no longer includes art in their respective zipcodes. Figure 5is one itscurriculum,therebyinfluencingthe representation of the data collected. Each museum to establish a drawing program dot on the map indicates the location of a where "the emphasis is on process rather museum or library that has atleast one than product" and teenagers and adults work program in visual literacy. "next to six-year-olds." Drawing conclusions from sucha small Figure 5 sample of data is difficult. However, itis Locations of Museums and Libraries clearfromthesurveyresponsesthat with programs in visual literacy museums have tended to assume a much more significant role in furthering visual literacy awareness than libraries. Summary and Conclusions Common threads held this investigative activitytogether.Dr.HenryRay,a practitioner in the schools, servedas the Locations of focal point. Museums and Libraries with Dr. Ray'sstrongestconnection to programs in visual literacy seminal works in the field is through his correspondence with Rudolph Arnheim and the consequent visit by Arnheim to the Special Experience Room. Although several museums indicated their Dr. Ray was instrumentalin obtaining visual literacy programs consist of gallery Title III money used to construct, equip, talks, specific visual literacy - related and maintain the Special Experience Room. programs include: Investigating TitleIIIgrant moneyled Art Safari - a series of children's art directly to gathering additional dataon adventures with activities thatrelate to scientificresearchgrantswhichwere themes such as line, color, form, and shape. likewise funded by the government. A visualliteracy noontime seminar Dr. Ray is an avid and accomplished series. photographer. His interest in photography Vision and Illusion- a hands-on exhibit prompted us to look into the preservation that presents visual perception concepts. of photographic images which led, in turn, Science ala "CART'- a demonstration to the survey of libraries and museums and thatcovers light,colorandvisual their influence on developing visual literacy perception. skills through educational programs. Museum hunta visual awareness self- Acting as another common denominator, guided tour. themappingstrategynecessitatedthe identification of data sources that could be linked to a physical location. While this 213 215 strategy was, at times, restrictive,it also Figure 6 opened up areas of investigation that might Henry Ray Correspondence not have been apparent within traditional superimposed on HEW-funded historical approaches. research The mapshelp contextualize the 1969 collected data in a visual sense. One can readily see the locations of people directly influenced or touched by one individual educator whose life has been spent working withvisualawarenessandperception. Schoolsthroughoutthecountrythat received Title III money in the 1960's and limy Ray Cavespondence 1970'stoeffect,in some way,visual superimposal on HEW-funded research literacylearningand developmentare relatcd to visual !nanny observable by physical location within the 1969 United States. Scientific research activity on topics related to vision, perception,and learning, in 1969, appear to be clustered in the eastern portion of the United States. Locations of institutions actively involved in the preservation of photographic images appear in every state. The mapping of the Figure 7 location of institutions responding to the Survey results superimposed survey on visual literacy programs produces on Photograph Collection Locations a glimpse of thefuture. Theidentified locationsholdapromiseforfurther enrichment of visual perception and visual awareness for society as a whole. Viewing these various maps from single data sources yields an interesting perspective oneachdatasourcein isolation. However, it is by superimposing one data source on top of another that new questions and new avenues of research may become apparent. Do locationsof Dr. Ray's correspondence coincide with locationswhereTitleIIImoneywas granted? Are locations of scientific research contiguous with locations of Title III grant moneyrecipients?Areanyofthe Exploring the existence or nonexistence photography collections in close proximity of relationships between diverse sets of data to institutions with visual literacy helpsintegrateorseparatedata.The educational programs? Are there geographic mapping of the interconnected relationships between one set of data and data collected in this study provides a visual another? spectrum thatpromptsquestions and Figures6and7areexamplesof focuses attention on possible next steps in superimposing one data source on top of the pursuitofa contextual visual another. New relationshipscan become representationof thehistoryof visual apparentand serveas an impetusfor literacy. further exploration.

214 216 BEST COPYAVAILABLE References Educational Communications American Library Directory,1995-96. and 48th Technology Journal, 26 (1),47-54. Ed. New Providence,NJ:R.R. Hortin,John Bowker. A. 1994.Theoretical foundations of visual learning. Arnheim, R. (1967). Toward In Moore, a David M. & Dwyer, FrancisM., psychology of art. Berkeley, CA:University Visual of California Press. literacy: A spectrum of visuallearning. Englewood Cliffs, Arnheim, NJ: Educational R. (1969).Visual thinking. Technology Publications. Berkeley, CA: University ofCalifornia Janis, Press. EugeniaParry. 1989. Seeing, Having, Knowing: A rush forthe spoils. In Betts, Virginia. (1968). Exploringfinger Ambler, Louise Todd & Banta, paint. Worcester, MA: Davis Melissa, The Publications. invention of photography andits impact on Broudy, H.S.(1977). How basicis learning. Cambridge, MA; Harvard aesthetic education? Or is it thefourth R? University Library. Educational Leadership, 35 (2),134-139, 141. Jonassen, D.H., & Fork, D.J.(1976). Chomsky, N. (1968). Visual literacy: A bibliographicsurvey. Language and PaperpresentedatthePennsylvania mind. New York, NY: Harcourt,Brace, LearningResource Jovanovich. AssociationAnnual Conference, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Debes, John L. & Williams, Clarence (ERIC M. Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED 1978. The Visual Literacy Centerpresents 131 837). the provocative paper series. No.I. Visual McQuaid, James (Ed.). 1982. literacy languaging and An index to learning. American photographic collections. Washington,D.C.:CenterforVisual Literacy, Boston, MA: G. K. Hall & Co. Official Museum Directory. Dondis, D.A. (1973). A primer of 1996. 26th visual Ed. New Providence, NJ: R. R.Bowker. literacy. Cambridge, MA: The MITPress. Pettersson, Rune. 1993. Visual Educational opportunities through information. federal assistance Englewood Cliffs, NJ: programs: annual report. Educational Technology Publications. 1967.Columbus, OH:State of Ohio, Ray. Henry. 1965. Environment Department of Education. enrichment Feldman, E.B. (1976). program in Pennsylvania. Visual Literacy. Audio Visual Instruction, 10 (1),35-36. Journal of Aesthetic Education,10 (3/4), 195-200. Ray, Henry. 1967. Freeingpupils from the sit-look-listen syndrome.NEA Journal, Fleming, M. & Levie, W. H.(1978). 56 (4), 8-10. Instructional message design: Principles Ray, Henry. 1971. Designingtomorrow's from the behavioral sciences.Englewood school today: The multi-sensory Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology. experience Flory, J. (1978). Visual literacy: center. Childhood Education, 47 (5),254- A vital 258. skill in the process of rhetorical criticism. Research grants index. Fiscalyear 1969. Paper presented at the meetingof the Bethesda, Maryland: U.S. Southern Department of Speech Communication Health, Education & Welfare. Association, Atlanta, GA. (ERIC Public Health Document Service.NationalInstituteofHealth, Reproduction Service No. ED 155772). Division of Research Grants. Gozemba, P.A.(1975).The effects of Turbayne, C.M. (1970). rhetorical training in visual literacy The myth of on the metaphor. New Haven, CT: Yale writing skills of college freshmen(Doctoral University Press. dissertation, Boston University). Wendt, P.R. (1962). Thelanguage of DissertationAbstracts International,36, pictures. In S. I. Hayakawa (Ed.), 1269A. (University MicrofilmsNo. 75- The use 20,950). and misuse of language.Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications. Hill, J.E. (1978). Communication researchandinstructionaltechnology.

215 217 Title III Grants Program Dissemination Section, Plans & Basic skills: ESEA Title III projects in the Supplementary Centers, Bureau of nation's schools. 1974. Title III Quarterly. Elementary and Secondary Washington, D.C.:NationalAdvisory Education.1969a. Curriculum materials Council onSupplementaryCenters and developed byPACE projects. PACEReport, Services. January, 1969. Hawke, Sharyl. 1974. A cultural Program Dissemination Section, Plans & approach to the teaching of social studies: Supplementary Centers, Bureau of Profilesof promise.(ERICDocument Elementary andSecondaryEducation. Reproduction Service No. ED 091 258). 1969b. Curriculum materials developed by McClafferty, James. 1969. Foreign PACE projects. PACEReport, March, 1969. language innovative curricula studies. (ERIC San Mateo County PACE Center. 1968. Document Reproduction Service No. ED Technical report on tele-communication. 035327). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Minneapolis Public Schools. 1972. Audio ED 023 300). visual based Indian resource unit. (ERIC Time for a progress report: ESEA Title Document Reproduction Service No. ED III. 1971. Washington, D.C.: President's 075 303). National Advisory council on Supplemental Ohio Department of Education.1974. Centers and Services. Profiles of Ohio ESEA Title III projects. Wayne-CarrollPublic. Schools.1974. Status and progress report. Columbus, OH: Project success for the SLD child: Language Ohio Department of Education. arts guide. (ERIC Document Reproduction PACEReport. April, 1968. (ERIC Service No. ED 089 484). Document Reproduction Service No. ED Ziegler, Fred H. & Schulz, H. James. 023620). 1965. Film study course, tenth grade. (ERIC Program Dissemination Section, Plans & Document Reproduction Service No. ED Supplementary Centers, Bureau of 029 022). Elementary and Secondary Education.

216 218 Visual Literacy And Just-In-Time-Training: Enabling Learners Through Technology by Terry Burton

Abstract It is extensively documented that the best time to provide information is when thelearner is prepared and/or in need of receiving it. Until recently, the ability of educatorsto provide dynamic customized information that is timely and efficient has been limitedor non-existent.With the creation of an electronic communication infrastructure and the development of affordablecomputer technology, course developers and administrators now have at their disposala unique tool set to accomplish what the author calls Just-In-Time-Training (JIT1).

Introduction developing more flexible learning "Better to be at the bottom of the right environments. mountain,thanhalfwayupthewrong Allowing for individual learner needsis mountain" unknown extremely important. The reality is that there is a limited amount of time to do it in. It would Traditional education systems rely little on be nice if educators could provide learning student input regardingthe quantity, quality experiences that were easily customized to the or sequence of course content. Lectures, labs needs of individuals.This would consist of and demonstrations are prepared and delivered environments in which students could take by faculty in a prescriptive linear fashion. responsibilityforlearning. The author Learners are not allowed to customize the contendsthat technology can provide the content. Therefore, content may not be based infrastructure needed to enable this type of on real needs, but rather on perceived ones. situation. Granted, an instructor is the individual who Educators can use new tools to be very shouldbeperceivingstudentneedsand creativeandproactiveindesigningand translating it into course content. delivering instruction. It is time to use them to Unfortunately, but necessarily so, instructors achieve efficient and effective learning.It is create material that targets the general student time to take time to create and distribute population. They can not compensate or allow customized learning environments that can fortheextremesofthelearnerability provide visually rich and dynamic learning continuum. opportunities. Disregard of the needs of thelearner impedes efficient effective learning. Technology Typically, educational environments are based When education course content developers on the needs of the institution.Faculty, staff, havethetoolstocreateanelectronic legislative and administrative agendas appear classroom, they will become the facilitators of to have a significant effect on the development large dynamic forms of information. Presently anddeploymentofrelevant learning the opposite is usually true. The overhead of environments. learning and implementing new technology From an instructor's point of view, theone into a course is often counter productive.It major constant that impedes quality education often demands too much time, is complicated is time.Instructors need time to spend with and tends to creates large backlogs of pressing individual students, and time to gather extra work that are nearly impossible complete. materials in support of the process, thereby, This is why it is important for educators to be

217 very cautious in their selection and utilization With the appearance of NT and WIN95 of available technology. there is a logical migration for most of the Being an educator in technical and computer data that has been created using Microsoft graphics, the author has developed a very products.The idea of not having to re-key simplified approach to qualifying the validity needed files to run on the World Wide Web and usefulness of a tec;inology. (WWW), coupled with the recent Microsoft Basically, there are three questions to answer. release of Front Page, will permit functionally computerliteratepeopletocreateand 1.How difficult is the new technology to maintain a WWW site.This seems to set the learn? stage for a relatively easy migration to NT or 2. How much data doesthesoftware WIN95 systems. require to be useful? Mac users have the same file creation and 3.Does the hardware and software support portabilityoptionswithintheir OS with a system approach (Burton,1995) products like Adobe Pagemill and others. solutiontodocumentcreationand However, they do not appear to have a single management? solution to creating, editing and maintaining a web server that approaches the simplicity and The learning curve for some hardware and ease of use that MS Front Page offers.Not software seems to be beyond the ability of only can a PC user create and edit HTML most educational practitioners. After all, why documents, they can test and integrate them is the Macintosh computer and its software so into their personal Internet server. successful in education? Simply because it is The combination of MS NT or WIN95 and easy to learn and use. Apple understood early FrpntPage, with the ability to import usable that the way to create useful tools was to make existing electronic curriculum content, them easy to use. PCs have since adopted this provides the technology components necessary same philosophy with the advent of Microsoft tocreateanddistribute WWW based Windows operating systems (OS) and more instructionalmaterials.Previously, most recently the easy to use GUI of Microsoft NT educational content developers have had to use OS. others to test and maintain their web materials. Until recently, the basic underlying computer technology for the Internet was the Stimulus and response UNIX OS. Those educators with UNIX Unlike most states, Indiana does not have a knowledge were able to use it for developing network of state supported local community and delivering Internet based education. The colleges. Instead, thetwo major universities competitiveplayingfieldofeducational maintain regional campuses. These regional products development was skewed toward campus programs are intended to be identical these people. with the ones at the main campus. The intent UNIX systems require understanding and is to provide seamless integration of students management skills that are not typical of most participating in a two year regional degree educators.With WIN95 and NT 4.0 from program and give themthe opportunity to Microsoft (MS), the playing field is beginning finish a four year degree on the main campus. to level.UNIX machine manufacturers are From a financial point of view, this system trying to maintain their market share against makes a lot of sense.However, from a the easy to use' and almost as powerful, NT curriculum administration point of view,it machines. The technology is migrating to the creates tremendous time overheadfor education professionmasses. From this instructors. perspective,itappearsthat NT certainly Each department at the main campusis deserves the time needed to learn and use it. responsiblefordeveloping and delivering specificcoursecontenttotheregional

218 campuses. Eachcoursecoordinatoris intended audience.In this case, the students required todistribute course materialsto and instructorsof TG 105 are the receivers regional campus counterparts. The intent is to (customers) of the development effort. make sure that the content and sequence of the The course developer needs programmers, course is consistent with the main campus system administrators and graphics specialists offering. Obviously, this situation creates to enable creation and migration of materials overhead for the course coordinators. to the WWW. Numerous questions and concerns from the Figure 1 regional sitesis very time consuming. A System Model straw-poll in the School of Technology (SOT) atPurdue Universityrevealedthatmost faculty are concerned about the current system and its imposition on them. Itis generally agreed thatthe intended regional campus process has merit. Unfortunately, there is not enough time.With current faculty teaching and research loads, it is almost impossible to provide the kind of guidance necessary to be successful within the existing process. An obvious solution to the dilemma is touse The environment consists of traditional the Internet as a means to provide access to sketching tools and access to WWW enabled the course information.With the emergence computers for the customers. Also, the course of the World Wide Web (WWW) and itsuser developer needs a production environment that friendly graphical browsers,itseemed the will enable the creation of WWW compatible technical possibility of delivering the kind of materials. information required had arrived. Processes relative to the sketching course Unfortunately, the limitations of the Hypertext content includepsychomotor, affective and MarkupLanguage(HTML), Computer cognitive knowledge activities. The customers GraphicsInterface(CGI)languageand are responsible for traditional course content. existing hardware were deterrentsto a Basically this consists of improving sketching successful solution. skills and mastering the concepts that are the Regardless of the deterrents, when compared foundation of technical graphics. to the existing frustrations of administering the The developer needs to be projectmanager regional campus courses,itwas time to for the development support team during the attempt to use the WWW as a possible production process. Much like a business solution. The author's TG 105 Technical endeavor, work orders, work logs, deadlines, Sketching course, within the Department of critical paths and other activities needed to Technical Graphics (TG) Curriculum, offered plan and monitor a project are critical to its at numerous regional campuses, was selected success. as the first course to be placed on the WWW. Technology manifests itself in the form of This implementation consisted of usinga WWW computers,browser software and system approach to designing, developing and printers for instructors and students.The distributing the electronic course materials course developer needs supporting electronic (Figure 1).In this instance the model is data files, HTML translation software, image applied to students, instructors andcourse mappingsoftware,ftpsoftware, WWW developer. server, and other specialty software to be The first step is to identify the people who successful. are participants within the system. Any Theproductoftheinitialelectronic successful project should start by defining the curriculum effort is located on the WWW at 219 221 the impact a new URLhttp://tech.purdue.edu/tg/course/tg105. to a failure to recognize To date it is very successful. The authorhas technologywillhave. Microsoft,inits continuing battle to define and promote the not hadasinglee-mailorphonecall concerning the content or delivery of the frontier of the Internet, created and freely course. distributed a new product called Front Page. As successful as the initial WWW effort is From this author's perspective, their effort to Internet there is still significant room for improvement. create a non-techno-stress Two comments are worthy to note.First, it development tool is proving very successful required over two hundred hours to develop and timely. and deploy the course. Much of this time was Front Page is,according to M. Mathews consumed in the production of needed unique (1996) in his book Web Publishing with or translation of non-compatibledata. Second, Microsoft Front Page, "...a very easy-to-use, the technical difficulties were very annoying fullfeaturedsetof toolsforthe expert and time consuming. Dealingwiththe creation, delivery, and maintenance of web development ofthe SOT WWW server sites. And Front Page doesthisina infrastructure and finding usable software that WYSIWYGenvironment..." In short, was compatible with the author'sabilities was technically challenged individuals now have a difficult. tool to create and maintain a rather elaborate Aninitialassessmentofthe WWW web presence.Frames, discussion groups, development experience was that it took too easily created links,the removal of hard long. Compared to previous time expenditures HTML coding and an easy to use GUI are just for regional campus course administrative a few of its many attributes. activities,the electronic version took three FrontPage can be downloaded from the MS times longer. home page at http://microsoft.com/sitebuilder. Thankfully, the evolving dynamic nature of The software automatically downloads and technology came totherescue. More configures on your machine at the appropriate powerful computers, friendly graphic user prompts. There is a tutorial applicationwithin interfaces(GUI),dataexchangespeed the software that is easy to use. The ultimate enhancements and significant automatic easy significance of FrontPage to the educational Realizing the to use WWW programming tools nowmake it community is hard to predict. possible to more easily and quickly create, potential that this software possesses will be a distribute and maintain curriculum materials. creative enjoyable endeavor. If control of the Thesignificantcontributortothenew development and distribution environment is development environment is MS Front Page. the issue, then FrontPage solves it. TG now maintains many of its courses on line at the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Industry dynamic http://tech.purdue.edu/tg/courses/. To attain the vision of a truly virtualclassroom,theauthorvisualizes Front Page another attribute that is needed in WWW is not the purpose of this paper to developmental efforts. That is the creationof It It is promoteasinglevendororsoftware. intelligent student oriented documents. with However, the preliminary indications are that perceived that a database populated the significance of Front Page to educational discrete information that is capable ofcreating materials developers, with average technical dynamic documents, at the request ofstudents, ability, warrants some discussion. is needed. has Most experienced educators are adverse to During the past four years, the author the impositions placed on them by emerging designed and implemented numerous used to technology. Their stress, identified as techno- technology rich systems that are being to stress (Burton 1990), can usually be attributed provide virtual visual information 220 222 customers.They consist of unique software attempts to prevent aimless wandering and products and visual libraries that providethe providesadynamic page assemblythat user on demand dynamic documentation. All includes information in a usable form. Nota of these systems focus on the lowestcommon seriesofURLs,butanassemblyof denominator of PC technology. information that appears to havesome form of Much like the previous discussion of the intelligence.It is proposedthatthis typical educator's limited technical envelope, customization occur in the form of database thesesystemsaredesignedforprocess activities similar to the previous industrial functionally literate people that donot have examples. the time or experience to use most industry Thedynamicsofthisnew learner communication technology products. They environment lie not only in the ability ofthe are not required to learn cryptic commands to database engine to retrieve documents relative getinformation.Workerscancustomize to the request, but to also provide only the documentsbasedonneeds.Usingthe amount of information needed to perform the metaphor of the industrial Just-In-Time (JIT) task., i.e. JITT. This suggests thata record of processes, which provide only the materials studentperformance andabilitieshasa and equipment necessary to performa specific bearingonthequantityandtypeof task, the dynamic on demand documentation information that the student receives. By system created by the author is called Just-In- logging on to a URL, the learner wouldbring Time Training (JITT). all of their attributes with them.Previous class performance, academic history,reading The Next Step ability levels, IQ, interests orany relative data Admittedly,HTMLpages allowfor deemed significant by the instructorto better hypertext links that provideavenues to more customize the information. That isnot to say specific information. This information could thatthelearnercouldnotaccessother be classified as a dynamic activity. The information. Just that the results of the reality is that the links simply loadonto the request would better fit the learner's abilities computer another static HTML document. and needs. Static,in this instance, refers to thepre- Concurrent with a customizedamount of configured nature of most HTML andnot the data there would be a tendencyto provide as animation componentsofsomepages. much graphic visual informationas possible. Although the later is dynamic in that itis Since graphic informationprovidesfaster animated, it is not dynamic in regardto its interpretation and comprehension,an attempt abilityto changewithdifferentpeople would be made to alleviate languageand accessing it. ability levels within the dynamic composite Also, experience shows that most hypertext documents. This movement fromtext based links tend to provide toomany options and documents is relative to the author's previous deter the focus of the inquiry. That is, when industrial observations and preliminarydata an inquiry is made to fmd information, it is not thatindicatesasixty-twopercenttask uncommon for the inquirer to wander off to comprehension time savings for workers using some distant insignificant information. This is dynamic documents over traditional what is typically referred toas web suifing. documents (Burton, 1995). Surfmg the web is supposed to bea structured activity with a focus and goal. Thereality, System Attributes based on observations, tends to indicate that A proposed dynamic JITTsystem would theoriginalfocusof a request becomes consist of an Internet (public area), Intranet minimized when web surfing. (privatearea)and a Developmentarea It seems that the WWW experienceneeds (Figure 2). one more vital component. A component that

221 223 The Internet component is comprised of Summary user information services.With a typical The original intent of this paper was to WWW look and feel, this accessible area is present a current system that the author was the final display area of dynamic data for the using to create and distribute WWW course learner. materials. But true to its continuing expansive This site keeps track of user input and nature, technology imposed heavily on the movement.It collects data from the user for original concept. The issues and solutions that the Intranet database.This data helps create have transpired since the abstract for this the customized intelligence of the Internet paper was written have been significant.In display. short, the need and desire to further develop In the dynamic Internet, students can enter the original process proved to be unwarranted. discussion areas, review syllabi, see student The original course materials are work examples, submit their work for posting, metamorphosing into a more significant and look at grades, read or print course material relative JITT product. As mentioned earlier, while viewing customized information for their the current project can be observed in the developmental needs. author's personal URL at Purdue, Residingbehindafirewallandnot http://lcnoy329.tg.purdue.edu/tg105. Use the accessible from the Internet , the Intranet is "Cuss-n-Discus" hypertext link on the TG 105 where sensitive documents, programs and home page to submit comments about the site. program links reside.It is the repository of a This is a closely monitored area so inquiries large amount of data required for the success will receive an immediate response. of the dynamic Internet experience. This area The obviousmigrationof thegraphic includes grade lists, class rosters, and other emphasis in this proposed strategy is to use cumulative data that provides a profile of the theVirtualRealityMarkupLanguage user. (VRML). VRML isanotherpowerful The Development area is where the project emerging tool that should further enhance the testingandothernotreadyforrelease learner's experience. Purdue University TG components reside. Much like software alpha Professor Dennis Short has a VRML sample and beta versions, data in this area is highly running at http://knoy.337.tg.purdue.edu. proprietary and accessible only to the project DynamicJITTlearningenvironments, managers and developers. This is a place to deliveredoverthe WWW, willhave a experiment and test ideas.Because of its significant impact on future education. They rather volatile nature, the development area is will provide learners with customized virtual isolated from the other areas. learning that facilitates efficient utilization of Figure 2 time resources. The cumulative effect will be Proposed Dynamic Web the expansion of student visual literacy. The Intranet dynamic JITT abilities will help reduce the inadequacies of traditional educational content delivery. Now is an exciting time for educators and content developers. The opportunities are real. Motivated visionary developers are moving into an area that may prove to be the next frontier for education. Technologyhas,andis,fulfillingits obligation to make the development and distribution of relevant course materialsless difficult. All thatis required of today's

222

224 educators is a commitment of resources for participation.

References

Burton, T. L., (1995, October).Attaining visual literacy using simplified graphicsin industry. Paper presented at the International Visual Literacy Association Conference, Chicago,IL.

Burton, T. L., (1990).Coping with techno- stress in technical graphics. American Society for Engineering Education - Engineering Design Graphics Division: Proceedings. 47-53.

Mathews, M. (1996). Web publishingwith microsoft frontpage. Berk lye, CA: Osborne McGraw-Hill.

223 225 Attaining Visual LiteracyUsing Simplified Graphics inIndustry by Terry Burton

Abstract Under the current ISO 9000 certification,just-in-time engineering (JIT), demand (DFT), and total quality flow technology management (TQM) demands, industry isattempting to implement available technology to solve their documentation creation, control and deliveryneeds.In most cases, their efforts are in need of outsideresources to analyze, develop, propose and usable solutions. This implement paper reveals a single solution, by outside contractedresources, to quantify, justify (ROI), create and deliver 3-D modeling based graphics intoa systematic communication environment. Software and hardwaredelivery systems are presented insupport of communication instruments required for manufacturing and assembly processes. Electronic examples presented, with supporting data, are as evidence of the value that a simplifiedgraphics system approach has on visual literacy inindustry.

Introduction processes of over seventy-five moderateto American industry is embracing computer large American corporations locatedin nine generated 3-D geometric modeling as a means states and Mexico, has revealedtremendous to facilitate quality improvements in under utilization and duplication ofcreation engineering design and manufacturing. tasks of graphic products withincompanies. Previous to the current movement to modeling, It was discovered that imagesdeveloped for industry employed groups ofskilled graphic use in one department were being recreated in production people to develop, distribute, revise other departments, frequentlyat exactly the and store graphic information.These groups same time. Most departments were operating would spend countless hours creating and independent of knowledge andresources of recreatinggraphicsfora varietyof other areas. This revelation indicatesclearly a documentation. Engineering drawings, need for better communication and assemblygraphics,catalogs, production coordination of graphic production.Possibly documents,servicemanuals, advertising, therecouldbeagraphicdatabaseof training information and many other types of information that could be distributedcorporate graphics were producedto meet their needs. It wide. is significant to note thata graphic is being Along with the discovery of defined as an iconic or digital inefficient (digital in this graphic operations, itwas also observed that instance means alphaand/or numeric therevisionandupdatingprocessfor information) image or document that is used to documentation was not timelyor accurate. accomplish communication (Burton,1989). Numerousengineeringand This paper is an attempt management to quantify some of document changes were not beingposted in a the variables affecting graphicsin industry usable timely fashion to the departments. and to qualify a strategy for HT implementing a was not a reality.This lack of dynamic visual based graphic system, delivered just-in- updating creates potential forerrors and waste time (JIT), in an intenseindustrial training within a corporation. environment. The corporate documentationprocesses, when analyzed holistically, indicates Industry observations a need to develop a system of distributedinformation Over the past twoyears, an analysis of thatis dynamic (addressing the industry graphic production needs of and distribution concurrent engineering), quantifiable (relates

225 226 totheissuesof ISO 9000) and usable the development and implementation of a new (providing an atmosphere for JIT and Total technology and/or system must be consistent Quality Management TQM environments) with the existing corporate systems. However, within the current corporate structure. it is more important that the end users have Electronic corporate information delivery input into and realize direct benefits from the systems have been in use for several years. creation and implementation of such systems. Most often they are referred to as MRP Inshort, people (Figure1)are the most (Manufacturing Resource Planning),PDM important component of any system and (ProductDataManagement)and EDM deserve the largest commitment of resources. (Electronic Data Management) systems. MRP was also the acronym for Material Resource System Model Planning. Ithasrecentlyevolvedinto Figure 1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). To confuse the "acronym soup" of our language even further, EDM has also been referred to as EnterpriseData Management and Engineering Document Management systems. MRP systems are typically corporate level wide informationnetworksthatintegrate manufacturing, financing, maintenance, distribution and data transfer functions. These systems are very limited in their ability to archive and distribute graphic information. This technology was developed in the late 1970s and tendstocarrythe"technical Corporate graphic production baggage" of such systems. The arrivalof computer-aideddrafting However, PDM and EDM systems are an (CAD) has addedanother component emerging technology. These acronyms reflect necessary for changes in how industry can a subtle difference in functionality between create and distribute its graphics.Though systems, but often they are used CAD solved some of the problems of storage interchangeably. They are attempting to and revision, departments continued to create provide updated information, restrict access to graphics for their own needs independently. sensitive information, and control revisions to Industry merely changed the tool for creating a variety of production and manufacturing graphics and did not immediately see a need to documentation.Unfortunately, the vision of change the process. these products and their reality are still far With the emergence of CAD, industry began apart.As with most new technologies, the to recognize the need to incorporate a PDM or promise of PDM and EDM have grown faster EDM system for distribution of their graphic than both available products and the available products. Communicationinfrastructures experiencetounderstandandutilizeit have emerged as a necessary entity in the effectively. development of efficiency strategies in the The success of a corporate level creation, revision and distribution of graphic implementation is often restricted or prevented data.However, in this instance, the focus of by the weight of bureaucracy, technology or effort was on the interpretation of engineering personnel ability limitations.It is the opinion design to engineering documentation. of the author that corporations tend to lose Typically, little or no effort was expended at their effectivenessin implementing change thecorporateleveltofindandapply when they abandon involvement of user level potentially significant uses of these personnel. Admittedly, the ultimate success of engineering graphic products in other

226 227 BEST COPY AVAILABLE departments. Sometimes,individualsin other modeling practices must be definedso aftermarket parts, service or marketing would the model is usable in other departments.A see the benefit of having such information model createdwithstandardparent-child available. But, due to limitations of the relationships, built from the inside-out, would available technology, pressure of current work be of little use to a marketing department that loads (relative to the issue of corporate control only needs external detail for their graphic on head count, etc.) and corporate structure product.Typically, there would beno need exploration and development of thenecessary for the internal components ofa product that linkagetoacquiretheinformationwas were not visible from the outside. Therefore, frequently prevented.Like most technology, it would predictably destroy the internalsof CAD solved some problems, createdsome such a product. Obviously and unfortunately, problems and provided opportunities. if the model was constructed from theinside- The next generation of graphic technology out, linking one part to another with the parent has seen corporations embrace the geometric being the inner most part, the model wouldbe 3-D modeling processes.Several technology destroyed. To prevent this from occurring,a companieshavecreatedandmarketed set of standards for creating and developing 3- powerful modeling tools.These tools have D models must be created. allowed industry to push technology farther Secondly, although it is ideal to believe that into their engineering designprocesses. Kow an engineering 3-D geometric model is usable theengineercanuseacomputerto to the majority of graphic users, the technical electronically design and createnew products, reality is different. Although PDM and EDM jigs and fixtures in a modelingprototype vendors claim that the distribution of models environment. This helps to reduce the product is simple, it is not. The unacceptablenature design to production time previously required. of the access of modeling datacan generally A large database of modeling information that be attributed to an ability shortcoming of the has the potential to provide graphic products hardware andsoftware. Thistechnical for many uses is being developed. problem manifestsitself by causing large Itseemslogical to assume thatif an amounts of computer time to retrieve and engineer creates a 3-D model ofa new part manipulate graphic information. Itis not that is archived, besides the obvious benefits uncommon for the movement of a model from to the production and computer integrated a corporate graphic vault to a requesting manufacturing environments, another terminal to take twenty minutes.In most potentiallytremendousopportunityexists. instances,thisisatotallyunacceptable Other departments and entitieswithin the amount of time.Graphic data is difficult corporation could benefit from havingaccess enough to retrieve and manipulate ina non- to a 3-D model database.For example, the modeling 2-D environment, much less adding aftermarket parts department personnel could the amount of data memorynecessary to use a snap-shot of the model, oriented in a pre- access an engineering model. Storage needed determined position, as a line illustration in for models and the overhead of graphically one of the electronic or static parts catalogs. inadequate corporate data deliverysystems The opportunities for the utilization of such make it difficult to use 3-D geometric models. 3-D information arealmost limitless. There is a need to reduce the amount of data However, there are two issues that arise from that a typical engineering model requires. It is this opportunity.First, there is the issue of suggested that a simplified version of the modeling standards. With current technology, model be created for access by thosecorporate for interested parties to be ableto utilize 3-D entities that requireit. This would also models, the model must be createdto a pre- require the development ofa standard for determined standard. Theprocess of sequence simplified models. of model creation, coordinate locationsand

227 228 Simplified models exploded, rendered, and messaged to a usable Thefullpotentialofengineering3-D form using a fraction of the computing power geometric models within a corporation can be and storage required for the high level model. realized by utilizing a simplified modeling This customized graphic entity, extracted from approach to development. The development of the simplified model, could then be saved in a simplified models logically unites the graphic vault, be owned by the developing simplified graphics strategy, similar to the one department and made available to the rest of proposed by the aerospace industry, and 3-D the corporation.The resulting small graphic geometric models. files and subsequent graphic database can be The simplified graphics strategy permits the more easily distributed over current corporate creation of a completely electronic electronic systems than the high level 3-D documentation environment without the data geometric model. magnitude associated with typical graphics files.A set of standards for reducing the Graphic engineering amount of data contained within graphic files Graphic engineering, theprocessof was developed.In short, stripping unneeded designing, creating, evaluating, archiving and graphicinformationfrom documentfiles distributing graphic information utilizing a enables the significant reduction of the amount systems approach, could be thought of as the of electronic storage space required. Itis emergence of a discipline that is the direct interestingtonotethat by performing a resultof current and developing graphic rigorous graphic analysis of the minimum technologies. needed graphic information or cue,it was Graphic engineering allows the creation and discoveredthattheabilityofgraphic distribution of electronic graphic information informationto communicate predetermined dim contains all of the data necessary to specific information was effectively enhanced. produce a product. As corporations develop Extending this simplified graphic logic to in their understanding and implementation of the 3-D geometric model provides a means to graphic based solution strategies, there will be create simplified models that are usable in a an emergence of a new discipline that will variety of industrial applications.Simplified utilizegraphicengineersandgraphic modeling database development, with current engineer technologists. available technology, is a logical solution to A graphic engineer would be responsible for providing corporations with usable graphics the standards and practices relative to the for a variety of needs. Each department has development,storageanddistributionof accesstothesimplifiedmodel database. graphic products. Havinga strong Unlike the legal and ethical issues that arise background in the visual sciences (Bertoline, from the distribution of 3-D geometric models 1993),this profession would emerge with outside the corporation, a simplified model personnel who could create good graphics, could be used for this purpose. consultandsetstandardsforgraphic The potential benefits of developing and production. Finally, they would be managers maintaining a simplified model database are withtheabilitytodesign,develop and extensive. Product design engineers could distributegraphicsystemscooperatively begin creating the geometric model, according within an organization. ISO 9000, TQM and to a predetermined sequence, and at some JIT movements thatrequire analysis and point the model could be defined as being review of corporate document systems would simplified. When it reaches this stage of tend to support the emergence of such a development, it could then be saved as a new profession. file. Justlike the subsequent highlevel Realistically, the sellingofgraphic engineering geometric model, the simplified engineering as a discipline is a non-commodity model can be accessed, rotatedinspace, basedissueatthistime. Individuals

228 possessing all of the required attributes to be graphic database development and graphic engineers are not yetaware of their maintenance environment. potential to be a part of the emerging graphic custom graphic distribution software that engineering. is non-intrusive on existingsystems or It is possible that a person couldsomeday databases. attend a university and major within its School dynamic real-time revision and of Engineering in Graphic updating Engineering, or of graphic information. within its School of Technologyin Graphic The success of such a simplifiedmodeling Engineering Technology. It isapparent to the based graphic system exists in itsability to author that within industry there isa need to effect change and improvementwithin the provide this type of opportunity.Further workforce by: more, it seems logical that this profession meeting specific needs of its would become the developer and users. guardian of preventing the utilization of graphical excessiveduplication of information as a graphic tasks. means to provide non-language dependent positively effecting communication. communicationenvironmentscapableof spanning across cultures. providing predictable consistentresponses Thus, we may be to graphic stimulus. able to provide a technical visualsolution to effecting total quality. the language barriers thatmany cultures must cope with when entering a global industrial providing a positive returnon investment setting. (ROI).

The power of graphics The following preliminary PilotCase Study is presented as evidence of Hypothetically,theappeal of ahighly an attempt to substantiatetheprevious effective real image based visual discourseand proposed graphic basedsimplified communication system utilizing 3-Dgeometric model modeling and simplified modeling system by implementingitintoareal databases, industrial setting. along with an efficient deliverysystem, would haveasignificantimpactoncurrent manufacturing processes. Preliminary pilot study Consideringananalysisof current Preliminary evaluation industrial work forces, and therealization of The Whirlpool Corporation theglobalmarketplace,itseems (Corporation) the facility in the Purdue Research application of a graphic basedsystem would Park in West Lafayette, Indiana was experiencing be beneficial when appliedto a company or what it defined as "excessive training manufacturing environment witha: investments" required to maintain thecurrent production large training overhead duetomulti- lingual environments quality and quantity. Thisfacility's main function is the packaging of large variation of jobs. aftermarket parts. low formal education At the request of the plantmanager, a systemsanalysis poor attitude ofthecurrentwork environment was performed. Thepurpose of and have a high rate ofturnover. the analysis was to determineif the potential The type of graphicsystem proposed for existed to apply the previouslypresented implementationintoatypical industry system solution and graphic productsin an production environment wouldconsist of a/an: attempt to alleviate some of theirtraining electronic database distributionsystem. overhead. 3-D simplified modelingstrategy. Manyoftheemployeecharacteristics deemed necessary for a graphic basedsolution

229 230 strategy were in evidence within the packaging provide the ability to be updated quickly facility. They included but were not limited to and easily as there are a large number of low motivation, high rate of turnover, large changes that occur on each packaging job. number of parts and a variety of complex not intrude on the existing systems or procedures. database informationcurrentlyinuse becausejobschedulingandprocess Demographics information exists in a management level The management staff at this plant consists MRP system inaccessible to the of ten full time employees. Their average age Corporation. is thirty-two years. They average beserviceableanddeliverablewithin approximatelyfifteenyears of formal house. education. be capable of providing part verification, The production workers consist of four- pallet configuration, label placement and hundredfiftypart-time student employees assembly procedures. between eighteen and twenty-five years old at reducemispacksandreworkswhile varying levelsof completion toward their increasing employee productivity. undergraduate degrees.The average worker bedeliverableonthecurrentPC turnover is approximately eighty percent per technology computers. year and has been as high as one-hundred thirty percent.This employee turnover is a Visual Op Sheet significant contributor to quality, assembly, Figure 2

verificationandexcessivetraining MS:3034 part Pointed: 03. 123/944 11:115 AM overhead problems. Production employees are PartsNeeded PackingOrder required to work a minimum of twenty hours and no more than thirty-eight hours per week. A... 771170COI LAM 4.0.11 INZIT

Production sinmomWM. MIKOVII Currently, the Corporation processes over seventeen million parts per year. There are 6/C Illr.k,Np over two thousand five hundred stock keeping 1103110116.4131,1 units (S KU) and kits derived from a total of six thousand eight hundred different . 1 components. The two thousand five hundred 111 ! SKUs, are cycled to produce over fifteen Skid Load Label Placement PIM bet thousand different jobs requiring training and Ilir LI These jobs are divided 1111 retraining each year. o OP into three different production areas Combi (automated packaging machine), Manual Pack 0/ 037341 0 4 and Polybag. ..k

Proposed system Afteranalyzingcurrent documents and processes, it wasdeterminedthatthe To satisfy the needs of the new system, it development and implementation of a graphic was proposed tothe Corporation that a based system to make and deliver visual simplified model graphic database ofall operation sheets would be beneficial and cost components be created, a new visual operation justifiable. The new system must: sheet (Figure 2) be designed and implemented to augment and eventually replace the existing paper bill-of-materials type operationsheet

230 231 BEST COPY AVM (Figure 3), and a new software capable of operation sheets (op-sheet) be developedand existing within the current technicalenvelope implemented. of the Corporationtogeneratethe new

Old Op-Sheet Figure 3

PACKAGING VENDOR OPERATIONS SHEET1 Part numberPart name Pr cl pkgqty schd pcs/man people hourscode 483034 thrm-dfsr re 01 h7 43.0 1 942302 Seq qty unit component #namenote loc qty loc qty 1.00 276793 cor label 310201 79500 1.00 283241 kraft paper stuff 12x12910101 45600 2.00 283267 'craft tape 9in.254461 600 1.00 48300 sheet 361501 643 1.00 827734 carton 730341 55 1.00 1108173 diffuser 371501 136 1.00 1108176 cover 1.00 1123394 thermostat 371701 18 ****************************** K245 datecoding required K250 part no. on rear of thermostat 1123394is 1123393 K999 s 29 000144

The project would serve both internal and permits the electronic distributionof visual external customers. Internally, production operations sheet data (op-sheet)to the schedulers, small parts personnel,selectors assembly workers.The infrastructure exists and production workers would benefitdirectly. to accomplish these and other future tasks. The packaging process would becomeclearer andemployeeswouldhave a better Projectjustification understanding as to what is expected ofthem, To justify the funding of thisproject a significantly reducing the potential for reworks simple return on investment (ROI)was used. andothererrors. Consequently,other It was discovered that fifteenpercent of all agencies within the Whirlpoolorganization jobs (2250) were being performedin the would have access to the graphic database as Combi area and the rest in the ManualPack needed. Externally, theconsumer would be and Polybag areas of the plant. less likely to receive It was wrong or incorrectly determined that the difference betweenthe set- packaged parts. up and training required for Manual Pack Along with the immediate benefits of the and Polybag productionareas was consistent proposedsystem, one of thesignificant but differed by the number of peopleat each features is that it would allowexpansion for job station. future graphic products to bedeveloped. The A First Part Inspection (FPI)used for 3-D graphic database permits thedevelopment checking initial quality of each jobat its start, of animations and othergraphic products to as the end of the training component in the job support the training required to perform an setup, determined that it took eachemployee assembly process. Also, the new software approximately fifteen minutesper job to reach the FPI.

231 2 32 The totaltraining time expenditurefor programmer, a computer technician, a project Combi jobs is 15% of 15,000 for a total of manager and 10 computergraphics modelers. 2250 jobs.Combi hasapproximately5 employees per job. Therefore, the total Combi Implementation jobs equivalent is 11,250 jobs.If it takes 15 The completion of models and software minutes to reach FPI, then 15 x 11,250 equals products took 6 months. Implementation and 168,750 minutes or 2812.5 hours of training system testing took 2 months.Another 2 time per year. At a base wage rate of $8.00 months was needed to bring the system to 90 per hour, including benefits, this works out to percent efficiency.It is currently running at $22,500 spent each year for job training.The about 98 percent complete. The other 2 totaltraining time for Manual Pack and percent is due to the dynamic nature of the Polybag areas is calculated by taking 85% of parts updating and op-sheet changes that 15,000 for a total of 12,750 jobs times 15 occur daily. The current level of operation is minutes to reach FPI for a total of 191,250 considered by the Corporation to be optimal in minutes or 3187.5 hours expended on training nature. per year.Using $8.00 per hour, this totals $25,500 per year for job training. Preliminary data As a goal, an initial savings of 10 minutes Data collected from production documents per job in training was predicted.This would and observations is presented as preliminary result in a combined total direct labor savings evidencetoindicatethepotentialfor for a year of 66% or $31,680. conducting a formal studytoverifythe Residualorindirectbenefitscouldbe perceivedsignificanceofthesimplified calculated by applying the above time savings modeling and graphics (Simgraph) project. to a projected increase in production.The The success of the project was measured 6000 hours saved in reduced training time through quantitative, qualitative and intangible could result in 409,960 additional parts per benefits. The introduction of Simgraph to the year.The dollar amount of savings is not production process reduced the time it takes to known.However, the production employee perform initial job setup by an average eleven time saved would in effect add the equivalent minutes per job. Time savings were realized of 2 weeks of full production to the plants by reducing job setup time thatincludes capabilities. Thisinformation and some readingthe op-sheet, performingpart preliminary testing persuaded management to verification, completing FPI and assembling initiate the proposed project. the sample first part. Setup time was reduced from nine minutes Project team tofourminutesfora 56%reduction. Selection of team members for this project However, the most significant procedural time was based on management and leadership reduction came about in the skid pattern skills, planning and project coordination, total identification and label placement verification qualitymanagementknowledge,extensive process. The time necessary to performthese production and packaging knowledge, operations went from five minutes to mere packagingengineeringservices,technical seconds. services and project design and Another benefit of the Simgraph system was implementation.The Corporation team was a greater than expected reductionin training composed of 8 people, which included the process time for new employees.A 20% plant manager, production supervisor, quality reduction was projected, however, an average control personnel, packaging engineers and time saving of 62% per trainee was achieved. technicalmanager. Theexternalteam This includes a reduction of op-sheetlearning consisted of a graphic engineer, a computer time,pre-assemblypartsverificationand quality certification FPI time.

232 233 Rework reduction produced by Simgraph software for specific solutionsisinfinitely has not yet been reflected in the Corporation more adaptable in needs based environments. quality parts per million. This data will be Itisthe belief of the author thatthe revealedwhenthesystemhasbeenin solutions to many industry visualliteracy operation for a one year period. However,not training problems can be solved by designing a single rework has been attributed to the andimplementingdiscretesystemsthat Simgraph system. Also, component perform specificvisualinformationtasks. verification errors and part assemblyerrors These systems must be compatible with, anda during the initial stage of implementation have partof,the corporate data and technical been visibly reduced. envelope. They must also be non-intrusiveon The total yearly projected savings,at this current systems. Top-down approval and time,directlyattributedtothe Simgraph bottom-up utilization scripts these type of project, is $42,500.This number does not systems for success. include the significant residual savingsas The emergence of a graphic engineering stated earlier in the Project Justification. discipline is inevitable.It may not be called Internal customer satisfaction has become graphic engineering, but a discipline thathas evident through the actual time procedures as itsroots inthefundamentals of reduction affected by Simgraph. The quality communication, graphic creation, archiving, certificationprocessthatmeasuresnew distribution and visual literacy while ina employees' comprehension of the op-sheet and technical environment, will emerge.Unlike shipping procedures has shown a reduction of technicalsystemspeople,programmers, testing time. This is an obvious increase in the drafters and designers, although drawing from efficiencyofcomprehensionwithinthe parts of all of them, when opened for closer training process.The training staff reported scrutiny these individuals will know graphics, that,"Simgraphisanexcellentwork- communication and technology. They will be simplification tool." able to apply graphics and its productsto create environments that are visually farmore Conclusions powerful than those currently being used. Technology providesthe opportunity to Other industries have used systems similar develop electronic tools for industry thatare to the Simgraph system. One Fortune 500 capable ofsolvinga number ofvisual company had a math and reading assessment communication and comprehension problems. survey performed on their union employee Previously,most of these problems were population that revealed that math and reading impossible to solve.This paper introduces a levels, according to a standardized test,were huge opportunity for those who wish topursue at fourth and fifth grade levels. Further the realm of synthesizing graphics, engineering testing revealed the workers hadvery high and technology to create visual environments math and reading ability levels. that promote visual literacy. When they were offered the possibility of Althoughsomewouldsaythatthe providing visual graphic tools anda system to environment created at Whirlpool could have distribute them within theircompany, they been solved with multi-media, other off-the- immediately realized that the creation ofan shelf authoring packages ora visual database environment that was not formal knowledge product like Microsoft's Accessor Borland's dependent 'would allow them to enable the Paradox, let it suffice that during the testing workerstosucceed in spiteoftheir and evaluation of the proposed graphicsystem deficiencies. A systemthatprovided solution,those products were tested and comprehension, through visual literacy, using proved to be severely lacking when confronted graphic images of products and procedures with the magnitude of this project.Custom worked. Although success storiesare too numerous to list, this example is typical. 233 The time appears to be approaching when the reality of turning to a basic instinctive graphic engineers will and must be able to need to communicate with"pictures"the design and distribute systems that are not solution that frees us from the communication language dependent. The need for such barriers that currently exist? systems has existed before the development of formal language.Communication was based on grunts, gestures and of course, pictures. Is

References

Bertoline, G. R., (1993).A structure and rationale for engineering geometric modeling. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 57, (3), 5-19.

Burton, T. L., (1989). Modes of engineering graphic communication in curriculum development. American Society for EngineeringEducation. NorthCentral Section: Proceedings, SpringMeeting.47- 53.

234 235 A Philosophical Discussion of Representation by Sandra E. Moriarty and Keith Kenney Abstract The purpose of this piece is to analyze the nature of representation, review themost critical issuespictures and reality, resemblance or convention, and developa model of representation that will satisfy as many of the philosophical concerns as possible. The model maps representation in terms of four types of processingnatural perception, abduction, convention, and cognitive processing. Introduction that accommodates the various issues and One of the most basic theoretical areas in viewpoints. the study of visual communication and visualliteracyisthenatureof Pictures and Reality representation. Much of the discussion of In beginning this discussion, let's first this topic comes from either philosophy or look at Wollheim's second question about aesthetics. This paper reviews some of the what is a representation. This question more important writings in this area in an investigates the nature of the image and attempt to develop a model of repre- how it does or doesn't mirror reality. The sentation. The primary works reviewed debate here seems to focus on the role of include: likeness, resemblance, and denotation in E. H. Gombrich, "The Visual Image;" depiction. "Representation and Misrepresen- The conventional approach is to define tation" depiction as reference by a visual to Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art: something it resembles. This traditional An Approach to a Theory of Symbols, view is expressed by Gombrich (1972, p. "Representation Re-presented" 88) who claims that iconicity is genuine Paul Messaris, Visual Literacy: Image, representation."It may be convenient here Mind & Reality to range the information value of such David Novitz, "Picturing" images according tothe amount of Marx Wartofsky, "Pictures, Represen- information about the prototype that they tation, and Understanding;" "Visual can encode. Where the information is Scenarios: The role of Representation virtually complete we speak of a facsimile in Visual Perception" or replica. ...Even facsimile duplication Richard Wollheim, "Representation: would not be classed as an image if it The Philosophical Contribution to shared with its prototype all characteristics Psychology;" Pictures and Lan-guage;" including the material of which it is made. and"Art,Interpretation,and A flower sample used in a botany class is Perception" not an image, but an artificial flower used for demonstration purpose must be In describing the requirements for a described as an image." general theory of representation, Wollheim In other words, a visual is "of something" (1993) says it must answer two questions: and, according to Wollheim, that "ofness" What is it to represent? (what is the de-mands that every representation have an relationship between the representation and objective. Wollheim (1993b, p.161) the something that it is of?) identifies three misinterpretations of the What, in the narrow sense of the term, is ofness thesis: a representation? 1.The Figurativethesis:for every Using his two questions to guide our representation,itsobject can be analysis, we find that the major theoretical described in figurative terms. issues that need to be investigated include: 2. The Existentialthesis:for every Is pictorial representation based on natural representation, there must existan resemblance or convention?What is the instance of the kind that the something relationship between pictures and reality? represented can belong toi.e. there Finally, as part of this review, we are can't be representations of unicorns. investigating whether it is possible to deve- 3.The Portrayalthesis:forevery lop an overriding theory of representation representation, there is a particular

235 236 something that is represented: every In contrast, David Novitz (1975, p. 155) representation is a portrait. argues that Goodman and others who deny In other words, the "ofness thesis" does not the importance of resemblance misun- deny that the object can be imagined, such derstand the difference between how a as a unicorn or fictional characters. picture is produced and how it is used: A number of scholars including Nelson "Insistence on the claim that picturing is Goodman (1988, p. 122) consider resem- fundamentally denotative because pictures blance to be a dogma from which we must stand for what they picture is the result of a free ourselves. He observes, "To suppose failure to discern the crucial distinction that the distinction between pictorial or between pictures and their production on 'iconic'and other symbolsrests on the one hand, and the use made of pictures resemblance is nevertheless a prevalent and on the other." In other words, he feels pernicious mistake." His point is that pictures do not stand for things without resemblance. cannot accountforthe being used to do so; it is an intentional difference between symbols that depict and relationship. He believes that picturing does those that do not. Goodman seesall not work by denotation; to say what a depictions as symbolic, and therefore they picture is of is just to say what kind of must be analyzed within the contextof picture it is, but is not to say what it denotes. culture and learning. The relationship is not The word "representation" can be used both based on "ofness" but on "standing for" and to mean a picture and to picture, i.e. the use the stands for relationship, which is made of the picture as an illustration, a basically a symbolic one, does not need warning, a map, etc. resemblance. Goodman alsoreflects Because of his reluctance to assign Gombrich's (1972, p. 82) viewpoint who denotation to visuals, Novitz (1975, p. 150) sees the visual as symbol: "What apicture admits to taking the unfashionable position means to the viewer is stronglydependent that "visual resemblance is a necessary on past experience and knowledge.In this condition for picturing, and that recog- respect, the visual image is not a mere nition of such resemblance is a necessary representation of "reality" but a symbolic condition for determining what a picture is system." of." Goodman (1988, p. 122) argues that We feel that the answer is not one of likeness is neither required nor enough for resemblance or symbolism but that there pictorial depiction. Likeness is not a matter are different types of images andthey are of how many properties two things have in represented, as well as interpreted, in common. Likeness varies with the com- different ways. One way to categorize the parative importance among the common nature of the visual is in terms of C.S. properties and thus with interest, context, Peirce's (1991, p. 181-183, 251-252) three and custom. A picture may count as categories of signs: iconic, indexical, and realistic to the extent that it depicts in the symbolic. This schema is broad enough to accustomed way. Although he admits that includeboth Goodman andNovitz. resemblance is intricately related to realism, Peircean semiotics defines an icon as similar in his view, realism is an artifact of current to is subject; in other words, iconic signs pictorial practice:. "Both the realism and the carry some quality of the thing theystand likeness may increase or diminish or vanish for, as a portrait stands for a person. Most entirely with a change in custom." often an iconic sign is a representation such Goodman (1988; p. 126) admits that as a drawing or photograph wherelikeness pictorial representations are both iconic and or resemblance is a determiningcharac- symbolic. As a matter of fact, he asserts that teristic. Iconic visuals are highly denotative. pictures must always be analog symbols and An indexical visual is physically connected that the pictorial and the analog are clearly with its object, an indication or sign or cue related. He argues that the basic notion of that something exists or has occurreda reference, or symbolization, the relation footprint means someone just walked by or between a symbol and whatever it stands for smoke means there is a fire. Iconic visuals in any way, governs pictorial representation are also denotative but they operate asa (p. 124). The pictorial relationship, in other puzzle with the viewer involved in an words, is based on denotative notions of a observational guessing game to make sense visual "standing for" something else and of the connection and identify the object. that is the meaning of representation. Symbolic visuals, however, arbitrarilystand

236 for something through a process of arbitrary in their connection to what they consensus as a word stands for a concept. A represent as language is and that, therefore, symbol, such as a leaf on a flag, is linked by a visual can serve as a picture of almost convention with its object. We learn that a anything if a culture wills it so. maple leaf stands for Canada. Symbols, therefore, are more conventional and their Natural Perception meanings are more open to connotative In contrast, the objective view (sometimes interpretations. called the naive or essentialist view) suggests The relationship between the picture and that the way things look are taken to be reality, then, is not one way or the other, it objective properties of the visual world, depends upon the nature of the sign. Iconic waiting to be perceived by any passing eye. and indexical signs are highly dependent The camera, in this view, simply duplicates upon resemblance and likeness; symbolic what the eye sees, the retinal image. As signs, however, depend upon conventional Wartofsky (1980a, p. 8) explains, "Thus it is relationships that have to be learned. There tacitly assumed that the camera records may still be some learning involved in 'objectively' the way things look, and that making the connection between the visual this sort of 'seeing' is indeed the duplicate and what it represents, but with iconic and of the eye's own work." Wartofsky does not indexical visuals, the relationship is less recommend this view as he makes the point arbitrary and more experiential. Arthur in throughout his work that what the viewer Danto (1992, p.15-31) notes that in of photographs sees is in the eye of the interpreting artwork, this ability to see the beholder rather than in the lens of the objects portrayed in paintingsisnot camera. something we have to learn in the same way But others propose a more sophisticated we learn to combine letters into words. view of natural perceptual processing. A Socially conditioned learningis more number of scholars believe that pictorial important for symbolic visuals which are representation is a natural process that uses highly arbitrary. inborn perceptual processes to generate meanings. They believe people make the Figure 1 connection by seeing resemblances which The Visual Continuum are not arbitrary, but natural. Even though there is a learning process, it involves iconic-> indexical-> symbolic perceptual experiences rather than social or cultural conditioning. We recognize a picture of a squirrel because it has some Resemblance or Convention characteristics in common with squirrels we This debate focuses on whether the have seen in our natural environment. meaning of visual images is established Catherine Elgin (1988) also says that through recognition or convention. This is pictorial representation is thought to be really a question of how we "see" meaning naturala matter of resemblance between in visuals, or how we process visual image and object. This resemblance, information. The focus of this question is moreover, is taken to be an objective matter, on the operations used by viewers, not on visible to the human eye and evident to all the intentions of creators of images. who look. Linguistic representation on the other hand, is considered convention Convention working by rules and stipulations that Some philosophersarguethatall secure the connection between words and observation is theory laden. In other words, the world. Richard Wollheim (1993) also all observations are read in a code using notes a difference between words and conventionsthattheobserverhas pictures. In his view, words follow rules or internalized. Goodman (1976),for conventions, however, pictures do not. He example, argues that visuals represent a argues, foriexample, that the relationship code; like language, rules govern the code between the word bison and the animal is that controls these arbitrary relationships. arbitrary, not so for pictures. The confusion comes because these rules Paul Messaris (1994) suggests that and codes are largely internalized which people make sense of pictures largely on make them look like natural processes. the basis of their reproduction of real-world Goodman argues that pictures are just as informational clues. While he does not

237 238 subscribe to the objective reality view, he between natural perception and cognitive also does not believe that learning to make processing. sense of visuals is comparable to learning to use language. He explains, "the represen- Information Processing tational conventions of images, unlike those Gombrich's (1984) idea of "subjective of language, are typically based on infor- vision" is not the same as the natural mational cues that people learn to deal with perceptual processing or conventional in their everyday encounters with their real processing that have traditionally been the visual environments" (p. 27). focus of the debate. His approach embeds Esthetics scholar Arthur Danto (1992) representation in cognitive or information also takes issue with the idea of convention processing theories, and particularly schema and uses a number of experiments with the theory, which explains how mental models visualperception of animals (sheep, and maps work.Critics of Gombrich's pigeons) to show that animals respond to book, Art and Illusion, however, are pictures at a level far above flat stains of concerned because he doesn't come down color. He believes that visual perception is squarely in favor of natural perception. much too important to animal survival to be They seem to be arguing that Gombrich is deeply penetrated by theory (rules and saying that visual representation is all code codes). Pictorial competence is natural. and that notions of reality and of nature Pictorial perception takes place at a level and mimesis have no place. All that remains "beneath the threshold of interpretation:" it are different systems of conventional signs is external and purely associational. We which are made to stand for an unknowable don't have to learn to see. Danto suggests realityan out and out relativism (p. 195). that because animals do not have the motor Gombrich (1984) rejects the idea of ability to draw, this may in some way affect mimesis as based on the 'transcription' of how they perceive pictures (pp. 15-31) nature and concentrates instead on the subjectivity of vision. He quotes another Abduction interpretationofhisbook byan Another approach to understanding how archaeologist as seeing representation as the we make sense of representations is Peirce's end product on a long road through notion of abduction, which is a way of schema and corrections. "It is not a faithful thinking based on hypothesis building and record of a visual experience but the conjecture rather than formal deductive or faithful construction of a relational model" inductive reasoning. Umberto Eco and (p. 196). Thomas Sebeok (1983) make the argument Gombrich's (1984) subjective vision is that the roots of abduction lie far back in based on the idea that we do learn to time with hunters and trackers who could interpret visual effects, however, much of read the signs of nature, much as Sherlock what we are interpreting reflects natural Holmes does. Medicine, in its procedures cues that we recognize as part of a larger for detecting symptoms is another area that schema. He points to the creation of certain uses abductive thinking. (Conan Doyle was visual effects which were discovered by trial trained in medicine and used one his and error in certain societies under the medical professorsas the model for pressure of novel demands made on the Sherlock). Visual interpretation of repre- image. This new emphasis on what might be sentations may be described as abductive in called the 'trigger effects' of certain devices that it begins with observing clues in the by which the image-maker can give the visual (perception) and moves toa impression of depth, of sheen, or of facial conclusion by hypothesizing relationships expression hasalsoenabled me to andpatterns(cognition,convention) reformulate the problem of 'conventions' in through massiveparallelprocessing. representation. This processing of the Abduction builds on natural perception at patterns,however,isbased on the both the iconic and indexical levels and sets recognition of visual elements which serve the stage for more complex forms of as the first step in relating an image to a cognitive processing, particularly the type meaning. He says to his critics: "...what of cognitive and conventional processing would have been the use of talking at such needed to make sense of symbolic visuals. length about 'schema' and 'correction' and Inthissense, abduction lies midway 'making' and 'matching' if there were no

238 239 standards whatever by which to correct or moderated: "The general thesisI am match an image?" (p. 197). proposing is this: that human visionvisual Many of these conventionssay the perception, if you likeis an artifact. It is highlight or the streaks behind a figure to the product of our own making. Starting suggest movementare rooted in certain with the mammalian eye, in biological easily acquired tricks which secure a given evolution, we have transformed visual response that may be inborn or is very perception by means of transformations of easily learned. Gombrich (1984, p. 198) our visual praxisthe ways, or modes, of suggest that we look for the roots of our visual activity. The instrument of this representation in biology and animal transformation is the pictorial represen- behavior and describes it as, "Our twin tation." "We see by way of our picturing" nature, posed between animality and (p.8). rationality." "As we accept a style, or adopt a Marx Wartofsky (1980b)takes the particular mode of pictorial represen- information processing view a step further. tationso does our actual perception of He suggests that not only is our vision things change"(p.9). He uses cave subjective, i.e. a product of the way we have paintings to demonstrate. The mammoth interpreted things in the past, but it is also doesn't appear in real life to have outlines shaped by the process. Our representations, around it although the cave painters drew it in other words, become maps for our that way. "Yet we can all "see" the outline of seeing. He explains, "seeing the world a shape; We have no trouble visually perspectivally is the product of specific abstracting from a living or even a moving modes of visual praxis, and that perspective subject, what itslinear contours are. representation is therefore not a 'correct' However, this is something we have learned rendering of the way things 'really look,' to do visually by virtue of our practice of but rather a choice of seeing things in a representing such shapes by means of particular way."(p. 132) He explains, "...to drawn outlines. The caveman's art was talk of the 'convention of linear perspective' revolution in many ways, but not least in in pictorial representation is not to talk of a that it created the visual ability to see such simply arbitrary model of representation, outlines in nature. The mammoth, so to but of a culturally achieved rule or canon speak, had no outline-shape for human of representation" (p. 133). visual perception until mammoth-drawings He argues that the way we have allowed invented it." The choices we have made in the depiction of perspective to evolve now representation (drawing, photography, affects how we see perspective in real life. lenses, etc.) are the "means of which we "To say that human vision is an artifact is to have created and transformed human say that it is the product of human activity, vision" (p. 8). and not simply of biological adaptation or This has been a debate about the type of naturalselection....theactivityisnot processingnatural perception or conven- arbitrary becauseitisguided by the tionused to make sense of visual images. teleologicalcharacter of making, or Even Wartofsky's and Gombrich's infor- construction. It is, however, conventional mation processing viewpoint is criticized for activity, and its products are conventional in not coming down strongly in one camp or the sense that they are the products of another. We proposethatallthree human choice and skill, and they are made viewpoints are rightthat visual perception for the sake of satisfying culturally and is complex and involves more than one historically evolved and changing needs kindof processingactivities.The and wants" (pp. 132-133). processing differences range from natural In an article on how cameras "see," perceptual activities based on inborn Wartofsky(1980a)arguesthatour experiential responses to the processing of perceptual process is socially and culturally conventions and arbitrary symbols and Figure 2 The Processing Continuum natural perception -> abduction-> convention -> cognitive processing

BES1 4OPY AVM BLE 240 then to more complex information pro- work and their relationship to an object. cessing activities that involve manipulating Therefore, it is a logical next step to use this mental models of meanings. Wollheim same schema to develop a model that (1993, p.163) acknowledges that the representsa more inclusive way of relationship between natural and conven- describing representation. tional processes is more like a continuum Wollheim's (1993) psychological theory than a distinction. He observes that "the of representation spells out the nature of the smaller the increment of information that a resemblance relationship as well as the theory insists on if we are to move from intention of the creator and the competency knowing that something is a representation of the viewer. In his view of an object and to knowing what it represents, the more its representation, "a necessary condition of "natural" account it gives of representation. R representing x is that R is a configuration The larger the increment of information in which something or other can be seen that it specifies as requisite, the more and furthermore one in which x can be conventionalist account the theory gives of seen. Sufficiency is reached only when we representation." add the further condition that R was Gombrich (1972, p. 89) also illustrates a intended by whoever made it to be a unstated understanding of these two types configuration in which x could be seen. of processing when he describes how we And this condition must be understood in can classify theories of representation such a way that whoever made the according to the naturalness that they assign representation was in a position or had the to the representational relationship. He says required competency to form and act on that, on one hand, interpreting photos must this intention." In other words, WoLlheim's be learnedinterpreting photographs is an account of representation invokes two important skill that must be learned by all psychological factors: the visual exper- who have to deal with this medium of iences of the spectator and the fulfilled commun-ication: the intelligence officer, intentions of the artist. the sur-veyor or archaeologist who studies Gombrich (1972, p. 88) also speaks of aerial photography, etc.However, he also the intention of the creator and how it says that "there is no doubt that organisms relates to the viewer's perception. "However are 'programmed' to respond to certain faithful an image that serves to convey visual signals in a way that facilitates visual information may be, the process of survival." Gombrich refers to these at selection will always reveal the maker's "automatisms" and cautions about com- interpretation of what he con-siders paring animal behavior to human reactions. relevant....Interpretation on the part of the (p. 85) image maker must always be matched by If we admit the idea that processing the interpretation of the viewer. No image represents a continuum of increasingly tells its own story." However, he also makes more complex mental activities, then we the point that these two do not necessarily might seethe natural or perceptual match: "The information extracted from an approach that aims at recognition as the image can be quite independent of the simplest approach followed by convention intention of its maker" (p. 87).Basically, which demands a knowledge of rules and he says that a picture is not a picture of codes. The most complex formof everything that we can see in it. Some of the processing then is cognitive which, as perceptionsmaybeinerroror Gombrich describes it,is based on the idiosyncratic. The fulfilled intentions of the interplay of perceptual and conventional artist provide a curb on what we can see in a activities. picture. Of course, the visible surface of the picture still bears the meaning. A Theory of Representation In his analysis of the psychological We mentioned in the beginning of thisapproach, Gombrich (1972, p. 89) refers to paper that Wollheim (1993) established two the important role of the 'beholder's share:" criteria for a theory of representation. It thecontribution we maketoany must answer the questions: What is it to representations from the stock of images represent? and What is a representation? stored in our mind, the "hidden assump- That logic has guided this analysis of the tions" with which we approach an image. He points of view in the various debates which concludes,"It'sonly when we lack also seem to center on how representations memories that this process can't take place."

240 241 BEST COPY AVAIIABLE Novitz (1975) pointed out that there is a representation to aid information proces- difference between what a picture is and sing and to change the way we process how it is used reflects the two sections of visual information. this review. The first discussion focused on This presentation answers both questions how we derive meaning from visuals that Wollheim said were necessary in a throughthreedifferenttypesof theory of representation: What isit to processinghow it is used. The second represent? (Whatistherelationship discussion looked at the nature of the visual ...between therepresentation and the representation and its relationship with something that it is of?)and What is a realitywhat the picture is. In developing a representation? It does so by identifying theory of representation, we feel these two two continuathe level of processing and ideas can be brought together. the type of visualand the relationships After reviewing the complexity of repre- between them. The result is an analysis of sentation in terms of both the visual visual representation in terms of four levels elements being represented and the proces- of complexity. sing demanded by their interpretation, we The first level which is focused on the are able to map the field of representation recognition of iconic visual information relative to the nature of the visual and the representsthe two viewpoints most type of processing. The following figure commonly found in the literature. The illustrates our view of the representation second level which emphasizes indexical debate which we see as not being ade- visual information is, as well as iconic, is a quately articulated by either the natural, the new way of looking at visual representation conventional, theviewpoints. At the first .The third and fourth levels are focused on level the process is one of recognition of the interpretation of meaning in more iconic information using natural perceptual symbolic or arbitrary visuals. The fourth processes to identify things that have been level is the one we have articulated based on seen before. The critical characteristic is the work of Gombrich and Wartofsky and resemblance and that can vary in terms of which we feel depicts the most complex the amount of information required to form of representation because it admits the establish resemblance. At the second level, possibility that the act of representing can understanding indexical meanings, as well actually change the subsequent perceptions as iconic, reflectsa type of thinking of representations. All four levels are used identified as abduction. At the third level, as visual strategies for making sense of the process is one of interpretation and the various types of visuals. critical characteristic is the ability to learn The value of this approach to a theory of arbitrary codes, rules, and symbols. The representation is that, in admitting the fourth level involves using all the tools of validity of the different viewpoints, it

Figure 3 Mapping Representation

Type of iconic indexical symbolic processing Level I: perception Level II: abduction Level II: convention Level III: cognition X

241 242 doesn't take any side in the various debates are differences in the types of repre- but instead makes an argument for the sentation and then explains how different complexity of visual representation. In processing approachesnatural perception, other words, they are all rightto a degree abduction, convention, and cognition are all and in various situations. What is presented important and used in different ways to here is not a definitive statement one way or derive different types of meanings from the other, but instead a map of the field of different types of visual representations. representation that acknow-ledges that there

References Danto, Arthur C. (1992) "Animals as Art Moriarty, Sandra E. (1996) "Abduction: A Historians: Reflections on the Innocent Theory of Visual Interpretation," Com- Eye," in Beyond the Brillo Box: The munication Theory, 6:2 (May), 167-187. Visual Arts in Post-Historical Perspective, Novitz, David (1975) "Picturing," Journal of New York: Farrar Straus Geroux, 15-31. Aesthetics and Art Criticism 34 (Winter), Eco, Umberto and Thomas A. Sebeok, ed. 155. (1983)The Sign of Three Bloomington: Peirce, C. S. (1991) Pierce on Signs, James Indiana University Press. Hoopes, ed. Chapel Hill NC: University of Elgin, Catherine Z. (1988) "Confronting N. Carolina Press, 181-183, 251-252. Novelty," Chapter 7 in Reconceptions in Wartofsky, Marx (1980a) "Camera Can't See: Philosophy, eds. Nelson Goodman and Representation, Photography, and Human Catherine Z. Elgin, Indianapolis: Hackett Vision," Afterimage, (April), 8. Publishing, 101-129. Wartofsky, Marx W. (1980b) "Visual Gombrich, E.H. (1972) "The Visual Image," Scenarios: The role of Representation in Scientific American, 227, 88. Visual Perception," Chapter 4 in The Gombrich, E. H. "Representation and .Perception of Pictures, ed., M.A. Hagen, Misrepresentation," Critical Inquiry 11 Vol. II, New York: Academic Press, 1980, (December 1984), p. 195. 132-133. Goodman, Nelson 1976) Languages of Art: Wollheim, Richard (1993a) "Pictures and An Approach to a Theory of Symbols, Language," Chapter 12 in The Mind and 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett. Its Depths Cambridge: Harvard Univer- Goodman, Nelson (1988) "Representation sity Press. Re-Presented," Reconceptions in Philo- Wollheim, Richard (1993b) "Representa- sophy, Nelson Goodman and Catherine Z. tion: The Philosophical Contribution to Elgin, eds. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub- Psychology," Chapter 10 in The Mind and lishing, 122. Its Depths, Cambridge: Harvard Univer- Messaris, Paul(1994)Visual Literacy: sity Press, 161. Image, Mind, & Reality, Boulder: West- Wollheim, Richard (1993) "Pictures and view Press, 27. Language," Chapter 12 in The Mind and Its DepthsCambridge: Harvard Univer- sity Press, 185-190.

242 243 Student Nurses' Perceptions Of Hospital Staff Modeling Behaviors by Sherise L. Valentine

Abstract Modeling is the oldest form of visual communication. Visual literacy associated with modeling includes body language, facial expressions, and attire. As educators, our first responsibilityto our learners is to provide them with the best learning environment possible. This studyuses Brookfield's Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ) to assess the learning environment and student nurses' perceptions of hospital staff modeling behaviors. Results showed that students wanted the opportunityto create their own visual messages and that the learning environment was influencedmore by hospital staff modeling behaviors than clinical instructor.

Introduction cognitive incongruence for thestudent.As As human beings, we gather most of our educators, our first responsibility to our learners information visually.The scope of visual is to provide them with the best learning literacyincludesbodylanguage,facial environment possible."Teacher behavior is expressions, and attire. In fact, modeling is the probably one ofthe most effective oldest form of visual communication. environmental interpreters, having the potential Nursing education, especially in the clinical to enhance or destroy the environment for area, relies heavily on modeling: The student learning at the drop of the hat" (Heimlich & observes the performance of a procedure, the Norland,1994). Yet,teacher/instructor student imitates/practices the procedure, the behavior during the learning process is rarely student performs the procedure in the clinical assessed or evaluated. setting. "Before something can be learned, the Historically,assessmentof theclinical model must be attended to; some models are environment has been from the instructor's more likely than others to be attended to such as perspective. The instructor would discuss those thought to be competent, powerful, concerns with hospital staff and administration attractive, and so on" (Merriam & Caffarella, with little or no input from the students.In 1991). Hospital staff nurses, working in the addition, end of semester clinical evaluations "real world", are viewed as such by students. focused on the clinical instructor and facility, There are some differences between nursing not hospital staff nurses. theory in the classroom and nursing practice in Even if final clinical evaluation forms were the "real world". For example, nursing theory changed to include evaluation of hospital staff states that an IV needs to be changed every 72 nurses, the information gathered would be after hours. In practice, an IV is left in as long as it is the fact and not helpful to that group of patent if the patient has poor veins or is going students. The same is true for any class where home soon. Deciding which variations from evaluation is performed only at the end of the nursing theory are acceptable or appropriate and semester. Adult educator, Stephen Brookfield, which are not is not, and should not be, a designed the Critical Incident Questionnaire student nurse's decision. These decisions are (CIQ) to assess how students are experiencing made by the clinical instructor or staff nurse their learning and the teacher's teaching as it caringforthepatient,thusmodeling happens (Brookfield, 1995). The CIQ is not professionalnursing behavior. "Symbols copyrighted, and in fact, Brookfield encourages retained from a modeling experience act as a its use 'Wall learning environments. template with which one's actions are compared" Every class and nursing clinical contains (Hergenhahn, 1988). Non-professional, significant happenings that affect the learner's unethical, inappropriate, and/or unacceptable environmentandhencelearningand/or decisions on the part of the hospital staff result accomplishment. The CIQ gives the student an in negative modeling behaviors and cause opportunity to share these moments with the

243 244 instructor and their peers. This information can Significance of the Study then be used to adjust the learning environment The data obtained from this study adds to the to better meet the class/clinical objectives and body of knowledge on visual literacy assessment the learner's needs. An example of Brookfield's techniques. Furthermore, this study CIQ is shown in Figure 1 below. demonstratesthe importance of assessing modeling behaviors in the practicum setting. Figure 1 Identification of negative modeling behaviors, Critical Incident Questionnaire as they are happening, holds the mostpromise forpreventative measuresbeforeadverse templatesareformed andthelearning environment destroyed. At what moment in the class this week did 1. Methodology you feel most engaged with what was Admission to the study was open to all happening? students assigned to the spring 1995, Monday andWednesday,medical/surgicalclinical 2.At what moment in the class this week did rotation at United Medical Center in Cheyenne, you feel most distanced from what was Wyoming. There were 18 Associate Degree happening? nursing students in their second, third, or fourth semester of a four semester program in nursing. 3.What action that anyone (teacher or Participants were all female, between 20 and 45 student) took in class this week did you find years of age. most helpful or affirming? CIQ's were collected twice a week at the end of the clinical day. Responses were summarized weekly and given to the students to read and 4.What action that anyone (teacher or discussinpost-clinicalconferences. All student) took in class this week did you find responses were anonymous and voluntary. Of a most puzzling or confusing? possible169 responses,117 CIQ's were received. 5.What about the class this week surprised you the most? (This could be something about Data Analysis your own reactions to what went on, or Eighty percent of the responses to the first something that someone did, or anything else question (At what moment in clinical today did that occurs to you.) youfeelmost engaged with what was happening?) identified hands-on patient care as Purpose most engaging. Fourteen percent of the In consideration of the above information, it respondents reported feeling most engaged while seemed appropriate and necessary to evaluate involved inpatient, family, or peer teaching the students' perceptions of the hospital clinical activities. Both of these categories represent the learning environment. Therefore, the purposes students'freedomtocreatevisual-verbal of this study were to:1) identify students' messagesthroughmodelingprofessional perceptions of positive and negative influences nursing behaviors. in the clinical learning environment, and 2) Responses to question #2 (At what moment in examine students' perceptions of hospital staff clinical today did you feel most distanced from modeling behaviors. what was happening?) further supported the These purposes were accomplished by using a students' desire to model professional nursing modified version of Brookfield's CIQ which behaviors. Sixty-five percent of respondents felt substituted "clinical" for "class", "today" for most distanced when not involved in hands-on "this week", and "instructor, student, or staff' patient care, either because the patient left the for "teacher or student". floor or because the staff nurse took over the 244 245 patient's care and excluded the student. What does this mean in terms of the learning Again in question #3 [Whataction that environment, or providing learners with the best anyone (instructor, student, or staff) took in visual messages so that learning isnot only clinical today did you findmost helpful or facilitated, but also enhanced? affirming ?] 85% of respondentsidentified modeling professional nursingbehaviors by Implications for Practice performing procedures, with verbal Judging from common themes in this study, instruction/feedback, asmosthelpfulor students desire an opportunity tocreate their affirming. ownvisualmessagesthroughmodeling The most puzzling or confusing actions listed professional behavior. In addition,preceptors in response to question #4 [What action that have a great influence on student learningand anyone (instructor, student, or staff) took in the learning environment through their modeling clinical today did you findmost puzzling or behaviors/visual messages. confusing ?] were negative modeling behaviors While nursinginstructorsarecarefully by hospital nursing staff (see Figure 2 below). screened for their positions, preceptorsare not. In addition, nursing instructorsmust have Figure 2 advanced educational preparation,preceptors do Most Puzzling or ConfusingActions not.Any discipline that places students in practicum settings may encounter similarissues.

eg. Behavior Recommendations it is therefore recommended that preceptorsbe carefullychosen,oriented,providedwith ongoing support, and continually assessed.In addition, continuous, ongoing assessment ofthe learning environment is neededso that students have an opportunity to verbalizeconcerns related to visual messages theyare sending or receiving. Brookfield's CIQ is recommendedas an appropriate assessment tool.

Students had a difficult time processingthese Positive Outcomes incongruent visual messages. Starting TV's Positive outcomes of this study included:1) without washing handsor wearing gloves; not Student empowerment. Instead of feeling victim following hospital policy and procedures;and, to the learning environment, studentssaw socially biased and judgmental remarksduring positive changes which in turn positively report conflictedwiththestudents'pre- affected their clinical learning experience.2) conceived professional nursing model. Information from the CIQ'swas used to Students were also puzzledor confused about implement change in the preceptor choice and equipment, meds, clinical paperwork/charting, education process. 3) Because the instructor thepatient'sdiseaseprocess,assessment was made aware of professional and ethical techniques, and secretary rudeness. issues as they happened, negative modeling Negative modeling behaviors by hospitalstaff behaviors could be used as topics for discussion were also listed as most surprising in question in post-clinical conferences. Students had the #5 (What about clinical today surprisedyou opportunity to role play, critically analyze the the most?).Fifty percent of theresponses behavior in question, and problem solve. reported surprise and disbelief at thenegative Finally, 4) As a result of this study, the clinical visual messages being sent by hospitalstaff learning environment becamemore positive and modeling behaviors. supportive of the student.

245 248 Bibliography Brookfield, S.D. (1995). Becoming a Hergenhahn, B.R. (1988). An introduction to criticallyreflective teacher. San Francisco: theories of learning (3rd. ed.). Englewood Jossey Bass. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Heimlich,J.E., & Nor land, E. (1994). Merriam, S.B., & Caffarella, R.S. (1991). Developing teaching style in adult education. Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Jossey Bass.

246 247 Quest of Visual Literacy: Deconstructing Visual Images ofIndigenous People Ladislaus Semali

Abstract The purpose of this essay is to introducefive concepts that guide teachers' andstudents' inquiry in the understanding of media andvisual representation. In a step bystep process, I will show how these five concepts can become a tool with which to critique and examinefilm images of indigenous people so as to expose the oppressive spaces in the daily dose ofmedia and visual messages designed to provide information and entertainment to credulous audiences. Thisessay aims to be a model for teachers contemplating to use such tools in theirown classrooms to teach critical viewing, critical thinking, andcritical reading skills.

Introduction In the study of visual communication Critical inquiry is a term currently and used visual literacy, critical inquiry isnot used among educators that sparks controversy. widelyinclassroomsasatoolfor For some educators, critical inquiry reflects a deconstructing visualimages,particularly newapproachthatallows teachersto those images that represent people'sculture, construct pedagogical practices which connect identity, or ethnicity. While this hasbegan to with their students' experiences and provide occur in some schools, it is not yetcommon students with a vision of social change by practice in all schools. With criticalinquiry, encouraging them to research their own topics students learn to become criticalconsumers and ask their own questions. Thisapproach who are aware of visual manipulation stands in contrast with teaching the and classics stereotyping as an important project ofcritical and a canon of acceptable literaryworks far literacy education. removed from the students' experiences to be In order to illustrate thecurrent inquiry memorized for exams.For many other movement, I decided to apply the work which educators, critical inquiry is another fad, a I and other university researchersin critical resurrection of old ideas growingout of a pedagogy have engaged inover the past 10 long history in education of creatingnew years. This method of inquiry is based labels for old ideas without on the any real change in rationale that if we hope tocreate media and classrooms and schools. visual environments that will helpus change Critical inquiry is not a fad. It draws from oppressive literacy practices,we have to think social theory studies of popularculture, the, critically about what kinds of learning media in its many forms, literature, we the role want to go into the classrooms andthe of the state in strugglesover race, class and pedagogical spaces in which learning gender relations, national and occurs international for most students; how these literacypractices economic structures, and the culturalpolitics are projected or articulated with other social, of imperialism and postcolonialism(Giroux, political, and ideological forces. 1987; Giroux & Simon, 1989;McLaren, Hammer, Sholle, & Reilly, 1995).Simply Deconstructing Imagesof Indigenous put, critical inquiry means questioning.This People practice of questioning requires both teachers In this essay, I introducea discussion about and students to account for theirown beliefs the Sani. The Sani are the indigenous and practices by exploring the people contradictions of the Kalahari Desert in SouthernAfrica. that are necessarily inherent intheir own These people have for many lives. years been called the "bushmen", a derogatoryname coined by

247 248 early European settlers in the early 1900s. Media Studies, Stuart Hall reminds us that This name has been used until recently, when media (and indeed visuals) play a significant Namibia got its independence in 1990. The role in the creation and reinforcement of culture, language, and social life of the Sani specific images of the world, the manufacture has been represented in the film: The Gods of consent, and the positioning of political Must Be Crazy (:984). As the name economic interests (Hall, 1982). "bushman" suggests, the Sani have been In the study of visual representation in portrayed in this film as a creature of the films, the complex issues surrounding culture, Stone Age that persists to be an obstacle to identity, and ethnicity are brought to bear. progress, civilization, and modernization. The dominant visual techniques and coding Inthe powerfulvisualand humorous devices employed by the producer of The images of The Gods, a South African writer- Gods, to convince viewers of the accuracy or director, Jamie Uys, makes jokes about the believability claimed in the story, combines absurdities and discontinuities of African life. the Hollywood classic cinema with ignorance He portrays the Sani culture as primitive, the associated with remote area groups (Bordwell, environment in which they live is labelled as Staiger & Thompson, 1985). paradise on Earth, and their entire existence Watching the film prompted me to think seemstoclashsharply with"civilized" about its underlying messages in relation to societies predominant in large cities and in other films I had seen, and caused me to Western Europe. In this pixilated absurdity, wonder if the politics and representations in Uys wrote, produced, and directed The Gods, The Gods had also been in other films about in which three divergent plot-threads are Africans. The continued reassertion of white arbitrarily braided into a whole. racial hegemony and patriarchy seems to be By bringing the discussion of the film about most explicit in this film. Equally, the nature the Sani to the foreground, I expose the of the reality constructed by the film and the mistaken popular beliefs commonly portrayed values implicit in its visual representations are about Africansin movies and television, wittingly intertwined with humor and cannot especially in Travel, National Geographic, or be taken for granted. Discoveryfilms. Thishumorous Readers may be troubled in two contrasting anthropological story does not only show how ways: on the one hand, some who are different cultures perceive the same things in shocked by the obvious racism of the film totally different ways, but it does so in a may wonder whyIworry about basic shameless manner. principles of visual representation; on the A critical examination of The Gods Must other hand, many may wish that the questions Be Crazy coincides with the critical approach I pose could just be ignored, simply because, to inquiry made explicit in this essay.This in their opinion, the film was only a piece of approach provides a systematic educational art and entertainment -- why not just follow model with which to read critically visual one's pleasures and savor the riches that the images of women, minorities, people from world.of narrative provides? Unfortunately, other cultures, ethnic groups, and images of there are many sides to any piece of art! other social groups embedded in media and Because all media and visual productions visualmessages,inordertorecognize are produced from a variety ofmotivations, stereotypes, ethnocultural bias and suchunderlyingmotivesneedtobe discrimination, and to understand how these questioned. Perhapsif we can finda images help to structure our experience. The responsible way of defending the ethical value of such critical pedagogy rests with the criticism of narrative, we will encourage belief that visuals impart knowledge and can similar probing in the other arts that I must entertain while leaving permanent images on neglect here. We are reminded of Andrew impressionable minds (Giroux & Simon, Bergman'sstudyof theDepressionin 1989). In his book, Return of the Repressed America and the movies, where heargued 248 EST COPY AVAILA LE 249 that every movie isa cultural artifact and as Nixon'sguideforteachingcritical such reflects the values, fears,myths, and mindedness, these five concepts assumptions of the culture that provide an produces it important starting point for criticalinquiry (1971). In the pages that follow,I show that (Werner & Nixon, 1990). How The Gods is indeed might one a product of such myths apply suchacritical and fears. inquirytovisual representations of the Gods MustBe Crazy? In his essays on representation,Richard Dyer (1985) quipped: "howwe are seen What is the issue? determines in part how we are treated; how We must ask: Whatcontext motivated the we treat others is based on howwe see them. production of The Gods? By Such seeing comes from questioning the representation" (p. production and construction ofthe meaning- 39). Inordertoquestion visual making processes in visualrepresentations, representations, as suggestedby Dyer, it is we will examine closely the visual important to adopt a systematic imagery mode of and popular representation ofpeople which inquiry. By using the followingfive concepts help shape their personal, social, for inquiry about visual and political representation, issues worlds. In thinking about "whatis the of diversity, and the inequalitiesin knowledge issue," I aim to direct attention and power that exist between towards the those who broaderissues: (1) whatsensedo manufacture information in theirown interests representations make of the world? and those who consume it (2) what innocently as news are the visuals representing tous and how? and entertainmentare systematically and In other words, how do critically questioned. the individuals represented in the film becomeseen or how does the way we see theminfluence how we Five Conceptsfor Critical Inquiry about treatthem? (3) whataretypical Visual Representation representations of groups in Visual representation refers society?(4) to the way what does this example of visualsrepresent to imagesandlanguageactively construct me? (5) what do the visualsmean to others meanings according tosets of conventions who see it? shared by and familiar to makers (producers) To decipher The Gods MustBe Crazy as a and audiences(viewers). As avisual visual representation of culture,identity, and representation of storytelling,films share ethnicity, it is necessary to know much in common with the something historical or about South Africa's past history,its present fictional narrative,including plot, theme, domesticandforeignpolicies,andthe character, setting, conflict, andresolution. singlemindedness with which SouthAfrica Through the maneuvering ofcamera angles, before independence, used cutting, and lighting, the manipulation the system of of time apartheid to shape its future.Within its and space is effectivelyaccomplished to give the viewer a sense of borders, South Africa had foralmost four realism. For this decades been creatinga new territorial and reason, such ploy of visual representations of demographic entity.Although we tend to people demand a careful analysisto discover hear only the pretty aspects ofapartheid, its (1) what is at issue, (2)how the issue / event greatest manifestation was themanipulation of is defined, (3) who is involved,(4) what the people within a finite arguments are, and (5) what is space. As it has been taken for acknowledged by several reviewersof this granted including culturalassumptions (See film, The Gods is an expression Figure 1).In short, a systematic of this aspect mode of of apartheid (Brown, 1982,p. 42); Denby, inquiry will focuson the visual, source, 1984, p. 47); Davis, 1985, origins, and the determinants p. 51; Keneas, of media and 1984, p. 22).Accordingly, the film delves visual constructions, all ofwhich are carefully on this aspect of racist apartheid byinversion. put together to influence theviewer in a certain way.Adapted from Wernerand 249 250 Figure 1 Critical Inquiry Questions

# Inquiry Key Questions

1. The Issue What is the issue? What sense do media make of the world? What do visuals mean to those who see them?

2. Definitions of the Issue What is the source of information? What form does the issue take? What information is left out?

3. Who is involved What groups are involved? Who is the media intended for? Whose point of view does the media take?

4. The Argument Why was a certain media were selected? What information in the visual is factual? How is the message affected by what is left out?

5. The Assumptions What attitudes are assumed? Whose voice is heard? What points of view are assumed?

While the landscape of The Gods looks to my understanding? (4) how does it serve or be very much like South Africa, it is set in not serve my purposes? (5) what information what some critics call the mythical country of is left out? Botswana. Because Uys' Botswana does not The first ten minutes of the film addresses exist, except in his imagination; features of the relationship between illusion and reality. the landscape, dress, and custom are not to be "It looks like a paradise, but it is in fact the found in real Botswana.Uys' Botswana is most treacherous desert in the world, the insteadadreamofahappy-go-lucky Kalahari."We see footage of the placid bantustan, those equally fictitious homelands Kalahari "bushmen" searching for water. In that the South African government tried to this desert we meet the "dainty, small, and create all over South Africa, literally out of graceful Sani ("bushmen")." We're unsure of dust, for the dumping of African people. the film-maker's intent, suspecting satire, but Clearly, the central issue posited in the film thesequenceturnsouttobe afairly is about value questions defined by the film- predictable documentary with dry, straight- maker's goals, ideals, and hopes. As always, faced narration about a peaceful, "primitive" the contention or challenge therefore is to tribe of tiny"bushmen" who liveina recognize that many of the things of value to gracious, simple world digging for roots and me are not necessarily valued to the same foraging for berries, without any knowledge degree by other people. of crime or violence. A Coke bottle drops from a great silver bird in the heavens and How the Issue / Event is Defined? intotheorderlylivesof thenomadic As we consider how the event is defined, "Bushman" Xi and his family. The bottle, as several questions come to mind: (1) what is it soon turns out, is a gift from the gods. the source of the information? (2) what form You can blow on it and make a windy music, does it take?(3) how does the form shape you can roll it and crush millet.Pretty soon 250 comes arguing over the bottle's possession Who is Involved? followed by acrimony, anger, and fights. As we explore "what groupsare involved", The story about the Sani is being narratedand our attentionis drawn to two important defined by an outsider who doesnot include questions: (1) who is the target audience? the point of view of those whose (2) story is what point of view is present? Theidea of being told.In this narration, the cultureof interest helps us to be critical of the Sani and that of other African how a societies is particular representation, issue,or event may presumed to be a quaint relic ofthe past be biased. Less obvious than identifying rather than vibrant contemporary the culture. filmmaker may be the fact that hisreasons or One might ask: Who are these "gods"who arguments could be self-serving, designed are crazy?They are the technologically largely to protect or enhance the advanced whites whose invested very garbage is a interest or dominant perspective insome way. source of wonder to most of the developing A vested interest includesany privilege that a world!In their simple wisdom, theSani group enjoys and considers their "right." come to reject what white society has to Arguments may be designedto protect or offer, symbolized in the discardedbottle. enhance this interest whether position, This very rejection is a sop of white angst, benefit, status, or credibility-- perhaps at the because it means that the Sani donot covet expense of an opponent who is made to look the white standard of living, and so cannot be foolish, selfish, stupid, immoral,uninformed, considered rivals--for South Africans,the or downright perverse. ideal state of affairs. However admirable, the In the film The Gods Must BeCrazy, the kind of decision this rejectionrepresents is filmmaker uses a narratorto guide the completely absent from the everyday lives of viewersandintones who and whatis the indigenous peoples of South Africa.If important. Some peopleare cast as victims; thereis one overwhelming fact of the others as heroes. An ethnoculturalbias runs dispossessed Tswanas, Zulus, Xhosas,and throughout the plot. This bias portrays Sani, as it is for many Africans, it is that they Africansaschildlike,incompetent, have no control whatsoever and over what they unscientific.This bias reinforcesa long- can accept or reject. For most Africans, the standing myth about Africa-the Dark decision continues to be made byoutsiders Continent.Even though the theme of this and that decision has never concerned itself in film may pretend to portraya simplistic tale the least with what the African wants. of the search for the tranquillife and to It would be curious to know how much Xi satirize white urban living,beneath that was paid for acting in the movie. Did he tranquil life lies a parable aboutwhite South ever see the movie? What did he think of it? Africa with its basic values; thosevalues of Has he read some of the raving reviews about the privileged, for it is onlythose content his movie? Will he read this article? These with the world's goods whocan afford to rhetorical questions are simplyan illustration poke fun at them! of the predicament in whichthe continent of Who is in the film? Africa lies in relation to the The film's story is rest of the world. made of a number of intertwiningplots. The Like many Africans, the media are still out of firststoryinvolvesXi,the reach and will be so for so-called many years to come. "Bushman." As Uys shows it, the lifeof the Poverty is rampage; amenitiesof the modern "bushmen" is idyllic, completely in world like telephones, electricity, harmony plumbing, with their environment, livingcommunally, or simple, permanent housing is a dream for until a careless aviator throwsa Coke bottle many indigenous peoples who live inremote into their midst. In anothersubplot, set in a areas and out of the urban,circle. Why is it neighboringAfrican-governedcountry,a this way? The context withinwhich Gods revolutionary Sam Boga attempts was made is not given anywhere a coup. He in the isunsuccessful,andtogether production of this film. withhis followers fleesinto Botswana. A third 251 252 EST CUP1 AdADIABLE subplotinvolvesawhiteteacherwho happens, the threat is not only to Africans but suddenly gets bored with her meaningless job also to the white race personified by the in a city office and takes a job as a teacher in heroine.To save Africans and Europeans an African school in Botswana.There she alike,whiteorganizationalskillsmust meets up with Andrew Steyn, a shy, awkward mobilize allindigenous peoples and even biologist who eventually wins her.These African natureitself (in the shape of a three plots fuse at the resolution, when the poisonous bush). As the film illustrates, Africanrevolutionariesseizethewhite AndrewSteyn,thepacific,unworldly schoolteacher and her African pupils as scientist--thepersonificationofa hostages,and theyarerescued by the technologically advance but nonaggressive biologist and Xi working as a team. South African--beats all the odds. For many people, Africa is not a place but a state of mind, the heart of darkness. Africa What are the Arguments? has never been dark, however, to those who This question drives the core issues of live there.It is ignorance on the part of the inquiry. Besides looking at what groups are outsiders that was, and continues to be, dark. involved in the film, an examination of the The great tradition that Gods draws on is arguments postulated in the film reveals that the journey through Africa. Not the sort of The God4 has a strong point of view! What expedition where you hunt for animals, but argumentsenhancetheinterestsofits the missionary journey where you hunt for dominant side and what arguments detract the souls of human beings. When applied to from the credibility of the other side? More white South Africa before independence, the specifically, students and teachers must ask notion of "missionary", someone with a the following critical questions: mission,derivesnewmeaning! This (1) why wasaparticularvisualimage "mission" is essential to the white mans's selected? (2) what information presented in view of Africa.To Africa, Europe sent its the visual image is factual? (3) what portion missionaries, includingitsfanatics. The ofcontentisinaccurate?(4)why are Afrikaner, the white man in that part of shots/camera work arranged that way? (5) do Africa we now call South Africa, decided visual images match narration? (6) how does early on that his mission was to bring the sound affectvisualimages?(7) how is message of the bible tothe wilderness. repetition of visual images, and text used? (8) Unlike Dr. Livingstone's ambition to bring how do graphics affect the message? (9) how the Word of God to the people of Central does stillness or motion aid the message? Africa, the Afrikaner had no desire to share (10) what is left out? (11) how is the message that Word with the kaffir, the unbelievers, for affected by what is left out? Afrikaners were God's Chosen People, and It is important to look at how the visuals the Chosen do not share with the unchosen, are manipulated in this film.For example, for then how would you tell the difference after about six minutes the film cuts to a big (Davis, 1985, p. 51)? In the middle of this city, where we are introduced to "civilized century, the Afrikaners' mission came to man." Civilized humans, we are told, mean the protection of White Christian managed to maketheir livesmore Civilization (i.e., the privileged against the complicated by trying to make them easier. Africans and Communism).In Uys' film, By contrast, the "bushmen" have a very these two the Africans and Communism -- simple life--until the Western world intrudes arepersonifiedby Sam Boga andhis upon it. guerrillas. Themissionof AndrewSteyn,the A figurative interpretation of the plot, then, biologist,isscientificdiscovery,inthe reveals that Africans are like children who innocuous form of examination of elephant are easily led astray by outside agitators (i.e., droppings.Xi's mission, however, is the theAfricanliberationists). When this 252 preservation of the way of lifeof the Tanzania's Serengeti and the Ngorongoro with horror of "bushman." Crater. Epidemiologists speak The arguments are made through anecdotal deadly viruses like HIV and Ebola that are stories of the way the people in the film go presumed to have come out of the jungle, and about doing their everyday work. Here,the countless undiscovered microbes waiting to underlying platitude by which most South emerge. Africans rationalize their relationship with For Anthropologists, Africa's most Africans comes to the surface: "Africans are impressive statistics are the ones that measure like children." In the film, they ailchildren. the enormous diversity of itsindigenous By introducing the guerilla fighters, thefilm people. The diversity of the different African shows that their own government, being societies, from Ashanti to Zulu, and their African, cannot be relied upon to protect customs provide a rich heritage morethan a them. They must be rescued by the ingenuity deficitculture. With varying histories, of a white man in collaboration withXi the cultures and living, these indigenous peoples "Bushman." have lived on the continent for centuries and independent countries. A Allthese people scurrying around the are spread over 50 landscape of southern Africa, colliding in majority of the indigenous people includes pratfalls, constitute a distorted microcosm of pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, hunters, and the class of peoples and ideologies that isin gatherers. Some 1,300 languages are spoken reality deeply tragic. What Uys has donein on the continent, about athird of the world's the film, in fact (albeit a fact disguisedby total.Each language represents a distinct humor), is to create in Gods the imaginary indigenous group with its own beliefs and its land that the architects of apartheid would own rituals and ceremoniessome of which have us believe in, where South Africa's have been performed for hundreds of years. intentions are the good for everyone. In this For the media, however, Africa is often land of make-believe, entire villages drop misunderstood because of western media's their work and turn out to sing a hymnof dismissal of the continent as backward and welcome to a white teacher.This gesture therefore unworthy of coverage, until disaster depicts the relationship of Africans towards strikes like in the case of the recent famine in white people is gratitude for the help being Ethiopia, Somalia and Rwanda. What is not given, of whites towards Africans, protective portrayed is that Africa is a diverse continent, paternalism. Thispeaceful,dependent both of re-emerging democracies and of relationship would continue were it not for troubledareaswithleftovervestiges of the advance of the guerrillas. colonialism,andismade up of many countries, climates, geographies, histories, What is taken for granted? and peoples. To examine what is taken for granted in By now, itis common knowledge that any text requires that viewersand readers Africa overflows with indigenous forms of question some of the cultural assumptions. communication: theater, drumming, dancing, The ways in which visual media constructions traditional storytelling, and village meetings areread orevaluatedby audiencesin which have informed and entertained for America are often not questioned enough. centuries.And yet, in the past 30 years, For example, different disciplines of science however, the continent has been inundated measureAfrica indifferent ways: with radios,* televisions, VCRs, and other Geographers point to a climate that ranges western products. This state of affairsmakes from the burning Sahara, to the steamy rain Africans"knowledgecolonies." Most forests of Zaire,r to the dry savannas of African states, apart from South Africa, are Kenya. Biologists note theastonishing too poor to compete withEuropean and abundance and variety of the continent's American economiesin terms of media wildlife,withaparticularmentionof production and dissemination. The reliance 253 254 on the West for all but local news results in withperceptionsoftheremote"Dark reduced and distorted coverage of Africa Continent", the worldview of many non- consistent with the legacy of colonialism as Africans, particularly Europeans, was clouded portrayed in The Gods. over with myths and stereotypes, and Africa Tanzanians, for instance, get news about was misconceived then as now with all the theirneighbors,the Kenyans, from the myths and stereotypes intact.Some of the westernmedia. Nigerianslearnabout simplest myths are most common: lions in the Tanzanian eventsfromthe British jungles, the isolated Dark Continent, inferior Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).All over savages,araceofNegroesheathens Africa the pattern is the same. The image we developed only by the grace of God and the seeintheUnitedStates,thecorrupt, White man, and a land of turmoil, incapable incompetent, starving, dependent, hopeless of self-government. Because these myths and Africa, is the image manufactured in the West stereotypes are alive today in the schools' and transmitted to Africa, although there are curriculum (howeverunintentionalthe pockets of resistance to this inundation by distortions and omissions may be), in the westernmedia. Raisedon adietof hands of unaware and unskilled teachers, the Westernized history, Tarzan books and films, curriculumcontinuestofeedtheracist andsensationalizednewsmedia,many doctrines and practices of white superiority students in the United States believe Africa to and privilege. be a primitive land of hot, steamy jungles inhabited by wild animals and savages. This Conclusion myth is normalized and reinforced by Mei In this essay, I have tried to illustrate that Gods Must Be Crazy. the production of meaning from media and Even though present day technological visual texts about what is important to know changes have brought far reaching structural depends upon knowledge which is shared by changes in industrializedcountries, a community. Such knowledge is constructed particularly in the area of production and by individuals' beliefsystem, their distributionofinformationandliteracy worldview, their use of language, and by the materials, the situation in Africa and much of way they construct representations of self, the developing world remains a challenge. others, and of thephysical and societal Communities in metropolitan cities like Dar environment. es Salaam, Johannesburg, Lagos, and Nairobi One major aspect. of teaching visual literacy look to the communities of Los Angeles and is toidentifywherethatknowledge New York with awe and wonder, imitating represented in the visual comes from, and their music and fashion, and craving for the how it is constructed. How did we come to instant gratification and escape that movie know what we know about a certain event, or entertainment has to offer. group of people? Where did the perceptions However, unequal representation of news we hold about Africans or certain ethnic and events of non-western societies persists. groups come from? By posingthese African media outlets on the continent lack questions, the various assumptions underlying the technology and speed to generate reports the production values of dominant news and or images of its people fast enough for the entertainment media are investigated and world beyond their borders. And yet, critically evaluated. western media portray Africa as just one The five concepts for critical inquiry about massive civil war, a famine-torn place with a visual representation outlined in this essay few pyramids in the north, racial struggle in cannot claim tosubstitute or uproot the the south, civil wars, and some lions and century-old myths and stereotypesabout elephants in between. Africa and the African people. These The reality about Africa has been distorted concepts, however, provide a framework to among non-Africans. For centuries, starting question such myths and stereotypes, which 254 4 have to a large extent been createdin Giroux, H. (1987). "Critical Literacy and literature, media, and cinema. By using these student experience: Donald Graves' Approach concepts in critical inquiry, we also examine to Literacy." Language Arts. 64, 175-181. the ways in which the language of visuals is socially and historically produced. Giroux, H. Simon, R. (1989). Popular Therefore, students need to be encouraged CultureasPedagogyofPleasureand toquestion theclarity and strengthfor Meaning. In H. Giroux & R. Simon (eds.) reasoning, identify assumptions and values, Popular Culture: Schooling and Everyday recognize points of view and attitudes, and Life. New York: Bergin & Garvey. (pp. 1- evaluate conclusions and actions provided by 29). all narratives whether they be picture books, short stories, poems, plays, film, and pieces Kellner, D. (1995). Media Culture: Cultural of nonfiction. Studies. Identity and Politics between the Modern and the Postmodern.New York: Routledge. References Bordwell, D., Staiger J., & Thompson, K. Keneas, A. (1984). Newday 9, Part 11,p. (1985).The Classical Hollywood Cinema: 22. Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. New York: Columbia University Press. McLaren, P., Hammer, R., Sholle, D., & Reilly,S.(1995). RethinkingMedia Brown, R. (1982). Monthly Film Bulletin 3, Literacy., A Critical Pedagogy of p. 42. Representation. New York: Peter Lang.

Davis, P. (1985).Cineaste, Vol. XIV, No. Stuart, H. (1981). "Notes on Deconstructing 1, p. 51. 'the Popular'," in R. Samuel, (ed.), People's HistoryandSocialistTheory.London: Denby, D. (1984). New York 7, p. 47. Routledge.

Dyer, R. (1985). "Taking Popular Television Stuart H.(1982). The Rediscovery of Seriously." In David Lusted and Phillip 'Ideology': Return of the Repressed in Media Drummond,(eds.), TV andSchooling. Studies. New York: Routledge, p. 62. London: BFI. Werner W. & Nixon, K. (1990). The Media Freire, P. & Giroux, H. (1989). Pedagogy, and Public Issues:A Guide for Teaching Popular Culture and PublicLife. An Critical Mindedness. London, Ontario: The Introduction.In H. Giroux & R. Simon Althouse Press. (eds.)PopularCulture:Schoolingand Everyday Life. New York: Bergin & Garvey. (pp. 199-212).

255 2:56 Exploring Children's SpatialVisual Thinking In An HyperGami Environment Patricia McClurg, Jung Lee, MariaShavalier & Kermit Jacobsen

Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate children's spatial cognition in themicrocomputer environment created by HyperGami. The results of exploratory study suggest that HyperGamiis a rich environment for developing spatial visualthinking skills.

Introduction The explorations reported inthis paper inves- Can computer environments nurture spatial tigate children's spatial cognitionin the micro- visual thinking? From a constructivist perspec- computer environment created by HyperGami. tive, spatial cognition develops in thecourse of active involvement with the environmentby the Why Spatial Visual Thinking? child who must assimilate and accommodate As early as 1957, the U.S. EmploymentSer- experiences into existing schemata (Piaget& vice listed performanceon spatial ability tasks Inhelder, 1956). Papert used thecomputer as a as a predictor for success in occupations includ- medium to pioneer suchan environment when ing all classes of engineers and he created LOGO draftsmen, ar- - which he described as a chitects, cartoonists, mathematicians,scientists, microworld where studentscan formulate and an virtually all medical personnel. Studies fol- test theories (Papert,1980). Numerous pro- lowed which demonstrated highcorrelation be- grams now purport to be microworlds which tween performance on spatial abilitymeasures users can visit and explore. But, could such an and success in art (McWhinnie,1994), science environment nurture spatial visual thinking? (Pallrand & Seeber, 1984; Gimmestad,1984; Clark (1983) cautioned against over general- Pribyl &Bodner, 1987), andmathematics izing the effect of the computer (or any me- (Battista, 1990; Fennema & Sherman,1977; dium) on instruction and stated that "thebest Guay & McDaniel 1977). current evidence is that media are mere vehicles Studies of the brain and cognitionhave re- that deliver instruction but do not influence stu- sulted in calls for educatorsto recognize and dent achievement anymore than the truck that nurture "multiple intelligences" (Denkla,1991; delivers our groceries causes changes in our Gardner, 1993; Lazearz, 1994). Spatialvisual nutrition."(p.445). Clark called for a new theo- thinking is an area of cognition whichoften re- retical model to guide technology research. A ceives little formal attention inour school sys- decade later Kozma (1991) outlineda frame- tems. The computer is a medium with capabili- work which builds on the idea that the learner ties for creating dynamic microworldenviron- actively collaborates with the medium to con- ments where children have controlover actions struct knowledge rather than having the learn- and can formulate and test theoriesand strate- ing "delivered" via some medium. Kozma ar- gies which require coordination ofhorizontaland gues that each medium has unique characteris- vertical axes as well as mental manipulationand tics in terms of how it is used, thesymbol sys- rotation of objects throughspace. In fact some tems employed and the cognitive processing ca- evidence exists that many computerapplications pabilities required and states that "ultimately, require some degree of spatial cognition.Norman our ability to take advantage of emerging tech- (1994) thought that computer-basedtechnology nologies will depend upon the creativity of their might amplify individual differences andtried to designers, their ability to exploit the capabilities find the major sources driving differencesin per- of the media, and our understandingof the rela- formance. He described a high correlation tionship between these capabilities be- and tween spatial visualization ability andcomputer learning"(p.206). performance. Vicente, Hayes, andWilliges 257 257 (1987) supported Norman's theory. They inves- improved by practice or training. Piaget and tigated 21 predictors of performance in finding Inhelder (1956) said children's spatial cognition information in a computerized database. Only develops when they are actively involved with spatial ability and vocabulary accounted for sig- the environment so that they assimilate and ac- nificant unique portions of the variance. More- commodate new experiences into their existing over, the spatial ability predictor wasthe most knowledge. Ben-Chaim et al (1989) found from influential. their research that suitable intervention has great success for improving spatial visualization. They What is Spatial Cognition? suggested that "spatial visualization training, in Various classification schemes have been used particular concrete experiences, should be a part to describe components of spatialvisual think- of the middle school curriculum". Brinkmann ing. After an extensive review of studies relat- (1966) found that a complex spatial test is sub- ing to human spatial abilities McGee (1979) de- stantially improved after training in geometry that scribed two categories of spatial cognition. These was directed to emphasizevisual/imaginable as- are spatial visualization andspatial orientation. pects of geometry. However, simply learning Spatial visualization involves mentally rotating, geometry focusing on logical proofs has noim- manipulating and twisting two and three dimen- pact on spatial ability according toBrown sional stimulus objects. Spatial orientation with (1954). respect to one's own body involves theability McClurg and Chaille (1987) and McClurg to remain unconfused by changingorientations (1992) investigated the effects of computer of spatial configurations. According to JohnEliot games utilizing spatial skills on thedevelopment and Ian Macfarlane Smith (1983), spatialability of spatial ability. Both studies found that males refers to "... the perception and retention of vi- and females improved their scores on a spatial sual forms and the mental manipulation and re- ability measure after playing with computer soft- construction of visual shapes" (p. 12). A simi- ware. McClurg and Chaille (1987)stated that in lar definition is found in Linn and Peterson order for a computer game to encourage spatial (1983). They defined "spatial ability as repre- cognition, it must provide an environment where senting, transforming, generating, and recalling children are active participants. Norman(1994) non-linguistic information" (Linn & Peterson, also reported that computer interfaces allow the 1983). Spatial ability has been thought of as a user to perform spatial andintermediate opera- domain of abilities rather than a single ability or tions on the interface rather than in the head skill (Pellegrino & Hunt, 1991). Spatialability are among the most favorabledesigns for de- is generally identified as having three major fac- veloping spatial ability. tors: spatial perception, mental rotation,and spatial visualization (Linn & Petersen, 1985). Spa- HyperGami tial perception is an ability "to determine spatial A recent computer application called relationships with respect to the orientation of HyperGami (Eigenberg & Nishioka, 1995) al- their own bodies, in spite of distracting informa- lows students to design, decorate, explore, and tion" (Linn & Petersen, 1985, p. 5).Mental manipulate a two-dimensional net made up of rotation is the ability "to rotate a two or three polygons and the associated three-dimensional dimensional figure rapidly and accurately" (Linn solid. A "net" is the shape that would result & Petersen, 1985, p. 7). Spatial visualization is when all the sides of a polyhedron are unfolded. poly- a more complex ability than theother two major A "solid" is the shape of three dimensional factors. Spatial visualization refers to spatial hedron. The program allows students to view ability tasks that "involve complicated multi-step various kinds of polyhedra, and to select one. manipulation of spatially presented information" When the polyhedron has been selected, a "3- (Linn & Peterson, 1985. p.9). D" picture of the polyhedron appears on the Ongoing research efforts suggest that students' screen as well as a 2-dimensionalfolding net performance on spatial ability measures can be (Figure 1). 258 25 8 Figure 1 children. They found that the child who is HyperGami Window familiar with folding and unfolding paper shapes through his work at school had much better II ortC1101 performance in imagining and drawing the nets rmeSch...6 Top L..., of simple shapes than children who lacked this (Marl-ttny-hyp...g...) experience. Peterson (1988) emphasized poly- !tweet] TwaD Ell En BE hedral models as a motivational value. He said BE BE Ell polyhedral models can act not only as tangible mathematical diagrams, but also as objects hav- Pen N ->S Paiietti ing artistic and motivational value. 0,57,4.4111=1M PSIIiii1111111312 HyperGami allows students to, have experi- NE:Fallimaa ences with nets and solids mentally and manu- Po qflOarA L.,; r2) mt ally. These activities are related to spatial visu- -2, MIENproc alization ability. The folding or unfolding of OEDI MIME E@ MEEtblt flat patterns and imagining objects and changes 1111BEIMI to objects in space requires spatial visual think- 11100Wilm ing. HyperGami provides an environment for users to improve spatial visualization ability Thus students can see how the three dimen- among three major areas of spatial ability. The sional object can be unfolded and vice versa. explorations reported in this paper investigated Students have various methods available to deco- students' spatial visual thinking while working rate the net. They can fill each polygon with a with HyperGami. solid color or make patterns with color. Stu- dents can also write and make their own de- Methods and Measurement signs on the folding net. Hence the degree of A sample size of twelve subjects was used sophistication with which a student decorates for this exploratory study. The subjects were the folding net depends on both the student's students in the University of Wyoming Labora- interest and ability (Eigenberg & Nishioka, 1995). tory School and the grade levels included sixth Students print out the polyhedra they created through ninth grade. There were seven boys on paper, cut and fold to make solid,beautiful and five girls and they all had volunteered for "objets d'art". The act of exploring the nets of this study as an elective course. The subjects many kinds of solids and then having opportu- were divided into three groups. Each group was nities to fold these nets into various complex led by one of three investigators. Each group geometric solids is in alliance with the was given a pretest and a posttest designed to constructivist perspective, i.e. that spatial cogni- examine students' spatial visualization thinking. tion develops in the course of active involve- Every Friday over a period of 6 weeks, sub- ment with the environment by the child. jects interacted with HyperGami for one hour. Eigenberg and Nishioka (1995) believe that stu- During the sessions subjects selected polyhedra dents can best understand three-dimensional ge- and decorated the nets with different colors and ometry by actually holding and manipulating patterns. While subjects decorated the net, they shapes. HyperGami provides an environment could observe its solid on the same screen. Sub- in which students are actively involved since they jects also folded the polyhedra. Subjects started manipulate computer generated graphics physi- with simple polyhedra such as the tetrahedron cally as well as mentally. and cube and later tried more complicated ones The importance of polyhedra as a means of such as the archimidean solids. Subjects also developing spatial ability as well as developing explored truncation of some polyhedra. A de- mathematical skills has been studied. Early in scription contrasting procedures used in each of 1948, Piaget and Inhelder stated the importance the explorations is included below. of the development of geometric concepts in 259 BEST COPYAMLABLE 259 Exploration 1 As is shown the total number of correct an- The students in this study were two sixth grade swers increased for all the subjects who took boys and two sixth grade girls. The students the posttest. (Subject D was absent the day of were given a pretest and an identical posttest the posttest).In particular, subjects B and C and the results of the tests were compared. A recognized that the two prisms' nets were not variety of geometric solids were placed on the pictured. On the posttest, subject A correctly table. Students were given five minutes in which matched the cubeoctohedron and subject C cor- to examine the solids. Then only ten of the sol- rectly matched the dodecohedron. They had not ids were placed on a table in a line. Students matched them correctly on the pretest. How- were given a paper on which was exhibited the ever on the posttest, subject A again tried to folding nets of these solids along with several find a match for all the polyhedra and subject B patterns involving polygons that were similar in made an incorrect match for a match that was appearance to the folding nets. The polyhedra correct on the pretest. However, the number whose nets were pictured on the paper were the of correct scores increased for all. In particu- cube, tetrahedron, cubeoctohedron, octohedron, lar, since two of the students recognized that three-sided prism, ten-sided antiprism, two of the patterns were not there, this may dodecohedron, and icosohedron. A six-sided indicate growth in their spatial visual thinking. and a ten-sided prism were in the line on the table also but their nets were not pictured on the Exploration 2 paper. (See Appendix A). Students were asked HyperGami provides an environment which to match the solids with their folding nets on the engages students in spatial visual thinking. Ad- paper without manipulating the solids. ditionally, the user must manually manipulate the On the test there were two types of correct nets to produce a 3-D "hard" copy. Users and two types of incorrect responses.If the cut, fold, and glue nets to make solids with their student correctly matched the solid with its net hands. This exploration investigated students' it was called a correct match. If they recog- spatial visual thinking and examined the possible nized that the six and ten-sided prisms' nets were role of manual dexterity as students interacted not pictured, it was considered a correct with activities in HyperGami. nonmatch. Conversely, if they incorrectly The subjects in this study were a sixth grade matched a solid with the wrong net, it was an boy, a seventh grade girl, a seventh grade boy, incorrect match. If they matched a six or ten- and a ninth grade boy. Performances of pre- sided prism with a net, that was an incorrect test and posttest were coinpared. In pretest and nonmatch. If they did not assign a net to any posttest, subjects were given two nets on pa- solid whose net was pictured, it was also con- per, a cube and a complex net (Appendix B). sidered an incorrect nonmatch. The results of Before folding each net, the subjects were asked the pretest and the posttest are summarized in to predict the three dimensional shape the nets Figure 2. would become. All subjects recognized the cube from the net. For the cubeoctohedron, they said Figure 2 that they had no idea. Subject A who finished Pretest and Posttest first said, "I can imagine the shape". # possible 82 Subjects were then asked to fold the nets. Pretest Posttest While they were folding each net, an investiga- CorrectIncorrect Correct Incorrect tor measured the amount of time the subjects Subject M NM M NM M NM M NM spent and observed their behaviors. Figure 3 A 2 0 6 2 3 0 5 3 summarizes the results.

B 5 1 1 3 5 2 1 2

C 5 0 3 2 5 2 1 2

D 5 2 1 1

260 260 Figure 3 Even though they are not accurate, Subject E The amount of time to fold each net and H's drawing have squares and hexagons, (in minutes) and the connections are linear. Subject H drawing has squares and rather linear compared with Cube Net Complex Net Subject F. Subject F's drawing was global and SubjectPre Post Pre Post nonlinear. When considering their response, -no E 2 1.83 5.17 4.5 idea", in the pretest, these drawings indicate that F 2 1.83 5.5 4.08 they could imagine some shapes from the net. G 2 1.83 5.5 4.5 The amount of time to fold the cube on the H 2 2 6 unfinished posttest was slightly reduced from that on the pretest. However, folding the Posttest Complex In the pretest, subjects spent about 2 minutes Net took much less time than folding to fold the cube. In the given 5 minutes, none cubeoctohedron on the pretest for three students. of them had finished folding the complex net Subject F finished in about 4 minutes, and sub- called " cubeoctohedron". Subject E finished just ject E and G finished in about 5 minutes. Sub- after 5 minutes. Subject H didn't know how to ject H couldn't finish in the given 5 minutes. start folding it. He folded and unfolded the piece He said, "I couldn't fold this, this is too compli- of paper for more than 2 minutes. Since the cated." test was a group activity, subject H was even- Since the pre and post test measure for this wally able to complete the construction by ob- exploration was timed, subjects' performance serving other students' responses. was examined for evidence of spatial visual In the posttest, the cube net was used again. thinking as well as the manual dexterity required However a different and more complex net called to fold the nets. By drawing a prediction of the "Posttest Complex Net"replaced the resulting shape, students were revealing their cubeoctohedron.The subjects had never seen initial representation of the projected 3-D ob- the Posttest Complex Net during sessions. Be- ject. The differences in manual dexterity among fore folding the nets, subjects were asked to pre- subjects and also the differences between pre dict and draw the shape of its solid. All subjects and posttest of each subject could be measured drew the cube quite accurately, however, when by the amount of time for folding the cube. The they drew the Posttest Complex Net, their draw- fact that subjects all spent about 2 minutes for ings were varied and represented three different folding the cube indicate that there was little levels of visualization ( Figure 4). variability in manual dexterity among the subjects. Also the amount of time for folding the Figure 4 cube didn't change much from the pretest to Students' drawings the posttest. The small differences might be caused by folding same net twice. Therefore, it is not evident that students' manual dexterity effected the results or changed substantially after students had used HyperGami for 6 hours. However, there were noticeable time differences for folding the complex nets among sub- F r tcyke4)jects, and between the pre and posttest. Three subjects spent less time for folding the complex net on the posttest. When considering that the Posttest Complex Net was more complex than any with which they had worked, we suggest that the time difference between the pre and posttest is even more meaningful. These pre- i'lec 1 CT (3if,di-d..) 5L:1:je 1-1 liminary results suggest that HyperGami is a rich

261 26 1 environment for developing spatial visual think- should have increased if they were given more ing skills. time in which to explore with the HyperGami. Students in the second exploration reduced Exploration 3 time for folding the complex net. The result Four sixth grade students, three boys and one suggests that interaction with HyperGami may girl, participated in this exploration. Subjects were have helped the subjects improve their ability to asked to count the vertices and faces and to visualize the solid from its two dimensional net. identify the shape of the faces after truncation Subjects reported that "HyperGami helped their of vertices in the pre and posttest. imagination ..." to look at three dimensional poly- Students were given approximately five min- hedra from two dimensional nets and vice versa. utes to examine tetrahedrons, cubes, and octa- No evidence was found that manual dexterity hedrons. The investigator identified the verti- was a confounding variable. ces on each of the polyhedra. The types of The subjects' drawings support the findings faces on each of the polyhedra were also noted of Potari and Spiliotpoulou (1992). They found by the investigator. Instruction was given on that the degree of sophistication in visualizing how truncation was done; each vertex would the nets grew with respect to the age of the chil- be shaved off to an equal depth. After exami- dren. Younger children had a more global and nation by each student, the polyhedra were re- holistic view of the solids' nets and older chil- moved and the test was given. dren viewed the nets in a quantitative and ana- The results of the pre and posttest are sum- lytic manner. Subject F was the youngest among marized in Figure 5. The results show no evi- the four subjects. Subject F's drawings are the dence of improvement between pre and most global and holistic. Even though Subject posttest. The students in this exploration did H, the oldest, could not finish folding, his draw- not seem to have the knowledge and experien- ing shows that he identified a hexagon and tial background necessary for abstract reason- squares in his imagined solid. ing problems dealing with truncation. It would Counting vertices and counting faces with- be beneficial to investigate these activities with out seeing the object requires spatial visual think- subjects at the high school or college level. ing. However, we found no evidence in our third exploration to show that the six hours spent Figure 5 interacting with HyperGami helped the sixth Pre and Posttest Results graders to count vertices, to count faces or to Vertices Faces Formed identify faces after truncation of vertices. Fur- and Faces by Truncation ther study in this area is needed. Also, the use Counted of older subjects may be considered. subj. Pre Post Pre Post More work needs to be done using I 6 6 5 .5 HyperGamil and perhaps other software similar J 3 3 0 0 to HyperGami before any generalizations can K 5 4 3 1 be made.. In our investigation, we were only L 5 5 2 6 able to work for one hour a week during a period of six weeks and we were limited to four children in each group. Studies need to be done Discussion with larger groups of children and in a situation Each of our explorations examined users in- in which the children have more time to work teractions with a potential rich environment for within the microenvironment. developing spatial visual thinking skills. In the The results of this exploratory study were first exploration each subject made gains in their promising. Further study aimed at identifying ability to recognize the nets of solids. This re- the cognitive processes involved as students in- quires spatial visualization ability. However, the teract with this media is warranted. ability to recognize more of the complicated nets 262 262 by the U.S. Office of investiga- ence sponsored I At the time we conducted our Educational Research andImprove- tion, Fall 1995, HyperGami wasstill in development, Washington,D.C., January. ment. The betaversion requires a Macintosh of RAM. As a result with at least 10 megabytes (1995). Creat- without much more Eigenberg, M. & Nishioka, A. if one was using a machine ing polyhedral models by computer than 10M of memory, manyof the processes, including truncation, in the programwere ex- Eliot, J. & Smith I. M.(1983). An International tremely slow Directory of Spatial Tests.Atlantic Highland, NJ:NFER-NELSONPub.

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Papert, S. (1993). The Children's Machine. New York: Basic Books.

Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms. New York: Basic Books.

Pellegrino, J. W. & Hunt, E. B. (1991). Cognitive models for understanding and assessing spatial abilities. Intelligence: Reconceptualizaton & Measurement. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1948). The Child's Con- ception of Space. New York: W. W. Norton 264 6 4 Appendix Appendix B

Nets given in the pretest

Nets given in the posttest

266 266 Creating Critical Thinkers by Marilyn Bazeli and Rhonda Robinson

Abstract The importance of critical thinking skills will only increase in the near future.Students need to have activities which encourage critical viewing and thinking in order to motivate their interest in learning thinking skills.This article suggests ideas for the inclusion of critical thinking across the curriculum.

Introduction Many of theeducatorsinvolvedin thinking skills are more prepared to solve teaching the concepts, activities, and tools the problems which face them. Critical of visual literacy have faced the challenges thinking skills help students weigh the value of others who are not convinced of the of ideas, and toconsider solutionsand value of the ideas.We have been often possibilitiesratherthanmerelyaccept relegated to adding visual literacy to art, information at face value. media, or language arts without being able Since so much of their world is a visual to integrate theideas of visualliteracy one, students should be encouraged to learn across the curriculum.One way that the to receive, consider, critically analyze, and integrationofvisualliteracycanbe evaluatetheinformationtheyreceive encouraged is through the importance of throughvisuals. Criticalthinkingand critical thinking and problem solving. We viewing skills are necessary to help students believe that many different activities which understand what they see, since otherwise promote visual literacy can be students may have a willingness to accept accomplished by incorporating them within visual representations as accurate materials and activities across the reflections of reality (Considine and Haley, curriculum which develop critical thinking. 1992). Using visuals for the promotion of Since students must be prepared to face creative and analyticthinking has been the challenges of our global society, and the promoted by Goldstone (1989).Her work increasing demands placed upon them t o supports the idea that visual analysis and solveseriousproblemsinourculture, critical thinking are an important part of critical thinking skills are being proposed as the curriculum.And in our earlier work, an important part of the curriculum."In a Bazeli found that students are motivated democracy, children need to be educated in and excited by studying visuals and critical ways that will assist them in creating the thinking (1991).Her work showed that future,and not merelytoexistinit" students are more positive and confident (Goodman, 1995,p.5). Students must about critical thinking problems when they learn to be good communicators and to use haveexperiencewithcriticalviewing higher order thinking skills to find solutions activities and skills. to ever more difficult problems. The followingsuggested activitiesare The issues of our culture are presented merely a beginning.Most educators should visually each day in the media. Students be able to use these ideas to create their must learn tocriticallyconsume these own lessons and curricular changes.The images in orderto become better inclusion pf critical thinking and viewing communicators. Visuals can inform or skills across the curriculum is one way t o inflame."It's important to raise children approachthedevelopmentof problem who are inquisitive and who make good solving, which could help promote the type judgments about the mass media's influence ofstudentspreparedtoaccept the on them...to become sophisticated challenges they face. consumers..." (Mann, 1994, p. 2). Students who develop critical viewing and

267 267 Video Analysis read and critique the plots, askingwhether Usingavariety ofvideoanalysis or not the characters, as they understand activities within the curriculum can help them, would act in the way thestudents developperception,interpretation,and have written. discrimination skills. Lacy (1988), Limberg Analyzing the setting of programs helps (1988) and Payne (1993) have all described studentsunderstandtheimportanceof ways that the use of television programs setting in fiction. Looking at how the can helpdevelopcriticalviewingand rooms are created, the space is utilized, and thinking. Guiding students to view and the motion carried forward all help students discuss the differences between fact and understand the impact of setting.Students fiction,theeffect of theviolence they could be asked to describe and even drawthe view, and the value of the news coverage setting for a new program involving their they watch can help them become more favorite characters, or place their critical thinkers.Television today makes characters in an unusual setting and describe the difference between information, it fully. Watching how settingmoves the edutainment, andentertainment more action forward can help students understand difficult to discern.Students need guided that plot is involved with where, not just practice to discover the"reality" behind what happens. televised messages. Social Studies Language Arts Criticalviewingactivitiescanhelp Use clips of popular television programs studentsdiscriminatebetweenfactand to discuss the literary elements of narrative fantasy.For instance, viewing videotapes fiction.Introduce the traits of character, of news eventswhich havealsobeen setting, plot,and resolution by discussing fictionalized in films or on television can themthroughavarietyoftelevised spark discussion of the difference between fictions, whether they are hour long dramas realityandnarrativecreation. One or half-hour situation comedies.Character example would be to show clips of an canbeintroducedbylookingatthe Apollomoonlandingorotherspace programs without the sound, and discussing footage and then show similar eventsas the elements of stereotyping evident within depicted in Apollo 13.Many news events costumes, hair styles, and physical actions. are later depicted in made for television More detail of character can be discussed by movies, such as the "The Burning Bed" watching a segment of the drama and asking typemoviedepictingviolenceinour about themotivations,decision-making culture.Other films have been made from abilities, and ramifications of actions of truestories,suchasteacherLouanne characters. Johnson's Dangerous Minds, and then even Asking students to discuss theactions later made intotelevisionprogramsor takenby characters,andpredicttheir series. The comparison offact, consequences, can help them determine the novelization, film and television programs "reality" of fiction and its relationship to can help students hone their critical skills in their lives.Seeing the development of the determining wheretruth and fiction plot elements, and trying to predict how differentiate.The students can also discuss the plot will resolveitself; helps students the visualization of characters and events, analyze the development. Students could and analyze how thevisuals create the then be asked to describe the personality or written story details and nuances. characteristics of their favorite characters, Analyzing history can be effective when fillingtheblanks intheircharacter lookingatthevisualsavailable,for development.They could then be taught instance, on the World Wide Web from the about scripting,and could he asked to National Library of Congress.Seeing the develop activities and plot lines for their diaries, the original Depression characters which would be fitting for the photographs, and the many other visuals aspects of the character that they have available bring history into the present in a recognized. Others could be assigned t o way that helps students really consider the 268 268 difference between fact andfiction. explains a math process it can sometimes Studying an era through its written history, be understood better than when the teacher its pictures, and its fictional depiction on is doing all of the explaining.Further, the films (such as the settling of the American videotape can be played many times, giving West) can bring history and culture to life. additional instruction to the students. Asking students to think about, discuss, and write details of differences notedin the Science books, articles, and then in documentaries Theteachersets upallnecessary such as The West or fictional versions such equipment for an experiment. Someone as Dancing With Wolves, can help them videotapestheteacherconductingthe begin to critically look at the idea of living experimentwith no verbal explanation. history. Thevideotapecan then beused asa motivatortobeginclass,and,more Reading importantly,to develop students' critical Many films and television programs have thinking regarding what they saw, why it been based upon novels, plays, short stories, happened, or what conditions caused it t o and even poetry.For years students have happen. For example, a simple experiment been comparing thedifferences between involving the concept of air pressure, the characterization, settings, plots, and familiar "crushing of a can" experiment, resolutions to stories as presented .in the can be videotaped.As students view the different media of our culture. Asking videotape of the can magically collapsing students to write new endings, compare before their eyes, with novisible force fiction and film, and analyze the strengths acting uponit,an animateddiscussion and weaknesses of each version can help occurs as to why that was happening, what themunderstandeachbetter. Often, caused it to happen, and so on.The actual students can write reviews of a novel prior experiment can be repeated later, in real- to seeing the film, then see the reviews of life, to further solidify the concept of air the film as written or broadcast by today's pressure in the students' minds. film critics.Comparison between students' analyses and theprofessionalscan help Reading sharpen their critical skills. After reading a book with a well defined character,thestudentprepares anoral Video Production report from the viewpoint of the character. Following are some ideas for The student dresses as the character, talks incorporatingtelevisionproductioninto and actsas theybelieve thecharacter various curricular areas (Bazeli & Heintz, would, uses any props necessary to visually 1997). As students plan their television represent the character, and discusses the production,theyapplycriticalthinking story elements as the person involved in skills to reach decisions, such as what t o the story.The report is videotaped, and include visually and auditoriallyin their can be used as a resource in the library t o production, and the types of camera angles help students select interesting books.It and shots. providesan excellentway tomotivate students to read, and to thinkcritically Math about what they are reading. A studentpreparesaninstructional lesson,dealingwithaparticular math Social Studies process that he/she has mastered. The As an addition to letter-writing with pen lesson is then videotaped. Two critical pals, students can be "videopen pals". thinkingactivitiesare involved:1)the (This is especially educational when the pen student preparing the lesson develops an pals are in another part of the country, or even deeper understanding of the process eveninanothercountrycompletely.) during the preparation of the lesson,and, Students prepare messages to videotape and 2) other students can use the videotape t o send to their pen pals.Critical thinking help them learn the process. When a peer skills are employed as students analyze the

269 289 types of visuals they want toinclude in There are twelve shapes in one pentomino their videotape. For example,selected set. Students solve puzzles by using the views of the school, the community, the pentominoestocompletely covera landscape of the area, weather conditions, designated shape.(The designated shape and soon,would giveprecisevisual must be covered,with no partof the messages tothe pen pals in a different pentomino pieces extending outside of the location.Students should be encouraged to line of the shape.)In solving the puzzles, think carefully about what they want t o students develop concepts of measurement, showandwhytheythinkitwould number,andgeometry,plusproblem- important to show those chosen visuals. solving, strategic thinking, and a sense of Preparing their verbal explanation of the two-dimensional space.Students from pre- selectedviews, asrecorded onthe school through adulthood can use videotape, would further encourage their pentominoes at the appropriate difficulty research and thinking skills. level. Hands-On Activities D.I.M.E. Build-ups (Development of Ideas Following are some activities that have in Mathematics Education) been designed specifically for the purpose In this activity, students construct threeof developing critical thinking and spatial dimensional objects from two-dimensional visualizationthroughhands-on, visual drawings. Usingfoamplasticshapes, experiences. Many oftheactivities students look at drawings in the described hereinvolvegeometryand/or accompanying book (from easy to difficult) reasoning skills, and have been shown in and attempt to build the real-life equivalent studies to be effectivein developing not shape. Visual perspective,rotation,and only math concepts, but also higher-order perception, as well as geometry, problem- thinking skills.Other activities deal with solving, and a sense of three-dimensional pattern,attributes,andsequencingof space are developed. visuals, skills that are necessary across the curriculum. Visual Thinking Task Cards Thesetaskcardswerecreatedand Tangrams published by Dale Seymour Publications. Tangrams date back tothetimeof Theyprovideproblems in patterns, Pythagoras (500, BC), and have long been symmetry,congruence,perceptionand used in math classes.One tangrams set is illusion,allleading toincreasedcritical made up of seven geometric pieces (one thinking skills.Students can attempt to square, two large triangles,one medium solve the problems presented on the visual triangle,twosmalltriangles, and a task cards individually, or with a partner or parallelogram), and those pieces are used to group. create hundreds of geometric shapes. As students create shapes, understandings such Resources:(for all materials above) as relationships of shapes to each other, Dale Seymour Publications transforming shapes (squares into rectangles P.O. Box 10888 orrectangles into parallograms,for Palo Alto, CA 94303-0879 example), and rotating shapes are (800)827-1100Fax(415)324-3424 developed. Pentominoes Computers The first known pentomino puzzle was Computer software.and CD-ROMs published in 1906, and in 1953, Solomon frequently focus on using visuals to develop W. Golomb at Harvard rediscovered the critical thinkingskills. As studentsare puzzles and coined the name required to manipulate, rotate, and interact "pentominoes". Pentominoes are with visuals on the computer screen, they geometric shapes formed by fivesquares are applying problem-solving and thinking joined together in different configurations. skills.

270 :270 LOGO Programming Language of letters of the slphabet.In early school WhenSeymourPapertdesignedthe years, instruction focuses on visual LOGO language, his purpose was to provide discrimination of lettersand numbers as even young studentswith a way to develop children begin to learn to read and perform alogical, step-by-step approach to mathcomputations. However, that problem-solving. LOGO is veryvisual, instruction and practice with visual analysis incorporating geometry conceptsas the and perception tends to slow down or even "turtle" is moved about the screen creating stop as students reach the ages of seven or endless numbers of shapes in various colors. eight. Because of thevisual nature of Drawings from simple squares to detailed, communication in our world, visual analysis full-color artistry can be created, depending and perception should continue to be taught upon theexpertise of theuser. The and developed at all ages.Following are thinking process is developed as the student some activities that can help to develop first builds a simple figure, adds other figures those skills. to make a procedure, and thencombines procedures to form complicated designs. Animalia, by Graeme Base This book contains wonderful, colorful, Computer Software and very detailed drawings focusing on each ProgramssuchasHyperStudioand letter of the alphabet.Each page depicts Authorware provide students with tools t o many objects whose name beginswith the help them analyze information,organize designated letter.Vocabulary development information visually, and create a is enhanced by using this book, as well as presentation demonstrating their learning. visual discrimination and perception, and it Manyothersoftwareprogramsfocus can be used at all age levels. A teacher can directly on such skills as sequencing, spatial use one page on a transparency, and ask the visualization, mirror imaging, perception, students to list as many objects as they can. and visual problem-solving. Students can work individually or in groups. Posters of the pages in the book are also Computer Drawing Programs available, which can be posted around the Various drawing programs, for different room, again affording groups of students levelsofexpertise,areavailablefor the opportunity to view a page at the same computers. Many programsinclude a time. After experiencing the analysis of graphics library that can be used to aid in Base's drawings, students can be encouraged the completion of pictures.One activity to create their own alphabet pages, with (Bazeli & Heintz, 1997) that utilizes the their own hidden drawings of objects.This drawing capabilities of computers is to have activitycauses studentstoruntothe students create a picture on the computer, encyclopedia, dictionary, and other during which they think about elements of a resource materials to locate more objects story to accompany their picture.The beginning with the designated letter. completedpictureisprinted,preferably with a color printer.(If a color printer is The Art of Bev Doolittle notavailable,studentscancolortheir Bev Doolittle has become known for her black-and-white print out.) Each student "camouflage"art. Embeddedinher then writes his/her own story to accompany beautiful water-color paintings of wildlife thepicturethatwas created,and the scenesarefacesor images of Native completed pictures and stories are displayed Americans, animals, or other pictures that for all to enjoy. contribute great meaning to the painting. As students carefully analyze her paintings, Visual Analysis wonderful discussions can occur centering Visualanalysisandperception are around conservationissues, environment normally taught to children at very young and habitat, and historical/cultural ages, with toys designed to help teachsuch interactionswith nature. Not only do skillsasdeterminationofcolor,basic students become better critical viewers, but geometric shape discrimination, and shapes

271 271 BEST CO? they also develop some affective attitudes tofostercriticalthinkingand problem regarding our environment on earth. solving. Theyshouldfindthatthese activities are motivating, exciting, active, Resources: and engaging. They help make critical thinkingactivitiesrelevant,meaningful, Animalia and integrated into the usual curriculum. In by Graeme Base addition, using popular media as a source for Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publisher New York visual thinking and critical viewing skills activitieshelpcreate a positiveattitude The Art of Bev Doolittle towards critical thinkingand classroom Text and Poems by Elise Maclay, Edited by analysis activities.Using the media of our Betty Ballantine culture links critical thinking to lifein a The Greenwich Workshop, Inc. way that keeps critical thinking from being 30 Lindeman Drive isolatedorseemingtoodifficultfor Trumbull, CT 06611 students. And of course,using viewing activitiesis not only motivating, but itis Photography challenging, fun, and can enhance communication skills among students while Photographscanbe a veryexciting they develop their critical thinking skills as resourceforcriticalviewingactivities. well. Students can produce their own or find Students benefit from sharing ideas, from examples from current magazines such as discussingdifferencesinperceptionsor evenRolling NationalGeographicor opinions,and from working togetherin Stone. Students can bringinfavorite theseactivitiesto developtheircritical family photographs to discusstheir thinkingskills. They gain valuable and meaning and share it with others, or they valued information, and may even change can discover the visual elements such as theirattitudes aboutlearning, when shape, color, pattern, texture, and so on, in challenged to developtheir own critical photographs they have found in print.Of perception and analysis abilities as part of course, many photographs are available on their regular school day.Helping students the World Wide Web as well, and can be discover their own thinking skills and relate saved for analysis and sharing, printed, or them to communication and visual skills used in student productions and reports. will help them prepare for the world they Students can analyze historicaland current face as we enter the new century. events, uncover biography information, and learn thecriticalaspects of scienceor geographytopicsusingthe WWW or References encyclopedic CD-ROM materials as sources of excellent photography.Even posters, Bazeli, M. (1991) Effects of visual music or sports pictures, and advertisements literacyinstructionuponthemeasured can be sources of photographs for analysis, cognitive ability of fourth- and fifth-grade andcanleadto discussionsofthe students.Doctoral dissertation, Northern manipulative techniques used for advertising Illinois University. or the creation of reality from non-reality usingcomputer-manipulated images as Bazeli,M., & Heintz,J. (1997). photographs. Studentscanfocuson Technology across the curriculum: photographicimagesasanactivityto Activities and ideas. Englewood,CO: encourage writing, develop autobiographies, Libraries Unlimited or detail events and facts for reports. Considine, D. & Haley, G. (1992).Visual Conclusion messages: Integrating imagery into The many activities briefly discussed in instruction. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas this article should give educators some ideas Press, a division of Libraries Unlimited, Inc. for starting to use viewing skills activities Goldstone, B. (1989). Visual Limberg, V. (1988). Ethical interpretation of children's books. Reading considerationsin visual literacy. InR. Teacher, 42(8), 592-595. Braden, B. Braden, D. Beauchamp, & L. Miller (Eds.),Visual literacy inlife and Goodman, J.(Spring,1995). Change learning:Readings from the 19th Annual without difference:School restructuring in Conference of theInternationalVisual historical perspective. Harvard Literacy Association, (396-401). Educational Review, 65 (1),1-29. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech University.

Lacy, L. (1988). Thinkingskills and Mann, J.(June, 1994).Learning to read visual literacy.In R. Braden, B. Braden, D. TV. The Visual Literacy Review, 24, (3), 1- Beauchamp, & L.Miller(Eds.),Visual 2. literacy inlife and learning: Readings from the 19th Annual Conference of the Payne, B. (1993). A word is worth a InternationalVisual Literacy Association thousandpictures:teachingstudentsto (33-40). Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech thinkcriticallyina culture of images. University. Social Studies Review, 32(3), 38-43.

273 273 Perception In The Invisible World Of Physics by Lisa Novemsky and Ronald Gautreau

Abstract We combine the knowledge and experience of a physicist,a relativist, who is a seasoned introductory physics professor, with the insight of a social psychologist and scienceeducation researcher, bringing the world of the psychology of perception to the task of exploringthe world of physics imagery.

Visual Literacy for Basic Physics distance between the bodies, and G is justa At this very moment do you find yourself number that has the value G = 6.67 x 10'11 sitting down, sitting up, standing, lying, or N-m2/kg2. floating around the room like an astronaut? Think about the nature of communication Can you "see' the forces involved in shaping of this formal physics equation. How does it your position?Sir Isaac Newton pondered differ from your internal image and the visual this question and was able to "see" the representation above? What is lost and what attractive force between bodies such as a is gained in each of the three representations-- falling apple and the earth.In 1696, he set the picture you formed in your mind'seye, forth his Law of Universal Gravitational the force picture above, and the mathematical Attraction that every body in the universe equation? attracts every other body (Figure 1). Can you see that big earth belowyou with a very large mass Mearth pulling your little Figure 1 mass myou toward itscenter a distance Rearth away from its center, as shown in Figure 2? This force, equal toyour weight Wyou, can be expressed in Newton's equation written to express your sitting on the earth's surface:

F Mearthmyou Wyou =G Two bodies R2earth attracting each other Figure 2 gravitationally MearthRearth He went on to describe this relationship ina formal mathematical statement: you F GMin Your R2 weight

Here M and m are the masses of thetwo attracting bodies, R is the center-to-center

275 274 Can you picture the weight force on you? Now, let's look at how physicists describe Force,one of the most basicconcepts, the forces that arise as you push on the wall. inhabits the invisible world of physics. The contact force on the wall by you and Right now you are pulling on every thing the contact "back force" on your hand by the else in the universe--the paper or book you wall is an example of an action-reaction pair may be reading, the earth below you, the of forces. Newton tells us that forces always moon above you, the farthest galaxy, the come in pairs--"action-reaction pairs." You feathers of every bird.You are like an will never find an isolated force.Moreover, octopus possessing invisible tentacles that at any given instant the strength of each force reach out and pull on every other object in the in the pair is the same (Figure 4). universe. To paraphrase an observation about gravity made by the eminent Nobel Laureate Figure 4 P.A.M. Dirac--a tiny flower fluttering in the wind shakes a star in a distant galaxy. FORCE FORCE ON HAND ON WAL The Ubiquitous Force Vector The gravitational force is a special force.It acts between objects that are separated from each other. The technical name is an "action- at-a-distance force."Other more "ordinary" forces occur, according to Newton, because one object touches another object. These are known as "contact forces."Push on a wall (Figure 3).Before you touch the wall, there is no force. According to Newton, only when you make contact with the wall does a force exists.Once you touch the wall, there is a In short, for every action there is an equal force on it.In turn, there is also a force on and opposite reaction.This is Newton's your hand. You can feel it. Third Law. Push on the wall with a force of five pounds, and the wall pushes back on Figure 3 your hand with a force of five pounds. Push harder with a force of ten pounds, and the PUSHING ON A wall pushes back on your hand with a force of ten pounds. No matter how hard or soft WALL you push on the wall, the wall responds by pushing back on your hand with exactly the same force. If you don't push on the wall--if you are not touching the wall--then the wall is also not pushing on your hand, and you and the wall experience no force. What do you actually seeas you are pushing on the wall? Do you see your hand touching the wall, or the wall touching your hand? You don't see any arrows pointing Before reading further, try to visualize the one way or the other, as in Figure 4.You forces. What is it that you see in your mind's feel a force pushing harder and harder on eye? your hand as you push harder and harder on

276 275 the wall. These action-reaction forces are felt Dissonance created when comparing by you or the wall.But the forces are not dissimilar representations provides the natural seen. context for developing scientific understanding.Abstract representations and Perceptual Aspects of Understanding notations, such as the ubiquitous vector, play Physics major roles in physics literacy. Graphic The eyes of the physicist are tuned to the representationsprovidetwodimensional invisible. Accordingtothephysicist, concrete models for discussion and debate. everyday realworld forcesareseenas Sketching may prove invaluableinself- invisible pushes, pulls,tugs, heaves, generated explanations. squeezes, stretches, twists, and presses (Hart- Davis,1989). The introductory physics Internal Physics Imagery and Physics student struggles to "see" these filters of Thinking conventionalphysics ideasthatmost Internal imagery seems to play a role in physicists don't think twice about. learningand memory thatphilosophers, This paper draws on several theories of psychologists, cognitive scientists, perception and imagery to explore neuroscientists, andeducationistshave experienceswith theinvisibleworld of explored for centuries. Internal pictures, physics. A basic process involved in the act images,icons,diagrams,mental models, of physics learning is a change in habitual internalrepresentations,and schema are perception of the everyday world. In order to among the constructs that exemplify theorists' describe thereal world scientifically,an efforts to describe theinternal mode of individual's perception and cognition must be representing, storing, imaging, and thinking capable of reconstructing the world from the about the external world. raw sensory data perceived, incorporating the "One of the remarkable attributes of human acquired knowledge ofthescientific intelligenceistheabilitytoconverta community. Understanding physics concepts problem into a familiar form or involves the instantiation of a scientific mode representation that can be operated on using of perceiving, categorizing, analyzing, and previously known techniques...(and)intel- explaining the world. The development of an ligence is largely the ability to create and altered processing system for most of us manipulate descriptions" (Fischler & involves a deep learning that encompasses Firschein, 1987, p. 63).Howard Gardner multi-modal, socio-emotional, and language defines spatial intelligence as the ability to aspects. In order for an individual to be form a mental model of a spatial world and to recognized as a physicist, that person is be able to maneuver and operate using that required to be somewhat fluent in scientific model (Gardner, 1987).Recent educational perception, analysis, and explanation. researchindicatesthatthiskindof intelligence is a skill that can be learned. Generation of Images as a Route to Formerly it was believed that spatial ability Understanding Physics was a facet of intelligence that was a stable Albert Einstein is quoted as having said measure for an individual. about his ability to conceptualize: "If I can't Imagery can be "conceptualized picture it,I can't understand it." Generating metaphorically as a work space in which external images of physics phenomena by cognitive processes can operate"(Paivio, drawing, sketching, or diagram making can 1990, p. 74). This is particularly relevant to help the novice to create, refine, manipulate, the process of problem solving, so prevalent andreasonfrominternalvisualizations. in science, particularly in math and physics.

277 276 The famous examples in science of visual around 1860 in the equations that Maxwell thinkers include the German chemist August synthesized from work of many predecessors Kekule, who conceptualized the benzene ring. suchasCoulomb,Gauss,Biot-Savart, This crucial discovery was induced by a Ampere, and Lenz. dream of a snake holding its tail in its mouth The ultimate equations of electromagnetic (Krippner, 1969).Richard Feynman is said theory realized by Maxwell are built upon the to have been a visual thinker who drew notion of a quantity called afield, an electric "strange" diagrams on the blackboard which, field E and a magnetic field B. These with a minimum of equations, communicated electromagnetic field quantities E and B are his version of the universe (Dyson, 1979). similar in sorts to the gravitational field force Albert Einstein once wrote " The psychical described above.It developed that the wave entities which seem to serve as elements in idea of light could be explained if light were thought are certain signs and more or less supposedtoconsistofvibrationsof clearimageswhichcan bevoluntarily electromagneticfields. The featurethat produced and combined" (Ghiselin, 1952, p. distinguisheslightvibrationsfromother 43). electromagnetic fields such as radio or TV wavesissimply oneof frequency--the What is light? Two Mutually number of vibrations per second of the field Incommensurate Images What could be more visible than light quantity. As the theory of light as a vibration of an itself? The physics community has agreed to electromagnetic field began to take hold in see light in two mutually incommensurate the late 1800's, the relationship of the notion images. Light can be viewed as a wave or a Scientific labeling justifies this of. the behavior of light as governed by particle. Maxwell's equations given here could be indecisive set of "right" answers as the wave- summarized as: particle duality. Within the world of physics thedichotomousmetaphor of asingle phenomenonispreserved. Sometimes And Goa said: physicists require light to be viewed as a wave, and at other times as a particle. fEdA= q/et, Light-- a Wave? Light bends around objects, and interferes B dA = 0 with itself producing intense and zero lines dcl) when it goes through a diffraction grating. fEdl B The colors of the rainbow that result when dt light goes through a prism are understandable d (1) B dl = E from the wave idea that light of different ° dt frequencies bends by different amounts as it movesthroughadispersivemedium. Experiments such as these gave rise to a wave ANDTSERE picture of light. WASisarci-mr3r!!! As the wave picture of light developed, an important question arose.If light is a wave, Light--A Particle? what is it that is waving? The answer was The search for an understanding of the provided in sorts by invoking the theory of nature of light did not end here.In 1905, electricity and magnetism that was Einstein put forth two new views about light. developing in the 1800's, finally culminating

278 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 277 Inexplainingthephotoelectriceffect, At a given time at a given spatial location-- Einstein showed that in certain instances light at a given event--imagine that a flashbulb could not be a wave. Instead,lightis emits a flash of light.The equation of the composedofmasslessparticlescalled light signal is photons.Photons, with zero mass, move at the speed of light.Further, each photon distance = ct, carries a bundle of energy E of the amount where c is the speed of light, c = 3 x 108 E = h x (the photon's frequency) meters per second = 186,000 miles per second. That's really fast! On a plot of x and where hisaconstant,calledPlanck's y versus t, with ct plotted vertically and x and constant, whose numerical value is h = 6.63 x y plotted horizontally, the resulting picture 10.34J-s. looks like a cone, as shown in Figure 5.

Light--The Ultimate Speed Keeping the wave idea of light from Making Sound Visible Another wave phenomenonis Maxwell'sequations,Einsteinin sound. 1905 Sound travels in air via condensations and showed in an entirely different paper putting rarefactions of air molecules. But, have you forth his theory of special relativity that the ever seen an air molecule? speed of light was the ultimate speed. No It is possible to make this invisible vibration take on an particle with mass could be accelerated up to apparent visible form. the speed of light. Sound vibrations can be modeled with a The theory of special relativity led to the notion of an intertwined spacetime of the common Slinky. The undulations of the coils of the Slinky provide a dynamic model of air previously separated Newtonian picture of a molecules vibrating back and forth about separate space and a separate time.This their equilibrium position. brought into the mind's eye a new picture of One can also model a periodically vibrating light--the light cone (Figure 5). sound wave emitted from a point source with concentric circles,as shown in Figure6, representing outward Figure 5 moving circular condensations andrarefactionsofair molecules.If you make up two identical overhead transparencies from Figure 6, and place one on top of the other with the centers slightly offset from each other, you can see, and if you wish project through an overhead projector, a model of the interference lines Elsewhere V Elsewhere that result from two sound sources of the same frequency,as shown in Figure7. Further,if you make up two overhead transparencies that are slightly different in size, and place one on top of the other with the centers coinciding, you can project on a screen a model of the beats that result from two sound Sources that differ slightly in frequency (and wavelength).

279 273 BEST COPY AVAI LE Figure 6

280 27 With a little practice, you can use various Figure 8 types of transparencies made from Figure 6 to experiment withvisualversionsof the GRAVITATIONAL invisible molecular motion as described by sound theory. COLLAPSE Radius R decreases Figure 7

0 r- ...... _ .., ,...... _ , .0., ...._ , / , / '/ 'i .,I/ =--1-...-.....- : ";o Mass M stays constant //'If1,,/ / le/ 'io/# ;,,/ ';:,:,0 :/; 1I/,,ri/i:,', :10 o, The collapse might stop, forming a very 111./,11,.,;11 ,,,,,, ::.::.. 11.1.1,1,1,1,6,14..,1' " *:. . dense object such as a neutron star.On the 11111111111 ..... 11111111 .. other hand, some physicists believe that in qi.,1,1,9 %A!, ,,,,,, ,,,,; Ohl some situations the process will not stop, but -.ow%OW" ,0` 11001 Z. 0,1loi will continue indefinitely with the radius of 0, 1// \\'' -": idFl/ the body approaching zero while its mass 0,0 , 1,:e `:"'; "". / \\'\\ /// remains fixed.This means that the object's density--its mass divided by itsspherical

.\\ . volume--gets larger and larger, approaching ' an infinite value as the volume shrinks to zero with the mass remaining fixed.Before INTERFERENCE PATTERN FROM the radius shrinks to zero, when an infinite TWO SOUND SOURCES density occurs, the radius will shrink through a criticalvalue called the Schwarzschild radius RS given by Black Holes-The Ultimate Invisible General relativity, developed by Einstein 2GM around 1915,is a theory of gravity that RS supersedes Newton's ideas and has important c` very consequencesforobjectsthatare Here M is the mass of the collapsing star. To massive. One of thenotionsthat has get a feeling for how small this radius is for emerged from the theory of general relativity typical stars, the Schwarzschild radius for our is the possible existence of what has become Sun, whose mass is 2 x 103° kg, is around 3 popularly known as a black hole. Black kilometers, around 2 miles, which is much holes are said to form when a star somewhat much smaller than its normal radius of 7 x more massive than our Sun runs out of 105 kilometers. nuclear fuel and starts to collapse in on itself. The Schwarzschild radius is often referred If the process occurs in a proper spherical to as the radius of a black hole. According to manner, the mass of the star doesn't change. many presentbeliefs,onceastarhas Picture the radius of a spherical ball getting collapsedtoaradiussmallerthanits smaller and smaller while the mass stays Schwarzschild radius, which is determined by fixed at the value it had when the collapse its mass, it afterwards can never stop moving started (Figure 8). inward and must inevitably shrink to zero

281 280 radius resulting in an infinitely dense object. difficulty with the notions of space and time. As described in one widely-read tome on Space was space, time was time, and that was general relativity: it.

"...theregionr = 0isa physical Figure 9 singularity of infinitetidalgravita- tionalforcesandinfiniteRiemann curvature. Any particle that falls into that singularity must be destroyed by those forces." (Misner, Thome, and Wheeler, 1979)

However, we who are outside the star's Schwarzschild radiuswill never seethis happen.Once the star collapses within its Schwarzschildradius,nothing- -noteven light - -can getout from inside the Schwarzschild radius. The star's mass is still A WORMHOLE tugging on us gravitationally, but we can see nothing that happens to the star when it is It is important to understand- -and this is inside its Schwarzschild radius. A so-called usually not conveyed from specialistsin The ultimate black hole has been formed. physics theories to non-specialists--that the invisible object! pictures resulting from mathematical equationsinmodemtheoriesarenot Visual Metaphor and the Marketing of something that follow automaticallylike Physics some God-given proclamation. In the end, in This black hole scenario has been widely most modem physical theoriesthefinal espoused and touted for a long time in arenas (latest) visual representation results mostly ranging from prestigious scientific journals to from the minds of the persons who have Reader's Digest, Walt Disney, and Star Trek. come up with the most widely accepted The arguments for the existence of black interpretation. holes have been aided by the use of Madison The name "black hole"isa relatively Avenue-like words--black hole, white hole, recent terminology. The notion of the worm hole, warped spacetime - -and eye- Schwarzschild radius was brought forth in grabbing visuals such as shown in Figure 9. 1916 when M. Schwarzschild solved exactly, Itisno wonder that thenon-specialist for the case of spherical symmetry, the audience accepts just about without question Einstein fieldequations, which were too the validity of black holes. complicated for Einstein, who came up with However, some specialists who have some the theory a year earlier.Over the ensuing understanding of Einstein's theory of general years, people wrestled with the interpretation relativity realize there is some shakiness in of what happens around the Schwarzschild the foundation that holds up the popular radius.It was not until the late 1960's that edifice ofblack holes. Physical the visual metaphor "black hole" appeared in interpretations of the solutions of Einstein's theliterature. Now,blackholesare mathematicallycomplexfieldequations everywhere, despite the lack of conclusive describing gravitational fieldsisfar from evidence. Because of what might be termed a trivial.In Newtonian physics there was no

282 281 "bignoiseapproach,"theintrinsically Gautreau, R. (1995) Light cones inside the invisible black hole has become very visible Schwarzschild radius. American Journal of in the minds of many. Physics, 63 pp. 431-439. It is important to realize that, in spite of Gautreau, R. and Cohen, J. M. (in press, a) what may be suggested in many writings, Gravitational expansion and the destruction therehastodatebeennoabsolutely of a black hole. American Journal of conclusive evidence that a black hole has Physics. been experimentally detected.Also, there Gautreau, R. and Cohen, J. M. (in press, b) exist viable alternative interpretations other Birth and death of a black hole. American than black holes to solutions to the Einstein Journal of Physics. field equations (Gautreau,1995; Gautreau Ghiselin, B. (1952) The Creative Process. and Cohen, in press a,b). from Einstein, A. Letter to Jacques The pro and con views of black holes can Hadamard. New York: New American be aptly summed up in the words of the Library. following bumper sticker. Hart-Davis, A. (1989) Scientific Eye: Exploring the Marvels of Science. New York: Sterling. !BLACK HOLES SUCK! Krippner, S. (1969) The Psychedelic State, the Hypnotic Trance, and the Creative Act. References: In Tart, C. T. (Ed) Altered States of Dyson, F. (1979) Disturbing the Universe. Consciousness. New York: Wiley. New York: Harper & Row. Misner, C. W., 'Thorne, K. S., and Wheeler, Fischler, M.A. & Firschein, 0. (1987) J. A. (1979) Gravitation. p. 819. San Intelligence, the Eye. the Brain, and the Francisco: Freeman. Computer. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Paivio, A.(1990) Dual Coding Theory In Gardner, H. (1987) Beyond the IQ: Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Education and Human Development. Press. Harvard Educational Review, 57 (2) pp.187- 193.

283 282 Using Graphics for Integrated Planning by Peggy A. P. Pruisner Abstract Across contemporary educational settings, there is an emphasis on meaning making, problem solving, and discovery in the learning process. In many schools,facts and concepts are no longer presented in a content-based framework; rather, they are fully integrated into the curriculum by a unifying theme that under girds the connections to the world of knowledge.To best represent the thinking of students in learning and the thinking of teachers in integrated planning, the use of graphics is both efficient, portraying much information in its design, and effective, facilitating communication.

Learning and Thinking framework of health and wellness or Paramount to learningisthinking. guidance), the importance of identity in the Although thisstatement may sound family and society (perhaps previously innocuous, hardly revolutionary, it is the taught in the area of social studies or impetus for a dramatic paradigm shift for possibly absent in the former curriculum), educators. Byemphasizingthe and continue in this manner across all contemporary schema-based and process- curricularareas. Thistransformed oriented approachestoliteracyand approachtoplanningcallsfor new meaning making, and by expanding on the procedures and structures. relationships of learning and thinking, the integrated_knowledge approach exploits the Integrated Planning and Graphics web of relationships discovered while Currently, many skeletal graphic models participating in activities and tasks.The are recommended for use during the integrated planning that precedes teaching planningstagesofintegratedunit and learning allows learners to gather development.However, these models are knowledge holistically. either simple or hybrid models of the graphic web and do not adequately allow the Integrated Planning curriculum planner to utilize the power of Ackerman and Perkins (1989) suggest variedgraphic formstodisplaythe that within the integrated paradigm there relationships of the concepts to be taught exist a curriculum and a metacurriculum. and themetacurriculumthatfosters The curriculum includes the substantive thinking. content and concepts that have comprised Teachers need to look beyond the the content-driven curriculums of the past graphic web and select a graphicthat fits and the broader concepts of knowledge the content or the objective and the thinking structures. Furthermore, the process involved. To best communicate the metacurriculum is made up of learning underlying thinking, a common language of skills and strategies that help students learn graphics must be presented for graphics to the content being taught and foster be universally understood in integrated thinking and independent learning. In any planning.Presenting direct instruction in plan derived from the integrated paradigm, thecreationanduseofgraphic planningisno longer alinear and representations based on models of thinking sequential task but involves a variety of along with the instruction for integrated unit paths and explorations based on the planning utilizes the power of graphics to thinking and learning of students rather clarify and represent. than the instructional agendas of teachers. Graphics canrepresent the many forms For example, creating an integrated unit of thinking.Hyerle (1996) recommends a on identity intended for secondary students, hierarchy ofgraphical representations teachers collaboratively plan and provide called thinking maps. His system is instruction, activities, and experiences that compatible with the levels of questioning allowstudentstoexplorecharacter utilized in most classrooms, and his graphic development and conflict (ordinarily taught primitives are combined to represent various in the framework of English, perhaps in the levels of thinking; for example, the bubble context of short stories), the importance of map and double bubble map primitives can self-esteem(typicallytaughtinthe be used in graphics for describing qualities

285 283 and comparing andcontrasting;he help students scan, sort, and organize identifies both as forms of evaluative information can include the following: time thinking. lines for representing chronological events qr Rakes,Rakes & Smith(1995) to show trends, recurring patterns, or causes recommend the thinkingprocesses and effects; web diagrams to tie related involved in analysis, organization, and events to a concept or idea; circle diagrams categorization be presented using the to guide students to illustrative group events; following graphic techniques: semantic data grids, pie charts, and graphs to help maps, flow charts, labeling,tracing, text count recurring events and draw inferences; clues, adjunct questions, and drawings; the Venn diagrams and complex matrices to thinking involved in elaboration: drawings, helpsortinformationintomultiple charts, graphs, maps, and icons; andthe categories; and inductive towers to help thinking involved in integration: drawings, connect factual information and draw text questions accompanied by visuals,and inductive inferences as the basis for theories pseudo graphics. and predictions. The aforementioned systems, although theoretically sound, require users to learn Flexibility new terms and concepts. One systembased Selecting graphics that communicate but on top-down and bottom-upthinking and are flexible in their power to represent portrayed using visual tools (Clarke, 1991), complex thinking is essential.Guthrie however, can make two claims: theoretically (1996) warns against formula following in sound and pragmatic across all content conceptually oriented reading instruction. areas.From a cognitive theory standpoint, He warns that if the teacher does not thereis widespread acceptance of its construct the design for planning, the underpinning in schema theory (Rumelhart, classroomwillnotbe engaged. a 1980),and the recognition of reading, Consequently,thepurchaseof thinking, and comprehending asthe prepublished package by a school system is interaction of reader and text across all doomed to failure. The plan must be built content areas.Furthermore, the system is on a consistent commonlanguage of pragmatic for the curriculum planner who graphics yet remain flexible for teacher use, may not have an in-depth pastexperience and since the match needs to be explained to with thinking graphically or who may not the students at the instructional stage,it prefer the style of thinking with graphics. should remain flexible for student input and Using top-down and bottom-up thinking to responsive to student needs. guide the graphic selection facilitates The graphical representations referred to planning and learning in an integrated in this top-down, bottom-up schemahave framework for all contents, types,and widespread acceptance and understanding levels of users. among readers, yet they are notexcessively prescriptive in their design and certainly not They Top-down and Bottom-up Graphics in Clarke's recommended uses. Clarke (1991) suggests that top- provide the common language ofgraphic down graphics aid deductive thinking and tools that is needed while allowing forvaried anchor abstract concepts, processes, rules, interpretation and flexible use by teachers or procedures. Top-downvisuals can test and learners alike. ideas againstfactsor solve specific problems by using concept maps to relate The Instructional Plan Based on the needforintegrated ideas to facts or ideas to other ideas, by to using weighing scales, continuum lines, or planning,the power of graphics communicate those plans, and appropriate pro/con charts to weigh evidence in support graphics to of opposing arguments, using force field match of top-down, bottom-up diagrams to observe antithetical forces, student outcomes across all curricularareas, the author has designed andutilized the using causal chain maps to see a model of a planning process, and using decision treesand if/then following directions for integrated flow charts to assist in deciding between two at inservice presentations andwith preservice level: choices. Finally, planning charts, path students at the undergraduate models, and procedural flow charts can be used to work through specific steps in a task.In contrast, bottom-up graphics that

286

2E4 EST COPYAVAILABLE Planning Integrated Units: Step 7: Plan evaluation Step 8: Schedule unit events Step 1: Consider the system outcomes established by the school Example Integrated Units Step 2: Identify an organizing center: Utilizing the integrated planning graphics, theme, topic, problem, issue that cuts across imagine that a group of collaborating curricular boundaries; establish theme, teachers considers a variety of outcomes for concepts, and generalizations a unit on environmental responsibility. Step 3: Establish general unit objectives: Their initial plan emphasizes weighing the design integrated plan toreflect the benefits and drawbacks of preserving the underlying top-down, bottom-up thinking environment and recycling waste, an students will be using in this unit: exampleoftop-downthinking(see Figure 1). 1. Brainstorm and record information needed to achieve critical objectives. Figure 1 2. Considerthethinkingthat ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY undergirds student learning: top-down, Balance Scale bottom-up thinking. 3. Review and select appropriate graphics (Clarke,1991) torepresent thinking processes. 4. Indrawingtheunitgraphic representation, consider the following characteristics and their relationships: composition -organization -center of interest shapes sizes ',colors ictorial elements. The ongoing dialogue among the 5. After drawing your graphic, ask teachers emphasizes the need for individual someone unfamiliar with the content but action.Therefore, a planning chart, another who thinks visually to explain what can be example of top-down thinking,isan determined from your drawing.Revise as effective graphic representation of another needed to communicate more effectively. desirable outcome oftheunit (see 6. Prepare the graphic for including Figure 2). the information derived in the planning steps. Steps 1-7 include the systems Figure 2 outcomes, theme, concepts, generalizations, ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY unit objectives, resources, instructional Preservation Planning Chart procedures, unit introduction, development, culmination, and plan for evaluation; these are to be written in the areas that seem most Reduce Reuse Recycle Regenerate appropriate for the graphic chosen, so be creative but purposeful in this process. Because of the limitations of the graphic 1 Consider drawbacks design or simply because of space 2. Consider benefits considerations, these may belisted and referred to on the graphic and attached in their entirety using additional paper. By integrating the content, the outcomes, and the representative thinking required, a Step 4: Brainstormresources and revised graphic that combines the two procedures previous models iscreated. The new Step 5: Gather resources graphic proVides the background structure Step 6: Design instructional procedures: for continuing the planning process where unitintroduction,development, and resources, instruction, and evaluation can be culmination recorded (see Figure 3).

287 Figure 3 Figure 5 ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY ABCs of DIVERSITY Balance Scale/Planning Chart Venn Diagram

Exceptionalities Learning Styles xperience Ability ntelligence JBackground Achievement

Choice

(-Effort Hobbies Another educational team working on the topic of diversity contemplates an ckctivitieD outcome requiring students to look atthe characteristics of diversity across several In Conclusion categories;aVenn diagramisan When recognized for their strength, the appropriate bottom-up graphic (see capacity to concisely communicate meaning, Figure 4). and respected in spite of their limitation, the difficulty of representing the complexities Figure 4 of thinking in a confined space, graphics ABCs of DIVERSITY can be powerful tools in the hands of Venn Diagram curriculum planners.Graphics can help clarify the thinking that accompanies planning and can direct the thinking that facilitatesstudentlearning. The representation of that student engagement in the act of thinking can be concisely portrayed with graphics when thereis consistent use of clearly defined graphics, a match to the process of thinking, and a respect for the gestalt of learning. References Ackerman, D. B., & D. N. Perkins. (1989). Recognizing that students will need to Integrating thinking and learning skills understand the relationships of those across the curriculum.InH. H. Jacobs categories and their component parts, they (Ed.), Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design design another bottom-up graphic, a web, and Implementation(pp. 77-95). extendingfromtheVenn diagram. Alexandria,VA: Associationfor However, as they discuss the relationships Curriculum and Development. of the components, it becomes apparent that other relationships must be considered; Clarke,J.H. (1991). Using visual for example, the interrelationship of ability organizers to focus on thinking.Journal of and effort canresultinalevelof Reading, 34(7), 526-534. achievement. Consequently,further linkagestransformtheweb intoa Guthrie, J.(1996).Education contexts for conceptmap (see Figure 5). engagement in literacy. The Reading Teacher, 49(6), 442-443. Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual Tools for Constructing Knowledge.Alexandria, VA; Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 288 2E6 Rakes, G. C., T. A. Rakes, & L. J. Smith. Rumelhart, D. E. (1980).Schemata:The (1995). Usingvisualstoenhance building blocks of cognition.In. R. J. secondary students' reading Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), comprehensionofexpositorytexts. TheoreticalIssues in Reading Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literature, Comprehension (pp. 33-58).Hillsdale, NJ: 39(1), 46-54. Erlbaum.

289 287 Story Re-Visions: Tales For The Future by Jacqueline W. Gray

Abstract Stories are habitations through which we live. The glasses through whichwe see and interpret the world are constructed through our life stories. The lensesare the prescription that focuses our individual experiences. When using an inaccurate lens, things look blurry, distorted and, many times, scary. The theory, construction and re-vision of life stories provide a basis for the interpretation of past events and future expectations. Thispaper looks at enrichment of our storied lives through color, spontaneity, diversity and creativity cause a new level of excitement. It explores how being unique can capture the greatest prize- -the self.

Introduction While artists began to look at the world When dealing with people, Freud and in a new way, the therapeutic world others since, have noticed the human's continued with the dichotomy of cognition inclination_ to describe themselves and emotion.As post-modernists begin narratively as a means to know and identify looking at the many selves, they interweave themselves. Freud found the word self too those threads each self into the tapestry of nebulous and used instead the German emotion, cognition and other constructs word seek, this best translates into English that become the total "self." as soul, but English translations of Freud's Herman'(1992)ValuationTheory work used mind instead. Jung and Rogers describes the self as an organized process of moved modern psychology more toward the valuation.He believed the individual's idea ofself and the development of a meanings of events are articulated in a self- single selfhood (Parry, and Doan, 1994). narrative, or life story, that is organized and The termscognitive and post-cognitive re-organized over time. Because there are have been used to distinguish between emotional reasons an individual dwells on modernist and postmodernist, as well as some part of their life story and neglects epistemological and ontological, to construct otherparts,theperson becomesa thedivisionbetween thetwo"eras" motivated storyteller. (McHale, 1992). McHale discusses poet, Bruner (1986) described two modes of composer, performing artist Dick Higgin's thought,propositionalthoughtand concept of cognitive and post-cognitive with narrative thought.Propositional thought the following questions: consists of logical argumentation aimed at convincing one of some abstract, concept- The cognitive questions: independent truth; a logicoscientific and "How can I interpret this world of which I paradigmatic aim at theoretical, formal am part? And what am I in it?" interpretationofageneralabstract (Asked by most artists of the 20th century, paradigmforgainingunderstanding. Platonic or Aristotelian, until around 1958.) Narrative thought, conversely, presents concretehumanandinterpersonal The post-cognitive questions: situations to demonstrate their particular "Which world is this? What is to be validity. Thestorymoderequires done in it? Which of my selves is to imagination, an understanding of human do it?" intention, and an appreciation of the (Asked by most artists since then; quoted in particulars of time and place.Narratives McHale, 1992, pp. 32-33.) focus on people and on the cause of their

291 288 actions: theirintentions,goals,and plannings, our rememberings, even our subjectiveexperience. Propertiesof loving and hating, are guided by narrative character, setting and action are central to plots." He went on to explain that moral the narrative mode (Vitz, 1990). choiceisparticularlyilluminatedby Kelly (1955) contributed the prototypic understanding the relevance of a given model of psychotherapy with the use of moral issue to a person's understanding of narrative reconstruction in his work with their life as a story. The life story or self- the client's self-characterizations.Kelly's narrative can either be a self-constructed perspective has become integrated into story of one's life, often including bits and postmodern approachestopsychology. pieces of various other stories, or an almost Constructivist psychotherapy is described as literal acting out of life according to a a postmodern epistemologyin which narrative model. proactive, self-organizing features of human Narrative provides a more complete and knowing is emphasized (Neimeyer, 1993). multidimensional understanding of events, From this view one is an active participant emotions and an individual's life script than in creating their understanding and view of just relating the paradigmatic aspects of the the world. situation.By using this narrative model Vitz (1990) supplied a psychological basis one can explore the past, examine it's effect for the use of stories in teaching moral on the present and determine howall that development. Language as used in teaching has been learned can be related to planning is usually in the written form of a text, for the future. without much emotion, limited in image value, and generally context-free, to express Life Stories theuniversaltruthofparadigmatic Howard (1991) described identity as a life knowledge. When thepropositional story which individuals begin constructing, thought is introduced as fact there is little consciously or unconsciously, in late emotionalinvolvement,andtheleft adolescence.Like stories, identities may hemisphere of the brain primarily used. assumea"good"formanarrative When telling or writing a story, language coherence and consistency or they may be takes on a heavy emotional and imaginistic illformed. The life story model of identity meaning, usually carried by the intonation suggests how anyone seeking to know the and words with associated images.This whole person may apprehend identity in adds depth and flesh (Cataldi, 1993) to the narrative terms. story byincorporating syncretic thought. At an early age, children ask parents Syncretic thought is associated with general endless questions. The questions generally emotionalprocessing,recognitionand fit into the generic form:"How can I affective language (Vitz, 1990). Syncretic understand (make sense of) these puzzling thoughtutilizesanalogcognition and aspects of my experience?" The repeated knowledge by relating the affective with the questions attempt to get a story that will cognitive.Vitz (1990) proposes a more give them a context and a culture in a form complete and evolved learning experience that makestheanswer make sense created by using situational truth presented (Howard,1991). Forexample,the in a narrative format such as Aesop's question, "Why do birds fly?" is an attempt Fables and current real moral dilemmas. to get a narrative (story) responsethat Morality is grounded in personal emotional makes sense at the child's developmental experience and understanding should be level. To answer in short statements then evident from personal virtues (MacIntyre, provokes more questions until the needfor 1981). narrative context is satisfied (McAdams, According to Sarbin (1986) narrative is 1985).Mair (1988) described stories as important inour lives because "...our habitations. These narrative responses are 292 289 how children make sense of their lives and Many times individuals expect their lives develop their view of the world.Along to be like a trip down a super highway with those provided by parents, narratives straight, smooth and fastIf the road is come in the forms of cartoons to full length bumpy, we encounter potholes or detours, feature movies that portray conflicts of or if we take a side trip it is interpreted as good and evil, issues of life and death, as failure.Years later, when re-membering well as the role of love and hate in human past events, it is usually the eventful trips interactions (Bettelheim, 1976). we are most likely to recall. These Writingone'slifestorygives diversionsadd thecolor,depth and spaciotemporal structure to the separate dimension to our experiences because we events and expectations by sequencing and have revised the script turning it into an determiningrelevance(Howard, adventure.Whether those rough roads Maerlender, Myers, and Curtin, 1992; include obstacles of hardship and adversity Hermans, 1991). Perhaps the most through issues of race, class, gender, age or important information people convey when other aspect, they play a part in who the theywritetheirlifehistory,or individual is, how they use the events and autobiography, is their life theme (Howard, how they re-member the incident (Moffitt etal.,1992). A life theme or script and Singer, 1994). includes the plan, values, beliefs that are repeatedly played out in the interactions in Story Re-Vision a person's life (Berne, 1972). Life stories Through the process of telling and aretailoredtowardrevealingan retellingone'sself-narrativeor understandingofaconstructthat autobiography,theaffectiveand questionnaires, role playing, behavioral motivationalcharacteristicsofthe measures, projective measures, etcetera are storyteller are revealed including their hard pressed to accurately assess. beliefs and values (Hermans, 1992). As the When asked to write their life story, the story is retold, it undergoes changes. The individual usually does not start with "I was individual utilizestheir values,beliefs, born on September 2, 1951 to Harold and experiences and affect with respect to their Peggy WestfahL" Individual'sidentify personal development, lifecrisis,class, significant events or times of their life upon gender, and other bumps and barriers along which to focus. The events they choose and the road to re-view the experience and how those events are interpreted reveal the allow changes to take place in how they individual's perspective of life, in general. interpret the eventAs the previous Are they achievers who select stories of interpretation is deconstructed, taken apart their successful events? Are they victims forexamination,itallowsanew who always see someone else as responsible interpretation to be constructed, rebuilt and taking advantage of them? Whatever from new information and interpretation events are chosen the color and dimension resulting in alteredbeliefs and affect of the emotions and thoughts that make (Hermans, 1992; Parry and Doan, 1994; those events significant help the reader to White and Epston, 1990). By utilizing story know more about the individual than if they re-vision an individual not only examines only stated the facts. Themes will emerge the past, but applies it to the present, and fromthestorieswhetherreligious projectsitsimpact upon thefuture affiliations, racial or ethnic ties, gender (Herman, 1992). orientation, professional identity, or family When my children were small they read tradition and history (Parry and Doan, bookscalled"ChooseYourOwn 1994). It may also reveal how an individual Adventures". These books were read and interacts with others, solves problems and re-read time and again because every few overcomes obstacles. pages a choice needed to be made for the 293 2,9 0 character. Depending upon which choice away the fear when he was confronted by they made the book directed them to turn dangerous situations.It took more than to a specific page. Each time the book was simple solutions for each of them to find read it became a different story because the characteristics deep within themselves. the decisions could be changed. Similarly, when individuals' write their life The original life story can be examined stories, they may seek simple and magical for constraining rules or restrictions that solutions. Through the Re-Vision process limit the individual's ability to explore their they may see deep within themselves the world. Biases and prejudices can be very thing they thought they lacked. reexamined. A person's life theme will This is a re-vision of a familiar story. become more evident with the re-telling of Gardner identified the fallacies of the the story since those aspects of events will original story and provided a re-vision that becontinuedthroughthere-visions retained the facts from the original story (Hermans, 1992).By reevaluating the and constructed new interpretations within events as they appear in the original story those parameters. they may begin to see strengths and accomplishmentsthatmaynothave Therapeutic Implications developedwithout the challenges, A risingformofinterventionin adventures, obstacles, or difficulties that psychotherapy is the life story, which is a brought them from the past to the present. condensed psychobiography that focuses on Hermans (1992) indicated that stories the role of the symptomatic complaint in change over time with the re-telling and re- the client's life-journey (Omer, 1993). It is vision especially during times of disruption not the life story that is so new as the use whether circumstantial or developmental. of story re-vision to reconstruct the life history and change the client's view, or An Illustration interpretation, of the events (Parry and In the story of "The Wizard of Oz" Doan, 1994). The next step involves the (Baum,1956),allDorothy,theTin client projecting into the future to construct Woodsman, the Scarecrow and the Lion waystheirnew view ofthesepast need to do was find the Wizard and their experiences can help the client reach their problems weresolved. In Richard personal goals (Hermans, 1992). Gardner's (1980) story of "Dorothy and the Lizard of Oz" we find that the simple The PreventIonist Application solutions to problems the Wizard provided By implementing these ideas with children did not really solve any of their problems. as they learn about stories andstorytelling, Dorothy returned to Kansas to find she still re-visioning experiences could provide a needed to deal with the sheriff about her means to deconstruct dysfunctionalideas dog, Toto. The Scarecrow had a diploma, before they become in deep ruts in their but he returned to the farm where he'd behavioral road making change of direction worked to find another scarecrow doing his more difficult This approachalso allows old job and no one willing to give him the for re-visiting these stories at a laterdate chance to do a job that took a brain just when the individual has more information because he had a diploma.The Tin and experience to further re-viewand Woodsman returned to his home to find implement more re-vision for the future. that having something ticking on his chest did not make him feel any more loved. Conclusions Just showing his "heart" to others did not Through the story re-visions eventsthat make them love him more either.The may have been viewed asproblems, Cowardly Lion proudly showed his medal burdens,potholes,ruts,obstaclesor for bravery and courage, but it did not take difficulties over the course of time arere- 294

2 91 constructedrevealingtheadventure, personal constructs. New York Norton. excitement, humor, color, and depth that Maclntyre, A. (1981). After virtue. Notre can spur strength, growth and learningg. Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press. These re-visions allow us to ponder the Mair,M. (1988). Psychologyas scenes from new directions and perspectives storytelling. International Journal of Personal thatprovideinsightsthat werenot Construct Psychology, 1, 125-138. previously believed aspossible. The McAdams, D.P. (1985). Power, intimacy, possibilities story re-visions provide tonot and the life story. Homewood, IL: Dorsey. only psychotherapy, but also to education, McAdams, D.P. (1993). Storieswe live literature, theater and video tapeare by: Personal myths and the nuking of the endless. The development of virtual reality self New York: William Morrow & Co. computer games that provide children with McHale, B.(1992).Constructing Post- consequences of decisions and opportunities modernism. London: Routledge. to revise their story and improve their Moffitt, K.H. & Singer, J.A. (1994). choices is only one new aspect ofan old Continuity in the life story: self-defining educational tooL memories, affect, and approach/avoidance personal strivings.Journal of Personality, 62(1), 21-43. References Neimeyer, R.A. (1993). An appraisal of Baum, LF. (1956). The wizard ofoz New constructivist psycho-therapies. Journal of York: Grosset & Dunlap. Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), Berne, E. (1972). What do yousay after 221-234. you say hello? New York: Grove Press. Omer,H.(1993). Short-term Bettelheim, B.(1976).The uses of psychotherapy and the rise of the life- enchantment The meaning and importance sketch. Psychotherapy, 30(4), 668-673. of fairy tales. New York Knopf. Party, A. (1991). A universe of stories. Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible Family Process 30, 37-54. worlds. Boston: Harvard University Press. Parry, A. & Doan, RE. (1994).Story Cataldi, S.L. (1993). Emotion, depth, and revisions: Narrative therapy in the pactmodem flesh: a study of sensitive space. Albany, NY: world New York: Guilford. State University of New York Press. Sarbin, T.R. (1986). The narrativeas a Gardner, R.A. (1980). Dorothy and the root metaphor for psychology.In T.R. lizard of oz. Cresskill, New Jersey: Creative Sarbin (Ed.) Narrative psychology: The Therapeutics. storied nature of human conduct. New Hermans, H.J.M. (1992).Telling and York Praeger. retelling one's self-narrative: A contextual Vitz, P.C. (1990). The use of stories in approach to life-span development. Human moral development:New psychological Development, 35, 361-375. reasons for an old educational method. Howard, G.S. (1991). Culture tales: A American Psychologist, 45(6), 709-720. narrative approach tothinking,cross- White, M. (Ed.)(1995). Re-authoring cultural psychology, and psychotherapy. lives: Interviews & essays.. Adelaide, South American Psychologist, 46(3), 187-197. Australia: Dulwich Centre Publications. Howard, G.S., Maerlender, A.C., Myers, White, M., & Epston,D.,(1990). P.R., & Curtin, T.D. (1992). In storieswe Narrative Awns to therapeutic ends: New trust:Studiesofthevalidityof York: W.W. Norton & Company. autobiographies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(3), 398-405. Kelly, G.A. (1955).The psychology of

295 Celebrating Cody An Opportunity To Present A Visual History by Carmela A. Conning and. Jeannie Cook

Abstract This paper presents the various projects thatwe developed to enhance the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the founding of thetown of Cody. In the process of supplying information for the anniversary events, we were ableto preserve our local history and educate the community.

If we do not know where we have been it is projects did require additional fundraising and difficult to know where we're going.Our were accomplished with the assistance of society is becoming one of bytes, immediate groups and businesses in town. These visual solutions and instant gratification. We have projects can be adapted by any personor group. raised a generation with a short attentionspan Ourguidelinesrequiredbriefwritten and an unwillingness to devotea great deal of descriptions and heavy use of photographs time and efforttomaster any activity. whenever possible. Naturally, there are exceptions toany general statement of this type, but we are not here to Selling our projects required convincing deal with exceptions. Our focus is the audience business groups that money could be made from that is always in a hurry and needs their interest history! They could be sponsors, enjoy positive immediately captured. Fromour eight years of publicity and contribute to the preservation of working experience we have learned that the local culture and lore. public's attention has to be grabbed visually if we are to be successful. Therefore, we must Some of the visualprojects we have design materials of high visual impactto developed are - The Hooks: accomplish our goals of preservation, education and a further quest for knowledge. 1) Slide show detailing Cody's growth from 1896to the1920's.This show was presented to The Park County Historical Society Archives various organizations and to the students (Cody, Wyoming) was able to take advantage of attending the three elementary schools. The the 100th anniversary of the town of Cody and civic organizations that viewed the slide show the 150th birthday of Colonel William F. Cody were solicited for funds to provide for the (Buffalo Bill) to educate andpreserve our local duplication of the show. Copies of the show history.The celebrations surrounding the were to be donated to each school and the anniversary of Cody have providedus with public library. This effort generated enough ample opportunities to preserve, educate and funds to produce three copies of the slide show. promote our history and heritage. Our funding comes from Park County and is shared among 2) 100 year pictorial history of thetown. We three offices- Cody, Powell and Meeteetse. would maximize the use of photographs in book Understandably, we receive a minuscule portion format to trace the main trends in thetown's of the county budget. The town of Codydid development. We raised$78,000from 12 local have a Centennial budget thatwe were able to banks and individuals who agreedto sponsor tap into to finance some of our projects. Other the book by providingan interest free loan. 297 293 After all expenses are met any profit will be materials were the main focus of these requests. retained by the Historical Society. Photocopying of materials made this a low-cost service. 3) Tapestry displaying several buildings important to local history. Unfortunately, most 9) Helped revise the Walking Tour for the of thesebuildingshave been destroyed. town of Cody. We neededtosupply Funding for this project was acquired from the photographs and information on buildings. Centennial Committee. The proceeds from this Funds for the publication of the Cody Walking project will eventually be given to the Historical TourwassuppliedbytheCentennial Society. Committee. The Historical Society will receive the proceeds from the sale of the tours at the 4) Centennial calendar using old photographs conclusion of the Centennial year. of the town and Colonel William F. Cody and his family. Events important to local history 10) Helped acquire artifacts, materials, were presented and important dates were photographs and information for the Centennial emphasized.This was a cooperative effort display sponsored by the Buffalo Bill Historical between the Buffalo Bill Historical Center, the Center. Any costs for display purposes were Centennial Committee and our office. absorbed by the Historical Center.

5) Weekly photographs and stories published 11) Supplied information used in the kiosks in the local newspaper, the Cody Enterprise. erected at three sites around town. The kiosks Photographs were essential to this effort. We were paid for by the Centennial Committee. needed to grab the reader's interest so the articles would be read. This was a project of 12) Tim White's video production of mutual benefit that did not require any outlay of Cody's first 100 years.This is a work in money. We supplied information that was progress. The format of this production will be already in our files. Every Monday the paper similar to that used by the PBS in its Civil War carries the "Centennial" pages. These articles series. Our office will supply research, have proved to be extremely popular and photographs and local contacts. The projected increased the Enterprise's sales. date for the completion of this video is 1997. Mr. White is raising the money required for this 6) Pictorial exhibits dealing with various endeavor and is graciously giving the Historical topics - the history of the Cody library, and the Society the proceeds. important women in the town's past. The Cody public library supplied display space for these 13) Supplied information for a web site on projects. Again, this was a low-cost project of the Internet. We chose six photographs and mutualbenefit. Color photocopying of three articles on Cody history. photographs is inexpensive and preserves the originals. 14). Historical Markers for the Northfork Highway (road to Yellowstone National Park). 7) Display cases and panels filled with This was a cooperative venture with the United appropriate materialsat the Park County States Forest Service. In honor of Buffalo Bill's courthouse. These projects were designed and 150th birthday, the highway was renamed the implemented by a University of Wyoming Buffalo Bill Scenic Byway. We also have a Public Relations intern, Christy Cook. The cooperative agreement between our office, the artifacts and materials were loaned or given to United States Bureau of Land Management, our office by various individuals. localgroups andindividualstoprovide research, narrative, photographs or sketches and 8) Supplied photographs and information on some funds to erect additional markers in the several topics for school projects.Visual area. The Centennial of the town of Cody gave the Park County Historical Society Archives office a uniqueopportunity:an opportunityto disseminate knowledge. We used as many visualformatsas we reasonablycould considering time and money. We feel that we have made animportant contributionto preserving our history and making the public aware of the community's past.

299 2 9 5 Visual Learning in Field Biology by Ethel D. Stanley

Abstract As in other disciplines, the study of biology presents an evolving set of visual learning, visual thinking, and visual communication requirements. Visual learning has long been recognized as an integral process in educating biology undergraduates who must develop specific visual skills and knowledge in order to communicate and work with the extensive visual culture shared by practicing biologists. In this paper, a number of visual tasks necessary to field study within the biological sciences are identified and the proactive design of visual learning experiences is urged.

Individuals, no matter their age, view the 2) A field evaluator makes notes on the ex- world through experienced eyes.However, tent of aphid damage to beans after inspecting anyone who has been on a field trip designed only one or two plants and quickly scanning to give you the opportunity to see things you've the color of the field. never seen before, can relate how variability in individual knowledge and visual practice makes 3) As a result of studying a water sample "looking" considerably more complicated than under a microscope, a forensic ph y c olog i st just "opening your eyes." states that a diatom bloom is responsible for the odd color and odor observed in the company's hot water ditch.

In each of these scenarios, a biologist is shown using specific visual literacy skills and knowledge. Each had to become proficient with a visual language that enabled them to store and retrieve specific images as well as communicate about them. Did they accomplish this learning as a result of performing specific visual tasks? Are there learning conditions necessary to develop this "coming to know?" Is there a current concept of visual learning within the biological sciences that helps define these conditions?

Although observation is considered essential to all biological investigations, visual learning itself is somewhat unevenly addressed and the concept of what it means to be visually literate in biology is largely ignored. Nonetheless, students majoring in the biological sciences not Consider the following activities of practic- only must develop specific visual skills such as ing field biologists: microscopic examination of tissues or field identification of organisms, but also utilize their 1) A paleobotanist systematically examines knowledge of images for thinking and commu- a fossil and suggests that it is a stem from a nicating. They continue to build and rely on this cycad that might have been found in the area visual literacy throughout their educational and nearly 200 million years ago. professional lives. 301 Educators in the biological sciences have is not texts, but images and displays." These long recognized the value of observation. Coo- are not passive media, but "objects on which per (1917, p.12) presents this student view of work is performed in the laboratory; like other learning under the supervision of the well materials handled in the stream of laboratory known naturalist, Louis Agassiz, in his Harvard activities, they are processed" (Knorr-Cetina & lab during the 1860's : Amann 1990, p. 262).

"Observation and comparison being in his Visual learning involves the synthesis of im- opinion the intellectual tools most indispens- ages as well. White (1988, p.152) writes: able to the naturalist, his first lesson was one in looking. He gave no assistance; he simply "Science learning involves much processing left his student with the specimen, telling him of images. As well as learning many proposi- to use his eyes diligently, and report upon what tions and intellectual skills, we build up repre- he saw. " sentations of unobservables such as electrons and magnetic fields, processes such as dissolv- Observing and illustrating specimens re- ing and burning,and generalizations such as mained a dominant form of learning at least sedimentary rock and plant cells." through the first half of this century. It is hardly surprising to learn that "the making of 'care- With the proliferation of images encountered fully prepared detailed drawings' is a com- in biological education and the growing need monly required college laboratory activity in to deal with them on an individual and profes- the biological sciences" (Johnson 1940, p.70). sional basis, conceptual frameworks such as At the same time, visual components were in- "visual learning" and "visual literacy" are introduced and increased in number and type in creasingly relevant and should be considered both texts and laboratory manuals. For ex- actively within the educational setting. Visual ample, eighty-five separate illustrations ap- learning can be defined as "the acquisition and peared in the first hundred pages of a com- construction of knowledge as a result of inter- monly used undergraduate text, Introduction action with visual phenonema." (Seels 1994, to Botany, written by Bergen & Caldwell p. 107). It is an important component of visual (1939). This trend continues today. Blystone literacy, "the ability to understand and use im- & Barnard (1988) compared college biology ages, including the ability to think, learn, and major textbooks in the 1950's with those of express oneself in terms of images" (Braden & the 1980's. Use of photographs increased Hortin 1982, p. 41). nearly threefold. Learners process more visual messages than ever before in the present day Biology in the Field biology classroom: Student experiences with field observations "Illustrations have become an essential part and the development and application of verbal/ of the biology learning experience, encompass- visual language in the field setting are often ing graphs, charts, flowcharts, diagrams, line problematic. One way of improving the design drawings, photographs,and symbols, illustra- of field experiences in biology is to consider tions are found in textbooks, computer pro- the kinds of visual tasks that are required for grams, instructional audiovisual media, and learning. Activities that experienced and inex- even classroom wall coverings" (Blystone perienced field biologists must engage in should 1989, p. 155). be examined. Students may be unaware of specific visual strategies that could enhance their Images are also generated by biology stu- field experiences. Examples of expected per- dents. Knorr-Cetina & Amann (1990, p. 259) formance as well as opportunities to practice in report "the focus of many laboratory activities order to develop visual expertise are needed. 302 297 Field biologists often begin by isolatingan recent educators. Curtis(1897, p. viii) empha- organism in the field using characteristicssuch sized in his textbook of botany: as relative size, placement in a generalcom- munity, association with other organisms in- "...a variety of species have been usedrather cluding those like itself, critical behaviors, and than a few types, since...this, aboveall, key physical features. For example, in order to preimvents those false generalizationsand con- locate Prairie Dock in central Illinois during ceptions that must followa narrow study of July, a botanist might look for this 4-8foot flow- forms." ering plant in remnant prairieareas found along railroad tracks. Other plants found with Prairie Also, most biology studentsare unaware of Dock include Compass Plant, Big Bluestem, the role of the scientific illustratorin creating and Blazing Star. Bright yellow flower heads these images. A sketch ofa plant could reflect towering over very large elephant ear-like that the illustrator "knows what theplant is like leaves clustered at ground level and half hid- in other views, and organizesan image with a den by grasses are key physical features. greater richness of content" (Arber 1950,p. 210). Often the organism is enhancedto "show Experienced observers frequentlycreate off' the distinctive featuresas field marks. search images which are practicedand revised as they encounter the organism under a variety Another complication for beginnersis the of conditions. Identification deals with indi- limited observation time in the field.Learners vidual variation among living specimens.This may be required to discriminate between dis- often requires active assessment of visually tinctive features of a flying insectat a glance. complicated information. Experiencedbiolo- Did that insect have longantennae or long cerci? gists use some subset of this information to Were the mouthparts for chewing?Perhaps the shorten the identification process. For example, specimen can only be encountered inthe field a search image for Rosinweed, a member of the under special conditions.Identification of Silphium genus like Prairie Dock and Compass stunned fish following electroshockingmay be Plant, might be simply the right angle formed limited to 90 seconds dependingon the size of where the stiff horizontal leavesmeet the stem. the fish.

Beginning observers also try to shortcut the The most common tools for fieldidentifica- process. They often rely on drawings made by tion are the field manual and dichotomouskey. professionals that represent the typical speci- Both require surprising familiaritywith terms men most likely to be encountered. Represen- and images. Although field manualscontain tation of a species in a single black and white sections that provide defintions ofterms, illus- diagram may function well for an expert, but trations of several types, and tutorialinforma- may fail by not conveying detailed constructs tion, the learner may find this descriptionin- to novice learners. Grinnell (1987) points out formation inadequate until severalspecimens that "an observer's ability to recognize'one of can be examined. These manuals are awkward these' depends on being able to recognize the to access when they are neededmost, ie. upon form of the object." These objects "have ge- encountering specimens that the learner isun- stalt"in which "arrangement of component familiar with. These texts oftenrequire the features provides information not apparent in learner to refei to two ormore pages repeat- the features alone." edly in order to eliminate the confusionbetween similar specimens. The dichotomouskey re- When students depend on a single image to quires students to work linearlytowards an iden- identify a specimen, they may be unable to deal tification. Misidentifyinga grass because you with the diversity within a population of simi- missed an ambiguous, but criticalglume char- lar specimens. This concern isnot limited to acter in an early step is especially frustrating! 303 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Finally, the expectation of the learner is an Braden, R. A., & Hortin, J. A. (1982). essential component of the visual experience. Identifying the theoretical foundations Beveridge (1957) warned, "We are prone to of visual literacy. Journal of visual/ see what lies behind our eyes, not in front of verbal languaging, 2, 37-42. them." Searfoss (1995) advises novice observers to "beware of your preconceptions." Cooper, L. (1917). Louis agassiz as a teacher. The ability to identify an object requires more New York: The Comstock Publishing than general familiarity of forms, but also judg- Company. ments made based on re-examination of the nature of that familiarity. Field studies that in- Grinnell, F. (1987). The scientific attitude. corporate collaborative investigations in which London, England: Westview Press. an observer must communicate with others about what is being observed may provide this Johnson, P. 0. (1940). The measurement of the kind of practice. effectiveness of laboratory procedures upon the acheivement of students in Visual tasks associated with field biology that zoology with particular reference to the have been discussed here include the identifi- use and value of detailed drawings. In cation and assessment of critical features and Proceedings of the minnesota academy contextual characteristics, development of of science (pp. 70-72). short-cut discriminatory practices, the use of illustrative images, the use of dichotomous keys Knorr-Cetina, K., & Amann, K. (1990). Image and field manuals with precise verbal-visual dissection in natural scientific inquiry. languages, and the need to recognize the power Science technology and human values, of expectation. Some of the difficulties that stu- 15(3), 259-283. dents encounter when carrying out these tasks are also described. Both visual tasks and the Searfoss, G. (1995). Skulls and bones (pp. 9- nature of the problems learners face should be I0). Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: considered in designing meaningful visual Stackpole Books. learning experiences in field biology. Seels, B. A. (1994). Visual literacy: The definition problem (p 97-112). In Moore, D. M., & DWyer, F. M., (Eds.), Visual Arber, A. (1950). The natural philosophy of literacy: A spectrum of visual learn- plant form. Cambridge, Great Britain: ing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Cambridge University Press. Educational Technology Publications.

Bergen, J. Y., & Caldwell, 0. W. (1939). White, R. T. (1988). Learning science. New Introduction to botany (3rd ed.). New York: Basil Blackwell Ltd. York: Ginn and Company.

Blystone, R. V., & Barnard, K. (1988). The future direction of college biology text books. BioScience, 28(1), 48-52.

Blystone, R. V. (1989). Biology learning based on illustrations. In Walter G. Rosen, (Ed.), High school biology today and tomorrow (pp. 155-164). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 304 292 Imagery, Concept Formation And Creativity-From PastTo Future Asael Silverstein Ora. N

Abstract

A look at the process of the imaginative formation ofone concept, "a cloud", is presented here. The paper exposes the creative, artistic and scientific visualthinking of one child: Sagee Kopel, in the continuum of his fourthyear. The author has been involved in an ongoing research on "picture language" focusingon the American Indian pictography. The present paper deals with this ongoing research and some of its preliminary findingsare referred to as well.

Introduction This paper intends to present a part ofan The importance of creativityforthe ongoing research in what the author calls: individual and society is beyond question. picture language (1996). One of the children The use of tools and languages enables in the study group (1995), was privately humans to make new entities and abstract examined during 1996. Starting when he communications and to develop the arts and was three years old he is on follow-up of his sciences. This makes a clear distinction thinkingandactivitiesconcerningone between the human race and the other concept: the cloud. (Fig. 2) species on our planet. Visual Literacy and capacity are engaged with thinking and thus Figure 2 with new formations, in the learningprocess Clouds Above the Sea and concept formation. Paivio (1991), and Miller and Burton stated that the encoded images, alongside our verbal vocabularies act upon human cognition,information processing and the communication processes. There is also a great amount of literature by Gregory,Arenheim,Goodman and Gombrich backing the approach that human perceptionisbasedmostly onvisual capacity (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 Postcard. Magritte, An Eye

The theoretical background, the results and a discussion of this procedure are given hereby.

Theoretical Background According to Ausubel, Novak & Hnesian (1968),the conceptsare tools with which theoutsideandinsideworldsof the individualare experienced while human thinking occurs. Howard wrote thatevery stimulation can be placed by the mind inone 305 30.0 of many categories. The concept is a mental and intuition are vital to understanding and representation of a category (1987). In the equally vital for the arts and all sciences. In process of abstraction, a given concept in the same book, and in Jung's words, M.L our individual cognitive system conceals a von Franz writesthatinhumans, the personal experience, which gives the concept archetypes of the unconscious can act as an idiosyncratic character (Fig.3). The creative forces. Archetypes are the patterns private human experience goes through of emotional and mental behavior in man. processes towards selectivity, simplification, They are built of archetypal symbols and are abstraction,generalization and schemati- the source of creative ideas. zation, and is not a loyal representation of The notion of the perception of scientific the sensual absorption. symbols versus artistic symbols presenting the same concepts was studied by the author Figure 3 (1991, 1992). In another paper (1995), the Clouds. Painting by A. Ofek author discusses the hidden power of picture language of ancient cultures. Pictures showing symbols of different concepts in theSamarian,Egyptian, Chinese,AztecandAmericanIndian cultures are given in Fig. 9. The author was impressed by the Native American Indian pictography, which shows correlationbetween gesturespeech and verbal speech. Being a culture in which the visual was used consciously for expression and communication, it is suitable for the detection of human communication and mental operation. The author studiedthe American Indian picture language (Fig. 5, 6) on 10 Israeli young children (1996). Apparently, each concept such as: earth, water, horizon, has its image for the ego. The writers claim that it is important to Shoham enlightens the understanding of distinguish between the common concept of the human processes of creativity. He writes a culture and the personal concept of agiven (1977) that the continuity of our personality entity.Norman (1980)investigatedthe lays two different system entities opposing cognitive system. His experiments show that each other. One depends upon perception of the memory impressionsstartwitha space, time and cause, and thereforeits sensationalmemory. Normancallsthe cognitive disposition is built on logos, pace registration of the sensual perception that and sequentiality. The second is totalitarian, accumulates in the sensual memory, an out of time and synchronistic and acts bythe image. Thus, at the center of the conceptual penetrationof intuitionand by mystic framework there is the visual imagery. experiences. The authentic creator projects According to these authors, the personal on his creativity his ontologicalfeeling of imageryisidiosyncratic,and common uniqueness. An authentic creativity bears a critical attributes are designed in every given clear seal of the special configuration of the culture by symbols. In "Man and Symbols" creator. (1961), the last work by C.G. Jung, the A. Cohen (1990), who focuses on the author expresses his thought that inter-relations of psychology and literature, imaginative thinking is the basic character of writes that the child needs a tool in order to the human being. In this book he wrote that escape fears and tensions. He writesthat the every concept in our conscious mind hasits narratives and legendsare an excellent own psychic associations. Our imagination catharsis for conflict transfer. 306 301 there are many The research love. Down on the earth I love, and cars Background animals, friends of mine that The follow-up of one child in the process in the street. The rhinocerosthat I ride, the of building one concept, is givenhere. The elephants and tigers that I hug andalso snakes, scorpions and monkeys. I do not childisSagee Kopel. The concept: "a The snake cloud". beat them and do not kill them. When Sagee was three years old, he told does not bite me. The scorpiondoes not me that hewanted to live on a cloud. It pinch me. I also do not beat them and do not bothered me and I decided to ask him more kill them. about it. The next time I saw Sagee I asked We all use the ladder to go down anddo him why does he want to live on a cloud and not push. Father takes theblue car to work he told me his story. I was taken by itand and sometimes the white car. Mother takes promised to write it down for him. When I always the white car. found time I took Sagee to my study. We sat I am not afraid to live on a cloud. I love to together near my computer and I wrote the be in a cloud house and to go down by the story in the child's words. It wasduring our ladder without fear.SometimesIhold second conversation about the hydrological birdflies (he made one word from birds and cycle, that was focusing on the concept: "a butterflies) and snakes and scorpions in my cloud", that Sagee created in his verbal hands. language and picture writing, more of his In my story there are no blows, "Bums own metaphors of the concept.I could not Trachs" and no violence, therefore I am in a ignore the process of combining artistic and cloud." scientific meanings to a whole imaginative I tried not to interfere with the story. It was thinking, which I behold. only later on that I realized that it could be a good idea to have an observer. "A Boy Who Lives on a Cloud" (Sagee's story, translated from Hebrew). The "scientific conversation" "The boy who lives on a cloud is me. My Background name is Sagee. I am threeand a half years The entire experimental process, old. Together with me are my mother Yonat observation and writing were carried out by and father Omry. Also my brother Ofir that the author. Again, no external observer. The was born after me. I amthe firstborn and experiment took place both in the kitchen Ofir is younger than me (Fig. 4) and outdoors. The kitchen opens to a loan facingwest,fewkilometersfrom the Figure 4 Mediterranean sea. It was taken in august Sagee and Ofir 1995 when Sagee was 4 years old. I had a former conversation with him in the winter of that same year and at the same place. Sagee Told his "story" in December andI wrote it down for him aroundJanuary 96. All 4 activities took place in one year. For his forth birthday I produced 10 books of his story. Each book has his ownoriginal drawings.

The second conversation 0:Ora. S: Sagee. I looked at the sky and asked: how is the sky in the summer? S: A lot of sun, the color is blue. 0: How is the sky in the winter? In the cloud-house I have a ladder. Up in S: Cloudy. 0: What are clouds, do you the sky there are birds and butterflies that I 307 302 Figure 5 The Picture Language of theAmerican Indians (a test tool)

1 ---fri,

WI dri PipeThunder Pipe Making Peace Peace Pipe Pipe

--,...c.--.-1\v \t/$

Prisoners Jack Rabbit Medicinal Planta Porcupine Rower

. . . . _ ...... _ ...... _ ...... of7 k ii Rest- River Rain end Cloudy Ran Rattlesnake . 1 .(- ec -F + &(. = See See River Fight River Flood Road

?----- Smallpox ShellMountain Goat- Sick Sky

tit;:4/: /; /;-.-- \ / Soldier Snake Deep Snow Deep Snow Sociability

)---75--C- .1114. GreatSpirit- Bad SpiritilediuneEverywhere Spoiled Face Spirit-Spirits Above

-fr t. Stars Speak-Storm and Windy It Struck ... Starvation

308 ,30.3 Figure 6 "The Weather" (a test tool)

WEATHER

rP.-VoytAt k waucx,y, A01.40,n

Figure 7 Ofir's Drawing of a Cloud Figure 8 Sagee's Drawing of a Cloud

Discussion There are many symbols common to allbodies are "only few examples of natural human beings (Fig. 9). Many concepts that entitiesthat became archetypal symbols areusedto make thenaturalforces after being gods and the source for myth and comprehensible and are, called "scientific legend. The paper shows a small part of the concepts" are meaningful and powerful in process of a concept formation. nature. The sky, earth, sea and the celestial

309 Figure 9 Picture Language in Different Cultures

Aztec Indian Sumerian Egyptian Chinese Grandfather 1 ja ii.j Daughter Grandson (Walum( Olum) X Hostility, V Warfare 2 War Revolt " (Mixtec)

3 /\ Closed, Darkc\ To Be Dark (7.71Hermetically li<>e 4 0 Nothing In It, 0Cave (1-2.1 Closed Vase Cave Hollow Heart rct a((Codex nCuosd 5 6Heart (Ojibwa) 'OPHeart 4CfsHeart 44) Heart Side = Side 6 n \/Open. NV Sun. Bright /n6 Lightning 7 Light. Day Place 8 0 Areaor Object EJ Garden 0 House 9 Enclosure

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EST COPY VAiLA811 310 30.5 The follow-up of Sagee in his creative wishful remedy. Israel is also entirely under thinkingof "acloud"givesastrong theinfluenceof thetwentiethcentury endorsement to the literature cited in this technology.The development of media paper. It indicates that scientific thinking technologies has been perceived as occurs alongside artistic thinking. It makes threatening phenomenon by many indivi- clear that a child is a very creative human duals and various groups. In Israel, most of being. It shows that the child build his own the writers and poets opposed the new metaphors to deal with his conflicts, and at development of media communications. It is the same time his individual frameworks of most important for all sectors to understand the real are formed. The results given here that the new tools are most capable, and are

show anidiosyncraticformation . of a supposed to allow for creativity through new concept. channels, with higher levels of context and intelligence than in the past. Sagee and his Recommendations friends watch TV and video cassettes. They The recommendations embodied inthe play computer games. The study group has paper arefor the purpose of building accessto"educationalmaterials",but positive attitudes to modern communication Sagee's parentsare notangels.Omry, toolsin which the imagery components Sagee's father, is watching television daily further form, as in the past, an integral part after coming home, for several hours. They of the learning and interpersonal communi- live in a small apartment, and naturally, he cation processes. is exposed to a variety of programs. He has, N. Postman (1982) writes that childhood like every individual, his own priorities. is a social artifact, and claims that it has The author believes that the understanding come to its end in America. He blames the of the role of imagery inthe creativity media for the intensity of the aggression and processes, both scientific and metaphorical, hyper sexuality in the American society, will helpin building the right attitudes wishing that the computer would provide the towards the comeback of picture-language.

References

Ausubel, D. P. Novak, J. D. Hnesian, H. Miller, H.B. & Burton, J.K.(1994). Images (1968). Educational psychology A and imagery theory. In D.M. Moore & cognitive view point, Holt, Reinhart & F.M. Dwyer, Visual literacy : A Winston, N.Y. spectrum of visual learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Cohen, A. (1990). Bibliotherapy. Hebrew. Publication. Ach. Israel. Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Howard, R.W. (1987). Concepts and Retrospect and current status. Canadian Schemata: an introduction, Cassell Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 255-287. Education. Postman, N. (1982). The disappearance of Jung, C.G. (1959). Collected Works of C.G. Childhood. Delacorte Press. N.Y. Jung. The archetypes and the Collective Unconscious Vol. 9, Part 1. Bollingen Silverstein, 0. Tamir, P. (1991). In Clark- Serias, executive editor, William Baca, J. Beauchamp, D.G. Braden, R.A. McGuire. (Eds.), The perception of biological concepts through story animated movies. Jung, C.G. (1968). Man and his Symbols. Selected readings from the 23rd Annual Dell Publishing N.Y. Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association, 127-139. 311 306 Silverstein, 0. Tamir, P. (1994). The Role Silverstein, 0. (1996). Science picture of Imagery in Learning Biology Science language. (To be published in the Through Television. Selected readings Readings of the 4th International from the 3rd Symposium of the Research Symposium on Visual Verbal International Visual Literacy Literacy, Deventer, Holland.) Association, Delphi, Greece. Shoham, S.G. (1977) The Tantalus Ratio. A Silverstein, 0. (1995 ). In Beauchamp, D.G. Scaffolding for an Ontological Braden, R.A. Griffin, R.E. (Eds.), Personality Theory. Hebrew. Chricover Imagery in Scientific and Technological Co. Tel- Aviv. Israel. literacy For All. Selected Readings from the 25th Annual Conference of the Shoham, S.G. (1986) Rebellion, Creativity International Visual Literacy and Revelation. Hebrew. Urian Association, 325-330 Publishers. Tel-Aviv. Israel.

312 Grave Songs in Stone by J. Mark Hunter

Abstract This project's purpose is to record, chronicle, and categorize, and comment upon the visual symbols that adorn the grave stones of the dead. It is an extension of Cochenhour and Rezabek's 1995 study of the observation and classification of sepulchral images. The primary focus is on the Southern United States and the unique images found in Southern graveyards, visual themes which persist through time, and visual themes which have discontinued or emerged over time.

For so thou didst ordain when thou createdst certain data. A typical entry would record the me, saying, "Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt place, present date, sex of the person or people thoreturn." All we go down to the dust, yet even being memorialized, dates of birth and death, at the grave we make our song: Alleluia, alleluia, and the symbols on the stone. Among the questions that were asked by or alleluia. BCP, 1979, 482-483. emerged during this study are: Grave Songs in Stone are Southern graveyards different from others studied, if so, how? A survey of graven images which accompany what are visual themes exist through time? mortal remains yields a fascinating array of what visual themes have discontinued or symbols. It is established as a peculiar category emerged over time? of visual communication. Nowhere else in The author was pleased to discover wide modern or recent culture is Everyman lionized range of symbols that collectively constitute in stone. This project's purpose is to record, grave songs in stone. Having been taught a love chronicle, and categorize the visual symbols that and respect for grave yards as a young man, the adorn the grave stones of the dead and, as we author found the tasks involved in this project shall see, sometimes the living. This present to be welcome diversions that usually gave a report is indebted to the pioneering work done meditative respite to the tasks of the living. by John Cochenour and Landra Rezabek. The pattern of the study has been completely lifted Flora from Drs. Cochenhour and Rezabek. The author is appreciative of their generous sharing of A frequent use of flowers and trees was methodology and ideas. Their methods have observed. Brokenness as a theme showed been used in an intentional effort to parallel their greater evidence in the 18th and 19th centuries work for possible future collaboration. than the 20th. Numerous This is an examination of some of the Figure 1 images of broken rose graveyards of the Southeastern United States. Woodmen of the stems, uprooted willow To date, 25 cemeteries in Tennessee (14), South World or oak trees, or the stump Carolina (7), North Carolina (2), and Maryland of a tree were observed. (2) (so it's not a Southern state, at least it was a Figure 1 exhibits a border state) have been examined and marker of a grave of a photographed. To date, over 300 symbols have man who was a member been recorded and categorized into the seven of the civic organization, primary divisions established by Cochenhour "Woodmenofthe & Rezabek (1996). These categories are flora, World". One common fauna, humanoid forms, shapes/symbols, tools/ memorial metaphor is implements, scenes, and insignia. As with the the healthy tree cut off. prior study, many numerous images were The metaphor is of subclassified, or cross classified into other someone in their young categories. adulthood, "cut off in the The method of recording the images and prime of life." information about them was to photograph the Figure 2. Shows the symbol with a 35mm SLR and write down grave stone of a young woman who died in 313 308 EST COPY AVAILABLE middle Tennessee in 1858. The image is of a cluster of lilies of the valley. By far the more romanticized image of a Huck Finnlike common floweris the Easter Lily. Possible childhood remembered. Other images have originsfor included domestic cats and other dogs, usually this are that it Figure 2 in isolation. is a corruption Lilies of the Valley of the Easter Shapes/Symbols morn symbol, Along with humanoid forms, this is the largest or thatthe category observed. Among exclusively lilies of the Southern symbols is the Confederate Memorial valley were a marker (figure 5). This cross patee includes the favorite of the ,i'v 4.::--.. .7"-i Confederate young lady. battle flag in Figure 5 This last is .1,: \ '3)1 i-l'UM;/ Confederate Veteran TTAY I:. tEULT, '. the center suggested Itt 14TO ^ Vtri IS: t surrounded by Cross Patee because Lilies N,ti L.' Z. t 7 t , I an olive of the Valley wreath. The are the flower letters C. S. A. for May, the (Confederate birth month of State of the deceased. America) are on the outer Fauna arms of the Another common symbol is the dove, here cross. (figure 3.) seen flying from a perch in a tree. This is the The ecclesiastical symbol of the third member grave of a priest at St.John'sEpiscopal Church of the Christian trinity is the Holy Spirit, usually in Berlin, MD (figure 6). The simple stone represented by the dove. However, the dove/ marker has been adorned with the sea shells. Holy Spirit This was Figure 3 symbol is of reportedly Figure 6 Dove the dove done by a either young Grave stone with shells descending, lady who or hovering used to above a collect scene. The them with indication is him. Aside of the spirit from the of the deep individual is sentimental leaving the meaning of a touching personal remembrance, is .the ecclesiastical symbolism. The sea Figure 4 shell is a symbol of baptism spiritual earth and ascending in the A boy and his dog rebirth. This can be seen a another of the form of a dove. many life symbols which have cometo A theme that has emerged dominate the graves of the 20th century. in the 20th century is the The crosses which collectively form inclusionof petson figure 7 reflect the prevalence of this tombstones. Figure 4 not symbol,particularlyinsectarian only has the human figure graveyards. Of the many forms of this most of a boy, but includes the Christian of symbols, the latin cross isthe boy's dog as well. This is most simple and common. Theseexamples not a life figure in terms of all include and additional symbolwithin it representing a likeness of the context of the Latin cross. 7A contains an individual, but rather the 314 .;302 the XR (Chi Rho), which is the Greek often employed to depict the life of individuals. monogram of Christ. 7B contains the Easter Here it is used to memorialize the abrupt end Lily, a symbol of rebirth, and 7c contains a of the lives of children. theme of grape leaves symbolic of the Tools/Implements Figure 7 a, b, & c This is the grave stone of a painter (figure Latin Crosses 9a). The simple inclusion of a paint brush is the with XP, Easter Lily, & Grapes mark of the tool of the deceased' trade. The grave stone pictured in figure 9b includes a number of images and symbols along with this

Figure 9 a&b Bar bells and painter's brush

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weight lifter's bar bells. A new kind of sepulchral clipart has come into use. The heart or intertwined hearts are prime examples. They symbolize love. Here the hearts are reflective of the young man's wife and child.

Eucharistic feast. Scenes These columns are another representation of Figure 10 is a scenethat includes a number the theme of brokenness. The two pictured in of elements includingthe "Field and Stream" Figure 8 are treatment of animals.A common emergent of a set of theme is an Figure 8 four found Figure 10 outdoors Scene Broken columns in Rose Hill scene form Cemetery in a Columbia, sportsman's TN. They view with are the markers of game the graves running and of the four fish children of jumping. this family, all of whom Insignia died within This marker is an example of a sepulchral two weeks resume (figure 11). The couple (only one of of each whom has died) is memorialized along with the other. The individual. This stone attests to the numerous column is civic organizations, employment (Ford Motors 315 10 BEST COPY AVAILABLE and the railroad), mottos by This angel (figure 13), marking the which to live, and picture of Figure 11 grave of a woman who wasburied in the the couple. Insignia Hendersonville, NC public graveyard, also took on a meaning that transcended the life Humanoid Forms of the person being memorialized. This is The humanoid form is the angel that Thomas Wolfe wrote about prevalent through the last in his novel, Look Homeward Angel, (19xx). This humanoid figure stands on a threecenturies.Asa symbolic visual, it is the 4' pedestal and stretches over 12 feet in the most interesting to the air. Figure 14 author. There are numerous classifications of The Confederate the humanoid form. The life image, hands, Memorial is ubiquitous across Confederate angels, illustrative, and other. the South. This example memorial Nannie (figure 14) appears as a grave Figure 12 (figure 12) was a four memorial. The figure is a likeness of the soldier. Note Nannie year old who died in the late 19th century. the rifle being held has its She is buried at the barrel in the ground. An Greenwood cemetery attitude of resignation from in Clarksville TN. conflict. Thisisa prime Angels have been a theme representation of the since the beginning of New life image of the World cemeteries. In the first deceased. The statue of these two examples (figures is life sized with 14 a&b) is a Victorian treatment of angelic close detail ascension to heaven. The fig 14 b is the grave throughout. It was of three carvedbyfrom children of a Italian marble in family.The Italy. deaths were Of particular within two interest inthis years of each memorial is the nature of other. community involvement Another Figure 13 when it was stolen in the treatment in summer of 1996. A furor Look Homeward the burial of a ensued with numerous Angel child is this citizens coming forward to stone from offer rewards and other Old Zion Presbyterian Church in Columbia, help. The statue was found TN (figure 15). This photograph was taken in the possession of an from above. The image is that of a child honest antique dealer in asleep on a pillow. The pillow tops a three Boston, MA. He took it foot high slab stone which identifies the child upon himself to repair the and her parents. right arm which had been Figures 16 a&b are a damaged and to drive her common motif of clasped the hundreds of miles hands. These symbolic home to Clarksville. This gestures depict various grave marker returned meanings. Frequently, it is amid a public reception and symbolic of a hand shake acclamation of her return. with God. A hello to Grown men were said to heaven.Figure 16a have openly wept. Leaf Chronicle represents a parting. The legend reads, "farewell", and 316 311 the hands may be that of a woman and a man. example of visual punning is found in the stone which memorializes the life of Meyer Brick, a citizen of Clarksville, TN (figure 18). Red Figures 16 a&b granite is used in the manufacture of the stone. Clasped hands It is scored to depict a stack of bricks and stands out among the monochromatic grey of Greenwood Cemetery, Clarksville, TN. Themes The themes found peculiar to Southern graveyards are mostly associated with the Confederacy. While there are a very few individuals who continue the confederate theme today, it is one that represents a glimpse of history rather than a continuance. Another The other hand shake example is atop the grave theme which has been apparent form the past of a Mason. The Masonic symbol appears below three centuries is the depiction of a life image the hands and careful inspection reveals the stylized handshake of the Masons. Figure 18 Humor Combinations and Other 2.44Pft This is a charming example of Victorian excess (figure 17). Among the symbols present BETE K = are: a cross made of timbers, ivy (everlasting IMINNEN rag life), easter lilies (rebirth), an anchor (hope), ESENSEMINIONEMEI the rugged rock (salvation), a sleeping cherub (asleep in death), and a wreath of roses (symbolic of death and Figure 17 rebirth). Victorian Baroque The final sub categoryis of the deceased. In the 17th and 18th centuries, humor. Rare is this practice was restricted by cost of the tombstone manufacture. Today there are a number of that reflects relatively inexpensive methods of life depiction. levity or Among them are photo enamel portraits, and humor. laser etching from digitized images. Graveyards Areas of further study might include: areusually what symbols are understood today? marked by how is technology affecting the creation of tranquility, tombstones meditation, what are the methods of construction? seriousness, continued thematic inquiry and mourning, even among One carves into stone that which is to remain the newer as an (ever)lasting message. even so I am themes of reminded of Donne's imagery that lives even renewal of life longer. T1e poet and priest John Donne spoke amidst death. One young man's stone contained about death in one of his sermons: the quoted epitaph, "In a second maybe later." An allusion to someone habitually late? Perhaps It comes equally to us all, and makes us all even someone late to his own funeral. A striking equal when it comes. The ashes of an Oak in the

317 312 Chimney, are no epitaph of that Oak, to tell References me how high or large that was; it tells me not what flocks it sheltered while it stood, not The book of common prayer: and administra- what men it hurt when it fell. ...And when a tion of the sacraments and other rites and whirlwind hath blown the dust of the ceremonies of the church according to the Churchyard into the Church, and the man use of the Episcopal Church.(1979).The sweeps out the dust of the Church into the Seabury Press, New York. Churchyard, who will undertake to shift those (1627).LXXX Sermons, Christmas dusts again, and to pronounce, This is the Donne, J. Patrician, this is the noble flower, and this Day. the yeomanly, this the Plebeian bran. Cochenour, J.J. & Rezabek, L.L.(1996).Life John Donne, visions for the future: Converging ideas WOC Sermons,Christmas Day,1627. and images from sepulchral visuals. In Eyes on the future, converging images, ideas, and instruction, selected readings of the International Visual Literacy Associa- tion.

Mitre and Staff

318 .313 Visual Design Principles Applied To World Wide Web Construction by Donald D. Luck and J. Mark Hunter Abstract The purpose of the article is to describe three basic types of webpages and begin to create guides for page layout design based on principles consistent with principlesof visual literacy. Problems and solutions in web page constructionare explored with these principles in mind.

Visual Design and the Web projected? Is the interface just another type The World Wide Web (WWW) has of multi-media? The primary, though not openeda new horizonfor would besole use of the WWW, is to display static publishers of information in digital form. images on a color cathode ray tube (CRT). Until now, the power of the presswas Like applications of television and other available to those who owned a press. projected visuals, some WWW pagesare Today, the power to communicate with colorful and have a squarish aspect ratio millions of people is in the grasp ofanyone (4:5) which varies among endusers. Like who has a computer, the knowledge to print media, some WWW pages are text rich create a web page, and the $20-$30 per displays, but unlike print media the enduser month to maintain a connection to the has a great deal of control over the final Internet. One writer claims a new web page look of the document. is added every 30 seconds (Descy, 1996). The result is a media combining aspects of Given proliferation of web sites and wide projected and non-projected visuals, a media spread access to the medium, a general lack where the author relinquishes many of the of attention to the visual design elements of format controls over the final document this medium is apparent. Many developers found in other forms of media. Which rules of WWW sites have little or no fundamental of design apply to which pages is based understanding of the elements or importance primarily on the purpose of the page. The of visual design. remainder of this article establishesa set of This paper has two purposes: 1) establish categories for pages and parts of pages that categories of web pages and establish are used for the basis for design rules. design criteria for these types ofpages based on sound visual design principles. The intent Types of Pages is to help a WWW designer create a site that Billboard is not only rich in content, but is visually Billboard pages are the openingpage of and aesthetically accessible to theuser. any location or related group of pages. Good Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and SmaldinoBillboards accomplish two interrelated tasks. (1995) state the primary goals of visual The first is to get the users attention so they design, those being to: stop and examine the page. With over six ensure legibility; million documents available on the web it is reduce the effort required to interpret the important that the initial page grab the message; user's interest either by being aesthetically increase the viewer's active engagement interesting or indicating the information the with the message; user desires is available at the site. Second is focus attention on the most important to provide a beginning point where the user parts of the message. can find more information.Pages should How this is accomplished varies basedon the not be looked ,at in isolation. The Billboard type or purpose of web page being designed. page should initiate a continuinggraphic theme seen throughout the relatedpages. What Medium? The most important requirements fora good The categorization of the WWW and the Billboard page are aesthetic appeal, clarity graphical face of the Internet isopen to of content and purpose, and ease ofaccess some debate. Is it a projected visual? Non to linked information.

319 314 Figure 1 THE ADOBE HOME PAGE HTTP://WWW.ADOBE.COM

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Aesthetic appeal can be achieved through Directory/Index use of color, pattern, and arrangementof Directory and index pages provide a means visual elements and by appealing use of text. to easily find information at a web site or to Colorsandorganizationshould drawmove from information to information. attention without overpowering the message Some sites are exclusively indexes while of the page. The pattern established by this others use an index to send users to the opening page should continue throughout allappropriatelocationwithinthesite. related pages. Billboard layouts shouldWhichever, the primary purpose of a include the principles of good graphic designDirectory/Index page is reducing the effort including balance, alignment, shape, style,required by the user to find information. color scheme and color appeal. When Directory/Index pages should be as straight designing Billboard pages one should followforward as possible. Clarity and organization rules and principles for design of projectedare key. These can be achieved bycareful visuals. attention to using a consistent, appropriate organizational scheme throughout the index. The Adobe page in Figure 1 illustrates good Billboard design. When seen on a color To alleviate long scrolling lists many monitor has dramatic color that both draws directoriesuse a multi-column format. attention to the various parts of the page Columns place more information on a page. and is aesthetically appealing. Objects are When columns are used one must be aware aligned creating a pattern which the users of vertical and horizontal white space. Space eye can follow and allows the user toeasily is needed to separate both the columns and make sense out of what they are seeing. the entries in the columns to produce a Objects are defined by the vertical columns useable document. and by horizontal breaks. The page grabs Indexes should provide easy access to the your attention, defines what isthere, and most chosen sites. This can be accomplished provides easy access to the divisions at the by use of either a most often chosen list or the site. placingthemostpopularunder classification heading at the root level.

320 315 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Figure 2 YAHOO DIRECTORY HTTP://WWW.YAHOO.COM

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The page example above from Yahoo code.The most common means of illustratesgood directorydesign. Theproducing an indent is through the use of a directoryisbroken into two columns clear GIF graphic occupying a ten to fifteen providingmoreinformationwithout point horizontal space. scrolling. Major headings are logical and the most often used sub-directories are availableGraphics on the main page. The page also provides Like text pages, pages that provide and easily accessible search capability. information graphically are often the reason users are at a web site. Care should be taken Text to insure graphics on your pages follow as Textual pages provide information in close as possible to the same rules that written form. Text and graphic are often the govern placing the graphics in printed form. heart of a web site providing the meat for Special care must be taken to insure the which the user is searching. Although nographic is compressed using the correct research could be found, it is reasonable tocompressionalgorithm. Good graphics assume most extended text pages are printed becomes a compromise between the quality for reading. Textual pages should therefore of the graphic and its size. Quality graphics 'follow as closely to good print rules asadd to the aesthetics of a page but long possible keeping in mind the limitations of downloads reduce the usability of a page. the media. Rules for textual pages would An important use of graphics is for use as includenumberofwordsperline,an index through a process called image indentation, and justification. The indent, a mapping.Areas on an image are identified basic rule of text, is nonexistent in HTML as "hot spots" or links by the author.

321 318 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Clicking on these hot spots transfers the browsers do not recognize the command set in the same way of "extras" created for competingbrowsers. user to another location browser can clicking on hot text transfers the user.The A magnificent effect on one illustration become a muddied hodgepodgeof lines on Adobe home page in the first incapable of shows the use of an image-map. another. Some browsers are showing graphics at all. If a directoryis Input based solely on allowing the user to"click A unique feature of web pagesis theiron" parts of a graphic for navigationand the ability to allow input from the user.Often user's browser cannot showgraphics the the sole purpose of the page is toallow the page is wasted. user to provide input in someform. Clarity Size differences in user's monitors aswell and ease of use are primary requirementsfor as the type of computer ormonitor being such pages. It should be clear notonly whatused adds another variable. Agraphic which type of information isneeded, but also how fits well on a fifteen-inch monitor needs to that information can be entered and sentby be scrolled on a thirteen-inchlosing the Different the user. aesthetic input of the graphic. computers also portray colorpalettes in Multi-Purpose different ways. For example, agraphic While the following illustrate threeof the designed on a Macintosh using thestandard most common purposes ofweb pages andpalette may appear darker or muddiedwhen suggestions for a resulting style, these do not shown on an MS-DOS based machine. describe all the types of pages. The most common type of page maywell be a Solutions of the Layout/text combination of two or all three design for Inthesecases,styles .Web pages follow the rules of definedtypes. non- appropriate to the purpose should beapplied projected visualsinsome cases, to that part of the page. projected in others. When pages are meant to capture the attention of the userrules for Problems in Authoring projected visuals are appropriate. Rulesfor The biggest problems facing web pagenon-projected visuals or text should be designers are lack of common pagelayout followedascloselyaspossible when tags, variability in the formsof Hyper Text designing pages that provide information. Markup Language,andvariabilityin Common rules of text aredifficult to equipment. Hyper Text Markup Language, enforce. Although lengths of text perline the language of web pages, does notcontain should remain between 50 to 70characters standard commands for setting parameters (Arntson, 1993) this is nearly impossible to easily established in text. When one"lays enforce when users are able to settheir own out" a page in HTML one cannotbe certain font size and face, and width of page.There of the width and therefore lengthof the are ways to bypassthese textlayout document, the size or style of font, or even problems. the type face. Most browsers allowthe It is possible to turn all text tographics. individual to use standard settings forfont This gives the author absolute control over and size but these settings canbe easily common text formatsbut requires the changed in the two most often usedbrowsers author to make a separate page forpeople to meet the needs or aesthetictemperament without graphic browsers. It alsoincreases printing, of theuser.Such standards are beingthe download time, complicates introduced by the two largestbrowserand adds to the authoring process.In manufacturers but haven't yet been adopted addition, the author must establishall links much by all browser manufacturers orapproved bythrough an image map rather than the Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF), easier and more universally used textlink. the organization that oversees the"official" Authors can place web pages inAdobe HTML code. Acrobat format or other cross-platform Although all browsing software recognizesreadableformat.Thisinsureslayout a standard set of commands or tags,some integrity but requires the user tohave 322 317 additional software that while free requires Colors can be improved by creating images downloading andsetupandadditionalusing the color palette of a specific browser. memory overhead. The graphics will be adequate on any browser Some web authors provide guides on textand look spectacular on the browser for documents suggesting the font face, size, and which they were designed. width of page to be used. Others may try One concern for web authors is insuring pre-formatting the text. The new browsers hot spots on image-maps are identifiable. by Netscape and Microsoft allow the user to Most browsers provide a visual clue by set font face, and font size relative to the changing the cursor from arrow to browsing base size established by the user in theirfinger when passing over a hot spot but browser setting. This produces typographical many users are unaware of this change and effects closer to those achieved in print but other visual clues are necessary to inform still does not control for width of page or the user of the hot spot. These visual clues base font size. These tags work only on the could include text stating the image is linked specific browsers mentioned and the text to other pages, text, or animations. Always appears the default standards for other include a textual index on the page for those browsers. without graphic browsers. Whenever marking up text it is best to use logical rather than physical styles. Logical Testing the Page styles refer to markups such as "strong" or The first step in checking a page should "citation." Each browseriscapable of be validation. Validation checks your pages showing these styles in some manner. All for nonstandard tags, misapplied tags, or browswer can not show' logical markups suchimproper syntax. Various services such as as "italics" or "bold." The use of italics is thoseatthe WebTechslocationat discouraged as it is illegible at the default size HT TP ://www.webt ec hs. com /html- val -sv c/ of most browsers. exist which will validate your pages over the web. Before publishing a page itis always Graphics wise to view the page in many browsers both When including graphics in a page authorsgraphic and text based. By trying your page should always remember to include alternate in different browsers you can see what text for those who do not have access to a problem may happen for your users and graphical browser. Graphics on the web usealleviate them before the page is made two formats, GIF and JPEG. GIF should bepublic. used for graphics with large sections of solid If you want to produce a page that uses color. JPEG should be used with graphicsspecific tags not usable on some browsers with subtle changes in color or transitions one might give the user a choice of type of from color to color. Use of the wrong page to access and let them make the choice format can result in larger files or banding. based on the browser they use or use. With When using GIF files experiment with proper softwareinformation from the decreasing the color palette. Web graphics browser thatisreceived by the server are a balance between size and picturesoftware can be used to select the type of quality. Remember there may be people page to send back. In either case additional downloading that beautiful 250K picturework is required to produce multiple forms using a 2400 Baud Modem. of the same page. It may be simpler to Also, remember to downsize your pictures produce a single page that uses only standard to insure the picture will fit the user's tags and can be viewed on any browser. monitor. Most browsers use some space with command buttons, sliders, or information palettes. Having to scroll to see an entire picture destroys the aesthetic value of a picture. Often it is better to use thumbnails or small pictures that can be clicked to load the entire large picture if the user chooses. Color palettes differ among computers. 323 318 References

Arntson, Amy E. Graphic Design Basics, 2nded., New York, Harcourt,Brace, Jovanovich, 1993, p. 89. Descy, D.E. (1996) All about the internet: evaluating internet resources. Tech Trends for Leaders in Education and Training. V41, no4, pp 3-5. Heinich R., Molenda, M., Russell J.D., Smaldino S.E. (1996) Instructional media and technologiesforlearning.5thed. Merrill, Columbus, OH.

324 '319 Vertical Hegelianism And Beyond: Digital Cinema Editing by Roger B. Wyatt

Abstract The dynamic interaction of new paradigmatic frameworks with digital tools and techniques has reinvented Sergie Eisenstein's conception of vertical montage. The tight synchronization of multiple tracks is replaced by an organic process of image layering creating new meaning.

Hegelian Cinema either of the two shots alone that contains Cinema as an art and communication the resulting idea. form is entering its second century of V.I. Pudovkin's and Lev Kuleshov's development. From an editing perspective, experiments with shot juxtaposition the work in particular of Griffith, explored this relationship. Pudovkin Eisenstein, and Hitchcock elevated reported that, "Kuleshov and I made an cinematic editing from mere narrative interesting experiment. We took from some assembly to Hegelian juxtaposition of film or other several close-ups of the well- image and sound sequences, creating new known Russian actor Mosjukhin. We chose meaning in the process. Sergei Eisenstein, close-ups which were static and which did the most formally theoretical of these not express any feeling at all- quiet close- filmmakers, conceived of editing in ups. We joined these close-ups, which were horizontal and vertical terms. The shots of a all similar, with other bits of film in three horizontally edited sequence occupy the different combinations. In the first same screen space at different times. combination, the close-up of Mosjukhin Chronologically sequential edit patterns are was immediately followed by a shot of a created. Horizontal editing is the linear plate of soup standing on a table. It was assemblage of shots to form sequences that obvious and certain that Mosjukhin was unfold over time. looking at this soup. In the second The Hegelian construct of thesis in combination, the face of Mosjukhin was collision with antithesis that yields a new joined to shots showing a coffin in which synthesis is at the heart of Sergei lay a dead woman. In the third, the close-up Eisenstein's editing theories. Cinematically, was followed by a shot of a little girl Hegel would be expressed as shot one plus playing with a funny toy bear. When we shot two equals idea three. Eisenstein stated showed the three combinations to an that, "montage is an idea that arises from audience, which had not been let into the the collision of independent shots-shots secret the result was terrific. The public even opposite to one another ...." raved about the acting of the artist. They (Eisenstein, 1949, p. 49) pointed out the heavy pensiveness of his Eisenstinian collision of images yielding mood over the forgotten soup, were new meaning is one of the most powerful touched and moved by the deep sorrow techniques that filmmakers use. The with which he looked on the dead woman, creation of meaning through gaze is based and admired the light, happy smile with on this technique. An editor selects a shot, which he surveyed the girl at play. But we perhaps a close-up, of someone looking. knew that in all three cases the face was Joined by a cut, the next shot reveals what exactly the same." (Pudovkin, 1929, p. is seen. It is the juxtaposition of the two 168) The linear assemblage of shots shots, linked by a cut, in the mind of the constructs meaning in horizontal editing. viewer that creates the observer observed Eisenstein conceived of vertical editing relationship. There is nothing inherent in patterns primarily as the synchronization of 325 3 2,9 simultaneous image and sound elements, worldview of interdependent systems that particularly music, to create cinematic are self-organizing, self-renewing, and self- meaning by means of the relationship transcending. (Capra, 1982 p. 269, Kelly, between them. The orchestral score with its 1995) many staffs filled with intricate, but At the technological level, the rise of synchronized notation, was Eisenstein's cybernetic and electronic technologies, the inspiration for vertical montage. He softmachines of both Jim Morrison and observed that, "... this new kind of John Von Neumann, replete with montage, associated with this film, I have computers and networks, now dominate the named: vertical montage.... Everyone is technological landscape. Both the paradigm familiar with the appearance of an and the technology are locked in an orchestral score. There are several staffs, intimate spiral of mutual definition. The each containing the part for one instrument new machines are as much result of the new or a group of like instruments. Each partis worldview as conversely the new developed horizontally. But the vertical worldview is a creation of the new structure plays no less important a role, machines. From a systems perspective, a interrelating as it does all the elements of technological system is composed of four the orchestra within each given unit of interactive elements: hardware, software, time. Through the progression of the thoughtware, and context. It is a human vertical line, pervading the entire surround that provides the system context. orchestra, and interwoven horizontally, the The impact of these profound changes is intricate harmonic musical movement of only beginning to be felt within the domain the whole orchestra moves forward" of cinematic theory and practice. (Eisenstein, 1947, p. 74). He goes on to say The cinematic technology revolution of that, "when we turn from this image of the the last decade along with the revisioning of orchestral score to that of the audio-visual the theory base has led to a recon- score, we find it necessary to add a new ceptualization of vertical editing. Computer part to the instrumental parts: this new part utilization and non-linear editing technique is a "staff' of visuals, succeeding each other facilitate a new form of juxtaposition of and corresponding, according to their own meaning. This is accomplished by the laws, with the movement of the music-and digital overlay and underlay of multiple vice versa" (Eisenstein, 1947, p. 74). images. Under cybernetic conditions vertical editing becomes multiple images Paradigms, Technology, and Cinema layered in space and simultaneous in time, The Eisensteinian editing theories and rather than synchronized juxtapositions of techniques embody the values of the strips of sound and image. Examples of the dominant paradigm of the time. They were new context of vertical editing can be grounded in a linear, assembled, found within music videos, commercials, progressive, and fixed worldview of the and the works of the avant garde. positivist paradigm of the industrial era. In For decades layered images have been the context of moving image editing, these created with the analog technology of the ideas have stood without much extension film optical printer. However, optical for well over fifty years. In recent years, printing is not even remotely similar to both paradigm and technology have working with digital technology. The changed. Both developments are affecting dynamics of creative digital technology all elements of the theory base of moving work are very different. Optical technology images. requires a planned and rigid sequence of At the paradigmatic level, emergent steps to he taken in a specific order. The systems theory derived from biology and results cannot he seen or revised in realtime. ecological consciousness, posits a The film must be developed first. In a 326 321 planned process such as this, there is little the context that the story required. In a film room, if any, for spontaneity. The or video context, this shot would be for all techniques of this technology, informed by intents and purposes unusable. In analog an industrial age paradigm, demand a media, image elements are locked into a precise and planned approach from which fixed relationship with other image there can be no deviation. elements. The electric analog video process of Digital information is highly fluid. It can chromakey extends the process. easily take on new forms. The ease with Chromakey is a video technique that which fonts are changed in a text file serves electronically eliminates a specified color, as an example. Because a digital image is usually the background of a shot and its not fixed it can be revised at any time. By replacement with another image. While underlaying a forest grove behind the two more fluid than the optical printer, characters, a new context was created. The chromakey does not allow for the original image had been reinvented. Fluid techniques of selective replacement and the digital images invite restructuring. They are near infinite layering of multiple images, self-renewing. with no degradation of resolution, that a The process was by no means complete. digital approach allows. A digital approach The underlayed image was now overlayed utilizing digitized images reworked in with the image of a vine in the foreground software facilitates the painterly approach that was eventually pulled aside by an of the artist. unidentified hand entering the frame. This The techniques of digital technology are new image emerged out of the process of informed by emergent systems thinking. vertical editing not from any specification Accordingly self-organizing, self-renewing, called for in the script. Digital editing is and self-trancending elements are present. self-organizing. In a digital environment, results are viewed The resulting three layer shot is very and revised in realtime. Very often, the different from what was described in the spontaneous juxtaposition of layers leads to script. The script has predicted nothing. Its the creation of. new meaning. Within the importance lies in providing an initial digital frame immediate feedback and condition for development. Where the revision facilitate self-organized meaning original long shot presented an objective that is emergent from the process. As the and neutral view of the two characters. ease of revision facilitates multiple and New meaning was created by the overlay alternate juxtapositions, digital editing of a hand entering the frame and removing becomes self-renewing, always reinventing the vine. The long shot, no longer the sequence. Because the layering of objective, was now the perspective of an imagery creates new meaning, vertical unknown viewer. It is solely the editing becomes a self-trancending process. juxtaposition of images that has created the The layering of unrelated images creates new viewer realization. By fusing disparate unexpected juxtapositions that yield new images, the new combined image is self- meanings. transcendant containing new meaning that is not to be found in the separate image Digital Vertical Montage elements. The author's work of Digital Cinema, The The Eisensteinian notion of vertical Songs of Steel, contains many examples of editing ha'§ been restructured. No longer these processes. One wide angle long shot does the term solely refer to the symphonic contained a view of Titus and Talifer, two synchronization of visual elements with principle characters, warily advancing soundtrack elements. Informed by a towards the camera. The original video systems view, implemented by digital tools image, with a stage as background, lacked and techniques, vertical editing has 327 322 acquired new meaning. Vertical montage Bibliography now creates virtual environments. As a Capra, F. (1982) The Turning Point. NY: result, new and innovative forms of Simon and Schuster. cinematic expression and meaning are Eisenstein, S. (1947). Film Sense. NY: emerging. Vertical editing is a key element Harcourt Brace & World, Inc. in establishing a painterly cinema. The crisp Eisenstein, S. (1949). Film Form. NY: construction of Hegelian meaning is giving Harcourt Brace & World, Inc. way to the more elliptical and emergent Kelly, K. (1995). Out of Control. meaning of layered digital imagery. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Pudovkin, V.I. (1970). Film Technique and Film Acting. NY: Grove Press.

328

:3,23 Digital Cinema Principles and Techniques for Multi-Media Development by Dr. Roger B. Wyatt Abstract Digital Cinema is a theoretical construct for understanding moving images produced and viewed in a digital context. The shift in perspective that emanates from the models' view leads to fundimental change in the production process of moving images. An introductory examination of thoses changes is the focus of this paper.

Paradigms and Models Digital electronic technology systems are The Songs of Steel is a work of Digital composed of a quartet of elements: Cinema. It contains an original story that hardware, software, thoughtware, and their unfolds in the Fifth Century A.D., the time context. In this model, hardware is seen as of the fall of the Roman Empire. The work the physical appratus itself. As such, it is the is concerned with perceptions of most tangible element in the model. The paradiagmatic shift observed in the context software element of the model represents of change. The Songs of Steel is linked to application programs, operating systems, the continuity of motion picture and other programs. They are composed of development by the utilization of many thousands or perhaps millions of lines of film noir conventions. These include coded instructions. When run, they identiy shift, a romantic triangle, and transform hardware from an inert and betreyal among conspiritors. Perhaps The purposless box crammed with electronics Songs of Steel is an example of a new film into useful and productive technology. genre, Roman Noir. Within software, hardware finds both Where the work diverges from the purpose and identity. Thoughtware is the continuity of motion picture development model component concerned with the is in its digital aspects. The Songs of Steel techniques of technology. These are the can be described as an abstract motion combination of skills, views, values, and painting. While abstract conditions don't techniques that the user brings to bear when solely depend on a digital state, these undertaking productivity tasks with digital specific images could only emerge from a technology. Context is the human surround digital context. With intensive utilization of or environment that enfolds all technology. computer visualization techniques that Organizational values, emotions, history, range from the exotic morphing to the desires, and fears all combine to create a mundane cut and paste, The Songs of Steel dynamic interaction with both user and is highly abstract in appearance. Digital technology. tools, processes, and a digital conceptual The four elements of the model are in a view are necessary conditions for mutual casual relationship with eachother. development of this project. A mutually causal relationship is a context Nineteen ninety five is an appropriate sensitive relationship where to alter one year to examine issues arising from the element in the relationship is to change production of moving images. This year them all. For example, an advance in marks the centennial of the birth of film. hardware capacity, such as a faster cpu On December 28, 1895, at a cafe in Paris, (Central-Processing Unit) opens new the Lumiaire Brothers organized the first possibilities for software applications. public screening of a motion picture.Thus Mutually causal. cinema has completed its first century and Paradigms are the most fundimental is now embarked upon its second.This thoughtware elements in the Digital Systems second century appears to be a digital one. Technology Model. Thomas Kuhn, in his 329 .324 book, The Structure o fScientific non-linear, suprising jumps. Wireless email Revolutions, (Kuhn, 1962) reveals the or a video dialtone are the results of this crucial importance of conceptual non-linear form of development. Desktop frameworks within disciplines and the video technology is the result of the fusing process of change that leads to the of computer and video hardware. replacement of one paradigm by another. Contemporary society is undergoing a Three Phases of Change paradigm shift. Changes in worldview of Digital moving image production systems this magnitude decenter everything, are the result of a three phase technology including moving image production. restructuring process. In the first phase new Contemporary global culture is evolving technology enhances existing tasks and from a mechanistic worldview of an age of processes. It makes them better, faster, industry into an emergent systems model of cheaper, or easier. At this stage what these an age of information. Fundamental values terms actually mean is unclear. and assumptions are starting to shift. The The author's own attraction to computing new framework emerges from new serves as an example of a phase one understandings derived from systems situtation. At the end of the seventies, the theory and biology (Capra, 1983, Kelly, author had been an active filmmaker for ten 1995). Emergent systems are self- years. In an independent film production organizing, self-maintaining, self-renewing, context of that period, the most trying stage self-transcending. of the process was the production of titles. A digital production system for a digital Producing white text on a black cinema emerges from this theoretical background was a time consuming task context. Such a system is emergent and not demanding precise execution of many fixed. A digital production reflects a shift component suhtasks. Failure at any stage from a positivist, logical, and sequential would doom the entire effort, necessitating world of crisp logic to an indeterminant, starting over from the beginning. High nonlinear, and world of fuzzy logic. These contrast Kodalith film demands precise values inform, shape, and surround the exposure or the image will contain muddy production process of digital cinema. whites and grayish blacks. Slightly soft The Digital Cinema production system is focus is unacceptable when presenting text. located within a Technology Quintet In a pre-spell check environment a composed of video, computers, mass misspelled word renders a credit screen storage devices, telecommunications, and unuseable regardless of correctness of audio. These technology groups develop in exposure or rightness of focus. Title two ways. First there is the linear production created an environment of developmet of technologies within the demanding complexity. group. The development of 286, 386, 486, However, change was at hand. The Pentium in the Intel CPU series serves as an author's first exposure to a microcomputer example. This form of development is came when leafing through a magazinein usually sequential and progressive, though Polks Models, a hobbyist store in New York on occasion these evolutions are punctuated City. The magazine contained an by revolutions. The second form of advertisement for a microcomputer. development that occurs is the merged Unaware of computing, the author was interactions among technology groups to attracted by the display of electronic text on form hybrid technologies. An online a computer screen. The authorrealized that database requires both telecommunications titles composed of electronic text could he and computing technology in order to to he filmed off the monitor. A new technology implemented. Merged technology would facilitate title production in amode development often occurs as the result of that was better, faster, and cheaperthan 330

3 2.5 EsT COPY AV working with 16mm Kodalith film. This occupies a far different conceptual space insight was a phase one realizationfocusing from that occupied by Letraset white text title card. The on improvementof an existing sequence of on a black background tasks in the context of the existing process. problems of whether text is alligned in a Phase two is an integrative stage. In an straight line or not become irrelevant in the integrative stage of the model, processes are new context. A problemthat goes away is still viewed in the context of theold, but the result. are starting toshift in new directions. At What are the implications of these this point, a technological integrationof processes and models for DigitalCinema? multiple changed tasks into an integrated Taken as a whole they reveal the dynamics whole occurs. Individual tasks are of change and its structure. They are redefined as sequential hierarchies of signposts that remind us that change process are flattened andjoined. As a result changes. Innovation restructures not only of new technology innovation, the taskof process but outcomes as well.Digital creating a white text on a black background processes will seek out and enhancedigital title screen became a trivial one.The attributes. Yes, McLuhan is right, we multiple tasks of insuring that Letraset navigate forward looking through the rear paste-on letters are properlyaligned, title view mirror. But at a certain point one gets card making, card alignment, cardlighting, the mirror out of the way and starts looking exposure, focus, and filmdevelopment, all through the windshield. With the new gaze crucial to the earlier film process, are either the third phase begins. eliminated or compressed. Title production Digital Cinema is a phase three is now done in one place by one person at technological development. By seeking out one time on the computerdesktop. and enhancing digital attributes, digital Individuals and small groups are cinema acknowledges a century or more of empowered. abstract art and an age of information. The At the third phase, technological Songs Of Steel is not photo realistic at all. reconceptialization not only alters the tasks To take a photograph, shoot film. To work and the processes, but the rational and the digitally, digitize. outcomes of the process as well.Not only how, but why is redefined. Both traditional Moving Image Production Phases goals as well as problems encountered Moving images from the imagemakers while achieving them become irrelevant. point of view, go through a four phase The third phase of technological process regardless of medium,format, or restructuring is informed by the nature of scale. The four phases are: pre-production, problems.There are three classes of production, post-production, and problems: problems solved, problems not dissemination. These processes apply solved, and problems that go away. In the whether the production is film, video, or third phase of technological restructuring, digital in format. These processes are many process problems arerendered engaged equally regardless of production irrelivant. Whether anyone, let alone the status. Wether a project is amateur or author, can position Letraset letters in professional is irrelevant. straight and parallel lines no longer matters Pre-production is concerned with because changes in both the technique and answering the fundimental questions: what technology of text production within am I going to do and how amI going to do moving images has been reconceptualized. it? Scenario development and visualization In a computer context, a new digital of it are primary activities of this stage. To conception of text which spins, flips, and think of going over to Walmart and buying tumbles has emerged. The DVE (digital videotape to record a baseball game is just video effect) notion of text that moves as much a pre-productionactivity as storyboarding an action sequence for a systems paradigm. By means of AI, Hollywood epic. Logistical and financial Dramatica acts as an advisor to the scenario planning are other scalable activities of a writer. The program poses questions pre-production process. Deciding to get in regarding various elements of the emergent the car and when to drive over to the field work including clarity of story structure or for the game while remembering to bring character development. The program poses some cash for gas is just as much a part of increasingly numerous and subtle questions. logistical and financial pre-production as is Dramatica extends the statement, "I read the how to put together and pay for script..." to include "and the script reads Waterworld at the other end of the me." Clearly something new has emerged. continuum. The pre-production process of pre- Production is concerned with element visualization is also transformed by digital creation. Quite often it is the shortest, but technology. Storyboard Artist, a pre- often the most intense phase of a project. production visualization application, solves Images and sounds are constructed, a problem with storyhoards. Traditionaly recorded on tape, on film, or disk. They are storyboards are similar to comic books in the raw materials of a project. Production, that they are a sequence of drawings like pre-production, is a scalable process representing an action sequence. As they applying equally to projects of all formats are a sequence of still silent images, they do and sizes. not accuratly reflet the dynamics of time Post-production, the third phase of the within the production. As Cinema is a time process, compises the tasks of image editing art, traditional storyhoards are limited in and soundtrack construction. The creation this respect. Storyboard Artist utilizes of meaningful sequences out of production Quicktime, a cross-platform standard elements is the result of these tasks. developed by Apple to support dynamic The dissemination phase connects a data. Accordingly, a Storyboard Artist project with its audience. The scale of project always presents a consistant complexity of this stage can range from unfolding of time. bringing a tape to show to a group of Digital storyhoards point the way to a friends to the global distribution of a first non-linear, emergent organizational run motion picture.. approach to the four phase production All four phases are profoundly affected process. It is possible to start editing, a post- by digital restructuring. New digital tools production activity, during pre-production available at all price levels will reorganize before any sequence is recorded. moving image production into a very Sequencing, timing, camera position, and different form with very different more can be worked out in pre-production. dynamics, values, and purposes. The new Storyboard Artist becomes a Digital Cinema tools are here and the process is underway. simulator. By working out sequences in Here are some examples. advance, problems can he anticipated. The Dramatica, a scenario development simulation process feeds insights forward software package, alters the pre-production into the actual production. process. Dramatica is an AI (Artificial Non-linear structure reorganizes the Intelligence) application. An expert system sequence and order in which creative is built into it. This does not mean that one participants contribute to the development can put in a collection of names, dates, of a project. For example, in the industrial places, and information, shake and bake the linear analog context, musicians rarely elements, returning a few hours later ready become involved until post-production to recieve a finished script as output. What editing. Their music must be timed to actual actually occurs is an implentation of the edited sequences. As a result, while their self-organizing aspects of the the emergent musical contributions greatly enhance any project, because of the late stage thatthey start and stop of each shot, describing enter a project, the scope of their wether each shot is a long, medium,or contribution has definite limitations. In a close-up, and a great deal more. To dothis non-linear feedforward reconceptualization well requires spending six hours oflogging of pre-production that StoryboardArtist for every hour of tape recorded.The Scene represents, virtual footage can he made. Stealer software containsan AI element. Now musicians can participate inthe The application is sensitiveto difference. It beginning of a project rather than waiting can differentiate between pans,zooms, and until the third stage pre-productionprocess camera movement on one hand, and actual begins. They can contributemore as a camera starts and stops. This capability result. A virtual rendition of the work, means Scene Stealer can identify the animated and drawn, emerges froma new starting and stoping points ofa shot. If it fully digital conception of pre-production. senses a 100% change in the arrangement As the project moves into production, of pixels in an image, it knows thatthere is digital storyboardsequences can be a 99% probability that the shot has ended. replaced with more fully realized footageas A new shot will have anew arrangement of it is produced. pixels. With a vcr on playback, theprogram At the production phase, the digital can be set to grab and digitize auser restructuring continues. Cameras that specified amount of frames, perhapsone record digital rather than analog imagery frame out of every thirty. As it identifies are becomming operational at all levels of and records, the software automatically production. One of the most innovative is notes the time code location for thestart the Ricoh RDC-1 digitalcamera. It weighs and stop of every shot on thetape. Scene nine ounces and can recordup to 492 still Stealer also records the audio track. A images, 100 minutes of sound, or four full comprehensive abstract and catalog ofa motion five second JPEG videosequences, sequence of moving images has been with sync sound at 30 fps ontoan eight created automatically. Once againnew meg PCMCIA. This card has the technology has restructureda production dimensions of a credit card. The RDC-1 is process. the first phase of what is tocome. Record Premiere 4.2 is a non-linear editing five second secquencesnow, record hours software application.Theprogram reflects in the near future. By recording digitalin the digital restructuring of post-production. the first place there is no need to undertake Priemere makes irrelevant the problemof the cumbersome and time consuming task video tape or film footage shuttling.The of digitizing analog video or film intoa Songs of Steel productionprocess yeilded digital format. This is a phasetwo approximatly 22 hours of footage. It tooka technological process that consolidatesor year, at the rate of one day a week, to edit eliminates separate tasks ina production that mountain of footage downto one hour sequence. and 52 minutes: It is probable thatup to At the post-production stage, Scene one third of that time was consumed Stealer, an ISA hardware card with waiting for videotape to rewindor to fast accompaning applications software, forward. In analog video editing, there continues the process of making certain appears to he a perverse law at work. It problems irrelevant. Theprocess of states that whatever shot the editor is logging footage is a time consuming task. working with, the nextone the editor This tedious yetnecessary task is the wishes to work with is locatedat the other process of cataloging the mountain of end of the tape. Premiere bringscut and footage that any productiongenerates. It paste into the editing process. Under digital involves identifying footagecontent, conditions the editor grabsan image and recording the time code locationfor the brings it into a time line. When compaired 333 32-8 BEST COPY AVAILABLE to the analog processesof analog film and framework mutually interacting and video editing, digital word processingfor informing a new array of digital tools. The systems are self- moving image sequences is a verydifferent new view reveals emergent self-renewing, way to edit movingimages. It represents organizing, self-maintaining, both a process but more importantly, a self-transcending. As we have seen, Digital Self- conceptual shift in not only how butwhat is Cinema works organically grow. flattens done in the post-production process. organizing. Digital technology Dissemination, the fourth stage of the chains of process sequences.Self-renewing. the new moving image production processis also New opportunities revealed by by reorganized under digital conditions.The pardigmatic lens and operationalized World Wide Web is in the beginning stages new digitaltechnologies creates of developing the capacity to process feedforward and feedback loops of moving images. When that isaccomplished, creativity and innovation. Self-trancending. the drive-in will be transformedinto the Emerging from digital pluses, wrought of surf-in. Because the web is keyword silicon and vision, a Digital Cinemareveals searachable, both Digital Cinemaproducers images of beauty and awe. and viewers can search out theother. A highly disperrsed audience on aglobal Bibliography scale can form together to become avirtual Capra, F. (1982). The Turning Point.NY: audience for a virtual movie. Thisis only Simon and Schuster. possible as a result of digitalrestructuring Kelly, K. (1995). Out ofControl. of the process. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. The moving image production system Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structuresof that we end with is far differentthan the Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, one it replaces. It isthe result of the IL:University of Chicago Press. interaction of a new paradigmatic

334 1322 Wyoming Tombstone Symbolism: A Reflection Of Western Culture by John Cochenour & Landra L. Rezabek Abstract Eleven Wyoming cemeteries are examined for visuals that can be related to Western culture and tradition. A rich tradition of such symbols found in the study are presented within the following categories: environment, artifacts, and people. The study concludes that memorial visuals reflect to a great degree the culture and traditions of the surrounding society.

You was there when Ed got hisn, the authors classified a large number of visuals Boy that killed him's still in prison, pertaining to life in the West that are summa- And old Lucky George is rich and livin' high. rized in this paper. The purpose is to demon- Poor old Tom, he come off worse; strate the importance of Westem culture and tra- Got his leg broke, died of thirst, ditions of the people who live and die in Wyo- Lord but that must be an awful way to die. ming by sharing tombstone symbolismrep- Bruce Kiskaddon resentations of the activities and environment Cowboy poetry speaks to people about many of the living through the memory provided by themes, but the struggle of living life in the West the dead. In this way the authors hope to con- is one theme that recurs frequently. As the above tribute to answering the question, "What can stanza from Kiskaddon states, being a cowboy the images on tombstones tell us about the was never as glamorous as it appears in the people and culture that produced them?" movies. Not withstanding this reality, most The visuals are arranged in the following cat- people who live in the West, certainly those who egories: environment, artifacts, and people. live in Wyoming, seem to be proud of the tradi- Within each category, visuals and interpretations; individualism and toughness demon- tions will be presented from tombstones that strated by the earlier occupants of this land, reflect some aspect of Western life or tradition. native and emigrant alike. This attitude is evi- We have interpreted this tradition as that repre- dent from the high number of Western motifs sented by the American pioneer during the lat- that can be seen on the tombstones in Wyoming ter half of the 19th century. Unfortunately, this cemeteries. In eleven cemeteries in Wyoming, limitation ignores the significant traditions and Figure 1 Figure 2 Waterwindmill and stock tank. WaterFishing in stream. Figure 3 amples of the use of water as an environmen- Watermountain waterfall tal, artifactitious, and personal symbol on tombstone visuals are numerous. Figure 1 is a good example of the use of water to symbolize life in a semi-arid region. The windmill, stock tank, and cattle combine to form a picture of a life spent where water was hard bought and wel- comeda source of life. Figure 2 is of a stone that on the surface portrays a life that enjoys fishing. This sport is certainly not limited to the West, however the combination of the mountains, evergreens, and stream is a West- ern motif that provides strong symbolism of the regeneration of the soul. The deer, waterfall, rocks, and trees in Figure 3 seem to speak to culture of the Native American as well as oth- each of the water themes and symbolizes a pure, ers. Figure 5 Environment Windbanner tree As with any culture, Western tradition is very much influenced by the environment in which it exists. In Wyoming, the most significant features of the environment are the broad vistas and high elevations, the semi-arid climate, the wind, the natural resources and geologic features, the wildlife, and the plant life. The environmental features that occurred most frequently on tombstones were related to water, wind, wildlife, trees, wildflowers, and o f course, the mountains. Traditionally, water symbolizes a source of ,A-4.01WVA. life, a vehicle of cleansing, and regeneration PAtt.:*,:.M..4wakmm (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1994; Hall, 1994). unblemished setting that is full of life and gen- Within the Western traditions of Wyoming, ex- eration. The wind in Wyoming is legendary and is an Figure 4 integral part of the region's folklore. For ex- Windwindblown trees. ample, it is said that in Wyoming the snow doesn't meltit just wears out. The wind is an elemental force that is often associated with God's breath or as a messenger or manifestation of God. However, on the stone shown in Figure 4 the wind is probably used to charac- terize the setting as farm on the high plains. The symbolism helps the observer to place this ranch in Wyoming, not some other rural setting with a calmer climate. Figure 5 illustrates the effect of the wind in the cold, dry air at higher eleva-

amt: SMS:* tions. Known as banner or flag trees, the strong,

336 ,3:31 Figure 6 Figure 8 Plantsevergreen trees PlantsIndian Paintbrush

7 continues the tree motif, but displays only the growth on the windward side of exposed trees. pine cones on a branch which conveys a mes- Along the tree line (trees don't grow above this sage of immortality and fertility (Hall, 1994). elevation), these twisted and bent trees often Flowers also have multiple meanings, but will not grow above the shelter of nearby rocks flowers generally symbolize a passive principle. and are called "krummholz" trees. These trees Like the chalice or rain, flowers are represent a may look strange but may be several hundred receptacle of God's instrumentality (Chevalier years old, and their use on the tombstone may & Gheerbrant, 1994). Flowers are abundantly symbolize an indomitable spirit, persistence, represented on tombstones, but in Wyoming, and toughness. as well as in other Western states, wildflowers Trees are rich and widespread symbols with seem to occur more frequently as a tombstone multiple meanings. One of the most common motif. Figure 8 is a good example of the use is its symbolism of life as a connection between of wildflowers, depicting Indian Paintbrush, the earth and sky. The simple pine tree in Figure 6 Wyoming State Flower, used on a family stone could be symbolic of the relationships between in Wheatland. heaven and earth, and the evergreen is repre- Although a large variety of wildlife roam the sentative of the immortality of the soul (Cheva- Wyoming mountains and high plains, perhaps lier & Gheerbrant, 1994). Evergreens are found the most representative large mammal is the abundantly throughout the Rocky Mountains pronghorn antelope. There are nearly as many and certainly are numerous Wyoming. Figure antelope in Wyoming as there are people and Figure 7 Figure 9 Plantspine cones Wildlifepronghorn antelope

337 332 EST copy AVAILABLE Wyoming, and most people who live in Wyo- Figure 10 Mountainsscul ted stone ming live in the shadow of at least one of these ranges (Pitcher, 1993). Itis no wonder that one of the most common motifs on Wyoming tombstones is that of the mountainlandscape. The mountains represent the meeting of heaven and earththe home of the gods. Many mountains have been given a quality of holiness by the people who live near by, and many diaries of Westerners make note of the majesty of the Rocky Mountains. In his journal dated 2 June 1846, mountain man James Cayman noted, "the mountains that surround this vally are pictureesque and many places beautifull being high and near the base smoothe and well set in this number comprises nearly half of the world's a short nutericious grass[sic)" (Cayman, 1984, population of pronghorns. The pronghorn is the second fastest mammal in the world, being Figure 12 exceeded only by the cheetah, and is one of the Cabinstraditional log most commonly seen large animalsin Wyoming (Pitcher, 1993; Roberts, Roberts, & Roberts, fe'" 1994). The symbolism of the pronghorn isdis- , tinctly one of Wyoming and the West and is # $ associated with keen eyesight, swiftness, and like the wind, one of God's messengers. Fig- : ure 9 is a good example ofthe pronghorn ante- :tszaz lope imagery on tombstones. Dominating the environment of many West- 4;C ern states, and certainly thatof Wyoming are the mountains. The mean elevation of Wyo- A ming is 6700 feet and the University of Wyo- NM 1ft 7711 ming is the highest NCAA Division IA cam- . only a beauti- pus in the United States at7200 feet in eleva- p. 258). The mountains make not tion. There are 12 major mountain rangesin ful picture, but symbolize the higherproperties of the soul, the bounds of human development, & Figure 11 and the abode of deities (Chevalier typi- Mountainslandscape Gheerbrant, 1994). Figures 10 and 11 are cal uses of mountain symbolism on tombstones.

Artifacts The artifacts of Western culture areprima- rily technologies that have beendeveloped to 3")* ROS 1E' cope with the Westernenvironment. Such technologies are represented by homesthat use the envi- I. 111446k t < available materials, apparel to match s.a. i a spa A.'e XL. ronment and livelihoods, transportsystems to SNif N$ 44, Ss s deal with the rough country and vastdistances, 361 " 4$, na/OW.1 E - 4,v" Mitt mechanisms for protecting andidentifying be- ialitiOfs! longings, and methods for obtainingneeded resources. Each of thesetechnologies have been

338 333 portrayed to some degree on Wyoming tomb- Figure 14 stones. 11-ansportwagon wheel There are many images on tombstones that either symbolize everlasting shelter orposses- sions that have been left behind in regionalre- location or in death. Log cabins are acommon example of this theme in Wyoming cemeteries. For many early pioneers, a permanent homewas simply a dream. Their imaginations coupled together with available resources often fash- ioned rather desperate shelters. The log cabin in the mountains was often small, real windows a luxury, and dirt floors a reality (Butruille, 1995). Nonetheless, the log cabin represented a safe place to live and shelter from the weather. Figure 12 is a log cabin refuge for eternity fora niscent of the struggle and persistence of pioneer families. The broken wheel shown in Fig- Figure 13 ure 14 could also indicate the impermanence Cabinsmodern version of mortal life or perhaps bonds broken. As transportation technologies evolved, construction of the transcontinental railroad began at the Wyoming border in 1867 and becamea major

46 influence in the life and development of southern Wyoming. Cheyenne and Laramie were both end-of-track towns and hosted theproces- sion of workers and hangers-on knownas Hell- on-Wheels (Pitcher, 1993). The high point of elevation along the transcontinental route is just INNI14.001 east of Laramie at 8,640 feet (Burt, 1991). Throughout the cemeteries in southern Wyo- ming, one will see references to the railroad in general and the Union Pacific Railway inspe- couple buried in Sundance, Wyoming. Amore cific. Figure 15 is typical of this imagery, while up-to-date cabin is pictured on the back ofa Figure 16 includes carpentry tools anda min- marker in Figure 13. Getting across Wyoming was a major effort Figure 15 in the early days of Caucasian settlement and Transportrailroads the various modes of transportationwere the lifeblood of sustenance and growth formany Wyoming towns. Wagon trains on the Oregon Trail, freight and mail wagonson the Overland Trail, and the transcontinental railroadare each either directly or indirectly seen in the symbolism used in Wyoming cemeteries. Themost common symbol of the wagon motif is the wheel. In itself, the wheel is symbolic ofmove- ment and liberation (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1994), but the wagon wheelcommon in the cemeteries represented here seems to be remi-

339 334 Figure 18 Figure 16 Fencing - =barbed wirehearts Transportrailroads

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sual and only four scratched names: BERGEY in the diaries of many travelers (Clyman, 1984). WRAGER FRANCIS RIMMEK. Such rocks At one point, stone cutters charged from one to are common throughout the older cemeteries five dollars to cut a person's name in the rock, in Wyoming leaving one to wonder about the and about 50,000 names have been etched over persons memorialized. Is this the grave of four the years, although erosion has claimed many people? Of two? Or does this marker identify of them now (Burt, 1991; Moulton, 1995). the resting place of one early settler? Names, a mark of one's presence or passing, In life, people have an urge to scratch their are a visual reminder of the people who settled name out in a "Kilroy was here" tradition. Im- the West. migrants traveling across Wyoming in search These settlers' names originate from many of new homes or new adventures often engraved ethnic backgrounds. The American West was their names in the rock faces that were located a beacon of opportunity to people throughout near the major trails. Three major sites, Names the world, and many of those immigrants passed Hill, Register Cliff, and Independence Rock, through Wyoming, stayed to work in the mines are all adjacent to either the Overland Trail or or on the railroad, or settled on the land in some the Oregon Trail. Independence Rock, a land- agricultural or other pursuit. The most uniquely mark that travelers hoped to reach by Indepen- recognizable ethnic backgrounds found in Wyo- dence Day, is probably the most famous mile- ming cemeteries were Asian, Greek, and Rus- stone along the Oregon Trail and is mentioned sian. This was due in part to the use of their

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341 Figure 24 person could live a very solitary existence. The Peoplecomboys occupations most often reflected in tombstone motifs were associated with agriculture, rail- roading, mining, and timber. In addition to these vocations, the lifework of the cowboy is very much associated with the West. The American cowboy is an intriguing historical figure with origins in Virginia and the eastern colonies as cowkeepers, cowdrivers, and cowpen men during the 1600 and 1700s. Of- ten these herdsmen were slaves known as cow hunters or graziers and were highly skilled on horseback. In Texas during the early 1800s, the Anglo-American cattle traditions were blended with those of the Spanish-Mexican to native alphabets and languages on the head- shape the cowboy of popular legend. The name stones as well as icons that differed from the common Christian symbols found in the United Figure 26 States and Europe. Figures 21, 22, and 23 are Peoplecowboys examples of the diversity that can be found throughout Wyoming still today. The occupations that provided work for this hardy group of Wyoming settlers were varied, but this paper focuses on livelihoods that commanded some of the larger numbers of people, although the population of Wyoming has never been great. One characteristic of Wyoming that j visitors notice is the sense of emptiness that prevails in many areas. The population of the state in the 1990 census was still only 453,588. When these numbers are distributed over 97,914 square miles, people describe Wyoming as "a moderate sized city with very long streets". It cowboy seems to haVe been associated with is easy to imagine that in some occupations, a raids during the Revolutionary War to obtain cattle to feed the armies, and also from raids Figure 25 upon the Mexican cattle ranches by Texas set- Peoplecowboys tlers.It would seem the early use of the term sZO cowboy had some negative connotations (Tinsley, 1981). The life of the cowboy during the heyday of titi*Df the West was not easy. It could be dreary and Wtainec:; full of hardship and hazard. The work was sea- sonal and low paying, tedious and lonely, and MARK ACE occasionally unpleasant and dangerous. In spite AYER S of all this, the cowboy hasheld a fascinating ap- As10.1qc*tptt MAY 20. peal and romance that has reached legendary ,#$ proportions. The allure of the West is still typi- leo fied by the cowboy, as evidenced by the bucking bronco and cowboy logo on the Wyoming

342 33 7 Figure 27 per, platinum, gold, trona, and uranium are Peopleminers among the resources that have been sought in Wyoming (Burt, 1991). The symbolism of the mines and miners represents persistence, danger, hard work, and prosperity. The following s'4".16 figures are taken from the Hanna cemetery and are all associated with coal mining. Figure 27 x highlights the work ethic of mining with the pick and shovel; the notation, "killed in explo-

, sion," is indicative of the danger. Figure 28 is of a memorial dedicated to miners who have lost their lives in local mining accidents. The back side of the memorial is full of names as well. Two very interesting stones are in a family license plate. Many people of Wyoming seem plot in the Hanna Cemetery. What is remark- to take great pride in the cowboy tradition and use the many cowboy motifs to memorialize Figure 29 families and friends.Figure 24 reflects one Peoplewife's stone aspect of the cowboy traditionrodeo. This headstone uses the a bull rider visual to mark :"%s the resting place of a professional rodeo rider. 01,04a4swtaxo Figure 25 is a more typical use of the cowboy image. This young man was most likely not a professional cowboy, but rather a person involved with horses and employed as a snow- plow driver.Saddles, boots, horses and other items associated with the cowboy lifestyle are $ common on Wyoming tombstones. Figure 26 combines Western themes with symbolism of it,pV the fallen comrade, typified by the riderless saddled horse, and the life well-lived. Mining has been an economic factor from the able about both stones is the life stories that are beginning of Wyoming's history.Coal, cop- told in visuals around the perimeter of the stone. The wife's stone ( see Figure 29) includes vi- Figure 28 suals that portray family, the mountain environ- PeopleMiners ment and wildlife, needlepoint, a delicate rose, and cooking on a wood stove. These visuals symbolize a woman whose life was dedicated to service (food and cooking), gentleness (children and deer), femininity (rose), and family. Figure 30 is a close up of the cooking scene. f le..44. For many pioneer women, an indoor stove was i .t.1.1'il* ti 1Wf tkk.: a wonderful luxury since it allowed one to work °Z;1:12,,* il , standing up, rather than stooping over a camp- Mr-.5. 4: . fire (Butruille, 1995). The visuals on the V.I. i''-Zv . ii4, ..VA ".t., .4., 7 Wra*SSIe'r husband's stone (see Figure 31) depict a life of f3kk. 1 ;.:4 14,vvi,.: !Pes.< vaskvu::, 4 r4t.,.x work and a variety of occupations. Around the ,,4..., ,v,-...... ,,x..,,...... ti,.., top of the stone appear visuals of an ocean fish- :.::::::::::::::::::.,,.,,.:.,...:::,..,...,...,:,...... ,:,i,..,:f4W:W.:***4:::**Sftktakewaiii

343 33 Figure 31 Figure 30 Peoplehusband's stone Peoplecooking

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L Butruille, S. G. (1995). Women'svoices from erman, a lumberjack, aminer, and a barber. At the Western frontier. Boise,ID: Tamarack the bottom of the stone,visuals depict a man Books. with his family in frontoftheir home and a duck Chevalier, J. & Gheerbrant, A.(1994). A dic- hunter. The combination ofvisuals on this tionary of symbols. (J.Buchanan-Brown, tombstone lead one to theinterpretation that this Trans.). Oxford, England:Basil Blackwell individual immigrated toWyoming from a sea- Publishers. (Original workpublished 1969) faring/fishing country, worked asboth a lum- Clyman, J. (1984). Journalofa mountain man. berjack and miner, and finallyworked as a bar- (L. M. Hasselstrom, Ed.).Missoula, MT: ber later in life. The deceasedseemed to enjoy Mountain Press Publishing.(Original work the out-of-doors and providedfor his family. published 1928) Hall, J. (1994). Illustrateddictionary of sym- Conclusion bols in Eastern and Western art.New York: selected demonstrate, a As the tombstones Harper Collins Publishers. in the memorial society's culture is reflected Kiskaddon, B. (1985). "Whenthey've finished visuals that can be found incemeteries. Wyo- shipping cattle in the fall."In H. Cannon religious symbols ming cemeteries are full of (Ed.). Cowboy poetry: Agathering. Salt beliefs of the people that are drawn from the Lake City, UT: PeregineSmith Books. traditions of the West are that use them, but the Moulton, C. (1995). Roadsidehistory of Wyo- folklore of cow- prevalent themes as well. The ming. Missoula, MT:Mountain Press Pub- boy and pioneer life, Westernflora and fauna, and the en- lishing. environmental and natural forces, Pitcher, D. (1993). Wyominghandbook (2nd discovered through- during mountains can be Ed.). Chico, CA: MoonPublications. out the sepulcher artused in Wyoming cem- of Crook County: find Pearson, J. (1996). [Brands eteries.If, as conference attendees, you Symbols of our Westernheritage]. Unpub- time on your hands, yourself in Wyoming with lished study. of Western life can be the culture and traditions Roberts, P., Roberts, D. L.,& Roberts, S. L. seen throughout anyWyoming cemetery. Visit (1994). Wyoming almanac(3rd Ed.). about one and see whatthe visual cues reveal Laramie, WY: Skyline Press. life and death in Wyoming. Tinsley, J. B. (1981). He wassingin' this song: A collection offorty-eighttraditional songs References with words, mu- Oakland, CA: Com- of the American cowboy, Burt, N. (1991). Wyoming. sic, pictures, and stories.Orlando, FL: Guides. pass American University Presses of Florida.

344. 3,32 Hypermedia as a Distinct Medium:Challenges for Designers Barbara I. Clark and Nancy Nelson Knupfer Abstract As multimedia developmentsoftware becomeseasiertouseand morepowerful, instructional designers can begin to think about ways of incorporating the Internet into their lessons.This paper introduces some questions that should be considered prior to stepping into that next level of instructional design.

Each year brings new enhancements to instructionaldesignofcoursewarethat hypermediated software andinstructional incorporates those processes. Moreover, designers must therefore face new those processes cause software evaluators to challenges as they applythe software in rethinkthestandardforeffectiveand practice. Product enhancements provide appropriate presentations. authoring software with increased Thispaperaddressessomeofthe capabilities for designing and producing challenges and dilemmas faced bytwo multimediated instruction. These instructional designers as they incorporated enhancements permit new possibilities for visual imagery and audio components into theappearanceand functionality of thedesignoftwodistinctinteractive courseware, and thus pose new challenges multimedia products. Each instructional for instructional designers. product was designedas a professional Further, the increasing ease with which the development seminar, or series of improved authoring software can instructionalseminars, for two distinctly potentially be used, could lead to a situation different groups of adult learners. One inwhichpeopleproduceinstructional product wasdesignedforpreservice courseware without the aid or advice of teachers who spend a significant amount of instructional designers. Products that result, time on campus and in classes, while the whether stand-alone desktopsystemsor other was designed for practicingsocial those that incorporate other resources such workers who are employed in isolated, rural as material from the world wide web, have areas where access to professional vast potential.Yet the new technological development is extremely limited. enhancements willnotnecessarilybe The two multimediaproductspresent applied in a way that truly improves the content-specificinformationpertinentto instruction. teachers and social workers.The learners Technology enhancementsoffer fancy usevisualtext,stillimages,stilland features that can make the instruction seem animated graphics, sound, and full-motion "eye-catching" and special. These "bells videovignettescontainedonalaser and whistles" seem to have great potential videodisc or CD-ROM. The two programs but often take the lead and interfere with providelearnerswith newinformation, instructional design.Indeed, if misapplied, observationalexamples,andinteractive the software enhancements could actually practice about contentspecifictotheir befuddle the learning process. fields of teaching or social work. There are A frameworkisneededtoprovide many similarities between the instructional guidance for people who must produce needs of the two groups of learners, as well instructionally sound products that utilize a as the products'capabilities. Therefore mix of stagnant text, text as a dynamic many design aspects are common to both, visual image, still and motion visual images, however the user interfaces between the two and audio within a hypermediated format. programs are very different. Suchaframeworkcanprovidethe Because it is quite extensive in scope, the necessary guidance to make wise use of the social worker's program is being developed new enhancements to the technology. as a series of ten separate modules with Links andconnectionscantakeon similar functionality. Itisdesignedto different dimensions. The processes of accommodate people who have very limited linking visual images with visual text, and computer skills.It uses such traditional making connections between realia and the designelementsastext-basedmenus, meaning of the images in a hypermediated buttons, pop-up text boxes, concept maps, format, lead to questions about effective and the choice of receiving audio-based,

345 34.0 text-based, or a combination of audio and place. As each module of the social work interface (see seriesisdeveloped,itgoesthrough text within the instructional fieldtesting. Figure 1). formativeevaluationand The teacher's program uses agraphical Summative evaluation will be conducted familiar after several modules have been placedinto user interface (GUI) that portrays various objects that can be foundintraditional thesocial workoffices in school environments. For example, one communities. menu depicts a hallway,classroom doors, Success of any product'seffectiveness books, and chalkboards for the learner to will be affected by the learners' acceptance product,the choose among.Another menu depicts an orattitudetowardthe advisor's desk with the topics of advisement product's match with learners' needs both hung on a bulletin board displaybehind the in a technical sense and in terms of content, and the product's ability to be usedwithin a desk.The learner can access information any by selecting a topic within the graphic(see givenenvironment. Therefore, This program also contains an evaluation must also consider the reactions Figure 2). of both the social workers andpreservice electronic notebook in which the learners Results can write their questionsand reactions to teachers to using the hypermedia. their observations. Both programsare of the evaluations to date suggest some hypermediated, employ video vignettes, and guidelinesthatinstructionaldesigners designingsuch containapresentationcomponent,an shouldconsiderwhen products.Further, as we think about ways application component, and an assessment and enhance component. to improve those products able to their content and functionality withmaterial Both product design teams were from follow some common theoreticalelements from outside sources, such as those broke the Internet, we need to be able toevaluate of interactive system design, yet both well. new ground in their own way asthey strove the quality of the outside resources as their given Interactive multimedia computer tools can to create a product best suited to perhaps audience and instructional needs. expand our ways of thinking and Formative evaluation was conductedon encourage metacognition, moredeeply than 1995;Knupfer, software that contains only standard text, bothprograms(Clark, video.In Barrett, & Lee,1995). Inaddition, few images, or non-interactive summative evaluation was conducted onthe interactivemultimediacontexts,learners teachers(Clark, browse and search through video,images productdesignedfor make 1995). Results of the summative evaluation and text; form interpretive thoughts; product connections between visual text, stillimages, oftheteacher'smultimedia cluster indicate that significant differences and full-motion video images; and occurred in the abilities of teacherswho discretefragmentsofinformationinto meaningfulideas. Thechallengefor used this program to identify,understand, of and explain specific teaching strategiesthey instructional designers is to take the set guidelinesthathas been developedfor observed in the video vignettes as compared and to those who did not use themultimedia. interactive, computer-based instruction, The product designed for socialworkers extend them to includeguidelinesthat is much more extensive;itrepresents a consider the dynamic nature of themyriad that possibilities that become available with new series of ten distinct topics of study and each carry three continuing educationunits technological tools, resources, techniques. of credit for social workers who complete become more the training.Each topic is considered as a Asauthoring tools contained in transparentinfunctionalityandmore separate course of study and is incorporating the butcoordinated module. people become skilled at aseparate, Internet into their work, thevolume of Although the ten modules are designed as a intended set of trainingforsocialworkers,the interactive, multimediated software in for self instructionis likelyto increase. modules can be studied in any order and more any amount. The criteria for receiving This increasesignals two things: softwarethatisproducedbynovice credit for each module rests in completion who have of an on-line test with a passing grade.The instructional designers or people limited knowledge of techniques modules are being phased into numerous and the communities as the development progresses appropriate to efficient learning, and eventually all ten modules willbe in need for guidelines to use in theproduction

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r` I)* II 1, andevaluationofthe hypermediated current information within the lessons. For software. Such a framework will go beyond example, a designer might link a lesson to a theguidelines usedforcomputer-based specific Internet site or database and display instruction as we knew it a few years ago that information within the lesson screen. and if not able to provide succinct answers, The thought of maintaining the integrity of will need to at least address additional areas a current multimedia lesson while of possibilities. incorporating information from the Internet In the past, Knupfer (1995) has suggested could bedaunting. Therefore,the guidelinesforvisual imagery within following thoughts should be helpful when computer-based local and distance considering each question. instructionthat incorporate some of the well-established standards for instructional How should the visual elements of television production.Now, we must take hypermedia be structured? that set of guidelines and extendit even Visualimageryisoneofthemost further. Indoingso,thefollowing important elementsofhypermediated questions seem essential to any instruction,yet manydesignersfailto improvement of instructional design incorporate it to it fullest potential.If used guidelines for interactive multimedia. Their wisely the visuals can greatly enhance the answershelptodevelop a possible instructional message. Like other elements framework to guidefutureinstructional within the product design, visual designs for hypermediated learning: informationneedstobeappliedina consistent manner yet with attention to a How shouldthevisualelementsof comfortable blend of variety and aesthetics. hypermedia be structured? Both of the products evaluatedforthis What aretheproperusesofvisual study did an excellent job of applying metaphors? visual elements to a certain extent, and both Whataretheformidable questions have areas in which they can be improved. inherentinthepresentationofthe The greatest weakness of both products images? (e.g. text links per screen, images stemmed from the limited experience of per screen, length of video vignettes) certain key decision makers who lacked When does design supersede content? enough skill to visualize elements of the What is the importance of the learning process. Having not been trained instructional designer'sfamiliaritywith in instructional design, nor visual learning, new models of instruction and learning nor graphic design, nor aesthetics of art and theory? so on, some key leaders were greatly limited What theoretical elements are appropriate in their ability to imagine the potential of for the graphical-user interface: the visual messages within each product. Are the images, language, and content Certain weaknesses within each product, free of cultural and gender bias? bothintermsof addingtimetothe How do the images, language, and content production and in the final visual message, accuratelyrepresenttheculturaland were the direct result of decisions made by gender variables? project leaders who did not understand how How shouldthevisualelementsbe totakeadvantageofthemediumto evaluated? enhance learning,tried to save time by How should formative and summative skipping steps in the design phase, and evaluation occur? placed too much responsibility on programmers to provide design solutions Although there are no answers that will toward the end of the development cycle. work inallsituations, forallaudiences, Thecomplexityofreasonsforthese there are some considerations that designers weaknesses are beyond the scope of this can incorporate into the planning process. paper, buttheresulting compromisein As hypermedia takes fuller advantage of potential learning is most evident in certain on-line resourcesit will be important for mismatchesbetweenvideoimageryor designers to consider strategies for handling graphics and the content or tone of the dynamicinformationandimages from script. outside resources, such as the Internet or There is no doubt that the single most World Wide Web (WVVW).These outside important factor in the successful design resources can be essential to maintaining andimageryusedwastheresultof

348 343 teamwork that drew on the talents ofa visual displays of field events.Along with variety of people.Communication among the understanding provided by the realism the design team was essential.Successful of these events, comes the potential to stir visualization within each of the products emotions for various reasons. was the direct result of being able to work with a talented artist who was able to shape What are the proper uses of visual theideasintovisual formthatcarried metaphors? meaning into the instructional process. Metaphors are only as good as a situation Thevisualelementsthatseem most allows. Metaphors can work wellina important are those that comprise the basic variety of situations, but in all cases must structure of the image, add meaning to the provide an appropriate match between the message, and employ the power of visual topic,thelearners,andthewaythe impact when appropriate (Knupfer, 1994). metaphor is appliedtothe design. If The structure of the image first considers learners cannot relate to the metaphor, then the visual as a whole, then its components the instructional message will be lost. But if and the elements of good screen design.In they can relate to the metaphor, then the order for the various image components to instructional message can be enhanced. work together,elements of well-planned Metaphors are used to some degree in screen design must weave the components boththesocial work andtheteaching together in an aesthetically pleasing and multimedia projects, but they are applied understandable format.Thus, one must with differing intensities.The social work consider both the separate image project incorporates a variety of limited components and the screen design. metaphors into the modules, but does not Information becomes valuable as it takes place heavy emphasis on them.Further, it on meaning for an individual.Since visuals does not carry any one, single metaphor aremeanttoaidinthediscoveryof throughout the entire series other than in meaning, it follows that well-designed visuals theoverallfunctionalityoftheuser will help studentsinterpret the meaning. interface.For example, the legal module Computer images vary widely in potential was developed by different design team design and usage.Images can be static or members and contains different metaphors dynamic, concrete or abstract, and theycan than the stress module, yet the general change as a result of user interaction with the functionality of the user interface remains program.A learner's interpretation of the consistent. image can be affected by the text, type of The metaphor within the teacher graphic, and layout employed. multimedia worked well with the student Computer graphics and appropriate screen teachers for whom it was intended, but other displays lend power to communications by learningaudienceshavereactedwith adding an image to the text.Visual images confusion and frustration.Objections to can aid message interpretation and enhance the completelygraphicinterfacearose learning.They can also add power to the because some learners could not relate to message by providing an emotional element the school scenario, needed more that is beyond that of other communication preliminary interpretation of the graphical strategies. Realism can be enhanced by user interface, or preferred environments providing a graphic component. Images can thatweremoretext-based. General represent realistic data ranging from simple commentsabout desiringmore text sketches or graphs to intricate displays or indicated some potential for confusion with vividly emotional scenes.Virtual reality can interpreting the school metaphor as well as evenconjureup imaginary situations unclearfunctionalityofeachgraphic. through artificial imagery. Learner who are willing to explorewill Because computers display images from probably feel more comfortable in this type peripheral devices, it is possible to display of environment. still or dynamic photos of real events. These events and their results can combine with What are the formidable questions text and audio segments to provide a sense inherent in the presentation of the of realism to the user that otherwise would images? not be possible. For example, the ABC News The number of text links per screen can videodisc provides real news footage that become quite dense, depending upon the goes beyond newsroom reporting to provide situationat hand. If the user interface

349 '3 4 4 JEST CO AVAIIABLE clearly creates a path for learners to follow module to function in a similar manner as that allows them to explore certain branches another.Like a series of books in a set, of informationindepth, then designers learners expect certain consistencies within need to weight the consequences of finding the look, feel, tone, instructional approach, more information versus the potential of and functionality of the courseware. missing important points by being When content can bedeliveredina distracted. The number of links per screen variety of ways, design can determine final certainly will depend upon the purpose of decisions about how contentis delivered the instruction and the audience involved. andhow muchdetailisappropriate. The balance of images per screen will not Because hypertext allows hot links to be be determined by a precise definition, but made, designers are not pressed to include will depend uponthe purposeofthe all details about a subject within the main imagery, the balance of the screen design, part of the courseware, but can use links to and the functionality of the images.It is outsideresources asnecessary, thus perhaps better to design one complex but enabling learners to choose more or less integratedset of images as opposedto detail, depending on how much information independent, cluttered, or conflicting they need about specific topics and how images.In addition, the meaning of the much time they can spend at the given images is important.All images should moment. fulfill a specific purpose. That purpose Screen design enters into consideration as might betogetattention,toenhance well. Good screen design allows adequate meaning, to add variety, and so on, but it white space so that the eye has a resting clearly should not be simply to fill a blank placeandincorporatesimagery ina space on the screen. meaningful way.Rather than filling the The length of the video vignettes was a screen with text, designers often need to topic of debate with both of the projects at reword and abbreviate text so that it fits well hand. While the vignettes needed to be within the visual design of the screen and in longenough to provide meaningful so doing, need to consider grouping of scenarios that portrayed information words, phrases, and lists in the best way to clearly, they need to be short enough to enhance the mental processes.Substituting allowuser interaction, practice, and imagery for text can add power to the feedbackat appropriateplaces. Large message. amountsof videoinformationcanbe incorporated as smaller video clips as long Whatistheimportanceofthe as there is a common thread that laces the instructionaldesigner's familiarity information together. with new models of instruction and learning theory? When does design supersede Design team members debatedabout content? whether the same instructional approach Some people might say never, but there could be used for everyone who will use the aretimeswhenthedesignneedsto courseware.,If not, then how could the supersede content.Courseware must show designers accommodated different learning consistency within the userinterface,so styles within the courseware? once a design standard is decided upon it Like other types of instruction, must be maintained in a similar manner hypermediatedinstructioncanprovide throughout the instruction. In addition, examples, practice exercises, and feedback designers need to be aware of standards and that will use a variety of instructional styles common practices that have been and appeal to different styles of learning. incorporated into other software that the As hypermedia becomes more sophisticated learners have used in the past.If learners andgainscapabilityofincorporating expect the software to function in specific outside resources, designers can leave more ways, then it is best to incorporate standard discretion to user preferences. practices when possible so that learners can Meanwhile, designers can do such things concentrate on the learning and not be as provide more choices within the use confused by inconsistencies of interface. Thosechoicescouldallow functionality. learners to move in different paths through In a case where the instruction is designed the material and incorporate more or less as a series of modules, learners expect one information into the lesson as needed.In

350 345 addition, learners should not be forced to consider what messages are implied by the listen to audio or to read text verbatim at all images. times, but should be allowed choices to Are the men portrayedinleadership hear, read, or hear while reading textin positions,whilethewomen appearin specific situations within the learning. Thus subordinate roles?Are men portrayed in learners can choose to receive information work situations or using technology, while in a way that is most comfortable at a given women are portrayed in nurturingroles? time. Are women portrayed as either older and It will be important that designers break overly-grandmotherly, or young and free of behaviorist models to the extent that overly-sexy? the courseware does not rely completely on Are colors and tone used to add feeling that approach.Hypermedia allows a much or drawattentiontoanimageina more creative approach to instruction than suggestive way that might bias the learners? the drill and practice style of learning, so Examples of this are the darkening of 0. J. designers can incorporate more Simpson's face on the cover of Time constructivistapproachestocourseware magazine(1994)andthebrightred designas desiredandlikewise employ coloration applied to the woman figure's behaviorism, guided learning, and on as nipples in an otherwise dark and muted appropriate. image depicting a male and female within a recent New York Times (1996) report on What theoretical elements are cancer? The former suggests a guilty appropriateforthegraphical-user verdict prior to thetrial while the latter interface? continues the American male fixation on Are situated-learning metaphors women's breasts as sexualobjects, even appropriatetotheaudienceandthe withinanarticlefocusedonmedical content? Ifso,whatsituationsare education. suggested or accommodated? Do sports analogies or competition appeal more to males than females.Are cultural How islearningconstructed? What groups represented in true proportions and design elements related to learning theory in accurate situations with the examples, are evident within the courseware? Is imagery, and prerequisite knowledge there evidence of learnercontrol and necessary for successful completion? autonomy, or is the program designed in a more behavioristic, directed structure? How do the images, language, and contentaccuratelyrepresentthe Guided learning? What evidence is there cultural and gender variables? of motivating learners and attending to Thisquestiongoesdeeperintothe various learning theories? Islearning underlying messages portrayed through the guidedin a systematic way, a tightly images, language, and content.Rather than controlled way, not at all, or something in simply avoiding stereotypes, it is important between? Does there seem to be a match to keep the messages in proper context in between the courseware's purpose,the terms of culture and gender.For example, audience,skilllevel,andinstructional does thedesigngotheextrastepto approach?How does the system work consider and include examples from the together as a whole? cultural group that the courseware will be used with?Certain examples will make Arethe images, language, and better sense if the learners can relate to content free of cultural and gender them. bias? Messages intended to influence attitudes Media often portrays people in toward using birthcontroland planned stereotypicalroles. Movies,television parenting, need toconsider the cultural programs, advertising, books, and now even underpinAings of such issues as within the clip art are fraught with stereotypes based learninggroup. Incultureswherea uponculturalbackground, race,and people's status is influenced by the number gender. As courseware developers think or gendef of their of children, any attempt about designing, scanning, or downloading to curbbirthrates would need a very images into the courseware, they should sensitive approach. Likewise, portraying value systems of ruralAmerican within

351 :346 inner city schools and vice versa, could How should formative and summative make the instruction fall flat. evaluation occur? Icons and symbology can be problematic. What questions regarding visually literate Whilesomeiconsandsymbolsare learners are appropriate in formative and interpreted with similar meanings, others summative evaluations: will takeondifferentmeaningswithin learner understanding of the differentinternationalaudiences. A importance of the image or video to the dragon, for example, is thought of as a content? scary and evil presence in Westernculture, learner ability to "read"the image or while it is believed to be powerful and even video in context with the text and other protective in Eastern cultures. elements in the GUI? acceptance level and comfort with the How should the visual elements be GUI? evaluated? Asthe technology becomesmore Imagery created with computers can be sophisticated,itwill bepossibleto simple or complex and itcan be altered incorporate images and text form the World within the computer environment so that the Wide Web into our classes. Itwill be basic visual elements such as line, space, important to use knowledge gained from shape, form, texture, color and so on can experience as well as the answers to some of take on different characteristics than within these formidable questions as we develop other media. There are a host of questions computer-based or multimediated that must be asked about how imagery is instruction that seeks innovative uses of the used within hypermedia.. Internet. For example, what type of look and feel should be used in hyper-mediated learning References environments? How cantheimagery Clark,B.I.(1995). Understanding enhanceordetractformthelearning teaching: Aninteractivemultimeida process? Are there certain ways to display professional developmentobservational information that work better in hypermedia toolfor teachers. Unpublished than in other media?If so, how should dissertation completed at Arizona State designers modify images to best present University, Tempe, AZ. them on the computer? How much contrast is just enough, but not Knupfer, N. N. (1994).Computers and too much, to make the image legible and visual learning. In D. M. Moore & F. M. achieve the necessary effect? Can the same Dwyer (Ed.), Visual literacy: A spectrum guidelines be followed as for projected of learning (pp. 209-234).Englewood images or broadcast images?If not, what Cliffs,NJ: EducationalTechnology are the differences and why arethose Publications. differences important? If the images will be drawn from differentsources intothe Knupfer, N.N. (1995). Developing hypermedia, are there any standardsthat hypermediated,videodisctrainingfor one should look for in order toprovide childwelfarepersonnel: Bringing pleasing and meaningful images for the visually rich training to rural areas.In D. learners? G. Beauchamp, R. A. Braden, & R. E. Is the imagery appropriateto content? Griffin (Eds.) Imagery and visual literacy Are visual images linkedlogicallywith (pp.351-363). Corsicana, TX: The other images and text? Ifthe images International Visual Literacy Association. change, do they do so with any consistency orrealpurpose? Howareimages Knupfer, N. N., Barrett, D. & Lee, 0. H. positioned within the user interface?The (1995). A collaborativemultimedia specific situation in which the media will be developmentproject for rural training: used will determine the final answers to Results of a beta test and adjustments to most of these questions.The age and design. In M. R. Simonson & M. sophistication of the learner, the likelihood Anderson (Eds.) Proceedings of selected of drawingfrommixedsources,the research and development presentations technical capabilities of the equipment, and the 1995 nationalconventionof the the topic at hand will certainly all affect the Association of Educational answers to these questions. Communications and Technology (AECT)

352 :347 at Anaheim, CA, February.Ames, IA: Time(1994,Sept.). Time magazine. Research and Theory Division, AECT. Cover. New York Times (1995, Jan). New York Times, Sunday Magazine. Cover. Creating Web Pages:Is Anyone Considering Visual Literacy? Barbara I. Clark, Nancy Nelson Knupfer, Judy E. Mahoney, Kevin M. Kramer, Hamed Ghazali, and Nabel Al-Ani Abstract This study examines educational and non-educational WWW web pages that exhibit an understanding of visual literacy principles. The study also examines on-line and printed materials that show how to construct web pages.It uses this paradigm to analyze these web pages and printed materials, for qualities that exhibits good design elements from pages that exhibit weak design. It concludes with a recommendation for further research to quantify the qualities that were found.

Introduction transfer and transmit graphic and other A revolution is taking place -- a digital forms of visual communication revolution and the "mostcrucialtask instantaneouslyaroundtheglobehas before us is not putting in place the digital made available for communication, a large plumbing of broadband communications audience, which is often visually illiterate" links... but rather one of imagining and (Saunders, 1994, p 186). creating digitally mediated environments for the kinds of lives we want to lead and Purpose thesorts of communities we wantto The purpose of the study was twofold: have." (Mitchell,1996,p.5). One (1) to look at the design, aesthetics, and alteration of this revolution is the digital functionalityof educationalandnon- environment ofthe graphical user educational web pages from the interface (GUI).This environment, once perspective of visual literacy and, (2) to static and linear, has changed. Users relate evaluate printed and on-line materials that mutuallytoscreensthatarevisual, are used as resources by professionals and interactive and non-linear(Jones, 1995). nonprofessionalstocreatetheseweb Another transformation is the pages.These "how to"manuals were manipulation of images.Electronic tools evaluated fortheir discussion of good allow the user to capture, display, distort, screen design, the use of graphics and enhance, store and print images. These iconsascommunication,backgrounds, "developing technologies... blur hypertext, linking, and overall distinctions between actual and represented understanding of publishing on the WWW. reality..." (Stieglitz, 1995, p 22). The web pages were divided into major The Internet, a global network linking categoriesandsub-categories. The millionsofpeopleworldwide,isa educationalcategoriesincluded K-12 digitally-mediatedenvironment. The schools and colleges/universities. The non- Internet is made easily accessible through educational categories included World Wide Web (WWW) browsers. These commercial, publications and interactive browsers, i.e., Netscape, Internet communications, informational and Explorer, Mosaic, includeinformational cultural, and personal web pages. displays and access tools presented to users The subject of images, graphics, and in the form of web pages. These pages, icons is critical.From a technical aspect, created in a computer language called if an image is memory intensive and being HTML (HypertextMarkupLanguage) viewed with a low speed modem or limited contain hyperlinks--graphics,buttons, machine capacity, the images load slowly. icons,images,coloredtext,animation, In creating web pages, the designer must video -- that allow the users to browse the conveyv)theuserwaystoaccess contents of the page, search and retrieve hyperlinks. Thisissometimes done information, and link to other web pages through icons, images, or text that act as around the world. Recent developments in interactive buttons.When the user clicks on-line communication tools provide the on these hyperlinks they are connected to ordinaryusertheabilitytocreate new information, other web sites, or further interactive pages and offer course delivery resources.To be interactive the buttons onthe WWW. "Thetechnologyto 355 349 must be properly coded in HTML, thus, don'tspecifically address the necessary guiding the user. design elements that will help the web page The "business of creating web sites"is communicate clearly and appear rampant. Many services, both on-line and aesthetically pleasing. printedreferencesoffer "how t o" Visual design is a significant factor in construction of web pages.However, little the development of web pages. The thought is given to the overall image of the "...visual medium is...superior because it page.Usually the focus is on the HTML offers structural equivalentsto....objects, language. events, relations and visual elements that can be "organized according to readily Background definable patterns."(Arnheim, 1969, p. The explosionofthe WWW asan 232) Visual representations in the form of informational tool on the Internet (Descy, icons, graphics, and images are defined in 1994) provides students and teachers, at all two-andthree-dimensionalspaceas levelsofeducation, withup-to-date compared to the one-dimensional space of informationandcontinuousaccessto text(1969). AccordingtoSaunders resources worldwide. Ineffect,the (1994, p. 186-187), these visual Internet is a virtual library of information representations (graphics) functionas a (Doyle, June, 1994). communication tool because they are: Mostrecently,thedevelopmentof based on things that are seen electronic utilities provided through WWW appeal toour emotionsas well as links, growth of software that contains intellect HTML readers, and publishing of on-line convey a single overwhelming andprinted technicalmanualshave meaning or message provided ordinary computer users with the communicate information ability to easily access, create, and publish comprise a language and grammar of web pages.In particular, K-12 educators which most of us are ignorant have begun to create web pages as a way to arenotdesigned to encourage provide information about their schools feedback from the audience andclassrooms,displaystudentwork, Effective web pages contain good screen provide links for student-generated design, graphics, icons, background research, and link with other schools to images, image maps, and hypertext.The allow studentsto collaboratewith one construction of web pagesinvolves an another in learning activities i.e., creative understandingoftheuseofthese writing and problem solving. elements.This understanding is inherent Colleges and universities also use web in the aesthetic and technical function of pages as marketing strategies to provide informational and form design as well as informationabouttheprogramsand graphical user interfaces. courses they offer, as a way for students to "Good screen design uses the visual to apply to these programs or to register for portray the message to the reader."Text courses. In addition, web pages are being with white space, the position of graphics, created by college and university mixture of text and graphics, consistent professors to offer courses via the WWW. placement of navigational buttons, The increased ability to create web pages standard icons, and borders act as visual that use graphics, icons, and images to aids to the user (Knupfer, 1994, p. 216). communicate a problem comes at a time Gtaphicsareusedtomakevisual when"oureducationalsystemshave statements--tocommunicatevisually. reduced the number of coursesinart Visualstatementsare"anobjector education and..., the availability of courses collection of objects created or assembled in visual literacy that would advance seeing forthepurposeofbeingseenand and interpreting what is seen are only experienced" (Curtiss, 1987, p. 4).Visual recently finding support in the educational statementscontainvisualsymbolsthat system"(Saunders, 1994, p 187).Thus, include shape, color, dot, line, and style. many educators and students creating web (Such statements also include form -- the pages have had little guidance concerning expressed ideas and conveyed meanings the visual design elements. The myriad of behind the elements that give support to technicalmanualsprovideinformation the communication of the visual statement about how to create web pages but they (Seels, 1994). To effectively communicate

356 350 with visuals, creators of web pages must degree of appeal by how easily they could consider the simplicity and clarity of the get to information" (p.170). The web images, balance, harmony and sites receiving the highest ranks contained organizationofthetextandimages, simple images and a well-ordered layout aspects of framing, and emphasis color, with clearly defined hot spots and a limited texture, and space. (Thompson, 1994). number of choices.Hypertext links are Icons to serve as "reference points....for critical to web page design.These links searchingandretrievinginformation" are words or phrases that are underlined (Ma, 1995, p. 33).Icons also can be used and colored to denote a link to more as signs.Signs are "...organizedinto informationorotherwebsites.The systems of meanings or codes" conventional use of color displays the (Muffoletto, 1994). Signs can also be "unvisited" linksasblueandthe influenced by' social and cultural "visited" links as purple. meanings. Ma (1994) studiedthe This study investigated the use of these meanings of icons on the WWW pages of design elements in software and printed 150 United States libraries.A sample of materials that tell how to create web pages iconsMa foundincluded anicon and in the web pages created by students depicting a weboverlaid with a and teachers in elementary, middle, and magnifying glasstodepictInternet high schools as well as those in colleges resources, book-shaped icons that and universities. represent on-line catalogs, periodicals, etc., and iconsthatportraya highwayto Methodology catalogInternetresources. Semiotic For thisresearchthe web sites were analysis of icons indicated that familiar categorized into twomain groups, icons usedtoindextraditionallibrary educational and noneducational. Then resourceswerebeingusedtoindex eachofthoselargercategorieswere resources indicative to the resources on the further subdivided.Figure 1 shows the WWW organization of the educational web page Backgrounds and backgroundimages site categories and Figure 2 shows the are important design components.Used organization of the non-educational web appropriately,backgroundimagescan page site categories. enhance the foregroundicons, graphics, and text. Many novice designers include Development of Evaluation Instrument these images to "add a theme...or because Consideringthere is no previous they fill up unused space"(Siegel, 1996, research about designing web pages from p. 131). theperspectiveofvisualliteracy,the Imagemaps(compleximagesthat researchers beganby examining the producemultiplehyperlinks)contain literature for checklists that related to the visual, navigational, and practical basic elements of visual statements, GUI characteristics.Visual characteristics are design, hypermedia design, and publishing clues that are recognized by the viewer and on the WWW (Curtiss, 1987; Lucas, 1991; meet the viewer's expectations pertinent to Schwier,1991;Cates,1992;Tolhurst, the information. Navigational 1992;Wiggins,1995). Fromthese characteristics include the viewer checklists two evaluation instruments were recognition andinitiationoflinked information being used to index resources Figure 1 indicative to the resources on the WWW. Educational Web Site Categories Practical characteristics include technical aspectssuch asimageload time, background andspecialeffectsnot Elemenentary School cluttering the vision of the viewer, and Student, Teacher,School whether graphics fit the target audience Middle School (Cochenour, Lee, and Wilkins,1995). Student, Teacher,School Cochenour and others (1995) evaluated High School nine WWW sites that contained image maps Student, Teacher,School forvisual,navigational,andpractical College or University characteristics. Nine viewers evaluated the Student, Teacher,School sites and "theyseemedto judgethe

357

351 APT COrlf AVAILABLE Figure 2 The page has appropriate white space. Non-Educational Web Site Categories Thebackground contributesto the overall design.

Design -- functionality Commercial The design appears to be created for Company Information about Products lay computer users not experts. Product Instruction -- how to Use The message is clear. Advertising The message is concise. Publications / Communications The site appears to be current. Newspapers /Magazines A text only optionis available when Radio / TV large graphics load slowly. Journals / Books The links function properly. Informational / Cultural Graphics load with reasonable speed. Museum / Library Community Graphics -- aesthetics Special Interest The graphics do not distract the user Personal from the main message of the page. Professional The graphics that are intended to be Family buttonslooklikebuttons(easily Introduction recognizable as buttons) The graphics that are not intended to be buttons do not look like buttons developed and refined based upon a six- (you do not do false clicks hoping to point Likert-type scale.One instrument go somewhere). contained 21 questions for evaluating on- Graphics are easily interpreted. lineandprintedresourcematerials. Examples of the evaluation criteria in this Graphics -- functionality instrument are: The site uses appropriate thumbnail Containsintroductory information graphics (user doesn't needto use about the general WWW environment time and memory loading in memory Use of browsers intensive graphics). Explanations of image formats(tiff, Graphics enhance the message of the pict, jpeg, gif, etc.) page. Use of color Links Text -- aesthetics Publishing on the WWW The properties of the text (font, style, Examples provided size, color, pattern, etc.) are aesthetically appealing. Emerging trends The color of the text is aesthetically compatible with other design elements A second evaluation instrument on the page. contained 57 questions that were The layout of the text is aesthetically embedded in thecategories:design, graphics, text, and color. These categories pleasing. were divided into aesthetics and Text -- functionality functionality. These questions were used The color of the text does not distract for evaluating K-12 schools, and college/university web sites. This the user from the main message of the instrument page. was alsousedtoevaluate The layout of the text does not distract informationalandculturalaswellas personalpages. A sampleofthe the user from the main message of the evaluation criteria include: page. Design -- aesthetics Color -- aesthetics Designelementsareaesthetically Color changes are used to convey a consistent (consistent headers, message (visited links, happy-sad, day- background, font sizes, etc.). night, timed elapsed, etc.)

358 352 The design makes use of warm (red, sophisticatedgraphicswhichmetthe orange, yellow) and cool (purple, blue, criteria for evaluation but they tended to green) colors. target a narrow group of people. For example, product information sites can be Color -- functionality verytechnicalanddifficultforthe The design of colors considers the age common user to understand. An example of the final user. is the About Abbey Camera The color scheme is appropriate for (http://abbeycamera.com/) web page.This color-blind users. site is targeted for general audiences but The background color is aesthetically the navigational icons are not consistent pleasing. and tend to mislead the user as to their use. Some of the web pages are well designed WWW Site Selection and meet the needs of the general user. Sites were randomly selected from the Examples of such sites are the JC Penney's web. Various descriptors, such as, creating and the Ben and Jerry's Ice Cream sites web pages, HTML, web page design, and (see the sites at http://www.jcpenney.com/ so on, were used in various search engines and http://www.benjerry.com). The toillicit web sites containingresources meaning and the matching of the text and about how to create web pages. the images are consistent and appropriate An initial list of publishers who produce for general adult users.Federal Express informationabout how todesignand (http://fedex.com/), Land's End create web pages was constructed based (http: / /www.landsend.com/ are examples of upon a search of on-line, bookstore, and sites that target specific users. These sites library materials. Over 100 electronic sites contain icons and links that guide users and 25 printed manuals were evaluated. who want to find shipping information, The web page sampling source for schools ship parcels or order items. The icons are andcolleges/universitieswasgathered understandableandlinktopertinent from the Yahoo search engine using the information about shipping parcels and education category. Twenty sites were other aspects ofthe each companies' randomly selected for each elementary, business. middle school, high school, college and Evaluation of the printed and on-line university (n = 160).The K-12 web sites materials indicates a strong agreement in included both public and private United theuseof how tocreatein HTML States schools. Higher educationsites language and the technicalaspects of included public/private colleges and using specific image formats (gif, tiff, jpeg, universities in the United States andfour mpeg) for WWW publishing. Examples of countries around the world. theseprintedandon-linepublications include: Independent Evaluators Fourgraduatestudentsmajoringin Fry, A. and Paul, D.(1995).How to educational technology at a major mid- publish on the internet.New York, NY: western university evaluated the Warner Books; commercial, informational,cultural, on- line and printed materials, and personal Danesh, A. (1996).Teach yourself web web sites. K-12 school and page design.Indianapolis, IN: Sams.net college/university web sites were evaluated Publishing by an associate and an assistant professor ofeducational technology. Both Home page creator [On-line]. professors teach the use of the Internet and www.angelfire.com/freepages/create.html the WWW to graduate students. Netamorphix [On-line]. Results http://trace.iwisc.edu/TEXT/GUIDELNS/HT Initial data analysis of graphics,text, MLGIDE/htmlfull.html color, and design characteristics within the components of aesthetics and functionality Lynch, P. (1995). Yale C/AIM WWW style indicates a wide range of quality in all the manual [On-line]. http://info.med. sites. The commercial sites developed by yale.edu/ caim/ printinfo. html professionals containedanimationsand

359 353 Niederst,J. & Freedman,E.(1996). Chaffee Elementary School [On-line]. Designing for the web: Getting started in a www.traveller.cotn/Ipearce/Chaffee/Chaffe new medium. Sabastopol, CA :O'Riley 7 e.html Associates, Inc.. Fall Brook Union High School [On-line]. Rogers, S. & Wise, A. (1996). Home page sd.znet.com/schester/FUHS/index.html beautiful. Radiant Productions. [On-line]. http://click.com.av/click/v03/deconstruction/ Hardyston Township Elementary School index.html [On-line]. www.garden.net/users/hardyston/ Wilson, S. (1995). World wide web design non-enhanced.html guide: Learn to design professional web pages . Indianapolis, IN: Hayden Books. Longfellow Elementary School [On-line] www.nothinbut.net/dhannah/xIongfel.html However, there is little agreement on the inclusionof elementsof goodscreen Orange Grove Elementary School[On- design, appropriate size of graphics, use of line]www. awod. corn/ gallery/ rwav/ oge/ iconsfornavigationalpurposes,and designing the screen as a portrait. (That is, Quail Run Elementary School[On-line] the message is the object and the portrait is www. sped.ukans. edu/scottk/ qr/ the screen.)Still, there are exceptions in both print and on-line publications. The Examples of K-12 schools whose web authors discussed the use and aesthetics of sites contain good screen design, graphics images, backgrounds, text, graphics thatareaestheticallyandfunctionally functionality and emerging trends.The appropriate include: user is provided with examplesinthe printedpublication thatcorrelateto BrookfieldCentral High School [On- examplesintheon-linepublications. line]. www. axisnet.net/ bchs/ These include: Burke, Harry A. High School[On-line]. Horton, W., Taylor, L., Ianacio, A. & Hoft, www. esul9. k12. ne. us/burke/BHS.html N.(1996). Theweb pagedesign cookbook: All the ingredients you need to Kyerene Akimel A-Al MiddleSchool create 5 star web pages. New York, NY: [On-line]. 204.17.16.101/Akimel/ams.html John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Robinson,Andrew ElementarySchool Horton, W. (1966).Illustrating computer [On-line]. www. rockets. org/ documentation. New York, NY:John Wiley & Sons, Inc. A furtheranalysisofschoolsites indicates that the functions of graphics are Siegel, D. (1996).Creating Killer Web not always apparent. Graphics which were Sites.Indianapolis, IN:Hayden Books. not intended to be buttons lookedlike [On-line] http://www.killersites.com. buttons, thus confusing the user. Whereas K-12 schools use web sites as a Evaluation of schoolsites indicatesa way of introducingthemselvestothe strong use of backgrounds that tend to WWW andpromoting theirschool distract from the overall message. School community, colleges and universities use sites tend to use text rather than images to their web sites for a variety of purposes, present information. They use text whose i.e.,newstudentapplication,on-line properties(color,font,style,size)are registration,promotion,on-linecourses, difficult to read because the background announcements, faculty and student interferes. Also, they use textthatis homepages. Dataforcollegesand targeted for adult users rather than the age universities indicates a strong agreement in ofstudentsattendingtheseschools. the areas of good screen design, use of Examples of these sites include: color, white space, and icons thatare effective navigationaltools. Examples Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School [On- include: line]. www.mcps.k12.md.us/schools/bcchs/

360 354 ArizonaStateUniversity [On-line]. 2.Which literary publicatioon www.asu.edu/asuweb/ conventions should or should not be applied to the unique environment of College of the Menominee Nation[On- web pages? line]www.menominee.com/ 3.Inwhat ways do the questions of interactivity, connection and Design functionality data regarding the interconnections,usercontrol,and updating of information, clues that reflect expeditious information gathering the information size, or provide a text only contribute to new publishing option when memory-intensive graphics conventions? are present indicates strong disagreement 4. How doestherelationshipof not amongallmanyK-12schoolsand knowinghowa publication is colleges and university web sites. structuredimpacttheabilityto However, many commercial, personal, and communicate? educational web pages contain indications of last update, informationalsizeor References provide a text option. Arnheim, R.(1969). Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press. Conclusions 1.Preliminary data analysis indicates that Cates, W. (1992).Fifteen principles for the majority of the web pagesuse a designing more effectiveinstructional simple design, with the standard blue hypermedia/multimedia product. and purple colors used for unvisited Educational Technology, 322 (12).pp. and visited sites. 5-11. 2. Few web pages contained clues that would indicate the size of the files in Cochenour,J.; Lee, J.; and Wilkins, R. the site. (1995).Visual links in the world-wide 3. The majority of web page web: The uses and limitations of image backgrounds used distracting patterns maps. InGriffin, R. (Ed.).Eyes on the and/or color. Future: Converging Images, Ideas, and 4.In many cases the designers seemed to Instruction.Selected Readings from the forgettomaintain message ofthe Annual Conference of the International page. Visual Literacy Association.pp. 165- 5.There was a tendency in most of the 173. personal pages not to indicate the path the user is following. The user should Curtiss, D. (1987).Introduction to visual be able to tell where he or she came literacy: A guide to the visual arts and from, how to go back and find his or communication.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: her way around. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6. Many sites did not indicate whether the site had been updated. This may lead Descy, D. (1994). World-wide web: the user to loose interest in the site. Adding multimedia to cyberspace. Tech 7.In many cases, graphics that looked Trends, 39. (4). pp. 15-16. like buttons were not. 8.The use of thumbnail graphics was Doyle, C. (1994). Information literacy in minimal. an information society: A concept for the information age. Syracuse, NY: Recommendaations ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and The next phase of this studyisto Technology. perform an in-depth dataanalysis. Following that, a formal evaluation of the Jones, M. (1994). Visuals for information data should be completed. Froma access{A new philosophy for screen preliminary analysis, the following andinterfacedesign. InBaca,J.; considerations merit investigation: Beauchamp, D.; and Braden, R. (Eds.). 1.Should the elements of the visual arts, Imagery and Visual Literacy: Selected dot, line, color, text that have been Readings from the Annual Conference of standardfor decades applytothe the International Visual Literacy medium of on-line publications? Association. pp. 264-272.

361 BEST COPY AVAILABLE :35 :5 issuesin (1994). Computers and Schwier, R. (1991). Current Knupfer, N. InAnglin,G. visuallearning.InMoore,M. and interactivedesign. Dwyer, F. (Eds.).Visual literacy: A Instructional Technology - Past, Present, pp. 209- and Future. EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: spectrum of visual learning. Libraries Unlimited, Inc. pp. 195-201. 232. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. See ls, B.(1994).Visual literacy:The In Moore, M. and Ma, Yan. (1995). A semioticanalysis of definition problem. Griffin, Dwyer, F. (Eds.).Visual literacy: A icons on the world wide web. In 97-112. Eyeson theFuture: spectrum of visual learning. pp. R.(Ed.). NJ: Educational Converging Images, Ideas, and EnglewoodCliffs, Instruction.Selected Readings from the Technology Publications. Annual Conference of the International Creating killer web Visual Literacy Association. pp.33-41. Siegel, D.(1996). sites:The art of third-generation site IN: Hayden Muffoletto, R.(1994).Representations: design. Indianapolis, You, me, and them. In Moore, M.and Books. (http:\www.killersites.com). A Dwyer, F. (Eds.).Visual literacy: The spectrum of visual learning.pp. 295- Stieglitz, M. (1995). Altered images: NJ: camera,computer, &beyond. In 310. Englewood Cliffs, Eyes on the Future: Educational Technology Publications. Griffin, R. (Ed.). Converging Images, Ideas, and Selected Readings from the Lucas, L. (1991).Visually designing the Instruction. computer-learner interface. Educational Annual Conference of theInternational Technology, 31. (7). pp. 56-58. Visual Literacy Association. pp.22-24. Thompson, M. (1994). Design Mitchell, W.(1992). The reconfigured M. eye. Cambridge, MA:The MIT Press. considerations of visuals. In Moore, and Dwyer, F. (Eds.). Visualliteracy: A pp. 165- Mitchell, W. (1996).City of bits: Space, spectrum of visual learning. place, and the infobahn.Cambridge, 183. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: MA: The MIT Press. Educational Technology Publications. for Saunders, A. (1994).Graphics and how Tolhurst,E.(1992). A checklist and evaluating context-based hypertext they communicate. In Moore, M. Educational Dwyer, F. (Eds.).Visual literacy: A computer software. spectrum of visual learning.pp. 183 Technology, 32.(3). pp. 17-21. Cliffs, NJ: 192. Englewood Publishing Educational Technology Publications. Wiggins, R. (February, 1995). on the world wide web.New Media. pp. 51-55. Visualizing Instructional Design:The Potential of Dynamic Computer Presentations Nancy Nelson Knupfer, Misook Ji, Theresa E. Gram, Hamed Ghazali, William J. Rust, Huei Chu Chen, and Kevin M. Kramer Abstract Four development projects are described in this paper. Each represents a different approach to developing visually rich and interactive computer-based materials that are expected to enhance student understanding of the instructional design process. The projects described in this paper represent a series of steps taken to develop visual learning materials that are expected to enhance student understanding of the subject matter within a limited amount of time.

Graduate students often have difficulty enrolled in an interactive systems design understandingtheconceptsbehindthe course. This project was assigned as part of various models of instructional design (ID). the course work for the interactive systems As a result,theyspendexcessive time design course. debating and trying to understand how to The elusive problemthat plaguedthe interpret the various ID models. Although class was thelack of properaccess to it is important that students reflect upon and development software.Only one computer discussthe various similarities and wasavailablewitheitherMacromedia differencesinthemodels,itismore Director or Astound, so the students needed important that they do so within the clear to share. directionthatisaffordedbyasolid The first three projects were developed framework of understanding.In order to using Director and the fourth project was help students in an introductory ID course developed using Astound, due to perceived come toa better understandingof the time constraints of learning Director. There similarities and differences between various is no doubt that Director allowed greater instructionalmodels,themodelswere flexibility ofdevelopment and also developed into dynamic computer graphics utilization. to use within a class setting. These graphics While designing the presentations, canbeused bytheinstructorasa particular attention was given to the impact presentation aid or by individual students. of visuals on learning.The development Since many of the students who enroll in team carefully considered the elements of the ID course are working professionals goodscreendesign,conceptmapping, from rural areas, the only time they are able cognition, and the paradigmshift from to come to campus is during class time, one behaviorism to constructivism within the evening per week. Inaddition,many educational technology field. students take two evening classes on the same night, so their minds are not free to Focus Questions reflect upon the readings or class material Four projects are described in this paper. for extended periods immediately before Thepaperwilldiscusseachproject and after class. Because of this situation, it separately but within the same unifying set is very important for the students to reach a of questions as follows: solid understanding of the basic concepts 1.Topic Selection duringa brief time on campus. The Why did you choose this topic? projects described in this paper represent a Why is it important to ID? series of steps takentodevelopvisual Why did you think this topic would learningmaterialsthatareexpectedto benefit by adding visual information? enhancestudentunderstandingofthe 2.Design Features subject matter within the limited amount of Describe the design features of your class time available. project. How is information organizedin a The Development Team visual format to help cognition? All of theauthorsinvolvedinthis 3. Lessons Learned multimedia development project had What did you learn from doing this completed a basic ID course and were project? 363 a57 4.Suggestions for Improvement patternthatprovidedtexture without What recommendations would you interfering with the text. The text itself was suggest to improve your project? presented in a contrasting colors, using a How would this project best be used? complementary color scheme.Titles, main How could you test this project to see information, sub categories, and sectioning if it really works better for learning of the screen were accomplished with color about ID than reading text from a coding, layout, and font appearance so that book? the learners could easily keep track of their placement within the program. Project One -- Concept Clarity Four basic screen designs were used to The first project was developed strictly as signify the type of informationthat was lecture support.It was meant to be used to presented, thus learners would know what to help students organize information within expect based upon the visual layout of the their minds according to logical chunks of screen.For an example of a main and a information that students had read about subordinate screen from Project One, see and that were explained by the instructor. Figure 1. The intent was to provide the basic concepts of the ID process.This project could be Figure 1 used by students after the lecture for review, Project One Main and Subordinate Screen or if they had missed class. The amount of information within the projectis skeletal lK and therefore, it depends upon l' sign supplemental information provided by the instructor or by the course readings. c . Topic Selection This topic was selected as the starting place becauseitgavethefoundational underpinningsnecessarytolearnmore about ID. The book explanation seemed to fall short of students' needs; students could not seem to readtheinformationand understand it and remember it well enough to applyit consistently to class projects. Visualinformationwouldprovidethe students with cues to help remember the basic concepts ofID.

Design Features The designfeaturesusedwithinthis project began with basic organization of information into logical chunks that were related and consistent with common ID course content.It was important that the materialbedesignedforthegreatest amount of flexibility for lecture support. The instructor wanted to be able to begin and leaveoffwith anyofthemajor concepts as necessary to support the lecture, which could vary depending on students' Lessons Learned needs.Also, if students wanted to see part This project was fun to do and it was a of thematerialagainor theinstructor start in the right direction.In addition to wanted to compare or contrast information, lecturesupport,itcouldbeusedby then the material needed to beflexible individual studentsif they missed class. visual enoughtoallow movingforwardand The project taught us that logical backward as well as skipping around. layout of information can help studentsto This project used muted or neutral colors understand complex concepts. inthe backgroundwith asoftoverall

364 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 358 Suggestions for Improvement although the models were diagrammed in Althoughaninstructorcouldeasily black and white, they weredifficult to maneuver around the software, we believed understand. The book could be improved that students who might use it after missing by applying one or more of the models class could become lost or not see the visual being discussed. The first thing to analyze links between some of the more subtle color wasthepresentationofthemodels changes in the fonts.To help clarify the themselves in a circular attempt to improve visual relationships within this presentation, their presentation. additional color coding was added in the The importanceof understandingthe form of bullets.This was a good addition similarities and differences amongsome ID in terms of conceptual relationships, but models in anintroductoryID classis there needs to be further refinement of the obvious.With a rock solid understanding size and placement of the bullets,as well as of what the different models emphasize,a clarificationof the accompanyingcolor student should be able to gain confidence key. in selecting or modifying a model touse in The color key will needto be made developing good instructional materials. smaller so that it can fit as a templateon all Multimedia computers offer instructional screens without crowding thescreen or designers different way of applying certain otherwise interfering with existingcontent. instructional cues. The use of color, sound, We are also experimenting with button size. images, and even motion are now much Right now, the buttons on the mainscreens more economically feasible than they are in arelargerthanthebuttonsonthe a printed textbook.Color seems to be an subordinate screens, but we are notsure if obvious is element of visual design,so we thesizeisdistinctive enoughtoserve thought about how it could be used in this effectively as a cue.It would be a good context.For most people, color is a very idea to use the smaller buttonsize for strong organizingcue. For example,in aesthetic purposes and add a textureto the highway signs greens and bluescan safely buttons as an addition cue. The existing be ignored; yellows and reds cannot.Or colorsonthebuttonsaredistinctive, consider a man who enters a restroom with however, some people might have special pink walls; he is likely to stop and make needs related to colorvision and large sure that he is in the right place. screen projections systems often seem to In this example, we use color to classify distort colors beyond recognition. and compare ID modelstothebasic ADDIE process, but we addedasixth Project Two Color Coding component "R"to represent the need to This project emphasized color coding revise, thus making the acronym, ADDIER. overlays to enhance the standard IDprocess ADDIER is the basic model for all kinds of model, known as ADDIE.The ADDIE design processes. By relating ADDIER to model moves through a process of: other models in a very clear yet unobtrusive Analysis way, we believe that future ID students will Design learn about ID better than they otherwise Development would. Implementation Evaluation Design Features Close inspection of the ADDIEprocess We calledthisprojectInvestigating anditsrelationshipto a varietyof ID Instructional Design Models and its goals models, revealed that the implementation was to help students understand the basic process was usually skipped over within the principlesofsixmajormodelsfor models. This was not apparent at first and designing instruction.Those models are as a result, it was a confusing point for typically addressed in instructional design students. textbooksasIDI,Air Force, Dick and Carey, Gagne and Briggs, Kemp, and Seels Topic Selection and Glasgow. Although there aremany ID While taking the introductory ID class, models, these were chosen as basicones. several students had difficulty These models were to be presentedas understanding the difference between the variationsof thebasicapplieddesign functionality of different ID models.The process model, ADDIE, which is presented textbook presented a variety of models, and as an introduction to ID principles.

365 359 The programis based on a simulation and comment uponit.With little or no called Learning Unlimited, which is a video prodding,everysinglepersonbutone clip developed by an ID consulting firm. pointed out that a color was missing from Learners take on the roles of"apprentice the model on the right.It is interesting to designers" who must attend the firm's note that the one exceptionhad afair designorientationprogram,called Meet amount of ID experience and was probably ADDLE. Following this orientation,the lookingatthe model froma different learners work as a member of their selected viewpoint than the beginners. client's ID team. During the course of the programtheapprenticedesigners could Figure 2 work with the six different models. But, Project Two ADDIER Model they must choose two design models from which they will create instructional A packages. The presentation of the instructional ID models was done in Macromedia Director, enablinganeasy combinationoftext, graphics and color. The user can select ten which ID models to look at by clicking on hyperlink objects, similar to the hypertext 1) of web pages. I Plan, Develop and op Objectives The ID models under study are depicted j Validate Instructton---1 and Tests with a mixture of graphics and text, similar to a flow chart. One model is presented on each page and compared to the ADDIER model. That is, the page is split vertically, The absence of the color immediately with the more compact ADDIER on the left focused people's attention. By starting to and the model under study on the right. build a mental structure before the user has Each step of the ADDIER model was to think about the words being used, we assigned a background color.The primary expect that the resulting structure will be purpose of the steps in the target model more nearly correct than would otherwise were determined andtheir backgrounds be the case. were filled in with the corresponding color A second example of what was learned from ADDIER.Since ADDIER is such a throughthis project was the process of cognitivelysimpleapplied process, it mapping the flow of how the program providesafirmanchorforanalyzing, worked. By fitting various ID models into a comparingandcontrasting,theother similar flow orprocessoflearning,it models.By providing context,itallows required us to look at the similarities and users to construct their own mental models differences of each model in great detail. using the more complex ID models. Figure 2 shows the ADDIER model with Suggestions for Improvement its color coding represented in shades of Starting to improve this project is simple. gray."A"is cyan, the first "D"is royal First, finishit. The result of theclass blue, the second "D" is vivid yellow, the E projectprovideda goodbeginningto is hot pink, and the "R" is red. The "I" is developinga course curriculumon ID missing form the right side of the image models. Currently,itcorrespondstoa and that would be immediately noticeable singlechapter fromoneIDtextbook. because of the presence of green on the left Adding four or five more chapters to create side and the absence of green on the right. a semester course content would make it viable. Lessons Learned Having this be the introductory text for The immediate reaction was how much ID course would be its best use. Its strength claritysuchasimplethingas adding lies in its simplicity. This allows the user to background colors could make. The best start constructingmental models of ID example was one of the models which did without the complexity associated with most not have any sort of implementation step. texts. By starting at the beginning, relating In a totally unscientific survey, we asked ID to the everyday approach of ADDIER, about a dozen people to look at this page the details of the different ID models are

366 360 BEST COPY AVAILABLE connected to something already within the following steps which may be students' frame of reference. This acknowledged specifically or as integrated associationwillfoster a more thorough components: analysis, design, development, understanding of what goes into the ID implementationandevaluation. These process. benchmarks provide direction for thought Instructional design is a cognitive course andactiontowardspecific,measurable, that should result in thorough development instructional outcomes be they cognitive, of certain skills. Any knowledge obtained is behavioral or psychomotor. useless without a demonstration of the skills Textbooks used and referenced in the ID learned. By reducing the amount of time class are wanting of clear organization and spent on learning ID models, more time can portrayalofthegeneralIDprocess. be devoted to actually creating instructional Visuals,infrequentlyplaced inclose material. Since this project's goal is a more proximity to associated text in traditional concise,hencea shorterinstructional textbook formats, were often confounding period, it should result in less time spent rather than helpful.Furthermore, because learningaboutthelarger rangeof ID the visuals are static, too much information models. is revealed too earlyin the instructional Todeterminewhetherornot this sequence. approach is better, a comparative study of An alternative approach to information subjects using it versus those who don't can sequencing is evident in texts attempting to be conducted. The criteria for deciding if emulate the unfolding of a hypermedia this approach is better is two part and fairly document. Nevertheless, these were judged simple. The first criterion is the quality of a poor approximation in that the visual the students instructionalprojects.While maps indicating location within the model somewhat subjective, most ID instructors occurred only at the beginning of sections have opinions on what is good and what is necessitating page skippinginorderto not. In this case, their opinions should place the textual informationwithin the count.The other criterion is the students overall model. Text-based maps may be assessment of what they did. To a certain helpful but could be omitted in favor of the degree, how they judge their own projects simplicity offered by concise thumbnail should demonstrate how well they maps repeated at the upper left corner of understand why they did what they did. every other page.In either case, the texts were poor models of ID process in general. Project Three -- Aesthetics This project concentrated on developing Design Features the overall visual aesthetics of the interactive This project provides a map for thought instruction.It employed a dual colored, and action relevant to the Problem Analysis graduated background, screen partitioning, phase of ID. The design permits the learner and several unique design features such as to tailor, within predeterminedlimits, the two way slidersforlearnerstocontrol sequence, linear or non-linear, according to window views.Metaphors were employed prior experience with ID and individual with care so that the imagery fit well within preferences.For instance, the Tour option the overall aesthetic appeal. presentsinformationinastep-by-step sequence, with the option to Quit at any Topic Selection point. Studentsalreadyfamiliarwith We selected an overview of the ID process problem analysis as a component of ID as an appropriate topic because the generic may opt for the non-linear approach by ID model benchmarks that were elaborated using the overview screen's ID model which in the project would necessarily guide the serves as a main menu (see Figure3). project team's decision making. Throughout, students have the option to Furthermore,theoverviewprovidesa quit or return to the main menu. mental map that prompts or aids the user in Evaluation is integrated into the sequence making connections and predictions.The by way of check point question screens. scopeofavailableresources - time, Questions are intended to invite reflection knowledge base, software, and hardware and review.An Answer fieldis readily availability- also informed that decision. available upon a Click request from within Sophisticated ID models are diverse and the bounds of a question's text field. complex yet universally insistent upon the

367 thought and action thatwould be reinforced More formal evaluationin also integrated similarly. intotheproject. An Exercisefolder and summative Studentsreceivefurtherassistancein contains various formative locating a referent for theiractivities within evaluation activities.Formative evaluation the learner to the context of the entireID process by includes items which invite quick reference to the IDicon in the lower selectcorrectresponsesfrom alist. A click on left-hand corner of a screen.The location Incorrect responses are flagged. within the ID process,itself a thumbnail a flagged responseprovides a rationale for indicated by a differencein correct response and aprescriptionfor replica,is component color and texture by correctingthefaultyapplicationof the Queries may be submittedby comparison. concept. Color scheme also conveyscontinuity and personal call or submitted tothe Activities The coloration of transportedto segregation of content. folderareelectronically the lower right portion ofthe screen from tutorialagentsatthehost external which the burst emanates changes institution.Dialogues between studentand of the segment thus occur byway ofthe according to the content tutorcan whiletheoverall screenscheme is electronic medium or verbally. dominated by a static complementof cooler hues. Figure 3 visual proximity Project Three Main Menu The problem of text and found in the various textbooksis resolved usingselectivedisclosure. Visualsare placedeitherinjuxtaposition,opaque overlays or as transparent overlays dependent upon therelationship between page componentsand consequent cognitive load potential. Figure 4shows a sample of a screen layout. Figure 4 Project Three Sample ScreenLayout

(; rtib ...).11,1) %i17`1 J'J3u3 51,g91.4 Completed summative evaluationactivities are transportedelectronically to the host institutiondirectly fromtheEvaluation folder. The graded work, repletewith prescriptions for correctiveaction will be transported backtothestudent. The student is encouraged to takeaction on the prescriptive feedback and to thenresubmit the document for finalevaluation. The student is free to accept thepreliminary resubmitthe Lessons Learned evaluationscoreorto Our foundations in ID arebroader and corrected document. this project. The Main Menu layout presents aconcise deeper as a result of developing Each We now have experiencethat includes a representation of an ID process. the importance of generalized model better understanding of componentofthe communication and quickly reveals the componentsand flow of interpersonal of a hybrid relationships, group dynamicsand power activity within the context structures, and visualliteracy.Since this model. Furthermore, the visualpotentially an each time the wasanopportunitytoundertake reinforces these general steps authentic project reinforcingthe various learnervisitsthis page. The Problem of ID we added Analysis screen, as do othersections of the concepts and models substantially to our understandingof the ID model, also conveys an intentionalflow of user processespeciallypertainingto

BEST COPY AVAILABLE attributes and needs.Additionally, those this project solved was how those two sets of inclinedtodoso, addedfacilitywith nineitems wereinterrelated,andthus Director as a sophisticated and powerful studentscouldengageinanin-depth authoring alternative, as well as with image analysis of how to apply the two processes capture and subsequent editing. in a practical way to the ID process. Suggestions for Improvement Topic Selection First, and foremost, a problem analysis This interactive project was developed in replete with a strong assessment of learner ordertohelpstudentsgainabetter characteristics must be completed. Our understanding of the similarities, groupwas contenttooperatefroma differences, and interrelationships among combined perspective of user attributes and Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction and the needs. A simple report of the number nine steps of the Training Events.The correct is hardly an adequate assessment textbook contained a clear explanation of and needs much more information to be each, but most students did not take the useful.Thus we would expect refinement timetothoroughlyanalyzethetwo in that area. hierarchies due to perceived complexity. There are expectationsthat the screen Students involved with this project at first design and user interface demands would wanted to address simply Gagne's nine be differentonthebasisof adequate events, but the instructor suggested that we understanding of intended users. address the project in a more extended way Furthermore, an adequate knowledge base and use a visual representation to address invisual components and design would the relationship between the two hierarchies. surely influence the look and feel of our Thus an interactive lesson was developed to project. visualize the foundationalconceptsand This projectwould serve as a useful interrelationships of Gagne's Nine Events adjunct to regular classroom instruction. and the Nine Training Events. With substantial planning and revisionit We believed that the processes could be could become an effective alternative to modeled in an interactive and highly visual regular classroom instruction. We presentation with the messages carried by envisionedits eventual application fora various forms of visual cueing. The visual courseofferedby adistancelearning representation of this lesson takes advantage provider that accommodates the differential of dynamic computer graphics, enabling it needs of students for learner support and to be used as an instructor's presentation immediateperson-to-person interaction. aid in a classroom setting or by individual The project could also certainly have utility students as a supplement to or review of as one source of content for an internet- class instruction. based course. The lessonitself, was notcreatedto The potential influence of the project on substitute or replace college-level courses in learningoutcomeswoulddrawupon ID, but rather, to enhance them. The users quantitative and qualitative designs. An can have a broad range of knowledge of ID experimentaldesignwouldnecessarily philosophies, from novice to expert.But, include a control group of non-users and the primary users of this lesson will be the an experimental group of users. Evaluation students with a basic understanding ofID. of testscores, projectscores,andtask efficiency and satisfaction may be useful Design Features indicators of the project'seffectiveness. The most important aspect of this project Analysis of within group differences may was the emphasis on visual cueing.Several also be illuminating. discussions and debates yielded an outline of the lesson's framework of information Project Four Shapes and Textures and presentation format. From that outline, Thisprojectfocusedoncomparing the basic information was translated into a Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction to the visual format. nineInstructionalTrainingEventsas The key to blending the content and describedinSmith and Ragan (1993). visual design was the evolutionofthe Althougheachhadninesteps,they Content Map (see Figure 5).The map's included different content, and where steps purpose was to be a visual navigation tool seemed to represent similar content, they allowingtheusernon-linearaccessto were in different order.The question that information. The content map,asit

369 evolved, resultedinan amplification of In additionto the color, shape, and content information and the numerical cueing, the project employed interconnection of the elements in Gagne's texture in the content map and throughout Events and the Training Events. so that the learners would have one more visual cue. This cue could be particularly Figure 5 important topeople who seecolors Project Four Content Map differently.

Lessons Learned Teammemberslearnedtwomajor concepts during the process of developing this project.First, we learned about the relationship between the visual elements and ID. Second, we learnedaboutgoing beyondthelinearformattoemploy nonlinear design in a logical way that could aid the learning process. Therelationshipbetweenthevisual elements and the ID process presented the connection between the use of visuals to communicate ideas and the design process, In addition to the content map, visual cues including the human factors, screen design were employed as color coding, texture, and information structure that are involved shapes, and numerical labels. The events as in the interactive instructional system. The a whole were depicted as a square that was ability of the team to look beyond the divided into two triangles.Gagne's Events linear design of instruction for the links to were symbolized by the lower right triangle more information grew out of the formative shape of that square and were in a green evaluation process. Each team member had color. The Training Events were depicted andusedtheopportunitytoevaluate, as the opposite part of that square,the comment, and change the project upper lefttriangle, and were yellow in individually or as part of a group during color. Each triangle also contained the the formative evaluation process. number of the step in question.Thus if The team also found that it was not easy standing as separate element, a color-coded to work together.Different ideas, talents, triangle with a number was displayed, and if skills,personalities,workingstyles,and representing an area of matching content, communicationsstylesallimpactedthis two triangles of green and yellow color project. were displayed. The numbersinthe trianglesinformedlearnersabout which Suggestions for Improvement steps were coinciding. These symbols, This project should be tested with students minus the numbers, are displayed in Figure in the beginning ID class and adjusted if 6. The expandedinstructionalevents necessary. It will be important to see if the extended the examples for the learners. visual cueing works as we think it will. The project could be transferredtoa Figure 6 compact disc or HTML for presentation on Project Four Color and Shape Symbols the. World Wide Web. This project would lend itself to a research study to compare understanding and retention between classes li 13110JCI1rJr11.11. that use and do not use the software.Part Dr:31011 of such a study should evaluate icon styles and other isolated visual elements Gagne's EuentsA employed, not just the text-based material. Training Euents v The crucial constraint was the limitation of equipment and resources needed for the Expanded development and presentation of the lesson. Instructional A WeusedAstound to develop this Euents presentation because we thought it would be faster than learning to use Director.That

370 :364 limited us in some unexpected ways. One clarify the ID concepts through the use of person knew the most about Astound and it visual aids. Eachis unique and offers created friction among the group in terms original ideas toward that goal.Each has of responsibilities. The knowledgeable obvious flaws and so thereis room for personpreferredtoworkinAstound, growthonalltheprojectspresented. knowing the program limitations, but did Perhaps a logical next step will be to get the not want to do all of the production work, students who developed these projects to nor spend the time teaching the others to work with othersin developingineven help out.We found that using Astound betterinteractivesoftwarethanwhatis seemed to be a good choice initially, but it represented here. As the students work limited what we could do, and it now limits through the process of teaching others,it the ability to actually use the product. The will offer an opportunity for them to extend programrequiresalargeamountof some of their original thinking and work in computer memory to run in Astound and applying visualization to instruction about that severely limits the ability to use it in ID. class as result of hardware limitations. References Summary Smith, P. & Ragan, T. (1993). Instructional These four projects represent a sampling of design. Old Tappan, NJ: Prentice Hall. the ideas employedinfirstattemptsto

371 :365 Out of the Picture, Out of the Club: Technology, Mass Media, Society, and Gender Nancy Nelson Knupfer, William J. Rust, and Judy E. Mahoney Abstract This paper expresses different points of view about the relationships between males and females, the computer culture, the influence of mass media, and community.It cautions readers to understand the need for sensitivity to the male perspective and the need to address the issue of gender from within a societal context, rather than from a male versusfemale approach.

While conductinga studyaboutthe twocommercialsforboysandtwo design of World Wide Web (Web) pages, commercials for girls, not necessarily in any our research team noted two things that are specific order, but certainly distinctive in directlyrelatedtogender. First,the genderimaging(Courtney & Whipple, majorityofindividualpages,whether 1983; Downs & Harrison, 1985; Kilbourne, personal or professional, were owned by 1990; Lovdal, 1989; Macklin & Kolbe, males.Thus we saw lots of information 1994).The boys'commercials are fast about males and male's photographs on the paced, outdoors and rugged, usually involve Web. Second,webegantonotice something on wheels, often depict recognizable signs that gave us clues about aggression, employ music with a fast tempo whether Web pages were designed by males and distinctive beat, and use camera angles or females. At first we made some guesses thatslantup,placingtheboysina and then we began to categorize things to dominant position within the picture.The lookfor,suchascolorcombinations, girls"commercialsareslowerpaced, images, types of buttons, combinations of indoors and sweet, usually involve dolls or anglesandcurves,andthetypeof fashion messages, often depict emotion and information included within the content of caring for others, employ musical sweet the pages. We are currently investigating calm undertones, and use camera angles that issue and this paper is a background that slant down, placing the girls in the less paperaboutwhy someofthethese dominant portion of the picture. differencesmight beworth examining. The stereotypes reinforced by television Here we investigate some of the literature carry over into daily life (Berry & Asamen, about gender differences in computer usage 1993;Berry & Mitchell-Kerman,1982; that could very well appear in visual form in Bred & Cantor, 1988; Fidell, 1975).Bring the next generation of the popular Web. this imagerytotherealexperienceof Imagesofoursocietyreflectthe entering a computer consulting office at a stereotypes andtherealitiesof gender typical university campus. The consultants tracking,oftenseparatingmalesfrom are typically male, speak in a language of females.For example, one might think their own, and if you can understand the about a common media image of adults at language then you might understand the work.The typical chief executive officer help that is offered. Of course, the quality (CEO) in real corporate board rooms and in of help you get might depend completely the media is male; he wears a suit and looks onthedegreeofassistancethatthe likeacompetentleader. Thereal consultant feels like providing, depending elementary school teacher is female, dresses on an instant first impression of your needs for doing schoolprojects, and wears a and your perceived capacity to understand pleasant expression; in the media of course, the help you get. With alltoo much she is young and good looking, or reflects frequency, the consultants miss completely the kindly grandmother image.The roles and talk /down to female clients or speak a are defined, the images are engraved in language of acronyms and other people's minds. technobabblethatthefemalesdonot The messages of gender separation begin understand. Why? Where doesthis early, laced throughoutsocietyin many miscommunication start and what ways. Forexample,thetelevision perpetuates it? commercialswithinpopularchildren's As we considertheanswertothis programs feature the gratuitous sequence of question, we must ask a host of related 373 3:6 questions. For example, why dothe case, then there would be no need for recent commercials depict boys and girls efforts to attract girls into the study of math separately, reinforcing the separation by sex and science (Kable & Meece, 1994) and the at an early age that leads to separation by number of distressing stories about females gender throughout life?At what point and succeeding despite the myriad of obstacles for what reasons do the genders mix in the (Aisenberg & Harrington, 1988; Clark & visual images depicted in advertising and in Corcoran, 1986; Frenkel, 1990; Gornick, real life? What messages are given to males 1990) would no longer be told. and females about turf, not mixing, and Although many scholars insist that great why? Is there common ground that can be strides have been made concerning gender found, and why is it not more frequently equity,it has not been enough and the visited?As more emphasis is placed on subtlebiases remainbarrierstoequal using the visual media inschools, what opportunity (Rowe,1990; Rutherford, implications does this separation have for 1994; Sayan, 1994; Schwartz & Markham, males and females? The Internet is clearly 1985;Signorielli,1993;Tannen,1996; an environment that was structured by and Top, 1991). The real concern goes beyond for males. Now that the Internet is placing the biases of any specific people, to the more emphasis on the World Wide Web largerdimensionoftheteachersand (Web),willthisrichnessof thevisual students,instructionaldesigners,artists, communications environment be male turf advertisers, administrators, and families that like other technology areas or will the Web make up society as a whole. The evidence be utilized as easily by females? What is clear in the games of the children, the societal factors will influence the outcome? classroom practices, the design of So far, messages within our society that are educational products and environments, the reinforced by the mass media emphasize advertisements found within all forms of that youth and attractiveness are good, sex visualmedia, andthevisualmessages is important, and males and females have conveyed by the entertainment industry. certain roles to play that are separate and Since the computer industry is relatively distinct. new, one would expect a more gender- diverse leadership.Yet that is not the case Gender, Society and Technology and women continue to struggle to gain While our society encourages boys to get knowledge,togaincredibility,andto messy,wrestle,andexploreunknown achieve careeradvancementwithinthe territory, girls get subtle messages to keep technology fields(Kantrowitz, 1996). their hands clean, play with their dolls, obey Couple this with the existingdifficulties the rules, and often they are discouraged faced by females who work on university from taking science and math in school campuses (Aisenberg & Harrington,1988) (Kantrowitz, 1996; Rowe, 1990). While andthedynamic becomesevenmore boys and girls are equallyinterestedin complex, especially as administrators begin computers until about the fifth grade, after to do such things as include degreeof that point, boys' usage rises significantly technology usage within employee and girls' usage drops (Kantrowitz, 1996). evaluations.It would appear that many This is most likely due to increased sex-role females will find themselves stuck, as they identification at that age.By high school, say, between a rock and a hard place. students show clear gender bias intheir Many peopleareeitherunwillingor attitudestowardtechnology(Shashanni, unable to see beyond their current practices, 1994). Surely the attitudes of the high beliefs, and biases. If that were not the case, school students will carry into adulthood then why do we not see more women in top throughhigher education andintothe administrative roles where decisionsare workplace. made concerning budgets, strategies, and The neglect and omission of the female policies? The majority of decisions about populationfrom mathandtechnology technologicalpurchasesandutilization fields reveal themselves in subtle ways on an being decided by males, thus leading to individual basis, but as a collective result situationsthatarestructuredformales appear throughoutsocietyas something users. Why do we notroutinely see male that begins in the home, and perpetuates administratorsseekingtheopinionsof itself through schooling and employment femalesubordinates prior tomaking practices (Rowe, 1990). If that were not the decisions about technology that will affect

374 367 them in their work. For example, why are Branch, 1995) and in advertisements about more teachers not involved in fact finding computer technology (Knupfer, 1996). prior to making important decisions that The literature further reveals that women affecttheirclassroompractices? If arenotwellrepresentedinthenew computer-supported multimedia is such an generation of high technology occupations. important part of our lives, then why do we Changing that is important because society notsee more women on theexecutive can ill afford to waste half of itsinnate boards of technology companies? talent, nor can it justify wasting of talent The president of a technology company due to gender-based access to answeredthisquestionbysayingthat opportunities.Discouraging half of our women have never been on the board of population from entering the high directors in his company and they are not technology fields is a practice that can only acceptable candidates because they are not hurt our society.Rather thanthinking reliable. Why are they not reliable?Well, about what isgoodforwhich gender they will get pregnant and then they leave. separately, the focus should be on thinking When told that the women might come back about what is good for society as a whole. quicklytojobsthatreward them,the Instead of arguing for equalrightsfor executive saidtherealreason was that women in a way that pits women against women could not be trusted.Why not? men,itwouldbemorebeneficialto Because they do not fit and it would not be approach this as a societal problem that appropriate to discuss important business must be solved by working together.This with them(Larsen,1996). Itsounds distinction is crucial and it can be supported outrageous but is it really that far from the by the way in which women and men are truth of what commonlyoccursin our depicted in the mass media. society?Is it isolated to corporate board Girls can achieve equallywellinthe rooms? Is it part of the computer culture? aforementioned areas but have not been Clearly, thereis evidence of different encouraged to do so until recently.And typesof usageanddifferentattitudes now the attempts are filled with remaining towardcomputersbetweenmalesand hurtles and barriers that must be overcome females. Men tend to be seduced by the (Top, 1991).Meaningful practice must do technology itself rather than what they can more to attend to these matters and take an do with it in a practical sense (Kantrowitz, activeroleinencouraginggirls(Van 1996).Like bragging about fast cars, men Nostrand, 1991). Designers advertisements, often brag about the size and speed of their mass mediamessages,andeducational computers and software. On theother materials can make abettereffortto hand, women tend to focus on the utility of provide experiences that girls can relate to, the machine rather than its glamour. They offering instructional opportunities that are do not care about what is on the inside nor notgenderbiased, and encouraging what makes it work, but are very much teacherstoactivelyattendtoissuesof concerned that it function sufficiently well gender equity (Turkle & Papert 1990). to meet their needs (Kantrowitz, 1996). The difference can be stated simply as a' Importance of Communities male tendency to focus on the tool itself Although research on computer-mediated and a female tendency to focus on the communicationdates backtotheearly utility of the tool. While men tend to think days of computer network technology in of computers as powerful ways to extend the1970's,itisonlyrecentlythat their physical limitations, women tend to researchers have begun to take into account think of them as a means toan end the gender of the users.Recent research (Kantrowitz, 1996). Men want to force revealsthat men and women have computers to submit while women just want recognizablydifferentstylesinposting computers to work (Tannen, 1996).Thus messages to the Internet, and that they have we see a differenceintherelationship different scommunicationethics. One between people and computers based on analysis of listserve discussions revealed that gender.The media capitalizes on those 68 percent of the messages posted by men differences and further widens the gap by used an adversarial style in which the writer concentrating on' or exaggerating distancedhimselffrom,criticized,or stereotypical roles in the way people are ridiculedotherparticipants,andoften portrayed in computer clip art (Binns & promoted his own importance.In contrast

375 368 women displayed features of attenuation; because it leaves out the modifying clause, they hedged, apologized, and asked "being born into a society."Being born questions rather than making assertions. In into a society, each individual has certain addition, the women's postings tended to rights by birth.If rights exist only within reveala personalorientation,revealing the context of a society, then thatisa thoughts and feelings, interacting with and crucial omission.First, rightsexist only supporting others (Herring, 1996). within the context of a society.Second, Although some people claim that rights are only violated through willful acts. electronic communications are anonymous "Othering" is an interesting concept that and therefore invite participation ofboth is the dark side of community. Community males and females, that will notnecessarily isthe joiningtogetheror grouping of be the case if our on-line communicative individuals in society.If an individual can style reveals our gender.For then gender say that a member of a communityis, in differences, along with their social some meaningful way, "just likeme" then consequences,arelikelytopersistin that individual is also a member of that computer-mediated networks (Herring, community. 1996).As a part of the on-line network Communities come in two classes, natural that isfastgrowing, popular, and and constructed.Natural communities are graphicallyoriented,the Web holdsa those that happen by birth or mishap. Skin prominent position, soitwill have great color is one such community, blindness is impact on its users.If females are to use another.Constructed communities, which the web productively, thenit cannot be arefarmorenumerous, arelargely restricted to the male domain. Let us voluntary.Religions are a good example. examine some ideas about groups, territory, Soap opera viewers are another. Some belonging, and oppression, and relate that constructed communities are based upon informationtothevisualdisplayof natural ones, for example, a cohesive group information about using computers. based on ethnicoriginthathas come interests Letusestablishastrawmanthat togetherto recognize common represents the way that many peoplebelieve based on that origin. an identifiable group of people arehurt. In Communities vary by the intensity of the the case we are presenting, the injured or membership inthe community and how oppressed group is females. Which group society views their importance. ishurtingthem and why? Sincethe Communities play a large and significant oppressed or victim groupisidentified role in society. They not only define where based upon sex, not gender, it follows that individuals fit into society, but also help the other group, the oppressors, must be people to establish identities. Theyprovide composed of males.Logically,it follows continuity and a sense of belongingto thatsince females do nothaveequal something greater than an individual realm. representation in the high technology fields, Communities give people purpose. remedies are needed that modify the hurtful But community has a dark side whichis behavior of the males so that the females' called othering. Othering is the opposite of rights to equal opportunity are respected. communitybuilding. The meaning of Thisprocess is based upon two being an other varies with the community in fundamental ideas; the canon of individual question. It is the group of people who can rights and the process of "othering."Both be harmful or destructive to a community. of these need a clear airing.They are For the double jointed community, once commonly misunderstood and misapplied. you get past elementaryschool, being an The canonofindividualrightssimply other makes very little difference. For a declares that individuals have rights. These Moslem in Bosnia, a Hutu in Burundi, an rights are both inalienable and inherent. urban dweller in Kampucheia, a Jew inNazi Assembly Germany or, at about the same time, a The United NationsGeneral other passed a statement of these rightsinits Ukrainian in the Ukraine, being an 1948document, Declaration of Human had very serious consequences. Rights, and reaffirmed the document within thelast few years at Helsinki. Inthat Othering and Common Ground document, certain things were declared to For members of our society at present,the be rights by birth. The concept of rightsby consequences of being an other areusually birth is quite simply wrong. Itis wrong not extreme on the surface.However, the

376 36.2 BEST copy AVAILABLE subtle biases levied by those in powerful from typical members of society and those positions over many years are cumulative differences became a part of the "just like and can be devastating in terms of the me" criteria.There are reasons why the dominoeffectthatresult. Fromthat communitiesareas theyare. Simply perspective, there is a paradigm established wantingtochange,simplydemanding from which to examine potential remedial females' right to inclusion will not work. actions to get more females involved in Instead, the way to get females integrated high technology endeavors. into high technology fields is to find a way The basic premise of most studies about to get the males and females to be able to females using technologyis that because say together that they have some common the percentage of females using technology ground within the technology community. is lower than the percentage of males using Thatcommongroundcannotdepict technology, somethingis acting to keep females as sexual objects nor decorations females out.Indeed, many women who nor servants to the male needs. work with technologybelievethatthe Thisconceptofbuildingcommon environment is hostile towards them (Turk le ground begs society to examine the way it & Papert, 1990). A case can be made that defines community. The deepand women's rightsare beingviolated and persistent problem of gender separation remedial action is required to change the begins in early childhood, permeates the technology environment so that women are toy and fashionindustries, sticks inthe welcomed. That means there is a need to minds of teachers who separate boys and change the attitudes and behavior of society girls in to separate groups, and pushes its toward women and technology. Yet gender way into homes as parents succumb to differences in attitudes toward technology societal pressures separate activities along begin in the way that males and females are gender lines.If boys and girls are not raised, thus reflecting the social allowed to develop working relationships expectations of individuals, family, friends, and friendships in early childhood, how can andsociety(Canter,1979;Davies & they be expected to overcome the barriers Kandel,1981;Eccles,1987;Houser & in later years?If they are bombarded with Garvey, 1985), so this becomes a rather images of stereotypes about gender and large issue. technology throughout their lives, how will But changing the societyis something theybeexpected toovercomethose that must be done carefully.Remember stereotypes in later years? that the canon of individual rights is based Itis important to ask men if they are upon the premise that having rights will trying to prevent women from joining their promote and protect society, not damage it, community.One of the male authors of so the technology-using male community this paper remembers his experience at one should not be damaged intheprocess. of the toptechnicaluniversitiesinthe Insteadthere must be a way towork United States.He recalls that there was together to find common ground between absolutelyno communitywith women. the male and female communities. One While growing up he had a ham radio, way of helping to establish this common model rocketry, model trains, photography, ground is through imagery portrayed to the and so on, but no exposure to girls on a general public. Imagery that shows regular social basis.There were virtually no girls women in productive roles using involved in any of his activities. Why not? technology in powerful ways would help. Were his parents narrow minded inthis When communities are defined,others regard? Was his community social structure become the enemy. Those othersare narrow channeled in this regard?Did he individuals. They came to be who they are never explore beyond the boundaries of by their belonging, and not belonging, to a what came in his direction and asked to join variety of natural and constructed in his current activities? In the days of his communities.Perhaps their communities childhood, it Was considered improper for a are dysfunctional, perhaps they are hostile girl to extend, the first invitation to a boy. to people unlike themselves. However they For what must be a host of reasons, girls came to be, the fact is that they do exist. were not there and so the experience of The existing male technology community workingwithgirlsdidnotexistin was shaped by our society.Members of childhood years or in college.He says, that community are different in many ways most male "hightechies"do nothate

377 37O women. They love them,fear them, and What will we see in the near future on the perhaps have no clue how to talk to them, Web? At least one author has already portrayed the Web as male space, depicting buttheycertainlydonothatethem. Women have just never been part ofthe the changing face of advertising, Web space thereisa that is, in a male hat, necktie, and business maleworld andtherefore Even though the difference perspective. suit (Geracioti, 1996). You might ask why he did notconsider majority of network users are males (Shade, the primary school experienceto be a 1993), females must be encouraged to learn mixture of males and females.After all, skills and be provided with opportunities to boys andgirlsdoparticipatein joint have equal access to information, and be physical education classes up to acertain portrayed in productive rolesusing grade, dependent upon thecommunity and technology. Women will have a chance to the school. While it might be truethat boys stake out a space, but will it be obvious or themale and girls are in the same class,it is also true willitbeovershadowedby that some teachers do a very efficientjob of presencethatstartedtheInternetand separating them within classroom groups. continues to dominate computer culture? For example, "Preschool X" seems tohave The answer to that question iscertainly wonderful teachers but the entire group notsimple,butpeoplecaninfluence thechildrenby educational applicationsof the Web by focuses onseparating that gender. The class lists are hung inthe designing instructional environments hallway and distributed to parents not on attend to the needs of the femalepopulation class, but by as well as those of- males.Several authors the basis of who is in what that gender, with all of the boys' nameslisted at have made suggestions about things listed at teacher and parents can do toimprove the top and all of the girls' names 1995; the bottom.When childrenbreakinto gender equityin schools (Couch, and even on field McCormick, 1994; Olivares &Rosenthal, groups it is by gender, Those trips,parentsareassignedgroupsof 1992; Ploghoft & Anderson, 1982). (Knupfer, ideas can be transferred directly to any children to supervise by gender educational environment that does ordoes 1995-96). In contrast, the other authors of this paper not use technology. Tobegin, parents and do remember some slight exposure tothe teachers can encourage reflectivepractice that makes adjustments to the needs athand other gender during their childhood years. the walls They also recall thatit was self initiated and considers ways to disassemble between the individuals involved and not of current gender segregationwithin our assisted by teachers or parents.Males and society.The information age brings the andwork challenge of shifting responsibilitiesand femalescanplaytogether important will be to find together in productive ways.It seems that one of the most society offers opportunities to mix, yet at the common ground upon whichmales and some point during ourchildhoodyears females can find trust and buildhealthy those opportunities are changed by parents workingrelationships that begin in taboo childhood and carry on throughadult life. and teachers who define them as the situations, or blindly ignore the It is no small challenge to overcome and imagesof mass media andyearsof opportunities for shared experiences at a the consequences ofsegregation.By the stereotypes, but it can be done one step teenageyears,malesandfemalesare time, strongly discouraged fromintermingling by parents who fear sexual encounters.Are References and females cannot Aisenberg, N. & Harrington, M.(1988). we to believe that males If that is a Women in academe: Outsidersin the interact in platonic ways? University common belief, then perhapsit is a result of sacred grove. Amherst, MA: the way the media continues toinfluence of Massachusetts Press. people through its portrayal of menand (Roberts & Berry, G. L. & Asamen,J.K. (1993). women in stereotypical ways Imagesina Maccoby, 1985). Children andtelevision: of Web changing sociocultural world.Newbury As we move into the new forum Inc. communication, the public will onceagain Park, CA: Sage Publications, have an opportunity to shape the messages about shared space and gender stereotypes.

378 :371 Berry, G. & Mitchell-Kerman, C. (Eds.). decisions. Pychology of Women (1982). Television and the socialization Quarterly, 11, 135-172. of the minority child.New York, NY: Academic Press. Fidel!, L. S. (1975).Empirical verification of sex discrimination in hiring practices Binns, J. C. & Branch, R. C. (1995). in psychology, in R. K. Unger & F.L. Genderstereotypedcomputerclip-art Denmark (Eds) Women: Dependentor imagesasanimplicitinfluencein independent variable.New York, NY: instructional message design.In D. G. Psychological Dimensions. Beauchamp, R. A. Braden, & R. E. Griffin (Eds.), Imagery and visual literacy (pp. Frenkel, K. A. (1990, Nov.). Womenand 315-324).Rochester, NY:International computing. Communications of the ACM, Visual Literacy Association. pp. 34-46.

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380 373 Obstructive Interactive TelevisionDesigns: The Influence of Culture, Genderand Power Nancy Nelson Knupfer and Theresa E. Gram Abstract to examinethe As instructionaltelevision becomes more popularitisimportant environment in which it is used alongwith common practices in order toprovide guidance in students. This study indicates that even asITV is reputed offering the best instruction for all disempowering at the same to be successful andliberating, it is potentially obstructive and time. Care must be taken to includethe teachers and students who useinstructional television in all stages of the planning,implementation, and evaluation processes.

Hence, many Integrationofinteractivetelevision participate in the training. (ITV) into the regular course scheduleis people regard ITV as a practical tool that occurring in more instructional situations helps high schools better prepare students and in greater numbers of course offerings to succeed in highereducation and within each year.If implemented appropriately, the career marketplace, and helps improve ITV can provide a rich and powerful workplaceskills byprovidingcurrent learning environment that employs visual training into corporate situations. learning in a meaningful way. It can allow There is no doubt about ITV's utility in the sharing ofvisualresourcesacross providing enhanced curriculum various groupsof people,indifferent opportunities and scheduling alternatives, geographical locations. but outcomes of using ITV are varied and The reasons for the increased use of ITV complex. There is a dearth of information in recent years are numerous, ranging inthe literaturepertaining tothe complexities of ITV's attendant outcomes. fromthepracticalneedsofserving of studentstothedesiretointegrate This paper considers important aspects process. ITV learning environments that have yet to technologyintothelearning It contributes to Politiciansarepushingforincreased be adequately explored. funding for and utilization of ITV by discourse surrounding equity in convincing people that ITV increases the opportunities for constituencies who are interaction between teachers and students. under-represented in the decision making Thus the impetus that is moving ITV into process surrounding ITVadoption,yet more classrooms spans the rangefrom account for a great portion ofthe faculty being driven by real curriculum needs to and students who must then useit. It being pushed by technology and it affects touchesonmaterialexpressionofa a broad range of learnersfrom young culture's value system.It illuminates the children to mature adults in both school power structures underwhose aegis ITV reviews common and corporate settings. networks operate. It For each situation, the specific reasons design features of ITV classrooms and for implementing ITV arevaried and speculatesupon thenatureofITV many. Yet the common thread amongall instructional presentations. who implement ITV is that they claim to This study indicates that even as ITVis be seeking a better way to serve various reputed to be successful and liberating, itis educational needs.Many people believe potentially obstructive and disempowering that the most important advantage of ITV at the same time.It can indeed interfere for small, geographically isolated schools with goal achievement for students and instructors whose needs and preferences is that ITV provides access to advanced or planning, specializedcourses that would not areignoredthroughoutthe otherwise be available to them. implementation, and evaluation processes. For both rural and urban settings, ITV offers flexibility in scheduling by enabling Culture, Gender and Power schools to offer multiple sections of a The socially constructed meaning, course,ifnecessary. Thiscanbe expectations, and opportunities based on especially important in corporate training gender begin with differing expectations rooms where various work schedulesneed for people, depending upon their sex at 1989). The to beaccommodated in order to birth (Stern & Karraker, 381 374 recent news media attention to the pathetic responsibilities and a new opportunity to and heart-wrenching plight of unwanted examine ways to assist females in school babygirls who havebeenkilledor situations that employ visual technologies. dumpedinorphanages(Chen,1996; A meaningful examination of the merit Human Rights Watch, 1996; Tyler, 1996) surrounding any educationalpractice is not a value thatisrestrictedtothe requires viewing it within the realm of its Chinese culture.It is a value the reflects culture. Institutions, technologies, policies, itself in the daily lives and education of and practices are material expressions of many people in many cultures thatelevate the dominantculture'sethosandits males to positions of power and control attendantmeanings(Cockburn,1983; while females are groomed for secondary Trask, 1986). Therefore an assessment of roles. It reveals itself in the way we groom the status of ITV requires an unbiased boys for leadershippositionswhile we inspectionoftheinstitutionsinvolved, teach girls to be submissive, in the way we technologies employed, policies emphasizetheimportanceofmale- determined, and common practices within dominatedsports,intheway teachers a cultural perspective. respond to boys differently than to girls Educational institutions are purposeful (Olivares & Rosenthal, 1992), in the way enterprises driven by power structures that stereotypes are perpetuated in the media are informed by openly endorsedagendas (Kilbourne, 1990; Schwartz & Markham, of bothpoliticalandpersonalorigin 1985), in the way we recruit for jobs (Bern (Freire, 1970;Knupfer,1993; Shor & & Bern, 1973; Fidel!, 1975; Rowe, 1990), Freire, 1987).The composition of these and in the way we design ITV classrooms power structuresinrelationto ITVis for distance education.It reveals itself in disclosed by an analysis of one Midwest the way we provide examples, exercises, state'sinstructionalleadershipstructure and meaningful educational opportunities and a closeexamination ofITV that males can often relate to better than implementation. This analysis reveals that females. leadership and decision-making is clearly Meaningful practice must do more to dominated by males who hold nearly all of attend to these matters and take an active the leadership roles, while the people who role in encouraging females (Van implement the ITV are females (Kansas Nostrand, 1991). Designers of educational StateBoard of Education, 1995). materials and environments can make a Preliminary analysis ofthe various better effort to provide experiences that constituenciesthatguide ITV network girls can relate to, offeringinstructional operations yields a similar result. Perhaps opportunities that are not gender biased, that is not important, then again, some andencouragingteacherstoactively reflection upon the situation raises attend to issues of gender equity (Turk le questions that suggest thatit might be & Papert 1990). more important than one would Visualdesigners can accept the immediatelyrealize. Forexample, importance of their role in shaping the self considerthepossibleanswerstothe concept and encouraging equitable access following questions. to skills that later translate into lifeskills Are students and faculty best served by and wages commensurate with experience. decisions that are made by the dominant, A morepositiveandforward-thinking male administrative culture?If so, why outlook on the role of females in our and if not, why not? In which areas might society can certainly do much to influence there be different emphases, depending on the drive andeffortthatiscurrently the cultural background of the decision necessary for females to overcomethe makers? What patterns of decision- many obstacles in daily life. making are evident in terms of ITV course People can influence educational delivery? To what extent do the current practice by designing instructional ITV facilities and practices supportthe environments that attend to the needs of needs of those who actually usethem? In the female population as well as those of what ways do the current ITVfacilities males. They can encouragereflective reflect the needs of the decision makers practicethat makes adjustmentstothe but fall short of those who implementthe needsat hand. The informationage technology? To what degree are the brings the challenge of shifting physical attributes and value systems ofthe

382 375 decision makers reflected in the design of complexitiesreflectthedynamicsof ITV environments and how does this affect differentsituationsindifferent ways, the instructors and learners? among different individuals. An From time immemorial, males have been examination of the complex relationship in decision-making roleswithin American between instructional planning and design, homes, businesses, and educational and gender reveals inequities that result institutions.Society has carried messages fromapersistentpatternofpractice. about gender stereotyping within Recognizing the result of those inequities instructional products and schooling can be easier than finding the causes and practices, through the mass media, within correcting the problem. social practice, and so on, thus Inequities that result from the traditional perpetuating the situation complete with its practiceof male decision making and advantages and disadvantages. Of course, female responsibility for implementation there are good points to male leadership within the instructional system often go buttherealsoaredrawbacks. The unrecognized because they emerge not disadvantages are likelyto occur when just as a result of what has been done, but decisions are made inisolation without also as a result of what has beenleft regard to the female perspective. undone. The neglect and omission of the As we witness a new time in education, female populationreveal themselvesin when people are calling for school reform subtle ways on an individual basis, but as a and the implementation of technology all collective result appear throughout society in one breath, there is an opportunity to as something that begins in the home, and ask once again, whether or not thereis perpetuates itself through schooling and adequate representation of theteachers, employment practices. If that were not the mostly female, in the business of ITV.It case, then there would be no need for seems that the role of women in relation to recent efforts to attract girls into fields of the new media has made little progress, study that are typically populated by males possibly even less thanthatwithin the (Kable & Meece, 1994) and the number of moretraditionalformsofschooling. distressing stories about females Could this be because technology has been succeeding despite the myriad of obstacles viewed as male territory? (Aisenberg & Harrington, 1988; Clark & The deeply ingrained cultural Corcoran, 1986; Frenkel, 1990; Gornick, stereotypes and practices related to gender 1990) would no longer be told. continuetosupportinstructioninits historical sense by constantly feeding the Innovation and ITV old system while stifling attempts to pay Implementation is change in action; it is serious attention to gender equity the deliberate spreading of novel, specific (McCormick, 1994; Gornick & Moran, changeinaplannedmanner(Miles, 1972). Materials developed for use in 1964). Thefinaloutcomeofany public, private, and military schools as well attemptedinnovationdependsdirectly as instructional messages delivered to the uponproperimplementation. Fullan public through advertising, television, and (1982) diagrammed four components of publicservicemessagescontinue to the evolutionary process of change and portray males and females in stereotypical implementation asbeingalong the ways, with males in dominant positions. spectrumofinitiation,implementation, This has indeed been carried forth into the continuation,andasthegenesisand gender messages portrayed to the public proposal of an innovation. about using the new technologies Implementation embodies the proposal's (Knupfer,1996). Commonpractice adoption and use.Continuation involves dictates that males will serve in leadership complete midcourse follow-through by all and authority roles while females serve in participantsto determinestrengths and subordinate positions.We see itin the weaknesses of the implementation. images of males and females in the media, Finally, the outcome of the change process and we see it in practice.Thus decisions entails the evaluation of success or failure. about instruction are often made by males After being utilized for many years in and need to be implemented by females. variousways(Cuban,1986),distance The complexities of this situation are education efforts are now placinga new enormous. Likesocietyitselfthe emphasis on ITV that supposedly is more

383 376 accessible and affordable then in previous Teachers' concerns about an innovation years.Unfortunately, the apparently easy can be abated or exacerbated, depending access permits teacher and administrators on how theinnovationisintroduced tooverlooktheneedforthorough (Knupfer, 1987). planning inthe rush to place the ITV Like any other educational innovation, facilities.Yet without firm direction, ITV theteachers must beinvolvedinthe could end up in the junkyard with many planning and implementation of ITV.If other poorly-implemented innovations. teachers are to use ITV productively, then The conditions under which an it needs to be implemented in such a way innovation is implemented contribute just that it meets their needs and they are not as much to the nature of the outcome as uncomfortable. Many scholars insist that do the status of staff preparation and the great strides have been made concerning presenceofknowledgeable adopters. gender equity in education, but it has not Such conditionsincludetheclassroom been enough and clearly, males are still organization, the availability of making decisions about ITV without the instructionalresources,andthemore input of the female teachers.Not only are general demands of the school system or the majority of decisions about district. The competing demandsof technological purchases being decided by modern educational environments impress males, but also the decisions about the upon the innovatorthe needto adapt design of ITV classrooms and utilization instructional media to the circumstances of equipmentaswell, thus leadingto and with consideration of the sociopolitical situations that are decided by males and climate (Knupfer, 1993). structured for males users. The teacher's role in school innovations The nature of this differential service is is so important that educational change revealed in ITV's emerging language that dependsonwhat theydo andthink is generative in nature as it evolves from a (Cuban, 1986;Fullan,1982);Sarason, of its own set of references. The language 1971). Because the teacherlives and ofITV,likethatofmany other works in a classroom with its own built-in technologies, is sometimes exclusionary in imperatives and social culture, the meaning, as well as evocative of prescribed teacher's real working conditions must be ways of thinking and acting (Segal, 1994; taken into account when planning and Cockburn, 1983; Lakoff, 1983; implementing any educational innovation Zimmerman,1983). ITVclassroom (Knupfer, 1993).The teacher will judge designs and ITV activities are therefore the acceptability of any innovation by its materialexpressionof thedecision conformance tocurrentneedsand makers' value systems. If indeed the value objectives, and not accordingto some system that is reflected is that of males, by agenda thatis foreignto the teacher's and for males, then how does that affect experience (Knupfer,1988). Teachers the faculty and students who are females? must help to guide educational change, Ifthewaythatcommunication is and not be its victims (Knupfer, 1987). supported and conveyed is predominantly As a part of the current emphasis on informed by males, then does it address using technology in education, ITV is a the needs of the female users? The power fast growing and popular area that holds a ofthistechnologyanditsapparent prominent position in distance education predisposition to serve a selected part of efforts.In this position, it will have great the population positions ITV squarely into impact on its users. All too often, political discussions aboutvisual communication andfiscalforcesoperatebeyondthe and gender equity. teacher'scontrolandadverselyaffect The various physical features designed change efforts(Fullan & Stiegelbauer, into the ITV course environment may 1991;Weinshank, Trumbull& Daly, influence learning among students due to 1983).There is a tendency to oversell different contributions to cognitive load innovationstoobtain fundingand get thatemergefromconflictsbetween them adopted by policy-makers, teachers, Perceptions and expectations.A major and others (Knupfer, 1987). goal of ITV course delivery is to optimize Implementation of any change requires interaction between instructors and that the change have meaningforthe students. Therefore, factors that influence teacher (Fullan & Stiegelbauer,1991). potentialinteractionand itsresulting

384 communication between instructors and devices, andtypesof audiohandling students would be evident in the extentof devices are visible to a certaindegree in interaction and depth of understanding. the different situations. On thesurface,this statementseems Data collectedinthe variousdesign contraryto Boak and Kirby's(1989) categories of furnishings, dimensions, observations that and females express layouts indicate a clear and consistentmale heightened apprehension about bias. The console dimensionsand the communicating in formal class settingsyet fixed distances between devicecontrols scoreaswell,orbetter,onexams favor a Titan standard froma diminutive compared to males.The contradiction is person's perspective. somewhat resolved by Warren's (1989) The height of the console's work surface and thedistance and Patoine's(1989)conclusionsthat between the work area andcontrol panels students who encounter alien or compels instructorstoexhibit behavior inhospitable learning environments tend to similar to that of students ininhospitable exercise one of three options in dealing educational settings. That is theyconform, with them as follows: seek alternatives, or withdraw.For an 1) conform at a personal cost of greater example of a typical workarea, see Figure effort expenditure; 1. 2) delay timely interaction while searching for alternative action aimed at attaining Figure 1 the same goal; or Typical Work Area 3) practice communication avoidance while grappling with an overwhelming sense of betrayal and helplessness that often portends withdrawal or failure. Unfortunately, instructional leaders and policymakerstypicallypossessonly superficial knowledge about educational technology (Kirby & Garrison, 1989).As a consequence, technology consultants are often commissioned to clarify the meaning of technoculture's exclusionary language. Because the technology is dominated by males and male language, their powerful role in guiding ITV decisions strengthens and further perpetuates the gendered ethos thatis visible in ITV classroom designs andarrangementof ITVinstructional technologies that in turn influence ITV Mismatchedphysicalattributesalso presentations.Evidence of that dominion conveynegative messagestostudents. is clearly visible. Unnaturaloruncomfortable physical relationships between the console Design Features and Implications componentsandtheinstructoroften Drawing upon the literature, interviews, translate into disruptionsin presentation and observations, profiles of ITV flow that erroneously communicates that classroom design features were collected aninstructorlacks organizationor from several sites and analyzed.Analysis possesses weak presentation skills. of this Worse informationunderscores a well yet,unavoidablepausesattributedto grounded hypothesis that ITV classrooms design may be perceivedas a lack of are designed according to some criteria preparation which may suggestto some other than the needs of the instructors and viewers that they rank quite lowon the students who use them. Sitedesigns presenter'si list of priorities. ignore the spectrum of physical attributes Adding. insulttoinjury,forsome and psychological needs of teachersand instructors the camera and monitor banks students. Evidence that gendered arelocated such thatthepresenteris messages are made concrete andthen obstructed in maintaining the illusion of replicated in the dimensions of eye contact with all viewers and so another furnishings, locations of audio and video negative message is sent.This obstructed

385 3 76 view can lead to missed student messages Figure 2 to the instructor and the cycle of yet Microphone Spacing another erroneous interpretation is formed. Unfortunately,problemswith camera locations are not restricted to simulated presence. Thepotentialforcamera placement to utterly disable an instructor was revealedbyaninstructorwhose camera tracking device failed causing the camera to be fixed on her ample bust. Armed with nominal technical training and hijacked by her emotions, her novice status congealed rendering her unable to break Institutional ignorance of the cultural, free from the leering gaze of the camera. behavioral, and sociologicalaspects of She canceled class and no longer enters distances between individuals, is evident in the ITV classroom with confidence. The many situations. Yet proxemics may be as camera is now her nemesis and she is not much an obstructionto communication likely to teach another course with ITV.It and intellectual involvement as are displays islikelyhowever, that female students of dominance by boorishstudents who across the sites were similarly embarrassed stake out turf in front of a microphone by that powerful image and her response andsilentlydareotherstointrude. toit, thus sending yet another message Ignoranceis such a poor defense when about the inhospitable environment of ITV information about needs was not solicited to females. Viewers are thus not immune from thoseexpected to use the to the various design limitations of ITV technologies. classrooms. Microphone elevation appears to be yet The gendered perspectives of those who anotherfactorthatistypicallynot inform the decision-making process consideredduringtheITVplanning impose their preferences on teachers and process (see Figure 3). Pedestals that place students in many ways. For example, themicrophonebeyondtheconeof furniturethatisselectedsolelyforits effectivesignalgenerationyieldweak durability, cost, and purported universal fit signals. The speaker may thusseem can quickly translate into an inhospitable uncertainortimid. Corrective actions learning environment as furnishingsare toward achieving a stronger signal such as typically not selected to suit the needs of speaking louder or repositioning oneself students whose physical attributes areat relativetothemicrophonemaybe the extremes of various continua. Students undesirable or impossible for the teachers quickly ascertain the likelihood of or student. physical comfort in a learning environment and perhaps too, the Figure 3 attendant success potential. Just asa Microphone Elevation classroom that is too hot, cold, dark, bright, or noisy contributes to a student's burdens so would personal comfort. The placement of desktop microphones furtherexemplifiestheauthorityofa genderedmeasureinITVclassroom design. Microphone spacing and elevation may signify that microphones are meant to be shared or perhaps are objects for which students shall openly compete. Microphone spacing may signify that one must invade another's space in order to successfully enter into a dialog (See Figure 2). More potentially negative messages In any case, initial perceptions about the take form. utilityandhospitalityofany ITV

386 3s7:9 BAST COPY AVAILABLE classroom may be drawn from Aparallel study of instructional interpretationsaboutthemeaningsof presentations substantiates a belief that the furnishingsand roomlayout. First dominant male culture's value system is impressions may potentially set the tone permissive bothinportraying others in for later interactions and general disparaging ways and in omitting portrayal expectations. Who shall be invited into the of other cultures. Even when schooled in interactionandwhoshallbemerely the rudiments of graphic design for ITV tolerated? Whose expectations should be presentations and cultural sensitivity at a wholly indulged and whose superficially workshop, mostinstructorsproduced humored? The key informers of ITV sample presentations that were marginally designsareprimarilymales. Isthat attentive to the total visual message and to dominion manifest in the ITV classroom the representation of gender-based design? messages. The male bias is evident, by degree, in It would be a mistake to make an the physical attributes of the ITV sites that unfounded leap toward assigning apparent were examined. Manifest in the classroom gender bias in presentations to cultural objects, it is reasonable to suspect thatit dominance since other factors contribute shouldalsobeevidentintheclass substantially to presentation content and presentations. Observations affirm that the delivery. Among those factors are the: influenceofthedominantculture's 1) amount of time available for perspective is discernible in the graphic art production of presentation images, andcontentdisplayofpresentations 2) lack of available scanning technology, thoughdiffidentinthepresentation 3) nominal skills in production design and methods. development, The most insensitive displaythat we 4) ignorance of issues in visual literacy, observed occurred at a network dedication 5) ignoranceofissuesofinstructional ceremony duringwhicha psychology design, instructor opened his presentation with a 6) limited clip-art libraries bundled with videotaped image of himself in disguise presentation software. andintenselyexamining aPlayboy Thesecircumstancescombined with magazine centerfold from various angles. cultural values promote the use of canned The women inattendance shooktheir graphics on prepared templates in ways heads in displeasure while a great number that yield a visual concoction that transmits of males laughed and grinned. Other men, conflicting and negative messages. For a small number, did not visibly respond. example, the largemajorityof clip-art Follow-up conversations with several of the images available with the popular software women, without exception, deemed the depict males in leadership and authority presentertobea consummateboor, roles,whilewomenaredepicted in ignorant of the boundaries of good taste, subordinate roles (Binns & Branch, 1995). and definitely the rube he portrayed.The menwhoresponded favorably were Recommendation judged as condoning and encouraging of Though standardization across member thistypeofeventbecauseoftheir sitesofanyparticularnetworkisa laughter. The males who did not respond desirable feature, great care must be taken openly and remained quiet were judged as by decision makers to insure that the many eitherignorantthatthisdisplay was needs of the actual users are identified and offensive or were thought to be offended equitably addressed.This means inviting as well.While the dedication ceremony and embracing the participation of various itself was anisolatedevent,thevalue representative constituencies into the fact systemthatdroveitsproductionand finding and decision-making processes. allowedittopassmustercanbe Even though all needs cannot legitimately identified as an example of immediately be met, it is important to view the subtle instances of gender bias the ITV classroom designs with amenability to occur day after day in a male dominated adaptation as a guidepost.It also would environments. The male culture drove the be helpfulto deliberately fund specific media display within the ceremony and the line items aimed at a spectrum of planning male cultureinfluencesthe media use check points ranging from current to long under general circumstances. plans toward meeting users'needs. In

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3903'8:3 Gender Equity On-line:Messages Portrayed With and About the New Technologies Nancy Nelson Knupfer, Kevin M. Kramer, and Debra Pryor Abstract This paper examinesgendermessageswithinadvertisementsandinformational, technology-focused materials that are targeted toward a general population of consumers. A close look reveals a clear, consistent, and pervasive pattern that clearly favors males.The authors raise issues about message design, language, images, advertising, educational facilities, packaging, and socially constructed gender roles that carry over into applications of thenew technologies.

Over theyears,societyhascarried as images delivered to the public through messages about gender stereotyping advertising, television, and publicservice through traditional forms, within instruction messages continue to portray women and and schooling, mass media, social practice, men in stereotypical ways. entertainment, and so on.The increased The consequences of this portrayal are attention to gender equityshouldyield evident in our schools.Research reveals more balance, especially as related to the that among high school students there are newer media that are being emphasized consistent,significant genderdifferences within educationalsettings and fields of related to interest and confidence about employment that involve high technology usingcomputersaswellasgender- applications.As more emphasis has been stereotypedviews about computerusers placed on using multimedia for instruction (Martin,Heller,& Mahmoud, 1992; and job training, one would expect to see Shashanni, 1994). The low confidence both women and men using the computer- among girls in working with computers, and based mediainmeaningful,productive interest in computers, can be explained as a ways. Yet a close examination of gender as product of the social institution in which portrayed within the popular media, reveals theirindividualself-conceptsarebuilt a clear, consistent, and pervasive message (Shashanni, 1994). thathasdeephistoricalroots,winds Despite attempts to correct this situation throughout our daily lives, and perpetuates over many years, progress is slow to come itself through the complexities of society. and it is obvious that gender bias continues The role of females in relation to the new concerning use of the new media. For media, has made little progress beyond that example,astudyof computerclip-art depicted within the older media forms. images available for business, school, and As computers replace typewriters, home use, revealed that the stereotypes have telecommunications and multi media invaded the desktop computing become more prominentineducational environment, with images of men depicted settings, and personal computing assumes inleadership andauthorityroles,while greater importance in more homes, females women are depicted in subordinateroles have gained more access to the technology. (Binns & Branch, 1995). Yet females still are portrayed in supportive The complexities of gender stereotyping roleswhile males are shown usingthe areenormous,yetcanbedifficultto technology in productive ways that benefit recognize,reveal,analyze,explain,and their careers. redirect. Like society itself the complexities These persistentpatternscontinueto reflect the dynamics of different situations influencepublicperceptionofgender in different ways, among different stereotypes and perpetuateattitudesthat individuals. An examinationof gender clearlyfavormaletechnologyusers. stereotyping in advertising regarding Instructional practice is influenced by these technology,revealsinequitiesthatresult messages which constantlyfeedthe old from a persistent pattern of practice. system and all but strangle attempts to pay This paper addresses the visual messages serious attention to, gender equity about gender thatare portrayedinthe (McCormick,1994;Gornick & Moran, advertising about computer technology. 1972). Materials developedforuse in Advertising is themass communication public, private, and military schools as well of information usually paid for and usually 391 384 persuasive in nature,aboutproducts, This experience led to an examinationof services, or ideas presented by sponsors via a representative sampleof popular various media (Arens & Bovee, 1994). The magazines and promotional material about pattern of gender bias in visual messages multimedia technology that were available and stereotyping which prevails in to the general public and teachers, from advertising seems to be carrying the same direct mailings to schools, at newsstands, old messages from print to television and libraries,schools,andareasofpublic beyond into thenewestformatfor transport. Areasofpublictransport advertising, that of the World Wide Web includedsuchplacesasairports,train (Web). stations, subway stations,travelagencies, business class and tourist hotels, as wellas Ads Perpetuate Stereotypes aboard airplanes,trains, passengerships, In the Spring of 1996, the chair of a subways, and trains throughout the United technology planning committee at a major States,Asia, and Europe. Inaddition, universitycompiledafolderfullof television and interne advertisements were technology advertisements for the perusal examined over the course ofthenext of acommitteechargedwith making several months. Not surprisingly,there decisions about the technology needs of an were commonalitiesintheportrayalof entirecollege. Only one ofthe genderthatcarriedacrosstheprint, advertisements contained images of televised, and internet advertisements. females. Thatparticularadvertisement The prevalent portrayal of gender roles contained four images within one page; one in advertising says a lot about the society it of a male, two of females, and one of a represents. Not only is an advertiser selling product produced by the computer imaging a product, but an identity or image, which technology. can be attained only by purchasing the A closer look revealed that the presence product. But the aftermathisthatthe of females did little to promote the role of consumer is leftwith a deceptive, women using technology successfully.In manipulated, and rendered personality that one image, the woman was portrayedas does not represent the behaviors of the small and insignificant, off to the side of the consuming public. picture, and wearing a red, casual blouse. Research indicates that in both the print The second female image was that of a and video advertising marketplace, teenage girl, positioned as a tiny image at consumers see at least three times as many the bottom of the photo, sitting in front of a male as female characters associated with computer but not using it;she was reading the products being sold.This is especially a book and wearing a red blouse. true of advertising aimed at children and In contrast the image of the man was big, teenagers. In those advertisements that used bold, up front in the photo; the man looked spokespersons or endorsers, the ratio was knowledgeable and in charge, was wearing a nine males to everyone one female (Adler, white lab coat, and was clearly a chemist or Lesser,Meringoff, Robertson,Rossiter, chemistryprofessor who was usingthe Ward, 1980). When featured in advertising, technologytohisadvantage. Upon women tend to be representedinselect questioning by a member of the technology feminine roles such as wife, mother, nurse, planning committee, it became clear that the teacher, or secretary (Macklin & Kolbe, male committeechair,a careerschool 1984). administrator, had not noticed any gender .Stereotyping is a basic part of human differentiation and did not think that it was cognitiveactivity andpeopledo make importantenoughtomeritasecond categories and construct relationships based thought.The folder was circulated among upon similarities and differences that enable the committee members for their perusal in them to make predictionsindailylife. selecting multimedia equipment for a yet Social categories play a vital role in any undesigned multimedia classroom. Not person's thinking about people soiti is only was the imagery of technologyfor importanttoattend to wherethese males perpetuated, but the idea of selecting categories are used and to what purpose equipment with complete disregard for the they are put (Young, 1990).Unfortunately, educational environment was being many people do base their opinions about mandated. social issues and the role of females on the messages delivered through the mass media,

392 385 including the advertising media.Images of Both advertisements were produced by women do remain as a socially constructed the same company, both were in black and category in peoples' minds. white, both promoted laptop computers, and both followed the stereotypical Print-Based Advertisements representation of men and women A representative sampling of magazines regarding computer usage.Further, the collectedby severalpeoplerevealed advertisers even included the typical media consistent patterns in the advertising about portrayal of women as either the new technologies. Men were portrayed grandmotherly or young and sexy.What in prominent positions within the ever happened to typical-looking women? advertisements and accompanied by Why are they absent from the messages to "work stronger, work harder, advertisements? gain power, manage people, and gain career Not one of the printed advertisements advancement." The men projected showed women achieving school or career professional images of people with great gains due to using the technology. Why competence who were successful at work. not? The women ontheotherhand,were In contrast to the teenage girl wearing depicted in subordinate positions, serving the red blouse and reading a book while others, and in roles that did not use the sittingnexttoacomputer,asimilar technology to accomplish their jobs or gain advertisement depicted a teenage boy who power or promotions.The women were was proclaimed to have discovered a prize- usually wearing casual dress, often red in winning formula, obviously implying that color, and seemed to be used as decorative he didso as theresult of his use of graphics rather thanin any meaningful computer technology.This contrast seems way. obvious. Why then would so many people One magazine for educators, contained not notice the imagery and continue to only two technologyadvertisementsthat perpetuate it? included people. Toward the center was an There were some interesting ad with two women teachers, one a middle- advertisements for business travelersthat aged, grandmotherly-looking, English focused on the great features within new teacher and the other a young,slender, models of wheeled luggage that could be blond, graphic designer.There were the rolled down airplaneaisles. Those with stereotypes,theoverweightanddull- malecharacterstended toemphasize looking grandmotherly English professor pockets for computer equipment, andthesexy,youngblondgraphic maintaining a common statement of being designer.Unfortunately, the advertisement functional within a technological business also depicted both women standing at the sense. The advertisements with female bottom of a stairwell, clearly doing nothing characters focused on being lightweight and fortheir career success byusingtheir spacious enoughforall of a woman's laptop computers that matched their body weekend fashion needs. builds. Yes, the grandmotherheldthe One luggageadvertisementclearly heavier, boxy laptop, and the young women depicted three servants who were packing held the more slender laptop, while the their employer's bags in preparation for a advertiser claimed that the computers were business trip.Although the reader could matched to the needs of the two women. not see the employer, it was obvious that he The inside back cover of that magazine was male from the collection of objects the carried the second image of a person, this servants had gathered. The most prominent time a male. In addition to being in a more featureoftheadvertisementwasthe prominent cover spot, the man depicted in computer equipmentthatfitsoneatly the advertisement clearly was on top of the within the luggage compartments. The world as aresultof usinghislaptop advertiser wanted so much for the computer computer. He was freed of his ties to his space to be noticed that the computer was officeand was overlookinga beautiful given a much more important spot than the body of water with lovely islands, working luggage itself.Perhaps most importantly, independently. Obviously,hislaptop theadvertisementclearlyportrayedthe computerhadliberatedhimfromthe message of the computer being a male physical confinements of his office space. machine, a very importantmaleobject

393 3 8 6 within the collection of male clothes and Research generallyshows arelationship supplies. betweentelevisionviewingandmore An eye-catchingadvertisementfora stereotypic conceptionsof genderroles, computer server, depicted a young, slender, with television promoting notions of more and very sexily-posed woman sitting on the limitedrolesforwomen in society floorandleaningonared,distorted (Signorielli, 1993). Women in computer standing in the vertical position. advertisementshavebeenportrayedin The woman was purely decoration.The bathrooms, kitchens, living rooms, advertisement dripped with sexual backyards, and other home making roles, innuendo. A subliminal image of male yet it is almost invariably men who advise genitaliawassuper-imposedonto the women on the virtues of new household upright computer, reflectedin thewhite clearningproducts,thusdisempowering lighting that matched the woman's white women even in the home and limiting them blouse that leaned againstit. Such an torolesof physicalattractivenessand advertisementcertainlyraisesquestions submissive domesticity (Rutherford, 1994). about what is being sold and under what Some advertisements directly state that disguise? theyareempoweringwomen,butin From this sampling of printed actuality they are only manipulating them advertisements, it is clear that females are (Sayan,1994). Alargeportionof depicted in technologyadvertisements advertisementstie women tothe house much less frequently than males.Further, through a sense of guilt by twisting the when women are depicted, they are usually complex relationship between guilt, used as interesting decorations rather than householdcleanliness,and womanhood. as productive users of the technology. "Since a woman could wield authority only in the private domain, if she failed to stamp Televised and Video Advertisements out dirt, she failed as a woman" (Sayan, The complexities of television 1994, p. 189).The advertisers continue to advertising are too great to address fully in bombard women with images of cleanliness thispaper. Sufficeittosaythatthe and multiple specialized cleaning products, television industry depends upon money thatifpurchasedwould actuallykeep from paid advertising foritslivelihood. women cleaning for longer periods of time, Further,the television networks are rather than relieving women of work as a responsibletotheadvertisers,notthe resultofbuyingtheproducts. The general public of television viewers, for the advertising industry combines its approach viewers do not support them financially to sell women with the guilt and fear of not (Ploghoft & Anderson, 1982).Thus the pleasingothers enough, with not being advertisers have a greatdealof power perfect enough, while atthe same time concerning the kind of messages that are running parallel advertisements that play on issued to the public via television. self-empowerment realized by purchasing Television is a pervasive presence in our something solely for personal reasons, like nation's homes, and is argued to be the clothing, shoes, or cars (Sayan, 1994). most common, constant, and vivid learning If we were exposed to few environment (Signorielli, 1993). advertisements, this might not be as serious. Television's vivid and recurring patterns of But how many commercial advertisements images, information, and values leave few are we likelyto see on television? A peopleuntouched. Numerousstudies samplingofpopularprogramsduring conductedover morethantwenty-five September 1996 showsthat weare years, show that the mass media plays an bombarded with advertisements (see Figure important role in the socialization process 1). of children and adults (Berry & Mitchell- Within the advertisements are a Kerman, 1982; Roberts & Maccoby, 1985; smatteringoftechnology-relatedtopics. Signorielli, 1993). For example,therewere twodifferent Advertisements ontelevisionaresex United Parcel Service (UPS) spotsthat typedand stereotyped (Courtney & advertised the new on-line package tracking Whipple, 1983), with stronglinks made system.Both advertisements opened with between women and attractiveness (Downs shots of a female worker in an office, but it & Harrison, 1985), and men and authority quickly became apparent in each that she (Bred & Cantor,1988;Lovdal,1989). was doing someclericaltaskthat was

394 367 Figure 1 Television Advertisements by Program

, - .,:s ... I - '4' . ime -, .,3:.;," --, T. notes- s ' , .i. .- ft :11 yecienceu eeI ays I p.m. I I 1 lc Sseinfeld Weekdays6:30 p. m. 30 10 Ellen Wednesday7:00 & 7:30 p.m. 30 14 . 60 Minutes Sunday 6:00 p.m. 60 18 Sesame Street Weekdays8:00 & 9:00 a.m. 60 0 - Public TV Days of Our Lives Weekdays12:00 & 1:00 p.m.60 45 Murphy Brown Monday 8:00 p.m. 60 19 unrelated to the package tracking. One digitizing.The eight-minute video even male in each commercial took center stage containedshadow viewsof womenin and manipulated the computer to track the profile dancing across the screen either in package. Clearlythisdepictedmales the nude or in tight-fitting clothes.This controlling technology while the females was done in order to demonstrate those tended to more routine clerical duties. Both video effects. There was only one woman's advertisementscontainedmostlymales name in the credits; sheisa company within the working crowd. That might very employee and played the part of a model in well reflect the nature of the population at the video.Training tapes from the same work. company reflect the same style, so you can American Telephone & Telegraph imagine what it might be like for a woman (AT&T) sponsored an advertisement trainee to use them.It appears that the showing four boys walking down a country company didnot expect women to be road and doing fun things.There was no serious users of this technology, but simply direct message about what their actions had to be models that the men would video and to do with AT&T, but in any case, males then digitize. were identified with AT&T. One advertisement for cellular Internet-Based Advertisements telephones shows a female real estate agent Most of the visual representations of receiving a call rightinthe middle of women in Web advertising are a reflection showing abeautifulhometopotential of the currenttrend usedintheother buyers. Doessheactupsetatthe advertising media. Women are portrayed as interruption?No, she is relieved that the decorations or simply as productusers. school nurse was able to call her to pick up When depicted in the same or her sick daughter.Her cellular phone had corresponding type of advertisementsas served its purpose to her role as a mother, men, the women are shown in supportive or not as a realestate agent. A parallel subordinateroles. The malecentral advertisement for the cellular telephones charactersinadvertising are depictedas featured a male who was able to perform his men in authority roles and as gaining more job much more proficientlybecause he power by using the technology. The focus could receive business telephone call while frequently is on their faces and they are out of the office with another client. shown in business dress or high class casual A promotionaltapefortheVideo wear that suggests a successful business Toaster yielded more of the same.The man. The female central characters, on the video was obviously targeted toward a male other hand, are usually depicted by a lovely audience. The music was reminiscent of a body or faceless, selected body parts. When football game pep rally, and it kept up its faces are shown, they reflect a beautiful and fast pace throughout the video.The male friendlyperson,butdonotsuggest voice was authoritative, knowledgeable, and achievement. even macho sounding. The images of For exiample, in the Yahoo search engine females in the tape were purely decorative. a series of three advertisements were found First, there was a woman operating a camera in the business and economy section, under for the benefit of her male colleague. Then health and fitness.The first advertisement there were several women used as beautiful portrays the upper left part of a male torso, models while the males learned about the with no head, and obviously emphasizing capabilities of the video toaster and image hismusculature but not necessarily sex. 395

3 8:8 tk,k.) XV ML4fkillit The next advertisement depicts a female full confidence and controlwithinthe high body image in a graceful backbendthat technology environment. begins with balancing on the toes and ends Inadditiontothecontentofthe with the arms and fingers pointingin a advertisements,theplacementofthe nearly parallel position to the feet and legs. advertisements can seem curious as well. The readeriscompelledtogivethe For example, in the Excite search engine, advertisement a second look because of the we found an advertisement for Kaufmann extreme body position. A third investment funds under the reviews section advertisement at that spot is intended to sell withinthesubtopicsofshoppingand exercise equipment and it depicts a blond swimwear. The page gave information female in a black dress sitting with one about tan through swim suits and how to see armed raised tolifther hair from her on-line photos of women modeling bikinis shoulders and looking very sexy. There are that then could be ordered by calling a toll- no images of the exercise equipment being based telephone number. At the top of the sold, only the suggested result.Of course, page wasthe Kaufmann investment the reader could choose to click on a button advertisement depicting two businessmen, to find more information about the site and looking very confident andself-assured. would theneventuallyencountersome The focus of the advertisement was on the information about exercise equipment. men's faces and confidence suggested by Another set of advertisements for AT&T wise financial investments.Why was this World Net Service is drawn from the Yahoo advertisementintheladiesswimwear search engine under the topic of K712 and section? college preparatory schools. Four Anothercuriousplacementwasan advertisements in this series, two with male advertisementfortheOutPostNetwork characters and two with female characters which depicted a woman's friendly-looking are described here. The first advertisement face asking "How come you never write?" depicts a young adult male on the left of This advertisement clearly did not portray the bannerhead who says, "hi, my name is the woman as confident, but again as having TIM and I can't get on the INTERNET." been abandoned, this time by a man.The Across the banner on the right side of the Yahoosearchenginehadplacedthis screen, a mature adult couple reply "hello advertisement within two areasthat we TIM" and give the visual impression that stumbled upon within Society and Culture. they will help him. The second Thefirst was withinGender,Men, advertisement depicts a young adult male Circumcision and the second was within on the left side of the banner who says, Gender, Men, Fathering.It is curious why "my INTERNET accessbill ranges these advertisements were placed in those anywhere from $10 to $200."The mature locations. Certainly there is room for social man, appearing to be a mentor or fatherly suggestionaboutwomen'sstatus,the image, on the right side of the banner relationshipbetween men andwomen, replies, "You need STABILITY, Pat." The social responsibility, who is in control, and third advertisement depicts a young adult so on. female who says "my provider LEFT town Imaginetheimpactthesetypesof on me."Across the banner from her, on advertisements and their subtle messages the right side of the screen, is another adult might have on a woman's self-esteem. Are female who says,"Iknow how you these the type of images we really want to FEEL." The women seem to be helpless, provide toour younggirls? How do discussing feelings of abandonment but not images like these add to the message of the offindingasolution. Thefourth interne being the male domain? Can advertisement depicts a young adult female images like these influence decisions that on the left side of the banner who says, females make about their interest inthe "My provider never called me BACK." fieldsofscienceandtechnology? A The woman who replies to her from the number of key questions need to beasked right side of the banner says, "Did you regardingthe useofadvertisingabout speak CLEARLY, Jan?" What kind of technology. Are currentadvertisements message does this give to males and females targeted toward the male users of theWeb? who might use this service?It certainly If so, why? Is the visual representationof does nothing to promote women's genderrolesintheWebadvertising

396 3&9 reflective of the current skill and level of they are depicted within those computer usage by a majority of women? advertisements. Shall we then assume that women have It can no longer be acceptable to portray difficulty using the technology in womeninprint,televised,orinternet productive ways? Why? advertisements about technology as The Web offers a number of subservient, in the background, or not using opportunities for advertisers to complement the technology in a productive way.It is other forms of media, not replace them not acceptable to portray boys developing (Teague,1995). The number of print the wining formula while girlssit beside advertisementsthat include a web address computers and read books. Itisnot is growing each day.Advertising on the acceptable for men to be portrayedas Web can be inexpensive compared to print successful, powerful, and in control due to or televised advertisements.For example, technology while women are portrayed as Amoco,a$27billionpetroleumand simply nurturing and friendly, or worse yet chemical products company launcheda as sexy decorations draped over computers. home page on the Web during the past year It is not acceptable to show women using and duringthe month of August, 1996 cellular telephones solely in the role of enjoyed285,527"hits" onthesite mothers who get called away from their (Geracioti,1996). A Web site with an jobsduetomotheringresponsibilities. extended presence can have an estimated Although that is part of life, it is not the part annual cost that is equivalent to a single full that is stressed with the fathers who use page ad in one or two issues of a major cellular telephones at work. trade magazine.Further, the Web has the Finally,itis not acceptable to depict benefit of using real-timeinteractionto women as fluff on government Internet collect marketing statistics. pages, supported by taxpayer dollars.As Inmanycases, Web advertising is the Internet becomes more accessible and comprised simply of company brochures popular with increased numbers of users, it delivered electronically, but in other cases will become more important as a vehicle for the sites are more sophisticated.It is clear advertisers. Thisisacomputer-based that the advertisements now have another medium, yet if current trends continue, it venue of delivery and that the same types of too, will depict technology as part of the gender stereotypes have emerged in that male domain. capacity. The question we needto be The responsibility to change the public asking is, how can the growing image andattitudes aboutfemales and technological marketplace of the Web be technologycannotrestsolelywiththe used to bring about change inthe way advertisers, but they can do a lot to help women are presented visually to the public? change the public image. Most certainly it How cantheimageryof women and willtakepressurefromtheresearch, technology be influenced by regular people women's, business, and public like us? communities. Teachers, parents, administrators, politicians, authors, Community Adjustments illustrators, instructional designers, medical Visual imagery of men and women personnel, and all other community leaders working together and usingtechnology who work with childrenwill need to be productively would provide some common aware of the issues as well, so that they can ground of experience, anditcould do help bring about the changes necessary to wondersforimprovingsomeofthe unlock the doors to the technology field for attitudes about gender stereotypes the female community. concerning technology. If an image is indeed worth a thousand References words,if it leads to acognitive Adler, R. P.,Lesser, G. S.,Meringoff, L. understanding and expectations, or it shapes K., Robertson, T. S.,Rossiter, J. R., & self concept, then images of women and Ward, S., with Friedlander, B. Z., Isler, L., technology must evolve toa morefair Faber, R., & Pillemer, D. B. (1980).The representation,not justinnumbersof Effectsoftelevisionadvertisingon women depicted in technology children.Lexington, MA:Lexington advertisements, but in the quality of the way Books, D.C. Heath and Company

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Binns, J. C.& Branch, R. C. (1995). Kantrowitz,B. (1996). Men,women, Genderstereotypedcomputerclip-art computers. In V. J. Vitanza, imagesasanimplicitinfluencein CyberReader. NeedhamHeights, MA: instructional message design.In D. G. Allyn & Bacon. Beauchamp, R. A. Braden, & R. E. Griffin (Eds.), Imagery and visual literacy (pp. Lovdal, L. T. (1989). Sex role messages in 315-324).Rochester, NY:International television commercials: An update.Sex Visual Literacy Association. Roles 21(11/12), 715-724. Bret!, D. J. & Cantor, J.(1988). The Macklin, M. C. & Kolbe, R. H. (1994). Sex portrayal of men and women inU.S. role stereotyping in children. ' s television commercials: A recent content advertising: Current and past trrends. analysis and trends over 15 years.Sex Journal of Advertising 13(2), 43-42. Roles, 18(9/10), 595-609. Martin, D. C., Heller, R. S. & Mahmoud, E. Clark,S.M. & Corcoran,M.(1986, (1992).American and Soviet children's Jan./Feb.). Perspectives on the attitudes toward computers.Journal of professionalsocialization ofwomen Educational Computing Research 8(2), faculty: A caseofAccumulative 155-185. Disadvantage?. Journalof Higher Education, 57(1). McCormick, T. M. (1994).Creating the nonsexist classroom: A multicultural Courtney, A. E. & Whipple, T. W. (1983). approach.New York, NY:Teachers Sex stereotyping in advertising. College Press. Lexington, MA: Lexington. Ploghoft, M. E. & Anderson, J. A. (1982). Downs, A. C. & Harrison, S. K. (1985). Teaching critical television viewing skills. Embarrassing age spotsorjustplain Springfield,IL: CharlesC. Thomas ugly? Physical attractiveness stereotyping Publisher. as an instrument of sexism on American televisioncommercials. SexRoles, Roberts, D. F. & Maccoby, N. (1985). 13(1/2), 9-19. Effects of mass communication.In G. Lindzey & E.Aaroonson(Eds.), Frenkel, K. A. (1990, Nov.). Women and Handbook of social psychology (3rd computing. Communications of the ACM, ed.). New York, NY: Random House. pp. 34-46. Rutherford, P.(1994). The New icons? Geracioti, D. (1996, Nov.).The changing TheArtoftelevisionadvertising. face of advertising.Individual Investor, Buffalo, NY:University of Toronto 15(180), pp.38-44. Press Gornick, V. (1990).Women in science: Sayan, L. (1994). The Sponsored life: Ad's 100 Journeys into the territory. New TV, and American culture. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

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399 3 9`2 A Thinking Person's Comedy: A Study Of Intertextuality In "Cheers" Anthony Hlynka and Nancy Nelson Knupfer Abstract This paper explains the nature of intertextuality concerningtelevision programming, then analyzes the modern television comedy Cheers, comparing andcontrasting it to classic works. The lead author of this paper is a 17-year-old highschool student. The paper is a commentary on the level of critical expertise aproperly motivated and visually literate high school student can display.

As society places more emphasis on the Historical works of literature can be visual media and less emphasis on reading, portrayed in many ways while maintaining educatorsmust examinethemessages theintendedmessage. Shakespeare's carried through the visual media.Further, great plays are an example.Intended as they must learn to read visual media and in visual works, many people read these plays turn, teach their students to practice critical inbooks andstudy theliterature viewing skills. Televisionisavisual accordingly. Now the video versions are medium that carries powerful messages to available forcheck-outat most public people and helps to shape their actions, libraries and are indeed often beliefs, and empirical knowledge recommendedasastartingplaceto (DeVaney, 1994).Commercial television understanding a play, prior to reading the employs story, along with visual effects, to text. impart cultural influence upon the viewers. Television programs are not that much Commercial television is one of today's different. They begin as plays written for majortransmittersofculture. Many screenpresentation,buttheviewing aspects of social roles are reflected and audience usually has no chance nor desire even exaggerated in television to read and analyze the printed version of programming.For example, patterns of theprogram. Thus,visuallyliterate speech, dress, fashion, family rituals, group television viewers must learn to interpret behaviors, andothersocialroles are the visual and verbal text of what they see simultaneously present in television onthescreenatthetimethatitis programs (DeVaney, 1994).Further, the displayed. visual message employsthepower of Inthe 1600s,there was evidence of motion combined with color and sound to people first believing what they read in call upontheaffectivedomain,thus print through their reactions to employingpowerful,emotionalimpact Shakespeare'sworks. Todaythereis that can greatlyinfluencetheviewers. ample evidence of people believing what Advertisers and political campaign, theysee inthe visual media of film, managers know this and thus, they utilize television, computer, and other the television medium to its fullest capacity communications media. For example, see to deliver specific messages to targeted thecollectionofliteraturedevotedto groups of people. analysis of campaign advertisements on As more television, videos, and television. multimediacarry visuallydependent Toadequately prepare peopleto messagesinto schools and homes, understand visual messages and then to consumers will need to educate themselves, critique their value and believability,it is their children, and their students about necessary to prepare them to be visually how to read visuals and their literate!This literacy calls upon various accompanying auditory text. The text of theories that are beyond the scope of this television includes thestorywithin the paper, but atitsheart depends upon visual and verbal channels, which work viewers to be able to receive, understand, together to impart the message. Thus, the and critically examine the messages to the grammar of television is one that mustbe point where they can interpret:he visual studied, analyzed, and interpreted. media on their own.

401 393 fiEST COPY AVAILMILE Thispaperaddressesthetelevision In a program Cheers and demonstrates one way works of interpreting the complexity of messages comedy, within the program.While Cheers indeed different tfrionmtertoethxetur asiiittuyatrieofnercs properly belongs within the domain of the popculture,theexaminationof such oisf coiffiscuaclhluaslilounssiotnos oatnhder Cheerion programs is critical if one is to fully grasp full that relation the impact of television media on society. the major focusofthispaper. The , Serious analysis of television programs is intertextuality within great literature underutilizedinmostvisualliteracy as works by Ibsen, Checkov, Dickens d curricula. Yet, it provides a rich variety of Shakespeare, deconstructs the traditional material from which to choose. opposition of bar versus culture. The series constantly brings culture into thebar Intertextuality Defined setting, which of course, isin reallife This paper shows how studentscan incongruous. The Cheers bar is a cultured examine television content as the literature bar.However, this statement itselfcan be of ourtime. Such_visualliterature historically deconstructed.The original employs interplay among text, imagery, medieval tavern and coffee house was culture, and meaning.This interplay of indeedacenterforlivelyintellectual messages within the Cheers programming debate. willbereferredtoasintertextuality. The second type of intertextualityis Intertextuality is the relation of one text to vertical. Fiske defines this as the relation another in order to get across an idea. In between a primary text and those texts theory, intertextuality proposesthat any which refer to and discuss the primary one text is necessarily read inrelationship texts."Vertical intertextuality consists of to others and further,thata range of a primary text's relations with other texts textual knowledge is brought to bear upon, which referspecificallytoit. These it. Intertextualityexistsinthespaces secondarytexts,suchascriticismor between texts and their meanings (Fiske, publicity, work to promote the circulation 1987). of selected meanings of the primary text." The term intertextuality is used in this (Fiske,1987,p.117). These include paper according to the usageof Scholes secondary texts, such as critical studies. In andFiske. Scholeswritesthat"the the case of Cheers this includes analyses in common principle is that just as signs refer the popular press such as Life, TV Guide, toothersigns,ratherthandirectlyto SportsIllustrated,andothersources. things, texts refer to other texts" (Scholes, These secondary texts, such as criticism or 1982, p. 145).Fiske, likewise, prefers to publicity, work to promote the circulation use the word intertextuality to describe the of selected meanings of the primary text. natureoftelevisiontext. Hewrites, All these attempt to explain the functionof "Reading and talking about television are the series from a particular pointof view. part of the process of making a text out of The idea of a visual mediumbeing it and are determinants of what textis described as textis not new. Reading actually made...The textuality of television visual information is a skill that mustbe is essentially intertextual" (Fiske, 1987, p. developed. Interpreting,analyzing, and depends 15). Fiske further writes that a textual critiquingvisualinformation visual study of television includes "the uponproperreadingofthe intertextual relations of television within information. Television is composed ofscripts, put itself,with other media, and with along with conversation"(p.16). Thus theterm into verbal and visual form intertextuality is central to the discourse of othertrappings. Thefieldof visual of visual and this paper. literacy includes the study verbal information.Consistent withthis John Fiske (1987) identifies two basic the types of intertextuality which can serve as approach, Ann DeVaneydiscusses a framework for our analysisof Cheers. "grammar" oftelevision (DeVaney, and vertical 1991).In turn, Michael Appledescribes These are horizontal program textuality.Horizontal textuality refers to the Channel One television news relations between primary texts "along the as one of the new"texts"of education axis of genre and content" (Fiske, 1987). (Apple, 1993). Thus the ideaof television

402 programming as a verbo-visual medium common, owned by ex-Red Sox pitcher, fits well with its analysis considering the Sam Malone.Together with Sam was a concept of intertextuality. variety of bar regulars, the small pub was their home.Cheers wasa window into the Television Viewers and Cheers lives, troubles, and adventures of these Televisionviewers"arenotcultural people. There was no needtohave dupes lapping up any pap that is produced intricate plots and complex storylines; for them"(Fiske,1986,p.214)and "Just open the door, and the stories will Cheersis not merely a mindless comedy. walk in" (Darrach, 1993, p. 64). Rather, the writers took much care and In the first season, however, despite rave effort in molding it to fit their idea of an reviews and testaments of its impending intellectual comedy, aimed at an intelligent success,Cheersranked in the last place out audience.Jokes are not pulled out of a of seventy-seven programs. But when gag file, but are carefully craftedinter- Cheerswon five Emmies in its first year, textual statements with visual and literary the directors decided to give it a second allusions. These allusions carry social and chance."It was like holding our own feet cultural overtones, presenting an to the fire.We could have been badly intellectual challenge to the viewer who burned" (Darrach, 1993, p. 64).Happily, actively attends to the interplay. inits second season, the show's ratings More than a simple comedy striving to began to improve, and in its fourth season, keep viewers entertained,Cheersis full of Cheershad popped into the top ten.For intertextual references, which engage the the rest of itsseven seasons,itwould intellectandmakeitallthemore remain there, never more than four shows humorous. This makesCheersa thinking- away from the top, and frequently the person's comedy.It becomes clear that number one television show in America. when watchingCheers,oneneedsto At the end of its impressive run,Cheers considermorethanjustthesurface had aired 275episodes duringeleven appearance. seasons, won 26 Emmies, and obtained a record 111 Emmy nominations. The Cheers Program Timing also contributed to the success of Cheerswas the creation of Glen Charles, Cheers.In the time of slapstick and even Les Charles, and James Burrows.Their crude comedies, such asThree's Company, goal was to create an AmericanFawlty Cheerswas one of the first television shows Towers,JohnCleese'sclassic1980s tobreakthiscomedicmold,toget slapstick comedy set in a British inn. The television out of the rut of the seventies in show itself was full of comic characters. which it seemed to be stuck. Cheers wasthe source of some of the greatest comic talent since Jackie Gleason The Characters of the sixties.Director James Burrows Tounderstand Cheers, you must calls the show "lightningin a bottle" understand its characters, who are thebar (Darrach, 1993, p. 64). regulars. These barfliesinclude Sam In early versions of the show,Cheers was Malone, Norm Peterson, Clifford Claven, to be set in a country club, or a hotel in Carla LeBec, Woody Boyd, Rebecca Howe, Las Vegas, but the writers finally settled on Frasier Crane, Lilith Sternin-Crane, Diane a bar, primarily because "no one had to Chambers, and Ernie Pantuso. have an excuse to come intoa bar" (Darrach, 1993, p. 58). On September Sam Malone 30th,1982,asemi-intellectualcollege Sam Malone, played by Ted Danson, is student walked into a bar.This marked the owner ofCheersandthecentral the beginning ofCheers,soon to become character of the show.His parents were one of the most popular television shows Irish immigrants and he was brought up in inhistory. This Boston watering hole humble stirroundings. Sam's big break would be frequentedvicariouslyevery came to him during his senior year of high Thursday night bymillions of viewers school, when he was recruited to play class acrossNorth America,Europeand A baseball for the Boston Red Sox.He Australia. left high school and joined the team as a The setting of the show was a simple relief pitcher for only a few years.He one: A bar in the middle of the Boston ended up an alcoholic. After his recovery,

403 395 he bought the bar.Sam Malone casts a reduced to carrying a cigar box fullof vision of a classic male chauvinist playboy. receipts around.She's amoney junkie who just wants to marry a richman so she NormPeterson can goof off the rest of her life. Norm Peterson (George Wendt) may be one of the funniest characters on all of Frasier Cr Crane modem television.Once an accountant, (Kelsey Grammer)"is a and then a painter, he now is shrink who shrank"(Darrach, 1993,p. professionally unemployed. His whole life 63). Originally, he came into Cheersas an is the bar, living vicariously through Sam accomplished and renowned psychiatrist, Malone, and making Cheers his home. and as Diane Chamber's new boyfriend. "Every night he bellies up to the bar with However, Diane left him, he developeda a froth of beer, making notes on what drinkingproblem,andhisreputation fools these mortals be. Norm's one-liners tumbled.To pay off his overdrawnbar have become so popular that they have tab, he ends up scrubbing Cheers' toilets. beencollected and are known as Frasier is pompous and inept, yet longs "Normisms." to be "one of the boys." He marries Lilith Sternin- Crane, regains his reputation and Clifford Claven career, and remains an outstanding and Clifford Claven (John Ratzenburger)is influential member of Boston society.He the bar know-it-all. There is not a subject takes it upon himself to introduce culture, in this world on which he is not an expert. knowledge, and literature. into the bar. He isanencyclopediaofirrelevant information and misinformation. A forty- LilithSternin-Crane seven-year-old mailman,Cliffstilllives Lilith Sternin -Crane (Bebe Neuwirth) is with his mother in a tiny apartment. Frasier Crane's wife, and a physiotherapist. With pitch black hair and absolutely no Carla LeBec skin pigment whatsoever, most would say CarlaTortelli(RheaPerlman) isa that she should come with a set of bat survivor. After going through at least two wings.However, actress Neuwirth says, husbands, countless lovers, and eight kids, "There'ssomething sweet about Lilith. she is outspoken and honest, but not mean. She just doesn't know how to be with Carla isn't afraid to say things that most people" (Darrach, 1993, p. 62).Unlike people would love tosay, but do not. the rest of the people who walk into Everybody likes Carla even though she Cheers, Lilith is not sucked into their world never runsoutof venom. Perlman of idle thoughts, beer, and stupid ideas. explains, "It'ssuch a pleasureto hear somebody say all the vicious things you Diane Chambers don'thave thegutstosay yourself" Diane Chambers (Shelly Long) came to (Burrows, 1990b). Cheers as a stop off and remained at the bar for five years, becoming a waitress. A Woody Boyd perpetual college student, she attempted to Woody Boyd (Woody Harrelson), Sam's civilize the bar patrons, but to no avail. As bartending partner, "must have sucked on the first intellectualinthebar, sheis the seltzer nozzle until- wheeeeeee! -all the noticeably out of place, and is frequently bubbles went to his brain" (Darrach, 1993, the butt of the others' jokes. Throughout p. 62).Woody is naive and childlike. the time in which Diane was at Cheers, she From a small farm town, he is a country and Sam were mad about each other, but hick who is just happy to live in the city. not made for each other.She was " a culture snob in graduate school," andhe Rebecca Howe was "a galoot who had wastedhis youth Rebecca Howe (KirstieAlley)isthe on the mound" (Darrach, 1993, p.59). manager of Cheers. She came into the bar as a no-nonsense business women, and like Ernie Pantuso others,soonbecameauseless,pitiful ErniePantuso(NickColasanto)was blubbering mass of her former self.She Sam's baseball coach when in the major used to have responsibilities, importance leagues, and holds the record of beinghit and demandrespect,butshe nowis the most times in the head by a pitch.He

404 gpc-r rnPYAVAILABLE 396 becomes the bartender at Cheers. the viewer from being someone who is Nicknamed"Coach," heisagood passively watching, to someone who is listener, very sweet, and longs to be smart. actually involved in the show, and able to laugh with the characters. This intellectual General Analysis transportation from the audience to the Once the characters are understood, then show itself is what makes Cheers great. A the structure of this television comedy can testament of the success of Cheersis be examinedingreaterdetail. When illustrated by noted author Kurt television comedy is being analyzed, the Vonnegut'sstatement thatCheersisa majority of programs fall in to one of two comic masterpiece, which he would rather major humorcategories,slapstickand have written than all of his other works intellectual. combined, because each line is significant Slapstickisbasicallyhumoratthe and funny (Bianculli, 1992). expense of others.The jokes are not Cheers draws on a number of intellectual necessarily tasteful, and the only thing that resources to make it funny.The writers they are really good for is a cheap laugh. employintellectualhumor in many Examples ofslapstick humorincludes different ways. The use of intertextuality Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In and Three's in Cheers isitslife blood.Cheers uses Company during the seventies. In general, intertextuality in the form of literary and slapstick humor requires no thought. The cultural allusions, drawing upon the visual joke does not have to be turned over in the aspects of the program to enhance the mind to understand it, but rather it receives meaning. This makes Cheers a comedy of an instantaneous response of laughter. thought, rather than actions. On the other hand, intellectual humor Tertiary texts are those produced by the consistsofjokesthatrequiresome viewers. "Tertiary texts occur at the level deliberation, and some degree of of the viewer and his/her social relations. intelligence to understand.They are not Studying them gives us access tothe common jokes that are used until they meanings that are in circulation at any one become cliches, but are original and fresh. time" (Fiske, 1987, p.117).In the case of The writers of these jokes take great care Cheers,thisisbest examinedthrough in their structure, and it is important for electronic discussion groups available on them to be well-written and contrived. the Internet.Cheers became one of the The audience of intellectual humoris very early programs to have an electronic verydifferentfromthatofslapstick discussion group, specifically a listserve humor, for intellectual jokes are directed at connected with the series.Cheers fans the thinking person. Many of these jokes from around the world could comment on allude to literature, historical events, and issues of interest to them.Thus Cheers current happenings.Interestingly enough, pioneeredthisgenreofdiscussion. when a viewer ofslapstickwatches a UnfortunatelyCheers came to anend programthatincorporatesintellectual before the influx of electronic humor,themajorityofthe jokes go newsgroups. Today, electronic discussion uninterpreted, and are not understood. groups exist for Rush Limbaugh, David Therefore, one must wonder why the Letterman, and situation comedies such as writers of Cheers would use intellectual Sienfeld and The Simpsons. However, humor since it is so much more involved. searchingtheInternetstillcanreveal The answer issimple:the rewards are generic Cheers trivia, sound, documents greater.Cheers could reach millions of such as Norm quotes, and episode guides. people every week and did the toughest The importance of these secondary or thing there is to do; it made them laugh. vertical intertextual documents is that they The rewards of using your mind to watch circulate selected meanings of the text. television rather than using your eyes is Cheers is unusual in that it seems quite somethingthatthewritersofCheers immune to contemporary events.Existing caught on to.When a member of the from 1982-1993, it makes no references to viewing audience understands a joke, not major issues of the day such as the Gulf becauseitis painfullyobvious, but by War and the U.S. presidential elections of drawing upon accumulated knowledge to George Bush or Ronald Reagan.Cheers understand it, the viewer finds happiness in did not coexist in the real world.Oddly, his or her own intelligence.This changes however, Cheersexistedinthesame

405 .397 universeasothertelevisionprograms. Homicidal Ham Charactersfrom other shows have The episode Homicidal Ham (Burrows, appeared onCheers,orvice versa. 1983b), intertwinesplayactingwith ExamplesincludeCarla goingtoSt. reality.Diane made the mistake oftrying Eligius Hospital fromSt.Elsewhere to to help an ex-convict with his dreamof deliver her baby, or Norm and Cliff taking becoming an actor.Once convictedfor a fishing holiday on Sandpiper airlines murder, Andy Andy attemptedto rob from the television series Wings. Cheers so he would be sent back to prison On the other hand, Cheers has been where he was more comfortable. Diane establishedasnotbelongingtoother helped him pursue his dream of actingby universes. This is accomplished by having guiding him in presenting a scene from other television shows appear prominently WilliamShakespeare'sOthello,which on Cheers in the role of television shows. couldleadtoa jobifAndy Andy These television shows include Spencer for performed well enough. Before Andyand Hire, Jeopardy, the Tonight Show with Diane present the "strangulation scene" Johnny Carson and the Arsenio Hall Show. fromOthello, Andy confessedthat he Cheers most definitely co-exists in a world loved Diane. Diane believed that he only of pop culture and real culture. meant this as a friend.Yet when Andy witnessed Sam giving Diane a good luck Episode Analysis kiss, his jealousy overpowered him, and he To illustrate the role of intertextuality in vowed to kill her in the scene. Diane Cheers, a number of episodes canbe realized this while introducing the scene analyzedtoshow howtheuseof during its presentation to the bar patrons. intertextuality makes Cheers even more She attempted to stall, but to no avail, and humorous. Theevolutionof the mid-way through the scene, Andy began characters occurs gradually, and patterns strangling Diane. The viewers believed it of change emerge from season to season. was part of the play, until Diane screamed Show Down, Part 1 of 2 forhelp,atwhichpoint,Andywas The first such example is of a character restrained. trying to bring culture into the bar setting This episodeof Cheersisespecially is seen in the episode Show Down, Part 1 important because it exhibits dual content of 2, (Burrows, 1983a).Here, Diane told intertextuality. Not only is the scene from thebar patronstherewas "something Othello being acted out in the episode, but extraordinary"on the television. The the episode itself runsalong a similar barflies quickly surrounded the television themeofOthello,andincludeslove, expectingtoseeahockeygame,or deception, and vengeance. In this episode, something similar. They were surprised to Diane was not only attempting to help a see Wagner's Das Rhiengold in front of fellow human at reestablishing his life, but them. They were about to go back to their in the process, she was also introducing beer and idle chatter, when Diane insisted Shakespearean theater tothe bar. The that they watch at least ten minutes of it. patrons were willing to miss their boxing They agreed to do so, but gave up with a match on televisioninordertowatch groan in a matter of seconds. Diane and Andy's presentation, which was On Cheers, only Diane was aware of this received with littlecomplainingor television event, and was determinedto sarcasm. Diane's attempt tointroduce have the bar patrons watchit. Inthis 'Shakespeare to the audience of barflies is attempt, she was unsuccessful in best summed up in Diane's introduction enlightening them.Were this the only of the play and Cliff's response, "Now,I incidentofculturalintertextuality,we know I don't have to explain the playto would think nothing of it.However this Professor DeWit, but it might be helpful,to was followed by many more intertextual some of you, if I explainedwhat you re references to culture, literature, and even about to see.""Duhhhh, I wun-derwho intelligence. During the first season of sheeee's tal-king a-bout N000rm9 Cheers, the only cultured character in the Duheehuh" (Burrows, 1983b).In earlier bar was Diane, who persisted in trying to episodes, such as "Show Down, Part1 of makethebarfliesappreciateculture 2"(Burrows,1983a),thebarpatrons although she was largely unsuccessful. would not even give Diane's suggestionsa

406 BEST COPY AVAILABLE chance,butnow theywerewillingly Diane, however, they are remembering the watching Othello. wrong things. For the first few years of Cheers, Diane Old Flames Chambers wastheonlyculturaland Inthenextexample,OldFlames intellectual influence in the bar.Because (Burrows,1983c),Dianeattemptedto of this, her goal to make Cheers a cultured reveal to Sam the pleasures of art, and took bar had little chance of being fulfilled. him gallery hopping.When she told the However, intheshow'sthirdyear,a barflies that "Mr. Malone is on his way to second cultural influence came into the developingan appreciationofnon- bar,inthe form of Diane's boyfriend representationalart"(Burrows,1983c), Frasier Crane.An increasing number of they were doubtful of course. To test him, people of a higher class than the regular Carla asked Sam to name any piece of art barfliesbegantofrequentthebar, that he saw. When this was met by silence, including Lilith-Sternin Crane, and Robin she asked him to name any piece of art in Colcord,RebeccaHowe'sbillionaire the world.To the everyone'ssurprise, boyfriend. Thus,theculturaland Sam actually provided an answer, intellectualawarenessofthebarflies "Michaelangelo's twomuscularguys exhibited a more pronounced change. touching fingers" (Burrows, 1983c). This example of Diane'scontinuing Feeble Attraction questto widen Sam'sappreciationof The episode Feeble Attraction (Burrows, culture, was met more or less halfway. 1989), brings into focus, the bar patrons' Sam went to the art galleries with her, with value of material worth over historical and no complaint. The old Sam would never culturalvalue. RobinColcordsent have been done that.Unfortunately for Rebecca an antique desk as a gift.With it Diane, not much of her work actually sunk he enclosed a note saying that there was a in, but it was evident that she was slowly secret hidden in the desk, but he would not getting the bar patrons to appreciate, or at reveal it. He merely gave a one-word hint, least not complain about art and culture. ring. Rebecca interpreted the message to Humor also lies in the fact that Norm and mean an engagement ring was hidden Cliff thoughtSam's answerof "two somewhereinthedesk,andinher muscular guys touching fingers" excitement, began dismantling the desk (Burrows, 1983c), was correct. piece by piece.Later, a message arrived, stating that the desk had been Bar Bet authenticatedashavingbelongedto In the episode Bar Bet (Burrows, 1985), GeorgeBernardShaw. AfterShaw Norm and Cliff are seen having a heated completed the novel Man and Superman, debate about Anton Checkov and Henrick he rested his teacup on the desk, where it Ibsen. Norm said, "It was Checkov Cliffy, left a distinct mark, and henceforward I can remember what it was, it was the became known as the ring desk.To this CherryOrchard," andCliffreplied, discovery, Sam has only one question, "You're full of it Norm, it was Ibsen and pertainingto Man andSuperman," I theMasterbuilder" (Burrows, 1985). wonder if that's the one where he fought Diane was amazed and somewhat flattered the mole people" (Burrows, 1989). that they were having an inquiry of sucha This example illustrates that many of the caliber, and offered to help. They agreed barflies did not understand the value of and Cliff asked Diane if she remembers history and they were only concerned with what she was watchingon television "that materialism.When they discovered that night that Norm stuffedhisface with the desk was worth thousands of dollars, cheese doodles and whistled The Way We theytriedtostop Rebecca beforeshe Were" (Burrows,1985). Dianewas inflicted any more damage on the desk. disappointed and answered "Ibsen. And it The bar pati-ons did not yet appreciate the was taco chips" (Burrows, 1985). historical value of culture. This vignette reveals that the barpatrons whom Dianeattemptsto enlightenare Fifty-Fifty Carla retaining some of her attemptsat cultural The Fifty-Fifty Carla episode (Burrows, improvement.Much tothe chagrin of 1990a),focuseson Woody's needto

407 ;.39'9 prepareapresentationforasimple sensedthatthegangwas supremely audition and the resulting cultural one- uninterested, and changed the plot to cater ups-manshipthat ensues. Frasier and to their likes."There was a king with a Robin, suggested various possibilities for a large jaw, and a queen with a fair face on performance. Frasier suggested a dramatic the throne of England... and there was a monologue, such as Cyrano De Bergerac. blood-thirsty clown who beckoned Robin does better by suggesting Richard innocentchildrenintothesewer and II, and quoted a passage from it.The bar swallowedthem whole" (Ackerman, patrons were impressed, and Frasier not 1991). Frasier had adjusted Dickens' wanting to be outdone, quoted a segue famous classics so thatthey would be from Cyrano. Robin was about to defend relished by the mostly uncultured crowd. himself by producing yet another By the end of the episode, he had them quotation and a literary brawl could be felt chanting"Dickens!"andaskingfor brewing betweenthem. But Woody more. interrupted them, saying that he would just This episode illustrates that the barflies go with what he had thought of in the first did not have a grudge against high culture, place, and put his head between his legs, but they merely disliked the way it was lockedhis arms aroundhislegs, and commonly delivered. Cheers had not waddled out of the bar. butchered a famous classic, but instead it This episode reveals an evolution of the had actually managed to present it in a barflies as appreciative of great literary styleacceptedbythebaraudience. works. Rather than scoff at the recitations Therefore, culture otherwise out of grasp, by Frasier and Robin, which would have was now within their reach. been the case earlier on in the series, they were now impressed by this feat. Baby Balk The episode Baby Balk (Burrows, 1991.), Get My Act Together bringsa team of bowlers tothebar, In the episode I'm Gonna Get My Act proudly boasting that their friend had just Together And StickItInYour Face bowled a 300 game. They were extremely (Ackerman, 1991), Frasier was shocked to jubilant,andoneofthemwas even learn that the gang has never heard of handing out cigars to all the men in the Charles Dickens. He discovered this when bar. Accidentally, the bowler gave a cigar RebeccahadbrokenupwithRobin to Lilith, and realizing his mistake, he Colcord, and was moping about the bar in apologized. Lilith replied, "You think her wedding dress. Frasier remarked that that because I'm a woman I won't enjoy "her walking around in that wedding dress this? I'll save it for the George Sand film was justa tadtooMiss Havisham." festival." (Burrows, 1991).The bowler (Ackerman,1991),thuspromptingan wassomewhatconfused,andFrasier inquiryas to whom he was referring. attemptedtoclear him up bystating, Frasier explained that Miss Havisham was a "What you don't understandis that my characterin CharlesDickens'Great wife just made a veryfunnyliterary Expectations, and he was drawn aback to reference to a woman that used to dress as realize that they had no idea what he was a man and live in France."The bowler talking about. "Surely you know... Great asks, "Was he a bowler?" to which Frasier Expectations... Pip, Miss Havisham, replies, "Sure, what the hell"(Burrows, Magwige... and four pizza-lovingturtles 1991). who practice martial arts in the sewers" This segment emphasizes that whereas (Ackerman,1991). Frasier couldnot some people who frequent the bar, such as believe that they really had no ideal who Frasier and Lilith, are of highculture, Charles Dickens was, and asked them "are others will just never be able to understand you really this ignorant, or do you just do them completely.The bowlers' attitude this to torture me." and it was met with toward culture was similar to that which Norm's reply, "Sometimes the two go dominated Cheers at the beginning of its hand in hand" (Ackerman, 1991). first season. Realizing that the barflies had never been exposed to Charles Dickens, Frasier took it Cheers and Cultural Intertextuality upon himself to read them A Tale Of Two These episodic examples have illustrated Cities. However, by the first two lines, he that the common barflies have slowly risen

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4o0 BEST CO IDY AVAIL&LE to a higher level of cultural awareness, with incorporated the style of the much earlier the aid of external cultural and intellectual Dick Van Dyke Show, with more social and influences. As isolated incidents, these political humor. Their substancewas segments would not have any effect of probably made possible by the pioneering raisingCheerstothelevelofan style of the Smothers Brothers' social and intertextual tour de force. Itis when political humor on CBS (Inge, 1978). incident after incident is examined, that Cheers is not truly a personality comedy, onerealizesthattheauthors'cultural nor does it supply the puritanical morals commentary is not accidental, but most and the good natured family fun of the definitely intentional. comedic secondtype. One might be Yet another level of this intertextuality inclined to groupitwith theslapstick can be gleaned from an examination of shows based on its surface appearance, but the titles of the episodes. Again and again, acloseexaminationeliminatesthat they reflect high culture.Examples are: category as well,primarily due toits Norman's Conquest which refersto the references to high culture and intertextual Norman Conquest of 1066, The Coaches allusions. Nor does Cheers poke fun at Daughter which refers to Pushkin's The authorityfiguresorpeopleof power, Captain's Daughter,and The Peterson although it does occasionally satirize and Principal whichreferstothefamous poke fun at cultural snobs. Cheers is most management motto known as the Peter in its element when grouped in the fourth Principal. The Peter Principal states that category, but oddly enough,it does not one is promoted until one reaches one's display any of thepolitical humor so level of incompetence.This is the theme typical to this genre.It does however of the episode in which Norm and an Ivy- display social humor, in the clash between leaguer compete for the same promotion. bar and culture. Both The Book of Samuel and Honor Thy Cheers is set in Boston and is stocked by Mother have biblical connotations. a microcosm of American society.The Puddin' Head Boyd refers to the Mark characters of the show consist of a mix of TwainclassicPuddin'HeadWilson. cultural and ethnic backgrounds, but are Crash of the Titans is a play on the movie predominantly Irish, Jewish, Italian, White Clash of the Titans. Anglo-Saxon Protestants, blue-collar workers,white-collarsociety,innocent Cheers in Comedic Perspective farmtypes, andintellectuals. All are In the vast sea of television comedies, exaggerated through the visual and textual one wonders where Cheersreallyfits. representations, thus playing upon cultural Commercial television has engaged in four stereotypes thatarerecognized bythe distinct types of comedy (Inge,1978). viewing public. The earliest was the comic personality, Thus, Cheers can not be placed wholly in such as Gracie Allen or George Burns, with one category of television comedy.It is a the Burns and Allen Show.Next, there blended style, including some of the third developedsituationcomedies,suchas genre of slapstick and authority mocking, Leave it to Beaver or Donna Reed, wihch% mixed with a majority of the fourth genre, were generally viewed as basic puritanical of the political and social satires.In that moralisms sprinkled with mild doses of respect it most resembles Mash with its fun. During the late 1950s, a third type of central characters placed in a home-away- comedy emerged, which generally from-home,sharingintimatesituations employed slapstick humor and throughdailycontactandfamiliarity, characteristically poked fun atauthority mockingauthority,andincorporating symbols, such as the law, or the banking some high culture while at the same time profession. Thistypeof comedy is making the culturallyelite thebutt of embodiedinshows suchas The Real everyday jokes.Both Cheers and Mash McCoys andthisgenre peakedinthe make culturalandpoliticalstatements, 1960swith programs suchas Car 54 although.politicsare muchmilderin Where Are You? and Gilligan's Island. Cheers than in Mash. The fourth type of comic television began When all of the intertextual references to dominate in the late 1960s and 1970s. within Cheers are examined, itis evident This type included The Mary Tyler Moore that they serve a higher purpose than just Show, andAllintheFamilywhich to make us laugh. Thus, the show goes far

409 401 beyondasimple,mindless comedy Burrows, J., Director.(1983c, Nov. 17). targeted atpassive viewers. The Old flames. In L. Charles, G. Charles & intertextual references raise the intellectual J. Burrows (Producers), Cheers, NY: level of the program, make it stand out in NBC; Winnipeg, Can: CKND. thevastseaofpre-moldedsituation comedies, and present an active mental Burrows, J., Director.(1985, Feb. 14). challenge to viewers.Those who possess Bar bet.In L. Charles, G. Charles & J. the background, cultural knowledge see Burrows (Producers), Cheers, NY: NBC; many references to literature, history, and Winnipeg, Can: CKND. popular culture within the programming. While Cheers can be enjoyed at any level Burrows, J.,Director. (1989,Dec.7). of viewing entertainment, it is particularly Feeble attraction. InL.Charles, G. stimulating when the influences of other Charles,J.Burrows (Producers), T. textsarerecognizedandunderstood. Berry (Co-Producer). Cheers, NY: Further,thevisualstimulithatare NBC; Winnipeg, Can: CKND. employed go hand-in-hand with the verbal banter, thus creating a very interesting and Burrows, J., Director.(1990a, Aug. 3). intermingledset of challengesforthe Fifty-fiftyCarla. InL.Charles, G. mentally-alert viewer who attends to the Charles &J.Burrows(Producers), variety of intertextual messages. Certainly, Cheers, NY: NBC; Winnipeg,Can: thevarietyofcuesleadtogreater CKND. understanding_ for the intelligent viewer, thusrevealingthetremendoustalent Burrows, J., Director.(1990b, Oct. 25). employed in creating the Cheers series. Cheers 200th anniversary special.In L. Charles,G.Charles & J.Burrows References (Producers), Cheers, NY: NBC; Ackerman, A., Director.(1991, Feb. 7). Winnipeg, Can: CKND. I'm gonna get my act together and stick it in your face. In L. Charles, G. Charles Burrows, J., Director.(1991, Sept. 19). & J. Burrows (Producers), Cheers,NY: Baby balk.In L. Charles, G. Charles & NBC; Winnipeg, Can: CKND. J. Burrows (Producers), Cheers, NY: NBC; Winnipeg, Can: CKND. Allen, R. C., ed. (1987). Channels of discourse: Television and contemporary Darrach, B. (1993, May).Closing time. criticism.Chapel Hill:University of Life, 54-64 North Carolina Press. DeVaney, A. (1991). A Grammar of Apple, M. (1993). Official knowledge: educational television.In Denis Hlynka Democratic education in a conservative and John Belland,(Eds.),Paradigms age. New York, NY: Rout ledge. Regained, 241-83. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Bianculli, D. (1992).Tele literacy: Taking television seriously. New York: Fiske, J.(1986, June). Television and Continuum Publishing Company. popular culture. Critical Studies in Mass Communications, 3, 200-20. Burrows, J., Director.(1983a, Mar. 24). Show down (Part 1 of 2).In L. Charles, Fiske, J. (1987).Television culture. New G. Charles & J. Burrows (Producers), York: Methuen & Co. Cheers, NY: NBC; Winnipeg,Can: CKND. Inge, Thomas M., (Ed.), (1978). Handbook of American popular culture. Burrows, J., Director.(1983b, Oct. 27). Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood Homicidal ham. InL.Charles, G. Press. Charles &J.Burrows(Producers), Cheers, NY: NBC; Winnipeg,Can: Scholes, R. (1982). Semioticsand CKND. interpretation. NewHaven: Yale University Press.

410 402 A Preliminary Study on Children's Understanding of a Visual Used in Television Interviews by Georgette Comuntzis-Page

Abstract

This study examines children's interpretations of a visual convention used in television interviews and incorporates as a framework Flavell's theory of the developmental sequenceof understanding television (1990). Thirty-four children were individually shown a videotape of two people talking in an interview on a television news program. The child answered questions about who sees what and what's "really and truly" happening in the visual. The researcher also engaged the child in a taskwhich determined his or her level of perspective-taking ability and his or her idea of what people look like when they talk to each other in three-dimensional, real-world situations. Performancesrevealed age to be significant.Other factors (sex, perspective taking, and understanding conventions of conversation in the 3-D world) were questionable. The researcher speculates that using a different videotaped segment would yield more significant results. Findings relate to previous studies by Comuntzis-Page (in press) and others on children's interpretations of television's formal features. Findings also pertain to the work of Flavell and other developmentalists on perspective taking and appearance-reality phenomena.

This study is the latest attempt in the in television interviews. author's quest to discover the progression of Traditionally,producers of television young children's comprehension of the forms of interviews have incorporated the filmic dialogue visual media. Content has been and continues to convention in which two people are shown be a concern of those who try to flesh out the conversing by using the long-shot (LS), over-theeffects television has on children.To date, shoulder (OS) of one person to the other, close- however, few conclusions have been reached up (CU) of the person whose back was to the about the direct effects of such content on audience in the OS, followed by another CU of children.Understanding how young viewers the other person. Visual communication scholars comprehend a medium's forms rather than its (e.g., Monaco, 1977; Zettl, 1990) explain that content lays a more fertile ground on which to this sequence of shots engages viewers and conduct studies which try to reveal the intricacies allows them to see what is going on from various of the young child's relationship to visual media. points of view. Zettl (1990) defines the index When children are very young, they begin vector, an invisible line, which connects two to interact with the signs and symbols within the people who are facing each other.In his visual-spatialrealm of knowledge. They textbooks, he instructs students of television understand spatial concepts and visual forms in production to keep camera on the same sidc of ways which change as they grow. Television is the vector line to ensure that viewers are not anomnipresentsourceofvisual-spatial confused by the space being depicted (in press). information for many young children. Research As a result of these subtle cues, viewers have an in the fields of visual communication and child understanding of the connection between the two development shows thatas young viewers people who are conversing. mature, they understand the conventions of visual Paying attention to vector lines and using media, their formal features, in ways which often the sequence of shots in dialogue scenes are are different from adults. The purpose of this conventions which are well-established in the study is to examine how and when young viewers world of film and television production; however, begin to understand a relatively new visual used another technique has emerged in television

4 1 1 4O interviews in which two people, actually in two Wright, 1982; Singer & Singer, 1981;Wright; & different spaces (e.g., one is in hisoffice, the Huston, 1983). Their results show that age isthe other outside the building), converse.Even most important determinant inhow children though they are separately framed next toeach relate to various forms. Although these studies other on the television screen andlook directly are significant, nonehas isolated a single into the camera (not at each other),sophisticated production technique. viewers "buy into" the notion that the twopeople There have been studies done in which the researchers focused on form more specifically by are engaged inconversation just as if they were in the same room. How is itthat viewers see the using production techniques, one by one, in their investigations. Salomon (1979) tested 7-year-old two people talking toeach other? Visually, what happens to the index vectorbetween the two children in a study which showed that different people as they look into the camera tospeak? Do camera angles could supplantchildren's mental naive viewers know that the people aretalking to capabilities. Acker (1981) looked at the types of one another or dothey think that they are only lenses (long, short or normal in children's addressing the viewers?(Actually, the two interpretations of velocity. Acker and Tiemens people are not talking exclusively tothe viewers; (1981) compared the use of zooms and cuts to interpreted an image of they really are carrying on aconversation with see how young children (1985) determined viewers' the other person.) Do youngviewers know that a candy bar. Kipper different the two conversing do not see eachother and that perceptions of objects shown by using they only appear to be in the same space asthey types of camera movement.Comuntzis (1987) investigated a younger sample, 3- to 6-year-olds, talk to each other? to find that children around5 years old, who have bytheir Developmental Issues spatialability(operationalized Researchers have tried to relate the two performances on a three-dimensional perspective-taking task), have an understanding fieldsofchilddevelopmentandvisual of the different viewpoints of actors who are communication by studying children's comprehension of televised reality (e.g.,Condry depicted in a dialogue scene.These notable & Freund, 1989; Don-, 1983;Hawkins, 1977; studies look at one type of production technique Jag lom & Gardner, 1981). Findingsfrom studies and relate it to aspects of child development to such as these have informed usonly about determine children's comprehension of that form. children's comprehensions of the far away As a result, they offer insight intothe child's referents, not the objects on the screen. concept of the representation ofreality in visual Relating more to the idea of depiction, media. Wright, Huston, Reitz, and Piemyak(1994) address the appearance-reality distinctionin their Television Interviews examination of children's ability to determine the The theorof John Flavell and colleagues "factuality and social realism" judgements of S- offers a framework for understanding the ways in and 7-year olds' favorite television programs. which children comprehend the visual forms of The researchers found that childrendetermined a television interviews.Flavell and colleagues program's factuality by its genre and thatthey havelookedatperspectivetakingand decided what type of genre a programis by its appearance-reality (e.g., 1986, 1989, 1990) and formal features and its content.Age and continue to elaborate upon these twotheories. children begin to vocabulary scores were found to be significant According to Flavell and others, different from factors in how well children laiewabout the understand that what they see is viewing positions program's factuality; social realism wasclosely what others see in different Later, they develop related more to children's viewinghistory than to (Level 1 perspective taking). understanding by recognizing age and vocabulary. a higher level of Other investigations have looked atthe that an object can appeardifferent to different Anderson, & people (Level 2 perspectivetaking). The form of the visuals (e.g., Smith, form of Fischer, 1985; Calvert, Huston,Watkins, & researchersstatethatarelated 412 understanding is the appearance-reality affordance are not clear to them. For instance, distinction in which children at certain ages, they go back and forth in their answers about depending on the type of task determine that an whether people shown on the screen in two object may seem different from the way it really separate boxes are actually talking to each other. is (Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1989). In step 3, children know that images are In another study, Flavell and colleagues depictions of an absent reality. They think that related their theories to television by examining these depictions, however, are faithful to the 3- and 4-year-olds' understanding of images reality of the object in its portrayal. Referents depicted on the screen (Flavell, Flavell, Green, & are always exactly as they seem or appear to the Korfmacher, 1990).They found 3-year-olds televiewer at the third step of understanding. An made mistakes when asked whether a bowl of example would be the child's seeing two people popcorn shown on TV would spillif the who are facing the camera and thinking that the television set were turned upside down; many two people cannot really see each other. said yes. The researchers determined that these Finally, children at the last step understand 3-year-olds did not think that the bowl of that objects on television can be portrayed popcorn was actually inside the set.Rather, realistically or unrealistically, regardless of their children's responses indicated a basic lack of referents.For example, they know that the cognitive ability to separate the image from the camera manipulates objects to seem like they are object it represented (its referent). The findings doing things that are not possible in the real suggest that understanding televised images is world-two people framed next to each other, but relatedtotheabilitytodiscerndifferent in reality, not in the same space. perspectives and to differentiate between objects Thus, Flavell's sequence of steps toward which are real and those which appear to be real children's understanding of television provides a (Flavell, Flavell, & Korfmacher, 1990). When framework for studying their interpretations of childrenstartunderstanding thenature of specific production techniques. How does this representing objects two-dimensionally, that is, progression of children's understanding relate to their depictions, they may begin to understand their comprehensions of the visual used in other aspects of their televiewing experience. television interviews? Out of this line of research, Flavell and colleagues (1990) have proposed a 4-step Method developmental sequence of children's Subjects. Thirty-four children (13 girls, 21 boys) understanding of television reality. A child is at were drawn from preschools and child care step1 when he or she does not distinguish facilities in a small university town. Their ages between realobjects and those which are ranged from 3 years, 3 months to 6 years, 8 depicted on television. The child at this first step months, with a mean age of 5 years, 1 month. has no concept of the things a depicted object.can do or have done to it: Its "affordances" (Gibson, Procedure. Children were tested separately in a 1979) are unknown to the child. For example, room in their preschool or child care facility. The children at this step think that people portrayed researcher introduced herself and talked to the on television can actually talk to them, hear them, child about they were going to do. If the child and really see them. refused to participate, he or she went back to Step 2 is characterized by the child's regular activities. Only three children refused. knowing that what's on TV does not necessarily All children were given two tasks. In the behave like ordinary objects, that the viewer first tisk, the child sat in front of a TV/monitor cannot touch, for instance, or that the objects and watched part of a local news program in cannot fall out of the .set.The child does not which two people talked to each other. know, however, that the objects refer to objects The stimulus for the interview was a or events not present. To them, whatthey see on segment of a news program aired locally.It television is not a representation of something begins with a close-up (CU) of a man, Bill, else. Therefore,questionsaboutreality- telling a news woman, Jennifer, about pelligrens 4 1 3 405 BEST COPY AVAIIABLE the researcher asked questions such as, "Really and how they can be seenin the community. The CU of Bill is followedby a shot of Bill and and truly, is Bill talking to someone?" "Who?''' Jennifer framed separately on the screen.(See "Really and truly, is Jennifer in the same room as Bill?" "Does it look like Jennifer and Bill are in Figure 1.) Figure I the same room?" "Where is Jennifer?" (The words "really and truly" were used in Flavell and TELEVISION INTERVIEW colleagues 1989 study on appearance-reality.) The second task included the table task used in previous studies by Comuntzis (1987, 1991) in which levels of perspective taking were determined; however, this study used different dolls. Instead of He-man and Captain America, dolls from the current popular television series, They talk to each other, yetthey look were used The straight into the camera as they areshown in two child sat in a chair across from the researcher at Zack and Kimberly, two different spaces situated next toeach other on the a table which displayed backgrounds for each reveals Bill is Power Rangers, situated nearblocks with stickers screen. The sides.The two in his office or home andJennifer is in some part of familiar objects on the characters looked at a middle block on which a of the studio, where there areseveral monitors. Kimberly. (See Figure 2.) Jennifer asks Bill to describe thesituation of the toy elephant faced pelligrens. He proceeds to do so asJennifer The child and interviewer first talked about the characters, the smiles and looks at the camerain her separate the objects--the names of portrayed in the stickers on space. The segmentends with Jennifer thanking names of the objects As the camera the sides of the blocks, the partsof the elephant Bill for sharing the information. understood all the goes back to thestudio desk, the researcher in order to make sure the child terms used in the questioning.The display was stopped the tape. side of the In order to preserve ecologicalvalidity for fixed so that the seated child saw one The child televised images viewed bythe child, the blocks and one side of the elephant. Figure 2 researcher let the child seethe segment all the way through beforehe or she watched it with TABLE TASK DISPLAY stopped frames to answerquestions about the frozen image. During thetesting, the researcher stopped the tape at thepoint when Bill and Jennifer are shown at the sametime.Using Flavell'smethodfortestingthereality- appearance distinction(Flavell, Green, Flavell, 1989) and Comuntzis'method for assessing taking in a children's level of perspective not (1987, 1991), the never had toremember what objects were televised dialogue scene the researcher researcher asked the childquestions about within his or her view since followed by questions reminded the child where theobjects were. different points of view, determine the of the actual and Questions were asked to about the child's understanding each child. Level aspects of the interview. level of perspective taking for apparent conversational child knowing thatwhat For example, to test thelevel of perspective- 1 is characterized by the he or she sees is differentfrom what another taking ability, the childanswered questions about "Do Bill and Jennifer saw person in a differentviewing position sees. what they saw and what elephant?" and "Does Zack seethe such as, "Do you seeBill?" (Level 0). "Does you see the elephant?" are questionswhich test thisfirst Jennifer see Bill?" (Level1). "Does Bill see level. A child is at LevelII when he orshe Jennifer's red shirt?" (Level2). knows that a person may seethe object To test the reality-appearancedistinction, 414 BEST COPY AVAiLABLE 406 differently from him or her; that is, they can understanding. determine the quality of differences in varied Children were at step two if they were not points of view. For instance, "Does Kimberly sure of the affordances of the people in the video. see the sides of the blocks that you see?" is a Unlike those at the first step, these children question which reveals whether a child is at this where aware that the people on the video could second level. The third level of ability is reached not interact with them; however, they still were when the child knows what an imagined confused about what the people were doing, for viewpoint is like: "Let's pretend that Kimberly instance, were they or were they not in the same sits down on the table right where she is. Does room.If children knew that objects (people) she see the heart sticker?" were depicted on television, but they believed The researcher ended the table task by that the depictions were true to their referents, bringing out two finger puppets (Zack and Jason, they were at the third step. Children at this step another Power Ranger) placed on pencils. She refer to the television and what's depicted in asked the child to "fix the two fmger puppets to absolute terms, relying heavily upon their make them look like they are talking to each knowledge of what objects (people) can or other." She then let the child move the puppets cannot do in real-life situations. For instance, to turn them any way he or she wanted them to these children knew that Bill and Jennifer could be. After the child did this, the researcher took hear each other even though they did not see each the puppets back and fixed them to face the other. child, not each other, and asked, "What if I do Finally, the children who knew about this." (fixing the puppets next to each other, both television's capabilities in making depictions facing the child). "Can Jason and Zack talk to seem real or unreal were at step four in the each other now?" When the child answered, the developmental sequence. These children knew table task ended. that the two people in the visual were framed by manipulating some kind of camera device, for Scoring. Children were placed at one of the four instance, and that they could hear each other, not steps of Flavell's (1990) developmental sequence because they were next to each other in the same according to how well they answered questions space, but because they were using some kind of about the interview visual. They were judged to mechanism which enabled them to carry on a be at a certain step by their answers on the conversation. questions about the different perspectives in the video and about what they thought was really or Results apparently true. Other variables included their The independent variables in this study age, sex, whether they thought that people, in included age, sex, perspective-taking level in the three-dimensional situations, could talk to each table task, and whether the subject thought that other if they were not facing each other, and their people, in a three-dimensional situation, could level of visual-spatial ability (demonstrated by talk to each other when not facing each other. Of their performance on the perspective-taking table theindependentvariablesusedinthis task). preliminary study, age was found to be the Children were judged to be at a certain step significant factor in determining the step of a in understanding the interview visual according child's progression toward understanding the to Flavell et al.'s (1990) proposed developmental visual on TV interviews. Groups of children at sequence of understanding television. If, in their steps 1, 2, 3, and 4 were compared to determine answers and comments during the video task, at what age they begin to understand the children only thought that the two people in the interview visual. (See Figure 3.) video were really and truly talking to them or When children at step 1 were compared to seeing them, then they were ranked at step one. those at the highest step (4), age was significant, According to the theory (Flavell et al., 1990), t = 2.5, p< .01. The average age for children at children who think that objects on TV can step 1 was 54 months, or 4 years, 6 months, interact with them are at the lowest level of whereas the average age of children at step 4 was 415 407 Figure 3 television - -that the objects on the screen could AGES AND STAGES interact with the viewer.Even though they OF demonstrated their knowledge in understanding UNDERSTANDING TELEVISION that the people in the visual could not interact with them and that the visual was a depiction of reality, most children at step 3 (six out of seven) showed that they were not convinced that the two people shown on the screen were talking to each other. (This finding may have been the result of the segment which was tape. That is, the two people did not engage in much back-and-forth conversation in the segment.) 3 4 Although not significant in separating groups of childrenatdifferentsteps,an le4DEILSTANWTt.15ii 11.31.4441-3 interesting finding in the table task was that all 69 months, or 5 years, nine months. As well, children [n = 34], when asked to fix the two hand when the second group of children was compared puppet Power Rangers (Zack & Jason) so that to the third group, age was found to be they were talking to each other, made them face significant, t = -3.40, p< .01, with the average each other. When asked whether Zack and Jason age for step 2 being 61 months, or about 5 years could talk to each other if facing out in the same old; step 3 had a mean age of 71 months, or direction (not toward each other), most of the almost 6 years of age. children at the first step said "no" (10 out of 15). Other comparisons between groups of Children at steps 2 and 3 were equally divided on children at different steps showed that there were their answers. At step 4, however, most said no significant differences between step 1 and 2 "yes" (4 out of 5). and between steps 3 and 4. Therefore, the first Subjects' levels of performance on the two steps were collapsed, as were steps 3 and 4, table task were not significant factors in this yielding age as significant, t = -3.03, p< .01. The study: The average level of ability on the table average age of the children at step 1 and 2 was task was 1.8, almost at the second level of almost a year younger (57 months, or 4 years, 9 ability. months) than those at the third and fourth steps (5 years, 11 months). Discussion The most significant separation by age The relatively new way of depicting occurred between children at the first step and interviews on the news was the focus of this those at the third step, t = -3.40, p< .001. The study, which uses Flavell's proposed average age of subjects at step 1 was 4 years, 6 developmentalsequenceofunderstanding months; that of the third step was almost 6 years television (1990) as a framework. The results old (5 years, 11 months). show that the subjects in this study are around 6 One of the questions asked by this study years old when they begin to understand that the concerned children's perceptions of whether the two people on the screen are depictions, that is, two people in the visual were talking to each represent two people talking to each other in the other. Results were mixed: Eighteen out of 34 same place even though, in reality, they arein children said that the people were not talking to two different places and actually can onlyhear each other; sixteen said that they were. Children each other. in the first step were most unsure about whether At the third step, the children in this study the people were engaged in conversation with are around 6 years old when theyknow that the each other. Most children at the lowest step said images on the screen are depictions of what is that the two people were talking to them and not real and not the actual object unfiltered through to each other, a characteristic of the first step of any other level of reality.This finding shows development in the sequence of understanding that the quality of this convention used in 416 4 0 8 interviews presents more difficulty for children depiction,this studycontributes more who are older than those used in other studies information to the study of production techniques which examine the reality-appearance distinction which may or may not present problems to young (e.g., Flavell et al., 1989, 1990). The finding viewers. In future research, looking at this type of may enhance the findings of otherinvestigations phenomenon from another point of view may be which look at reality-appearance of televised even more instructful.Messaris (1994) asserts elements (e.g., Wright et al, 1994). that seeking to find the cognitive consequences This study also addressed the child's of visual "literacy" is pertinent to our learning perspective-taking ability in a three-dimensional about the relationship between visual media and situation. Children'sperspective-taking young viewers. Perhaps the theory of Flavell knowledge did not play an important role in their (1990) on the development of understanding understanding of this visual.This finding is television might be considered as an independent predictable since the visual does not challenge variable and, perhaps, give us more significant the viewer's ability to know about different insights into such a relationship. viewpoints: The visual shows no reverse-angles, only shots wherein two people look straight into the camera. Whether the visual is comprehended may relate more to the viewer'sskill in knowing thatwhattheyseeontelevisionis a_ representationofreality,whichcanbe manipulated by those who produce what is shown on the screen. The children who were at steps 3 and 4 understood that what they saw was adepiction of two people ontelevision presumably talking in second-order space, or space which was one levelremoved from the "reality" of the live-action at the news desk.

Conclusion A major problem with this study has to do with the stimulus tape used did not present the convention as accurately as it could have done. In subsequent investigations, another tape which shows the 2 people conversing for a longer period of time will be used. Because of the poor quality of the tape, results were somewhat inconclusive. Nevertheless, looking at the results as exploratory, age is significant. Around 6 years of age, children inthis study indicate an awareness that what they see onTV is not actually "there."This study also shows that children around 4 and a half years have not yet begun to know about the elements of thepictured conversationbetweentwopeopleframed separately but next to each other on the screen; they are confused about the immediacy factorand about what the objects they see on the screen afford them as viewers. By focusing in on one type oftelevised 417 409 References

Acker, S. (1981). Viewer's perception of Flavell, J. (1986). The development of velocityanddistanceintelevisedevents. knowledge about the appearance-reality Doctoral dissertation, University of Utah. distinction.American Psychologist, IL 418- 425. Acker,S. & Tiemens,R.(1981). Children's perceptions of changes in size of Flavell,J.,Flavell, E., Green, F., & televisedimages. Human Communication Korfmacher, J. (1990). Do young children think Research 7, (4), 340-346. of television images as pictures or real objects? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 34 Calvert, S., Huston, A., Watkins, A., & (4), 399-419. Wright, J. (1982). The relation between selective attention to television forms and children's Flavell, J., Green, F., & Flavell, E. (1989). comprehension of content. Child Development, Youngchildren'sabilitytodifferentiate 51, 601-610. appearance-reality and level 2 perspectives in the tactile modality. Child Development, 60, 200- Comuntzis, G. (1987). Young children's 213. understanding of changing viewpoints in televised scene. Doctoral dissertation, University Gibson,J.(1979). The ecological of Utah. approach to visual perception. Boston: Hougton Mifflin. Comuntzis, G. (1991). Perspective-taking theory: Shifting views from Seasame Street. Hawkins, R. (1977).The dimensional Paper presented at the Fifth Annual Conference structure of children's perceptions of television onVisualCommunication,Breckenridge, reality. Communication Research, 4, 299-320. Colorado, June 29. Jaglom, L. & Gardner, H. (1981). The Comuntzis-Page, G. (in press).Visual preschool television viewer as anthropologist. In intelligence: Spatial aptitudes.In Flood, J., H. Kelly and H. Gardner (Eds.), New directions Lapp, D., & Heath, S. (Eds.). A Handbook for in child development: Viewing children through Visual Literacy Educators: Research on teaching television, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. the Communicative and Visual Arts. Contract with Macmillan. Kipper, P. -(1985).Television camera movement as a source of perceptual information. Condry,J.& Freund,S. (1989). Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media Discriminating real from make-believe. Paper 30 295-307. presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City, Messaris, P. (1994).Visual literacy: Missouri. Image. mind. & reality.Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Dorr, A. (1983). No shortcuts to judging reality.In J. Bryant & D.R. Anderson (Eds.), . Monaco, J. (1977). How to read a film. Children's understanding of television: Research New York: Oxford University Press. pn attention and comprehension,San Diego: Academic Press. Pillow, B. & Flavell, J. (1986). Young children's knowledge of visual perception:

418 ,410 Projective size and image. Child Development, 51, 125-135.

Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media, cognition_ and learning. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

Singer, D. & Singer, J. (1981). Television and the developing imagination of the child. Journal of Broadcasting,.21(4), 373-387.

Smith, R., Anderson, D., & Fischer, C. (1985).Young children's comprehension of montage. Child Development, 56(4), 962-971.

Wright, J., Huston, A., Reitz, A., & PiemyatsS. (1994). Youngchildren's perceptions of television reality: determinants and developmental differences. Developing Psychology, 30(2), 229-239.

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419 411 Factors Affecting Children's Attention on TV Viewing by Sophia T. Wu

Abstract This study was conducted to investigate what and how pre-school children attend to children's TV programs.The secondary task method was applied to determine children's attention degree, and an in-depth interview was conducted to describe subject's memory type.Age difference, demographic area, and language familiarity were found to be significant factors that affect children's attention on TV viewing.

Introduction longer passive objects waiting for For many decades, children's TV programs information to swallow in without havebeenconsiderededucationaland discrepancies.From mass culture theory, expected to be an essential learning vehicle. TV programsareproductsof cultural Thepositiveeffectsof children's TV practice and ecological structure. Thus, programshavebeeninvestigatedand macro factors,such as theculture and demonstrated in a good deal of research ecology related to the cultivation of a child, articles ( Welch & Watt, 1980; Howe, 1983, need to be exploredinorder tobetter Mielke, 1990).Among the variables tested understand how children react to TV content. to be influential factors affecting learning In addition to the reflecting on the impact of outcome,attention has been investigated socialcontextontheaudience,data from many aspects and thought to be a collection from content analysis or critical pre-requisite leading toward content experimental research design alone appears comprehension.Houston and Write (1983) to be inadequate in interpreting themulfi- suggest that fast-paced, high volume, special facets of children's TV viewing behavior. effects on audio and video track, etc. are Overall, experimentalandquantitative elements that contribute to the unique format statisticalfigures dohelpresearchers of children's TV programs.Such standard understand "what" children focus on while attributes then serve as attention cues which watching TV.However, the more complete will direct children's attention (Cohen & picture is still at large due to the lack of the S alapatek,1975). Salmon (1977,1979) qualitative data on "why" and "how" children points out that in addition to the program are attracted to certain information.The content, the convention of TV language, such present study attempts to fill the incomplete as camera movement and editing style, affect puzzle from different angles. the activation of cognitive strategy of the audience. Furthermore, media perception, also known as AIME (amount of invested Method - -The Secondary Task Method mental effort, proposedby Salmon, Basedon Kahneman'sdefinitionof 1981;1983),isone of thefactorsthat operation,attentionisdefined as mental influences the amount of learning from TV. effort allocated to performing cognitive tasks. Investigatingthe influence ofvisual As theresult of resourcelimitationof complexityonchildren'sattentionto cognitive capacity, it is assumed that when children's TV programs, Welsh and Watt mucta effort is assigned to one task, such as (1980) found that children's attention was viewingtelevision,performanceon a positively associated with content recognition. concurrent task suffers (.Kahneman, 1973; In general, it is agreed that attention is one of Meadowcroft, 1996). According to the most predictivefactorsaffecting the Meadowcroft, an implication of Kahneman's educational effect of children's programs. theory is that attention can be measured as Some of the recent studies on attention mental effort by a secondary task method that have shifted the research paradigm to the requires individual to perform two tasks concept of "active viewer".Children are no simultaneously. Attentionisassociated 421 412 with program appeal, which would lead to Stimuli comprehension. An edited segment from a Chinese pre- Thepurposeofthestudywasto school TV program named "Popcorn" was investigate cultural and ecological factors used as the primary source of information. which might affect children's visual attention In addition to the video, a set of color to TV viewing and the nature of their transparenciescopiedfromacolorful immediate recall of content.The research children's book were used as the secondary design, includit kg variables, subjects, stimuli, taskinstrument. Both stimuli were16 and procedures is described below. minutes in length.

Independent and Dependent Variables Procedures Demographic variables such as gender, Eachkindergartenhadfivetrained age,andlivingareaweretreatedas observers for each section.In total,12 independent variables.Age variable was observation sessions were conducted.Each devided into two levels: the 5-year-olds and one observer went into a class to observe one the 6-year-olds.There were two categories child who was selected randomly beforehand. of living area: urban and rural location. In other words, among 20 or so children, Attention index, the main dependent variable, there were only five of them who were being was measured according to the observed observed in each session. Subjects did not record, which will be described in detail in knovi they were being observed. the procedure section. After setting up the video, a technician Another dependent variable, recall and the showed the transparencies by replacing one. cues of recall, was not quantitatively defined, every 15 seconds.Indication of watching instead,qualitativedatawascollected TV, or looking at the transparency, or doing through in-depth interview. other activities were marked by the observer every 15 seconds for each child for a 16 Subjects minute period. Subjectswererecruited fromtwo After reviewing the video, a semi-structure kindergartens, one of which was located in in-depth interview was conducted the Taipei metropolitan area, the other was individually to collect recall data. from a southern townTainan in the south of Taiwan. There were a total of 60 subjects, 30 of which were 5-year-olds and 'Results 30 were 6-year-olds.In addition to the age Children's TV viewingattentionwas variable, half of the subjects were from the observed by the researcher and observers on city and the other half; from the south. a one-to-one basis.Figure 2 presents the Details of the demographic information of percentage of children who focused on the subjects is shown in Figure 1. TV screen at each moment of observation. It is noted that the visual contact with TV Figure 1 during the 19th to 21st period was about Subject Demographic Data 50%, compared with other periods such as Gender the 33rd to 38th, whose contact rate was higher than 98%.The variation of TV boy n=30 attention of children throughout the period of girl n=30 .video viewing could be visualized when the Age computedand n=30 percentagefigureswere 5-year-old As shown in 6-year-old n=30 transformed into a chart. Living area Figure 3, some time periods attracted more Urban n=30 attention than the others. Rural n=30 TotalN=60 422 BEST COPY iWAII BLE 41 3 It Figure 2 It should be noted that gender difference Percentage of TV Attending of was not found; however, age difference was Children discovered in the amount of visual contact of TV.Figure 4 offers an interpretation of age difference during the observant period.The average time focusing on TV for the 6-year- Time period n old children was 11.98 minutes, and 10.23 1 21 35.0 minutes for the 5-year-olds respectively (t = 2 35 '58.3 2.25 *).Significantly, 6-year-olds are more 3 37 61.7 capable of holding their attention than 5- 42 70.0 4 year -oldsinaverage. Itisgraphically 5 42 70.0 demonstrated in Figure 5. 6 40 66.7 7 39 65.0 Figure 4 8 30 50.0 Mean Difference of Attending 9 43 71.7 10 40 66.7 Time of Various Source Between 11 45 75.0 Age Groups 12 53 88.3 13 50 83.3 Age 6-year-old 5-year-old Tvalue Attention direction (N=30) (N=30) 14 53 -88.3 15 48 80.0 TV screen M =11.98 N1=10.23 2.25 16 40 66.7 SD= 2.91 SD=3.14 Transparency M=1.90 M=2.70 -1.62 17 46 76.7 SD= 1.73 SD=2.07 18 42 70.0 Other activity M=1.12 M=1.68 -0.40 SD=1.55 SD=1.66 19 30 50.0 20 31 51.7 *P<0.05 21 34 56.7 22 36 60.0 Figure 5 23 41 68.3 Comparison of TV Attention. of 24 42 70.0 5-year-old and 6-year-old 25 47 78.3 Children 26 50 83.3 27 42 70.0 5 I 85.0 28 100 29 46 76.7 90 68.3 e10 30 41 701- Perczmag: 40 Mendingendin% ebilrcnei 40 Figure 3 30 -1 20- TV Attention of Children in the 10- 55 60 Observation Period 5 10 15 ...1) 25 30 35 10 .15 50 Timeperiod o. - 6 yearold -5-year-old 100 90 30 70 PCMCItt2Vor aticnaling choldren Attention gap between children from urban .10 30 and rural area was statistically significant. T-test showed urban children were more 11.1L [ I I 1 I I 0 I In 15 20 25 30 35 -10 :5 50 55 ;10 attracted to TV than rural children were. Time period average, rural children spent 9.58 minutes in 423 BEST COPY MAILABLE 414 viewing video, while urban children spent Figure 8 12.63 minute (t = -4.28 ***).By the same Two-way ANOVA Table token, rural children spent more time on watching transparencies and doing other Summary activities than urban children did (see Figure Source of variance SS DF MS Fratio 6). Figure 7 also supports the above finding Main effects 185.15 2 92.58 13.179 that children from urban area were more Age 46.38 1 46.386.60' Area capable of holding attention toward video 138.78 1 138.78 19.76 Interaction 0.38 1 0.380.05 than their counterparts. Variance explained185.53 3 61.84 8.80 Residuals 393.3R 56 7.03 Total 578.91159 9.81 * P<0.05** P<0.01 ***P<0.001 Figure 6 Mean Difference of Attending Time of Various Source Between Qualitative data was collected from in- Living Areas depthinterviewstogatherinformation regarding what and how children recall video Living area Rural Urban Tvalue content. Textual analysis was applied in Attention direction (N=30) SN=30) order to determine what content or form TV screen M=11.98 M=12.63 -4.28 "' SD=2.91 SD=2.06 might invite viewing attention.Based on Transparency M=3.15 M=1.45 3.76 ** theinterviewtranscripts,recallwere S D=2.14 SD=1.25 Other activity M=2.27 M=0.93 3.27 * categorizedintotwodimensions:visual SD=1.95 SD=1.12 memory and audio memory, under which P<0.05** P<0.01*** P<0.001 description of memory cue (reason why they remember certain content expressed by the subject)wasrecorded. Undervisual Figure 7 memory, there were four items including Comparison of TV Attention character(man, woman,. puppet, etc.), acting, and setting (props, dress, etc.). Dialogue of Urban and Rural Children and effect were categorized as analyzing items of audio memory.In general, children 118) remembered moving images better which rercciunge or9ti - aiiemhec were post-produced with special effects (such 70 as slow motion), or segments with saturated fin Is, 1, so - 1 1 visualinaction. Suchfindingswere 40 - -1 supported by Figure 3, Figure 5, and Figure 30 1 29 7. statistically from previous discussion. 10- n ' 11111.1 11_111 In addition, children had better memory of 5 10 15 ID 25 30 35 .10 15 50 55 GO animalcharacterover human character, Time period and female character was better remembered - urban--- rural than male character was.It seems that gender (or human being) identification has notyet developedfor5and 6-year-old children.The researcher found that children in general were attracted by "moving visuals" or saturated visual co&s, which usually Two-way ANOVA was computed for accompanying special further investigation of whether interaction byanimationor effects. On the contrary, talking heads or exists in living area and age variable.As even dialogues between puppets were less shown in Figure 8, no interaction was found powerful in inviting children's attention. between age and living area.Children from ruralareas showedlessinterestin TV

viewing regardless of their age. 424 EST COPY AVAILA..1?)LE 4 1 5 Discussion result of the study,itisclear that older The findings indicate that when watching children have better attentionspan toward TV programs, the pre-school children were televisedmessages. Anotherpossible moreattractedtovisualsegmentswith explanation for this, is that the content of the moving images than static ones.However, program was more suitable for older children. further investigation shows that significant In either case, the concept ofage difference differences exist in age, and urban and rural has narrower definition than what is being factors. Relativelyspeaking,younger practiced now.This finding should help to children and rural children were less attracted enlighten TV children program producersto by TV programs.Furthermore, data from the fact that age difference needs to be in-depth interviews points out that much of redefined. the recall was related to the form which the Similar to many other countries, in Taiwan, information was encoded in a visualized way; the production of children'sprogramis that is using special effects or characters in usually nationwide.In other words, there is action.Reasonable inference for the fact only one version that circulates throughout that rural children pay less attention to the the entire island.However, the qualitative video which may result in registering less data in this study shows that if the language informationis due to language difficulty. used in a program isdifferent from the Mandarin Chinese is the official language for language used by the target audiences, a most of children's programsin Taiwan. negativeeffecttowardattentioncasting However, Taiwanese is one of the most results.This issue has never been raised popular dialects spoken for many children before to TV producers or the public.The who live in rural areas.For rural audiences, study suggests that the language used in a languagedifficultybecameoneof the programshouldberecognizedasan obstacles which affected their understanding important. factorthataffectschildren's of the content and their interest or attention attention span. would fall ,with the viewing process. The ecology of the living area seems to As far as the audio memory concerns, to have great impact on children's attention and the researcher surprise, sound effects did not interest.Children who are familiar with a seem to play an essential role of memory cue. rural environment demonstrate less attention Itis even more evident particularly when span to the video containing content and visual code was dominating the information format mainly from an urban atmosphere. process.For example, in the video, 98% of Itis evident that children are attracted to children were attracted by the segment that things and settings with which they can one of the main characters was covered by a associate or identify. banana skin by using reverse special. effects. Inconclusion,thefindingsfromthe At thetime,very few children recalled preliminarystudy raise cultural and special sound effects laid along with the ecological dimensions that affect audience's visual action. reception of TV messages.More efforts is needed to understand the holistic picture of children's TV viewing context Conclusion and Implications psychologically,socially,culturally,and The study presented evidence regarding ecologically. what children focus on and what and why theyrecallfrom viewingchildren's TV programs.The findings contribute to the REFERENCE bodyof knowledgeof howchildren's attention differ by age group as well as living Brooks, L.P.(1971). The contribution of area.From a developmental psychological verbal descriptions to visual memory in point of view, one year apart for the 5-year- nursery-schoolchildren.Finalreport. old and 6-year-old may not show cognitive Educationdocument.(ERICDocument significant difference.However, from the Service No. ED 069344). 425 416 IIIEST COPY AVAILABLE Children's Television Workshop (1990a). Reiser. R. A.. Williamson. N. & Suauki, K. SeasonStreetresearchbibliography: (1989). Using Sesame Street to facilitate SelectedcitationsrelatingtoSesame children'srecognitionoflettersand Street 1969-1939. New York: Author. numbers. Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 36(1): 15-21. Children's Television Workshop (1990b). Whatresearchindicatesabout the Reiser. R. A., Tessmer, M. A. & Phelps, P. Educational Effects of "Sesame Street". C.(1984).Adult-childinteraction and New York:CTW. (ERICDocument children's learning from Sesame Street. Service No. ED 340498) Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 32(4): 217-723. Condry,J.(1989).Thepsychology of television. Hillsdale, N J.:Lawrence Salmon, G. (1984). Television is easy and Erlbaum. print is "tough": The differential investment of Mental effort in learning as Cohen, A. A. & Salapatek, P. (1975). Infant a foundation of perceptions and perception: From sensation to cognition. attributions."Journalofeducational New York: Academic Press. psychology, 74(4). pp.647-658.

Huston, A.C., & Wright,J.C.(1983). Salomon, G. (1983). "Television watching "Children's processing of television: The and mental effort: A social psychological informative functions of formal features." view." in J. Bryant & D. R. Anderson in J. Bryant & D. R. Anderson (Eds.), (Eds.), Children's understandingof Children's understanding of television. television. New York: Academic Press. pp. New York: Academic Press. 181-198.

Kent, Susan(1985). The effects of television Salomon, G. (1981). "Introducing AIME: viewing: A cross-culturalperspective. Theassessmentof children'smental Current anthropology, vol.26(l), involvement with television. in H. Gardner Feb.1985. & H. Kelly (Eds.), Children and the world of television. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Krull, R. & Husson, W. (1979). Children's Bass. attention: The case of TV viewing. In E. Wartella (Ed.). Children communicating: Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media: media and development of thought, speech, cognition and learning. San Francisco, CA: understanding. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Jossey Bass.

Krull. R. & Husson, W. (1980). Children's anticipatory attention to the TV screen. Welch, A. J.& Watt,J.H.(1980). The Journal of Broadcasting. 24: 35-47. influenceofvisualcomplexityon children's attention to and learning from Macklin,M.C.(1994).The impactof "sesame street". Education audiovisualinformationonchildren's document(ERIC Document Service No: product-related recall. Journal of ED 191034). consumerresearch.Vo1.2 1(1),June Effects of 1994.154-162. Welch, A. J. & Watt, J. H. (1983). staticanddynamiccomplexityon recallof Mielke,K.W.(1990).Researchand children'sattentionand development at the Children's Television televisioninstruction.Bryant,J.& Workshop. Education Technology Anderson D. R. (Eds.). Children's Research and Development. 38(4):7 -16. 426 4I? understanding of television.69-102. New Wu,S.T.(1939).'Theforty-fivehour York: Academic Press, Inc. alternative curriculum: A comparison of reported television and videotape viewing Williams,1.P.(1970).Visual and aural among Chinese, Puerto Rican, and white learning in urban children. Final report. children." unpublished doctoral Education document(ED 043924). dissertation, Teacher's college, Columbia University.

427 418 Perceptions Of Instructional Design Process Models by Robert Maribe Branch

Abstract Instructional design is a process that is creative, active, iterative and complex.However, many diagrams of instructional design are interpreted asstifling, passive, lock-step and simple because of the visual elements used to model the process. The purposeof this study was to understand how the instructional design process is perceived through diagramscomposed of boxes and straight lines with arrows, and ovals and curved lineswith arrows. While confusing, flowing and linear are used to describe both diagram types, organized and busy were mentioned only to describe the diagram composed of boxes and straight lines with arrows.

Introduction This study also extends the work of Branch Diagrams are the connection between an and Bloom (1995) who contend idea and the conveyance of a message. instructionaldesignprofessionals can Designs depicting processes such as flow improvethefidelityofthemessages diagrams are usually sequential and involve received by readers through better a directionalelement. Plane geometric understanding of the use of visual elements shapes, lines and pointing devices, such as in the portrayal of models, flow diagrams, arrowsarethreeofthebasicdesign processes and ideas. The foundation of this elements found in diagrammatic preliminaryinvestigationisbasedon communication. Perceptions and perceptions of thereader,variationin interpretations can be influenced by the graphic elementtype and accurate designers' choice of visual elements, which interpretations of visualized process models. should help show the relationships among those elements. The interpretations of each Research Questions element represent a micro perspective which Severalassumptionsguidedthedata influences the understanding of the whole collection and analysis of this study.The diagram. Flow diagramswhichare fundamental assumption was thatvisual commonly utilized to present the displays promote viewer understanding, and instructional design (ID) process "may be therefore,the impact of perceptionsof heavily influenced by the way in which ID process models and the role of graphic models are visually depicted" (Rezabek & elementsintheaccurateportrayalof Cochenour,1996,p.299). Graphic instructional design influence the elements which elicit viewer interpretations construction of knowledge about a defined that are inconsistent with the original intent practice. Perception is operationalized here of the whole diagram diminish the fidelity to mean arelativeconceptbased on betweenpracticeandtheconceptual personal interpretations of visual elements portrayal of that practice. within an environment, our epistemology, The purposeofthisstudywasto the way we organize information to make determine if the expressed perceptions of meaning,and ourculturalheritage. the types of flow diagrams likely to be used Perceptually, the meaningofa whole to convey the instructional design process. diagramdependson therelationship Perceptions wereelicitedonthree between its parts.Visual elements have a variations of a flow diagram conveying conceptualrelationshipbased on their similar content; without any text. This similarity, proximity and continuity. Thus, current study seeks to advance the work of variations in. the composition of graphic Rezabek and Cochenour (1996) about the elementsinfluenceperception. The "importance of the visual display of ID contentionis that instructional designis modelsforprofessionalsteachingthe process oriented, based on procedures [both instructional design process .." (p. 309). product procedures and process

429 419 procedures], iterative, involves concurrent composed of ovals and curved lines with actions andisbest modeledbyvisual arrowsandthe"Mixed" diagram is displays. The main research question is: do composed of rectangles, ovals, and hybrids varieties of flow diagrams conveying similar of the two. Figures 2, 3 and 4 contain the content elicit similar adjectives? actual diagrams each participant was asked to read. Methodology Data were collected at the beginning of Theparticipantswere 31 graduate the class.The participants were requested students at university in the Southeastern to write 3-5 adjectives within two minutes. United States.Twenty-three females and This was repeated three times. Time on task eight males generated data for the study. lasted approximately 8-10 minutes.The Ten of the participants were under age 30, person administering the diagram forms twelve were between the ages of 31 and 40, remainedsilent duringtheentiredata and eight participants were between the ages collection.Each participant wrote about of 41and55yearsold. Nineteen four words (mean = 3.77 words). participantswere mastersstudentsand twelve were doctoralstudents. While approximately half of the participants were Figure 1 majoringinthefieldof Instructional Technology, practically all were unfamiliar Reader Groups with the details of the instructional design process.Each participant was randomly assigned to one of three reader groups. Each reader groupcontainedallthree Croup Otaprani Order variations of the diagram; but presented in different orders.The reader group was determined by the orderinwhich the "Boxes" Boxes - Ovals - Mixed participant read the three diagrams forms (Figure1). The diagramforms were constructed on variations of straight line, "Ovals" Ovals - Mixed - Boxes arrow and plane geometric shape arrangements.Boxes, ovals and a mix of boxes andovals formedthe dominant "Mixed" Mixed - Boxes - Ovals characteristic of the diagrams each group was asked to read. The'"Boxes"diagram is composed of rectangles and straight lines witharrows,the"Ovals"diagram is

Figure 2 "Boxes" diagram adapted from Dick and Carey (1996) Figure 3 "Ovals" diagram

Figure 4 "Mixed" diagram adapted from Edmonds, Branch and Mukherjee (1994)

431 421 Results for the "Ovals" diagram and 35% of Figure 5 summarizes the frequency of the adjectives for the "Mixed" diagram. words used to describe each of the three Words suchascircular,continuous, different diagrams.Similarities, differences cyclical, confusing, closed, complicated, and combinations in interpretation emerged correctional, conceptual, clear, complex, and were used as labels to organize the complicated and computer related were findings.The following observations are written; while confusing, complex and based on the author's perception of the data. computer programming were written to describe the "Boxes"diagram. No Similarities other letter formed the beginning of 1.Confusing was themostfrequently more than 15% of any of the other lists writtenword usedtodescribethe of adjectives. "Boxes"diagram and the "Mixed" diagram;andwasthesixthmost Conclusion frequently written word to describe the Because the actual practice of "Ovals" diagram. instructional design can be confusing for 2. Flowing was the 2nd and 3rd most those new to the process, flowing in terms frequently written word describing the of one activity leading to another and linear "Boxes" and"Mixed" diagrams at a macro level, the general perceptions of respectively; while mentioned only once the participants for this study were accurate. by those who read the "Ovals" diagram. Organized [highly structured], busy and 3. Linear was the 4th frequently mentioned rigid as descriptions of the flow diagram word to describe both the "Boxes" and composed of boxes and straight lines with "Mixed" diagrams. arrows is consistent with some approaches to the systematic design of instruction, Differences however,suchviewsrepresentlimited 1.Organized was the third most written knowledge about the actual nature of the adjective used to describe the "Boxes" instructional design process. Circular aptly diagram, but not mentioned at all for describesthefundamentalconceptof eitherthe"Ovals" or"Mixed" instructionaldesign,thus,thereaders diagrams. contributed support for the contention that 2. Busy was written several times to describe ID process models should be incorporate the "Boxes" diagram, but not written ovals and curved lines with arrows.The for either the "Ovals"or "Mixed" informationfromthisstudy canassist diagrams. educatorsunderstand how peopleread 3.Rigid was written as frequently as busy diagrams,particularlywithregard to to describe the "Boxes" diagram, but perceptions of process models. not written for either the "Ovals" or Peopleintroducing theconceptof "Mixed" diagrams. instructional design may want to utilize a 4.Circular was written most frequently to variety of process diagrams to communicate describe the "Ovals" diagram and not situations where multiple functions occur written at all for the "boxes" diagram concurrently;arid where certainsets of and only once to describe the "Mixed" functions concur in relative sequence to the diagram; while linear was not written at other sets. While the fundamental concept all to describe the "Ovals" diagram. of the instructional design process can be representedwith rectilinear models, the Combinations actual practice of instructional designis 1.Systematic was written several times to better represented with curvilinear models. describe the "Boxes"and "Ovals" Therefore,circular, continuous, complex diagrams, but not written to describe the and interconnected flow diagrams should "Mixed" diagram. be used to convey accurate portrayalsof 2.Words beginning with the letter c were instructional design practice. used to describe 30% of the adjectives.

432 422 Figure 5 Frequency of Words Used to Describe Each Diagram

Boxes duals . Mixed tv-ttio A.47 23 differvntadjectives -,23 i:liff rint adjectives /0 different adjectives

s s se e e e, 4Seesee.,,:,.ss Vs4si,e )1,,,O.w.:.. e.$e.sp s confusing 7 circular 5 confusing 3 flowing 6 continuous 5 conceptual 2 organized 5 sequential 4 flowing 2 linear 4 cyclical 3 linear 2 systematic 4 interconnected 3 procedural 2 busy 3 confusing 2 appealing rigid 3 systematic 2 bottom-up interconnected 2 closed circular boxy complicated clear complex correctional complex computer programming discrete complicated exploded feedback computer related design flowing dependent [interconnected) frame multiple empty geometric oblong ending and beginning graphical odd evaluative interesting partitioned informational jumble process lacking managerial reactionary logical model reinforcing unbalanced product oriented rotating skeleton variable square versatile

Subsequent research needs to be Dick, W., & Carey, L.(1996). The conducted to confirm the findings of this systematic design of instruction (4th study and to further identifythe visual Ed.) Glenview,Illinois: Scott, elements; and their juxtaposition that best Foresman and Company. represents the instructional design process. Edmonds, G., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, Knowledge about how peopleperceive P.(1994). A conceptual framework instructional design process models should forcomparinginstructionaldesign assist educators choose ways to enhance models. EducationalTechnology learner achievement. Research and Development, 42(4), 55-62. References Rezabek, L. L., & Cochenour, J. J.(1996). Branch, R, & Bloom, J.(1995).The role The impact of line on perception of an of graphic elements in the accurate ID process model. In R. E. Griffin, D. portrayal of instructional design.In G. Beauchamp. J. M. Hunter, & C. B. R. E. Griffin, D. G. Beauchamp. J. M. Schiffman (Eds.), Selected Readings of Hunter, & C. B. Schiffman (Eds.), the 26th Annual Convention of the Selected Readings of the 26th Annual International Visual Literacy Convention of the International Visual Association (pp. 299-310).Chicago, Literacy Association (pp.166-179). IL. Tempe, AZ.

433 BEST COPYAVAILABLE 423 The Electronic Presentation: A Status Report Of International Use Robert E. Griffin, Rune Pettersson, Ronald Johnson

Abstract This paper is the second in a series of reports describing how electronic presentations are currently used by business people. The report surveys business people in the United States and Sweden to determine how they are using the medium. This research suggests the most popular electronic presentation is presented to an audience of less than 25 people, with a liquid crystal display and an overhead projector, using Microsoft PowerPoint software.

Introduction that point on growth has exceeded almost This is the second in a series of reports everybody's expectations. undertaken by the authors to explain the Not since the growth of the overhead complexities of the electronic presentation as projector in the 1960's has a family of audio it is used in business. As we stated in the visual devices so completely captured the earlier paper', lack of information, false attention of people who make presentations. informationand rumorsurroundthe But there are differences in the growth patterns electronic presentation. This state of affairs is of the two mediums. When the overhead understandable since the medium is new and projector exploded on the scene its impact people who use the medium are inexperienced was felt strongly by educational institutions, at employing it for presentations.There is primary and secondary schools and colleges. confusion about what can be accomplished While educational institutions have shared in with this new medium. the growth of electronic presentations,the For the purpose of this study the electronic high costs involved are often too much of a presentation was described as a presentation burden for educationalinstitutions.This which consisted of: medium has had it's biggest impact to date in a computer (often a laptop design), business;businesspeoplearemaking presentation graphic software (i.e. electronic presentations. PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics or Freelance), a projection device such as an overhead How The Study Was Conducted projector and a liquid crystal projector, A questionnaire was mailed to 506 business video projector with computer connections, people in the United States and to 80 business a large screen monitor or a computer only. people in Sweden. In the United States the There are, of course, other definitions for the subjects were randomly selected from the electronicpresentation, however, this mailing list of the Private Industry Council of definition fits the majority of the presentations CentralPennsylvania,a trainingand used in business today. development consortium located in State College, Pennsylvania..This consortium A Brief History Of Electronic provides guidance to businesses in the Central Presentations Pennsylvania region. Growth of the electronic presentation used The Swedish data was sent to a random forbusiness presentationshas been sample available to Dr. Pettersson in Sweden extraordinary. The firsttrue, but crude, All of the subjects contacted were somehow electronicpresentations began withthe associated with the business community. simultaneous introduction ofpresentation A total of 277 questionnaires were returned graphics software and liquid crystal display by the due date stated on the questionnaire. In panels used with overhead projectors.This the United States, 201 questionnaires were development began in the mid 1980's. From returned. In Sweden, 76 questionnaires were 435 424 returned. The data from this study supportsthe The United States return rate was 40%. The difference between men and women using Swedish return rate was 95%. A complete electronic presentations. The difference listing of the questions and outcomes of the between genders is most dramatic in the study are shown in Appendix A at the end of Swedishdata. The differenceisless this paper. significant in the United States.

Results Of The Study Result 2-Frequency Of Use Many observations can be made from this One ofthe questions asked in the survey was study. What is interesting is that most of the "How many presentations do you normally resultsderivedfromthe UnitedStates give a month? The question did not ask the audience parallel the results of the Swedish participants to differentiate between electronic subjects. There are eight results which stand and non electronic presentations.This data is out from the data collected. shown in Figure 2.

Result 1-Gender Use Of The Medium Figure 2 Itis apparent that, in general, more men than AVERAGE NUMBER OF women give business presentations(both PRESENTATIONS GIVEN PER MONTH electronic and non electronic). When we look at electronic presentations only, men give # of presentations none more electronic presentationsthan women Ron both in the United States and in Sweden. This 1-5 J data is shown in Figure 1. &Is o&-cNNmosce

-0A15-US 1 Figure mEleetrcmie-US GENDER OF PEOPLE GIVING DAR-Sweden ELECTRONIC PRESENTATIONS NR BgElectronic-Sweden 0 70 20 30 40 50 so 70 80 % Responding Ages

60% The most common response was 1 to 5 61% Men 81% presentations per month in both the United 89% States and Sweden, however, there is an interesting twist that appears in both sets of 40% pAR-US 39% data. Presentersthat give 6 or more Women 852Electronic-LJS 19% 0/U1-Sweden presentationspermonthclearlyprefer 11% scElearcmic-Sweden electronic presentations.If you focus on 0% 50% 100% presenters who say they give 6to15 % Responding presentations per month, the percentage of people who rely on electronic presentations The reasons for the heavy use of electronic increases. It can be said from the data that if presentations by males and the lack of use by you must make a lot of businesspresentations, females may have something to do with electronic presentations are the medium for computer use in general.The lack of you! computer use by females has been well documented.The newspaper USA Today Result 3-Age Of Electronic Presenters recentlydiscussed computer use among When we look at the data which combines women. They substantiated thelack of female electronic presentations and age, we see some computer scientists in a feature story about interesting and difficult to explain results. computer anxieties.' This data is shown in Figure 3. 436 425 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Figure 3 While the study did not produce data to AGE OF PEOPLE GIVING explainthiscircumstancetheauthor's ELECTRONIC PRESENTATIONS speculate that electronic presentations are used by large companies because they can afford Ages theprice of the necessarypresentation less that 25 equipment. A simple laptop computer and a 25 - 35 data/video projector can cost about $8000.00 36 - 45 (U.S.). Larger companies have the budgets to 46 - 55 provide the equipment and guidance to DA11-1.1s more that 56 691Beciosnio.US encouragepresenterstouseelectronic DA11-Seesden NR issElececoio- Svesclon presentations. Why medium sized companies are heavy 0% 20% 30% 40% 50% % Responding users of electronic presentations is more difficult to resolve. The fact that this result Major users of electronic presentations in the shows in both the United States and Swedish United States are the 36-45 age group while data indicates it is not a mistake. This result is Swedish users are younger, in the 25-35 age probably explained because medium sized group. companies do not have the resources or time to You should also focus attention to the create and produce the more conventional Swedishdataspikethatappearswith presentational aids, overhead transparencies presenters over the age of 56. Older presenters and 2x2 slides, hence these companiesare in Sweden seem to rely heavily on electronic forced to rely on electronic presentations. presentations. Why this spike appears can not Most medium sized companies have very little be explained with the available data. discretionary income and are therefore forced to make the best use of limited time and Result 4-Size Of Companies Using The money. Medium Figure 4 correlates company size and the use Result 5-Why Use Electronic of electronic presentations. Presentations? One of the major questions the authors had Figure 4 hoped to answer with this data was why COMPANY SIZE people use electronic presentations.What drove presenters to choose the electronic # of employees presentation medium rather than flip charts, <50 2x2 slides or overhead transparencies?

51-200 One general theme came from the open ended comments requested on the survey. 201-750 Many people chose the medium because they

751> viewed it as a new, modern, progressive medium.Presenters that used the medium NR often reported using it because they felt their 0 10 20 30 40 50 audiences were impressed by the technical % Responding nature of the medium. None of these affective Both the United States and Swedish data show responses given by the subjects could be verified by other data in the survey. that electronic presentations are most heavily used in medium sized companies (51-200 One reason for relying on the medium, and employees) and very large companies (over probably any audio visual medium, was 751 employees).Why this phenomenon because the subjects used visuals as a part of their presentations. occurs is difficult to explain. This data is shown in Figure 5. 437 PALMA MTCOPY 426 Figure 5 affords. Or laptop computer users may simply DO YOU NORMALLY USE VISUALS IN be familiar enough with computers to feel YOUR PRESENTATIONS? comfortable with the medium. It may also be thatlaptopcomputerusers may make Responses electronic presentations to help justify the 73% 90% expenditurefortheirlaptopcomputers. 89% Whatever the reason, owning or having access

10% to a laptop computer increases the possibility no DAD-US 144% EstElectroniceLIS that the owner or user will give electronic DAD-Sweden 5% gpiElectrortic-Sweden presentations.

0% 0% Result 6-How The Medium Is Used 0% 50% 100% Result 6 encompasses the results of four of % Responding the questions in the survey (questions 6, 8, 9 and 10). The results differ slightly between The data shown in Figure 5 states the obvious, the United States and Swedish audiences, but presenters use an audio visual medium the differences are only slight.The typical because they have visuals to show their electronic presentation is: audience. Swedish presenters appear to turn to presented to an audience of less than 25 theelectronicpresentationabitmore people, frequently than theirUnited States uses a liquid crystal display and overhead counterparts when making this decision. Little projector, else needs to be said about this data. created using Microsoft PowerPoint Figure6indicatesthesinglemost software, significant reason discovered by the authors and presented using a formal style of for giving electronic presentations. delivery. The data supporting these points is shown in Figure 6 Appendix A. DO YOU HAVE ACCESS TO A LAPTOP Interestingly, these four profiles of the COMPUTER? electronicpresentationcitedaboveare constant in both the United States and Sweden. Responses The only subtle variation in the data between 50%. 78% the United States and Swedish is shown in

79%. Figure 7.

47% DAD-US no ctsElectronio-US Figure 7 DAD-Sweden TO WHAT SIZE AUDIENCE DO YOU guElectronic-Sweden Te% NR NORMALLY PRESENT ELECTRONIC 0% 0% PRESENTATIONS? 0% 50% 100% People % Responding 45% 11-25 ,, zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz 24% The data indicates if you own a laptop 6-10 42% 14% computer you are likely to make electronic 1-5 14% presentations. The data does not provide exact 26.50' I% gtalls reasons why laptop owners give electronic 5 presentations. We can only guess why laptop 5% rgiSweden Dona not apply users use electronic presentations. 16% It may be that laptop owners have learned 0% 25% 50% Percent the power that presentation graphics software 438 AVAILABLE BEST COPY 4.27 Thetypicalaudienceforanelectronic presentations was insignificant. presentation in the United States is 11-25 However, Sweden presented a different people while the typical Swedish audience is picture. The majority of electronic presenters 6-10people. Thisisaninsignificant in Sweden reported theirelectronic difference, but the data marks an important presentations were longer than non-electronic distinction.What is important here is that presentations. What is interesting is thatwe electronic presentations are given to small also see a somewhat smaller group within the audienceseventhoughtheelectronic Swedishsubjectsthatcommenttheir presentation is capable of presentingto electronic presentations are shorter.More auditorium sized audiences.This medium, investigation is needed in this area. which is powerful enough technologically to present to the masses, has currently found a Result 8-Media Preference home with smaller audiences. It is difficult to One of the very interesting findings of the explain why this technology is considered study concerned what medium business useful for small audiences. Most likely time presenters preferred. Subjects were asked to will move the technology to larger audiences. rank the four major business media (overhead transparencies, 2x2 slides, flip charts and Result 7-Length Of Presentation electronicpresentations)based on their Another important assessment is the effect perceivedusefulnessasapresentation the medium has on the message. In seeking medium. Because the focus of this studywas this data the authors were trying to determine on electronic presentations, the reader would ifelectronicpresentationsresultedin assume that this medium was a solid favorite presentations that were longer, shorter or equal among all presenters. The findings are shown to similar presentations given with more in Figure 9. conventional media. The results are shown in What is interesting about the data is that the Figure 8. overhead projector continues tobe the medium of choice for most presenters. .The Figure 8 only subjects that deviated from thisnorm IF AT TIMES YOU GIVE ELECTRONIC weretheSwedishusersofelectronic PRESENTATIONS & AT OTHER presentations.Even though many people TIMES YOU USE ANOTHER MEDIUM, reported a strong preference for the electronic ARE YOUR PRESENTATIONS... presentation,it seems that the overhead projector is the medium that most people will Length use if they are unsure of the speaking

66% situation. Reliance on the overhead projector Urns 16% is not difficult to understand. The simplicity 17% Sinner of the overhead projector presentation is 21% legendary. Armed with an overhead projector, 15% Longer projectionscreenandsome 53% overhead ggU3 transparencies a presenter can give a first class =Sweden NR 10% presentation meeting the expectations ofany

0% 50% 100% audience. Further, every hotel or conference Percent center can easily have this equipment ready for use at a moments notice. Whenyou must Most electronic presenters in the United give a difficult presentation you do not want to States reported that the electronic medium did worry about how the visuals will be projected. not effect the length of their presentations. The It is clear from the data thatmany presenters number of electronic presenters in the United do not think that gathering the tools foran States who reportedlongerorshorter electronic presentation is easy. Many subjects in the study reported that they used electronic 439 428 ESTCOPYAVAILABLE Figure 9 MEDIA PREFERENCE RANKINGS

RankAll Respondents-Electronic Presenters-All Respondents- Electronic Presenters- U.S. U.S. Sweden Sweden

1 Overhead Overhead projector Overhead Electronic projector projector

2 Flip chart Electronic 2x2 slides Overhead projector

3 Electronic Flip chart Electronic Flip chart

4 2x2 slides 2x2 slides Flip chart 2x2 slide presentations when they were presenting at lights on, their home base, but would never use the simply be projection devices, not all-in- medium "on the road".Several users of one audio visual tools (business people electronic presentations reported carrying all require very few features, even remote of the necessary equipment to make an controls can confuse many users), electronic presentation if they were traveling. have replaceable projection lamps or Evenwiththeseprecautions,travelers lamps that "bum down" rather than burn out commented they would never leave home or make use of dual-replaceable projection without a backupset ofoverhead lamps, transparencies. The overhead projector will be be either portable (so presenters can easily king for some time to come. carry it) or available in all hotels and conference centers (inexpensive so they will Implications buy many of them), It is difficult to determine implications from permit "idiot proof " connections between this study because the project was conducted the computer and the display device. to determine what is, to establish a current Technological advances should allow many state of affairs. We never intended to use the electronic designers to meet these seemingly data to see into the future. However, as we impossible goals. investigated the data some glimpses of the future were obvious. The authors' collective Implication 2 insights propose the following implications: Older presenters and women may need extra coaching to begin using electronic Implication 1 presentations for business presentations. To As engineers envision the electronic display use the jargon of marketers, these groups device of the future, we suggest they follow appear to be "late adopters" in the electronic themodelpresentedbytheoverhead presentation revolution. Corporate projector:affordable,maintenancefree, management and trainers will be well served ubiquitous and simple to use. To entice the by working with this segment of the work next generation of business users to the force. electronic medium, electronic display devices will have to be: Implication 3 self contained (suggesting that projectors Presentationgraphicssoftwareis now will out sell LCD displays and overhead dominated by one manufacturer, Microsoft. projector combinations), Microsoft has grown to dominate presentation be bright enough to use with the room graphics technology with PowerPoint 440 429 software so dramatically that very few users As presenters, we are witnessing the birth of rely on any other software.(United States-52% a new medium. Years from now we will find use Power Point, Sweden-37% use Power Point, it hard to believe that we carried page sized theother presentation graphics software pieces of plastic printed with colored inks with accounts for the remainder). Because of the us to presentations, or that we had to darken a dominance that Microsoft exerts on the room to make a presentation. We may even industry, if improvements are needed in find that our current form of the electronic presentation graphics technology, Microsoft presentation is antiquated.The electronic will have to do it. Presenters will have to exert presentation is just beginning to dominate the pressure on the company in order to have presentations. changes and additions to the software. Change will become difficult as Power Point achieves `Griffin, Robert E. "Electronic Presentations: monopoly status. How Are They Being Used In Presentations" Eyes On The Future: Converging Images, Summary Idesa and Instruction Ed by Robert E. Griffin The electronic presentation is an important Et al. Blacksburg, VA: 1996. 409-417. medium for business people to understand and 2. "Howgirlsgetscaredawayfrom know how to use. computers", USA Today, June 26, 1996, page D-1.

441 430 Appendix A COMPLETE QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS

QUESTION POSSIBLE ALL RESPONDENTS- ELECTRONIC ALL ELECTRONIC RESPONSE U.S. PRESENTERS-U.S. RESPONDENTS- PRESENTERS- (N=20I ) (N-=54) SWEDEN SWEDEN (N=57) (N =19)

1. On average, None 52 23 18 1 how many 1-5 111 36 26 8 presentations 6-15 31 12 11 9

(electronic & non- 16-30 2 1 1 1 electronic) do you 31+ 4 2 1 0 normally give a NR 1 0 0 0 month?

2. Do you usually Yes 147 44 37 17 use visuals in your No 44 5 29 2 presentation? NR 10 0 0 0

3. Have you ever Yes 54 - 19 19 given an No 139 - 37 0 electronic NR 8 - 1 0 presentation?

4. Of the None 139 0 1 1

presentations you I 0 19 5 .:: 5 give each month, 2-5 0 16 9 9 how many are 6-10 0 4 3 3

given 10+ 0 4 1 1

electronically? NR 8 1 0 0

5. When you use open response an electronic presentation what are the reasons that you choose to use them?

6. To what size 1-5 people - 7 - 1 audience do you 6-10 - 13 - 8 normally present 11-25 - 24 6 electronic 26-50 - 7 - 0 presentations? 50+ - 1 - 1 Does not apply - 2 - 0

7. If you at times longer - 8 - 3 give electronic shorter - 9 - 4 presentations & at about the same - 36 I 0 other times use NR - 1 - 2 another medium, are the electronic presentations...

8. For what kind formal - 34 - 12 of presentation informal - 5 - 1 would you use an equally good - 15 - - 2 electronic NR - 0 - 4 presentation?

T., 4424 31 BEST COPYMLALE QUESTION POSSIBLE ALL RESPONDENTS- ELECTRONIC ALL ELECTRONIC RESPONSE U.S. PRESENTERS-U.S. RESPONDENTS- PRESENTERS- (N=20I) (14,=.54) SWEDEN SWEDEN (11=57) (N=I9)

- 9. When you use Power Point 28 - 7 - electronic Harvard 6 0 presentations, Graphics 5 4 what software do Freelance 3 3 you normally use Persuasion - 12 4 - to create & Other 0 - I present you NR presentation?

10. When you use video monitor - 15 - 2 - electronic liquid crystal 29 - 1 presentations, display 4 - 12 what type of video projector - 3 - 0 display do you other 3 - 4 most commonly NR use?

11. Do you own yes 101 42 28 15 or have access to no 95 12 29 4 a laptop NR 5 0 0 0 computer?

12. Rank the see paper mediums in terms of their usefulness to you in business presentations.

13. What is the <50 employees 73 13 12 2 size of the 50-200 46 16 17 7 company you 201-750 34 8 14 3 work for? >751 45 16 13 7 NR 3 1 1 0

14. What business Multiple sector do you responses work in?

15. What is your male 120 33 46 17 gender? female 80 21 11 2 NR 1 0 0 0

16. What is your <25 3 1 1 0 age? 25-35 38 10 17 7 36-45 78 26 22 6 46-55 59 15 13 3 >56 22 2 3 3 NR 1 0 1 0

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