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OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:15 PM Page 1

okavango river

The flow of a lifeline OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:15 PM Page 2

okavango river

The flow of a lifeline

John Mendelsohn and Selma el Obeid OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:15 PM Page 4

THERE ARE MANY meanings to this river, indeed, Mike Murray-Hudson, João Pessela, Peter and Beverly and Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline is an attempt to Pickford, Susan Ringrose, Roger Swart, Cornelis van der explore as many aspects of it as possible. The book was Post, Viv and John Ward and Ben White. commissioned by the ‘Every River has its People In , willing help came from José Antonio, preface Project’, a project funded by the Swedish International Alessandro Basilico, :rederica Biondi, Calvin, Shelly Development Agency and implemented in , and Brent Brain, Brendon Carroll, João Baptista and Angola. The project aims to promote the Chindandi, Abel Chindele, Laura Cremonini, João participation of people at all levels in activities and Bosco dos Santos, John Hanks, Penelope Howarth, decisions that lead to the wise management of the Zakarias Kapilikisa, Leonardo Kulivela, Domingos Okavango River. More specifically, the project Lucas, George Murray, Penelope Muteteli, :anie and distributes information to improve awareness on Dirk Oosthuizen, Alberto Pedro, Isidro Pinheiro, important processes, issues, constraints and challenges Bongue Rodriguez, Tamar Ron, :ilipe in the Okavango. This book is part of that process. We Sabino, Jimmy Sebastio, Ricardo Tavilla, Lucia Teoli also hope that by bringing together information from and the Governor and his Office in Kuando Kubango. Angola, Namibia and Botswana, the residents of each In Botswana, we are most grateful to Jaap Arntzen, country will have a better understanding of conditions Hannelore Bendsen, Debbie Gibson, Pete Hancock, faced by their neighbours. This is important for an area Ruud Jansen, :elix Monggae, Don Kgathi, Thoralf where water is in short supply and the potential for Meyer, Innocent Mogale, Dave Parry, Lars Ramberg, competition over water resources is thus considerable. Piotr Wolski and the Department of Meteorological The book draws heavily on a variety of published Services, Department of Water Affairs, Harry articles, reports and books, and also on the knowledge Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre, Kalahari of many experts and helpful sources listed below. It is Conservation Society, Ministry of Minerals, Energy and an interesting fact that the quality and quantity of Water Affairs and Ministry of Works and Transport. To most people, the Okavango means the or information on the Okavango increases downstream. :inally, support in Namibia and elsewhere was kindly Major sources of information for the three countries provided by Jon Barnes, Brian Bluck, Marina Coetzee, Swamps: the subject of many books and films that celebrate were as follows. Angola: reports and books, the great Steve Crerar, Barbara Curtis, Helen de Villiers, Stefan de its wealth of life and beauty. Such acclaim focuses on the fact majority of which were published before independence Wet, :ritz Dittmar, Louis du Pisani, Janice Evans, Maria that the Delta is certainly a special place, and also the biggest in 1975, and interviews, field work and an aerial survey :isch, Clinton Hay, Piet Heyns, Werner Hillebrecht, Luise in southern . regarded as being of we conducted in May 2003. Namibia: information Hoffmann, Brian Jones, Ashley Julius, Marc Lejars, summarized in the recent book Sand and water: a profile of Martin Mendelsohn, Chris Neigh, Terry Newby, Lindsay international importance are declared as RAMSAR sites, and the Kavango Region in Namibia. Botswana: staff and Norman, Nils Odendaal, John Pallett, Pippa Parker, the Delta is the largest such site in the world. But there is a reports from the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Sophie Simmonds, Peter Tarr, Beth Terry, Jonathan much wider meaning to the Okavango. This is a river system Research Centre in Maun, and a large body of Timberlake, Compton Tucker, Guido Van Langenhove, published articles and books produced by many Alex Verlinden, Julie Wilk, Agricultural Research Council spanning three countries, where rainfall declines three-fold scientists and technicians over the years. (South Africa), Earth Satellite Cor-poration (USA), from the upper catchment to the Delta, and a river that pours Many people and organizations contributed Namibia Nature :oundation, Namibian Department of about 9.4 cubic kilometres of water into its Delta each year. information, ideas, encouragement, assistance and Water Affairs, Namibian Meteorological Services, enthusiasm, all of which helped make the production of National Archives of Namibia, National Air and Space This, too, is a waterway that flows between a country where this book a pleasure. We are grateful for all this support, Administration (USA), National Library of Namibia and life has been cruel for centuries to another country that is in particular for the important contributions made by: University of Maryland Global Land Cover :acility now the shining light of development in Africa. Shirley Bethune, Patricia Blom, Chris Brown, Helge (USA). Denker, :red Ellery, Nello João, Johan le Roux, :rancisco Mandjolo, Jaime Manjinela, Terence McCarthy, JOHN MENDELSOHN AND SELMA EL OBEID OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:16 PM Page 6

A publication for the Every River has its People Project Which aims to promote sound planning and management of the Okavango Basin in support of the mandate and activities of the Permanent Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM). Production of Okavango River: the flow of a lifeline was funded by the Swedish International Development Agency, and supported by the Kalahari Conservation Society, Namibia Nature 4oundation and Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre. The views and opinions expressed in this book do not necessarily state or reflect those of these organizations. Contents

overview 8

1. Introduction: The flow of a lifeline 24

2. landscapes: The shape of a river 30 Struik Publishers (a division of New Holland Publishing (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd) Cornelis Struik House The past: Trying times 46 80 McKenzie Street 3. Cape Town 8001

New Holland Publishing is a division of Johnnic Communications Ltd. 4. climate: Driving rains, drying sunshine 60 Visit us at www.struik.co.za

Log on to our photographic website www.imagesofafrica.co.za for an African experience. 5. the river: Meandering across the Kalahari 70

RAISON Research and Information Services of Namibia P O Box 1405 6. Living resources: The Okavango’s Windhoek Namibia plants and animals 94 5irst published in 2004 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 p Change and motion 124 Copyright © published edition: Struik Publishers & RAISON, 2004 7. eople: Copyright © text: RAISON, 2004 Copyright © maps: RAISON, 2004 Copyright © photographs and satellite images 2004: listed on page 176 8. farming: :ood, income and security 136

Publishing manager: Pippa Parker Managing editor: Helen de Villiers 9. okavango: Opportunities and challenges 158 Editor: Lindsay Norman Design director: Janice Evans Concept design: 5ly Design Designer: Patricia Blom Cover design: Patricia Blom notes and sources 170 Reproduction by Hirt & Carter Cape (Pty) Ltd Printed and bound by Kyodo Printing Co (Pte) Ltd, Singapore

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, Important references 173 stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner(s).

ISBN 1 86872 963 X Index 174 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:17 PM Page 8

Ogooué Lake Victoria

Congo 5o S Lake Kasai Tanganyika overview Rufiji Congo

C u a Lake nza Malawi The Okavango

Kwando

Cubango

Is shared by three countries: Kunene Cuito

Lake Zambezi Angola, Namibia and Botswana Kariba

Covers an area of about 192,500 square o Okavango 20 S Delta kilometres

Limpopo

Is home to about 600,000 people A

t Limpopo l n a Has only three urban centres: a n e t , Rundu and Maun c i c O Orange Ends in the Okavango Delta: the largest O n c a i e fresh water wetland in southern Africa d a n n I Delivers about 9.4 cubic kilometres of Okavango rivers water into the Delta each year Perennial rivers 35o S Ephemeral and fossil rivers 0 200600 1000 km 15o E 30o E International border 45o E

8 9 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:17 PM Page 10

okavango river OVERVIEW | The Okavango

Landscapes around the river Most Okavango rivers flow across sandy sediments of the Kalahari, dropping from the highest elevations of over 1,700 metres to the lowest reaches of the Delta at 940 metres above sea level. There is a dense network of tributaries in the north-west catchment where it is hilliest, bedrock is exposed and the mantle of Kalahari sand is Human footprints thin. Tributaries elsewhere are far apart on a flatter landscape. River gradients become gentler downstream, and a Historically, life in many areas of the Basin has shallow depression caused by rifting confines the final spread of water into the Delta. Most soils in the Basin are been hard because of disease, warfare, slavery, sandy and not well suited to crops because of low nutrient levels and poor water retention. poor soils and low rainfall. Most people now living here are the descendants of immigrants pushed out of other areas in Angola, Botswana and Namibia. The outside world knew nothing of the Okavango until the mid-1800s. 5or most of the time since then, however, the Basin has generally been ignored and treated as a desolate area. Angolan society has suffered from centuries of slavery, the recent civil war and corruption.

Tchokwe and Ganguela

1

2

● 3

9

● Menongue

3

Kwangali and Mbunza

9 Shambyu and Gciriku ● Nankova 3

9 Mbukushu 4 ● 5 Rundu 6 9 7 8 ● Mohembo Bayei 1 Ovimbundu 2 Tchokwe 3 Ganguela 9 9 10 4 Kwangali 12 5 Mbunza 10 11 ● 6 Shambyu 12 Maun Herero 11 7 Gciriku 8 Mbukushu 9 !Xun, Ju|'hoan and Khwe 10 Bayei Tawana 11 Herero 12 Batawana OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:17 PM Page 12

okavango river OVERVIEW | The Okavango

Meandering across the Kalahari All water flowing into the Delta comes from the Angolan catchment, 45% of it down the Cuito and 55% along the

Cubango/Okavango. The water is pure ● Chitembo and clear because there are few minerals or clay particles in the Kalahari Menongue sands and because nutrients are filtered ● out by plants in the floodplains and marshes along the rivers. However, nutrients that do make their way down the river collect in the Delta, making it

very productive biologically. 5requent ● Nankova changes to the distribution of water and habitats in the Delta are due to sand deposition and channels being blocked

by plants. Salts in the water become ● Rundu Mohembo concentrated in soils beneath the Delta ● as a result of plant transpiration. The size of flooding in the Delta each year Active catchment area depends on inflow from Angola, the Inactive catchment area degree of flooding in the previous year, Panhandle and Delta ● Maun local rainfall and evaporation rates.

5o S Life along the Okavango Planalto Grassland 5ish stocks are lower than in Open Brachystegia Savanna many other freshwater Dense Brachystegia Woodland wetlands because of low Burkea- Brachystegia Woodland ● Chitembo nutrient levels. Annual flooding Burkea Woodland is the main driving force for the Driving rains, drying sunshine breeding of fish. Stocks of fish Floodplain Valley Average rainfall per year at the top of in the Delta are probably in ● Menongue Valley Woodland and Grassland the catchment is about three times good health but those in Fossil Drainage Valley higher than in the Delta. The rivers Kavango have apparently therefore run from areas where water declined. 5requent and Permanent Swamp Seasonal Swamp is abundant to a semi-desert where 20o S extensive fires cause the loss of Mopane Woodland high rates of evaporation also valuable woodlands, pastures ● Nankova Acacia Woodland contribute to the scarcity of water; and soil nutrients. Baskets, over six times more water potentially Average annual wooden craft, firewood and evaporates than falls as rain in the rainfall (millimetres) thatching grass are the most

Delta. Almost all rain falls during 0 - 200 important exports of plant ● 200 - 400 Rundu Mohembo summer, but the timing and amount products. Over 200,000 large ● 400 - 600 of rain received each year is 600 - 800 mammals live in and around extremely variable, especially in the 800 - 1,000 the Delta. These animals and 1,000 - 1,200 southern areas of the Basin. other attractions have helped Gumare ● 1,200 - 1,400 tourism to grow rapidly and 1,400 - 1,600 o 35 S > 1,600 earn considerable income in ● Maun the southern Basin. 15o E 30o E 45o E

12 13 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:17 PM Page 14

okavango river OVERVIEW | The Okavango

People per square kilometre No cattle Changing and moving people < 1 Approximately 600,000 people live 1 - 5 Low close to the Okavango. Numbers in 6 - 10 ● Chitembo Medium 11 - 20 Ngamiland and Kavango have High ● > 20 grown by about 3% each year over the past 90 years, but annual growth ● Menongue in Kavango over the past 30 years has been about 5% because of high ● Luena rates of immigration from Angola. ● Kuito ● Other major movements of people ● Nankova have been to large towns or areas ● Menongue outside the Basin. 5ew functional ● health and education facilities exist in Angola, whereas most people in Rundu ● Katima Mulilo Ngamiland and Kavango have good ● Mohembo Rundu ● access to clinics and schools. 5ertility ● Ondangwa ● and mortality rates in Angola are much higher than elsewhere. ● Grootfontein ● Maun

● Chitembo

● Francistown ● Maun ● Ghanzi

●

Windhoek ● Menongue

● 0Gaborone 500 km

● Nankova

0 500 km

● Rundu Mohembo ●

Predominantly maize Predominantly manioc Predominantly millet Mixed maize, sorghum and millet ● Maun

5arming the land Agriculture is dominated by small-scale crop farming: mainly maize, manioc (cassava), millet and vegetables in Angola, millet in Kavango, and millet, maize and sorghum around the Delta. Most poor subsistence farmers are in Angola, whereas many rural households in Kavango and Ngamiland have cash incomes that far exceed the in- kind value of farming. Yields are higher in Angola than to the south where low and badly timed rainfall makes crop farming unproductive and risky. Livestock farming is progressively more important from north to south in the Basin.

15 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:18 PM Page 16

inding your way 5igure 1 Some definitions The Okavango Basin, Unless otherwise explained, ‘Okavango’ refers generally to The pages ahead provide some guidance for the reader. Names for the different areas are defined on the facing page, followed by Cubango and Cuito sub- the whole network of tributary streams, rivers and the Delta two detailed maps of the Okavango Basin on pages 18–21. All places on the maps are listed in a gazetteer on pages 22–23. The basins, and the Okavango in which there is water flow. Surrounding the network is the book makes frequent use of satellite images – such as the one below – to provide larger perspectives on the Basin. 5or example, all Delta as defined here. The Okavango 'Basin', which comprises the catchment area the rivers and the Delta that make up the Okavango Basin are visible here, as are large areas of land in which trees have been Okavango Basin covers an from which water actively flows, an additional zone cleared for farming or to harvest wood fuel. The cleared land appears as pale areas surrounding the main towns in Angola, and area of 192,500 square 20 kilometres either side of the Cubango/Okavango River south of the Namibian border, both along the south bank of the Cubango/Okavango River and in central-northern Namibia. kilometres, and includes downstream, and the Delta (5igure 1). The ‘catchment’ of the Cubango the whole catchment area Basin is limited to Angola where there is active drainage sub-Basin in Angola, and a zone (page 74). Some people choose to define the Basin as covering Cuito 1 sub-Basin 20 kilometres either side of a much larger expanse that includes the fossil river courses in the downstream Cubango/ Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and also the Makgadikgadi Okavango River and the Pans as an area into which Okavango water flowed during Delta. much wetter periods. However, these drainage lines do not

2 C normally carry water and do not contribute to the wetlands u b Cuito River 15 a n g that now make up the Okavango. o / Ok avango River The catchment in Angola is divided into the Cubango and Cuito sub-basins as the areas drained by these two major rivers. In referring to the region around the river system in Botswana, we normally talk of Ngamiland because this is the 4 Legend for maps on Okavango district that encompasses the whole Delta (see page 29). In Delta 3 pages 18 - 21 Namibia, we similarly refer to Kavango because this is the only 5 region through which the Okavango flows. 5or Angola, ▲ Hotel, lodge or safari camp however, the river drains areas in five provinces (Bié, Huambo, Huila, , Kuando Kubango) and the term ‘Angola’ is used Airport to refer to that part of the Okavango Basin. Border post

■ Administrative centre

● Town or village Area covered by maps on pages 18–21. Panhandle A list of place names and where to find them 6 on the maps follows on pages 22 and 23 Permanent Swamp Seasonal Swamp Angola Democratic 14 Republic Marshland of Congo 7 8 Perennial river A B C D Ephemeral river 1 Pages 18–19 9 Fossil river Zambia Main road 2 E F Minor road 3 10 Veterinary fence 13 Protected conservation area 4 Pages 20–21 Zimbabwe 11 Region, district or provincial border

International boundary 5 1. Huambo 9. Rundu Altitude (metres) 2. Chitembo 10. Etosha Pan 900 - 1,000 Botswana 3. Kubango 11. Omatako A 1,000 - 1,100 t Namibia l 4. Menongue 12. 1,100 - 1,200 a n 5. 13. Okavango Delta 1,200 - 1,300 t i 12 1,300 - 1,400 c 6. Cuito River 14. Kwando River O 1,400 - 1,500 c 7. Angola/Namibia border 15. Zambezi River e South Africa 1,500 - 1,600 a 8. Cubango/Okavango River 1,600 - 1,700 n 1,700 - 1,800

16 17 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:18 PM Page 18

A B C D 16oE 18oE 20oE ● ● ● Wama Cuvo Liuema ▲■ Kuito ● Cutato ●

Chiumbo ● Lungu ● ● é-Bungo Lucusse ● Môma ● ● ● Sacacama Beú ● Tchikala-Tcholohanga Cangote ● ● Cuquema Huambo ■▲ ●Chipuri

Caala Cutato ● Muengo ● ● ● ● Cangoa Bié Lun Cuanza 1 Cubango ● Luvuei gue-Bungo ● ● Sambo ● Chinhama ● Quisseia Huambo ● Mutumbo Moxico Cuito Hungulo ●

Cuchi Gove Cacuchi ● Techicola Dam ● ● Epomba Tempué ● Canjole ● Lutembo Chitembo ● Jamba Kunene ● ● Muandumba

●

Cuanavale Cangamba ● ● Dala Chissuata

● Galangue ● Cuelei Mumbué ● ● Malengue ● Catota Mucunha Chicunho ● Muandoge ● ● 14oS ● Cachinacage ● ● ● Nedegiva ● Saupite Lumbala N'guimbo Chilele Licaveca Mupeco ● ● Cussau

Cubango Kwando Cataca ●

● ● Cutato Candingo Techipeio ● Liliengue Kubango ● ● ● Tombica Muxito ● Cuebe Cangondo Luassinga ● Sacalenga ● Longa ● ● ● Canhanho Quembo Cuchi ▲ Mumba ● ■ ● Techibundo ● Menongue ● Matala Longa ● Ninda ● Liabela

Cuiriri

Cueio Huila Caala ● Sacalenga ● 2 ● Chissanda ● Lumanha ● Sachipoque Chiume ● ● ● Bale ● Cassinga ● Cuito Cuanavale ● Peco ● ● Bimbe Chimué Cuchi Luas Parque Cubango Nacional Gunga● ● da Mupa Matunto Bitángua ● ● Riabela ● ● Capico

● ● Mulondo ● ● ● ●

Cunene Cuito

● Cabindele

Parque Nacional Cuatir do Bicuari

16oS Luatuta-Capango Kwa ndo Mucundi ●

Cuiriri

Rivungo ● ● Embundo ● Nankova Candelela ●

Cubango ● Kuando Kubango ● Rito Evale Kunene Mongua ● Cauno ● ● Xangongo Savate ● ● Maué Nhenha

Cui 0 100 km 3 Catambué ● to ■ Ondjiva ● ● Cuamato Sandála Scale 1:2,200,000 18 19 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:18 PM Page 20

C D E F 20oE 22oE 24oE

▲ ● Kataba ● Senanga▲ Cuiriri Luiana

●Shangombo ● ▲ ● Nankova ANGOLA

Nawinda Kuta ● Rito ● Kuando Kubango ▲ Ngonye Falls Sioma ●

Cuatir Chissombo ZAMBIA Zambezi Cauno ● Luiana Mulobezi ● ▲ ● Maué 3 Kwando Cuito

Sandála ● ▲ Cubango ● Bambangando Sioma Ngwezi Mavengue ● National Park ▲

Dunga ▲ Katwitwi ● Canheva ● ● ● Dikweya ● Licua Luiana ● Chapamuca Cudumo Caquene Cafuma Jamba ● ■▲▲ Mwande ● ● ● Imusho ● Cafulo Katima Mulilo ● ● Kahenge Kasheshe● Mpungu ● Bukalo Nankudu ● ● Tondoro ● Musese Bengo ● Xamavera ▲ ● ave ● ● ▲ ● ● ● Okavango ▲ Chi Kongola Sibbinda Impalila ● Yinsu Mpungu ● Vungu▲▲ Vungu● Takwasa ▲▲▲ ● ●▲●▲ Mashare● Mabushe ▲ ▲● ▲ ● Nzinze Rupara ● ▲ ▲ Shambyu ● ▲ Sikarosompo Bunya ▲▲ ● ● ▲ Caprivi ▲ Siya Kapako ▲▲■ Ndonga Mbambi KangongoMayara Chobe Kasane ● Shitemo ▲ ● ● ● usso Ngoma ● Rundu ● Shadikongoro o ● ● Muc Caprivi Game Park ▲ Chinchimane ▲ 18 S ● ● ● ● ● Mile 10 ● Sharukwe ● ▲ Omega ● Garuhwa ● Andara Mudumu Muparara Ndiyona Kwando ● ▲ ▲ e Linyanti ● Ndonga ● Divundu ▲ ● ▲ ● ▲ Bagani National ● ● Ncuncuni Baramashoni Kapupahedi Popa Falls ▲▲ ▲ Mabele ● ● Popa Game Park Park Ncamagoro ● Kandjara ● Mpuku ● Hamoye ● Mahango Mohembo ● ▲ Sangwali ko Shashosho ● Tobera Kachikau ● Game Reserve ● Xakao Ncaute Mamili ▲ Omata ● ▲ ● ● ▲ ● Ngarange National Gane Samochima ● ▲ Park a ▲ b ● ▲● Nxamaser um Dwatjinga Fenc Buffalo Northern ▲ ▲ z Red line ● Katjinakatji Kavango Khaudum e ● Shaowe gwe ay ▲▲ Linyanti N w Savute ● ill ▲ Gudigwa ● p ▲● Nxamasere S ▲ ▲ Savute Mangetti Samochima Fenc a Khaudum ● d Chobe Mangetti ● Xeidang e Kajaja in Game el ● Xlaba Game ● S National Park Mururani Reserve ● Tsodilo Sepopa ● Betsha ● Park Chukumuchu ● Hills Seronga ● ▲ ▲ ● Eretsha Chobe Ikoga Fence ● Gonutsuga ▲ ● Ikoga Mababe

● Karukuwisa Thaoge Depression 4 ● Nhoma Nxaunxau ● ▲ ▲ Etsha 13 ▲ Maunachira▲ Nqoga ▲ ▲● Sikereti Etsha 6 ● ▲ ● Khwai ▲ ● Kano Vlei Jao Gomoti ▲ ● ▲ Mababe ▲ ▲ Ngamiland ▲ ▲Moremi Tubu ▲ ▲ ● Game Reserve Gumare ● K Chief's Island ▲ a ▲ ▲ r ▲ ▲ Ngamiland o ▲ ▲

▲ n ●

g ▲ ▲ Sankuyo Qangwa a Santantadibe ▲ ● ▲

● n ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ Mangetti Dune Tsumkwe ● a ● ▲ ▲ Mogogelo Omatako ▲ ▲ Otjituuo Dobe ▲ ● ▲ ▲ Nokaneng ● ▲ ▲ Bor Thaoge Xudum Nyae Nyae Aha Hills ▲ o Otjozondjupa ▲ Nxai Pan Pans Southern Buffalo Fence ● Shorobe Xaixai National Park ● Habu ● ●Boro Eiseb Thamalakane ▲ ▲ ● ▲ Red line ▲ Matlapaneng o ▲ ▲ ■▲ ▲ 20 S ▲▲ Gcwihaba Hills Maun ▲ Chanoga Koanaka Hills Tsau ● Boteti ● Phuduhudu ● ● Otjozondou ● Gweta Daneib Gam Komana ● ● Setata Fence Kunyere Makakung ● Motopi Toteng Makalamabedi ● ● Okamatapati ● Kgakge ● Nhabe ▲

Sehithwa ● ▲ ▲ ● Bothatogo Omatako NAMIBIA Lake Ngami ● Kareng ● s Bodibeng Makgadikgadi Pans an Khwebe Hills i P National Park ad Central g eb ik Eis alamabedi Fence d Haina Hills ga 0 100 km ak BOTSWANA Mak M Ngwanalekau Hills Omaheke Bot

● Okondjatu eti 5 Scale 1:2,200,000 Khuke Fence Khuke Fence 20 21 OkavangoPrelims.qxd 1/15/04 3:18 PM Page 22

GAZETTEER Chinguar B - 1 Gudigwa E - 4 Longa town C - 2 Muparara C - 4 Nxaunxau D - 4 Samochima 5ence D - 4 Sioma Ngwezi National Park E - 3 Chinhama B - 1 Gumare E - 4 Luassinga River C - 2 Mupeco C - 2 Nyangana D - 3 Sandála C - 3 Sioma E - 3 Aha Hills D - 4 Chipuri A - 1 Gunga C - 2 Luatuta-Capango River C - 3 Mururani C - 4 Nzinze C - 3 Sangwali E - 4 Siya C - 3 Andara D - 4 Chissanda C - 2 Gweta 5 - 5 Lucusse D - 1 Musese C - 3 Okamatapati C - 5 Sankuyo E - 4 Southern Buffalo 5ence E - 4 Bagani D - 4 Chissombo C - 3 Habu E - 4 Luiana River D - 3 Mutumbo B - 1 Okavango River C - 3 Santantadibe Channel E - 4 Takwasa D - 3 Bailundo A - 1 Chissuata B - 1 Haina Hills E - 5 Luiana village E - 3 Muxito B - 2 Okondjatu C - 5 Saupite B - 2 Tchikala-Tcholohanga B - 1 Baixo Longa C - 2 Chitembo B - 1 Hamoye C - 4 Lumanha A - 2 Mwande 5 - 3 Omaheke D - 5 Savate B - 3 Techibundo B - 2 Bale B - 2 Chiumbo B - 1 Huambo A - 1 Lumbala N'guimbo D - 2 Nankova C - 3 Omatako drainage D - 4 Savute River E - 4 Techicola B - 1 Bambangando E - 3 Chiume D - 2 Hungulo B - 1 Lungue-Bungo River C - 1 Nankudu C - 3 Omega E - 4 Savute village 5 - 4 Techipeio B - 2 Baramashoni D - 4 Chobe River 5 - 3 Ikoga 5ence D - 4 Lutembo D - 1 Nawinda Kuta 5 - 3 Ondjiva A - 3 Schuckmansburg 5 - 3 Tempué C - 1 Bengo C - 3 Chukumuchu D - 4 Ikoga E - 4 Luvuei D - 1 Ncamagoro C - 4 Otjituuo C - 4 Sechenje E - 4 E - 4 Betsha E - 4 Cuamato A - 3 Impalila 5 - 3 Mababe 5 - 4 Ncaute C - 4 Otjozondou drainage C - 5 Sehithwa E - 5 Thaoge Channel E - 4 Beú B - 1 Cuanavale River C - 1 Imusho E - 3 Mababe Depression 5 - 4 Ncuncuni C - 4 Parque Nacional da Mupa A - 2 Sekondomboro E - 4 Tobera E - 4 Bimbe B - 2 Cuangar C - 3 Jamba B - 1 Mabele 5 - 4 Ndiyona D - 4 Parque Nacional do Bicuari A - 2 Selinda Spillway E - 4 Tombica B - 2 Bitángua B - 2 B - 1 Jamba E - 3 Mabushe D - 3 Ndonga drainage C - 4 Peco B - 2 Semboyo E - 5 Tondoro C - 3 Bodibeng E - 5 Cuatir River C - 2 Jao Channel E - 4 Mahango Game Reserve D - 4 Ndonga village D - 3 Phuduhudu 5 - 5 Senanga E - 3 Toteng E - 5 Boro Channel E - 4 Cubango River B - 2 Kachikau 5 - 4 Makakung E - 5 Nedegiva B - 2 Popa 5alls D - 4 Sepopa E - 4 Tsau E - 5 Boro village E - 4 Cuchi River B - 1 Kahenge C - 3 Makalamabedi 5ence E - 5 Neriquinha D - 2 Popa Game Park D - 4 Seronga E - 4 Tsodilo Hills D - 4 E - 5 Cuchi town B - 2 Kajaja E - 4 Makalamabedi E - 5 Ngarange E - 4 Qangwa D - 4 Setata 5ence D - 5 Tsumkwe D - 4 Bothatogo E - 5 Cuchi village B - 1 Kandjara D - 4 Makena D - 4 Ngoma 5 - 3 Quembo C - 2 Shadikongoro D - 4 Tubu E - 4 Bukalo 5 - 3 Cudumo C - 3 Kangongo D - 3 5 - 5 Ngwanalekau Hills E - 5 Quisseia B - 1 Shakawe D - 4 Ukuma A - 1 Bunya C - 3 Cuebe River B - 2 Kano Vlei C - 4 Malengue B - 1 Ngwezumba 5 - 4 Red line C - 4 Shamaturu D - 4 Umpulo B - 1 Caala A - 1 Cueio River B - 2 Kapako C - 3 Mamili National Park E - 4 Nhabe Channel E - 5 Riabela C - 2 Shambyu D - 3 Wama A - 1 Caala C - 2 Cueio village B - 2 Kapupahedi D - 4 Mangetti Dune C - 4 Nhenha B - 3 Rito C - 3 Shangombo E - 3 Xaixai D - 4 Cabindele B - 2 Cuelei River B - 1 Kareng E - 5 Mangetti Game Reserve C - 4 Nhoma drainage D - 4 Rivungo D - 3 Shaowe E - 4 Xakao D - 4 Cachinacage C - 2 Cuiriri River C - 2 Karongana Channel E - 4 Mangetti C - 4 Ninda D - 2 Rundu C - 3 Sharukwe C - 4 Xamavera D - 3 Cachingues B - 1 Cuito Cuanavale C - 2 Karukuwisa C - 4 Mashare D - 3 Nkurenkuru C - 3 Rupara C - 3 Shashosho D - 4 Xangongo A - 3 Caconda A - 1 Cuito River C - 1 Kasane 5 - 3 Matala A - 2 Nokaneng E - 4 Sacacama D - 1 Shitemo D - 3 Xeidang D - 4 Cacuchi River B - 1 Cunhinga B - 1 Kasheshe 5 - 3 Matlapaneng E - 4 Northern Buffalo 5ence E - 4 Sacalenga C - 2 Shorobe E - 4 Xlaba C - 4 Cafulo drainage C - 3 Cuquema River B - 1 Kataba 5 - 3 Matunto A - 2 Nqoga River E - 4 Sachipoque C - 2 Sibbinda E - 3 Xudum Channel E - 4 Cafuma drainage C - 3 Cussau River A - 2 Katchiungo B - 1 Maué C - 3 Nxamasere D - 4 Sambo B - 1 Sikarosompo C - 3 Yinsu C - 3 Caiundo B - 2 Cutato River B - 1 Katere D - 4 Maun E - 4 Nxamasere drainage D - 4 Samochima D - 4 Sikereti D - 4 Zambezi River E - 3 Calai C - 3 Cutato town B - 2 Katima Mulilo 5 - 3 Maunachira Channel E - 4 Candelela B - 3 Cutato village B - 1 Katjinakatji C - 4 Mavengue C - 3 Candingo B - 2 Cuvelai A - 2 Katwitwi C - 3 Mavinga D - 2 Cangamba C - 1 Cuvo River A - 1 Kauxwhi D - 4 Mayara D - 3 Cangoa C - 1 Dala B - 1 Kgakge E - 5 Mbambi D - 3 Cangondo B - 2 Daneib drainage D - 5 Khaudum Game Park D - 4 Menongue B - 2 This book makes abundant use of photographs taken vango Delta (left). People in Menongue do not have Cangote B - 1 Dikweya drainage C - 3 Khaudum D - 4 Mile 10 C - 4 Canhanho C - 2 Dirico D - 4 Khuke 5ence D - 5 Mogogelo E - 4 from an aeroplane flying several hundred metres access to robust building materials, and thus many Canheva C - 3 Divundu D - 4 Khwai E - 4 Mohembo D - 4 above the ground. The three examples below show people use rocks to hold down corrugated iron Canjole B - 1 Dobe D - 4 Khwebe Hills E - 5 Môma A - 1 how qualities and features that may not easily be seen roofing sheets on their houses (centre), while termite Capico B - 2 Dunga drainage C - 3 Koanaka Hills D - 5 Mongua A - 3 on the ground become clear when viewed from the mounds show up clearly as white spires on a burnt Caprivi Game Park E - 3 Dwatjinga C - 4 Komana E - 5 Moremi Game Reserve E - 4 air. Tracks and paths worn by animals provide a sure floodplain on the banks of the Cubango River near the Caquene drainage C - 3 Eiseb drainage D - 4 Kongola E - 3 Mpuku drainage C - 4 sign that wildlife is abundant, as is the case in the Oka- town of Kubango (right). Cassinga B - 2 Embundo B - 3 Kubango B - 2 Mpungu drainage C - 3 Cataca B - 2 Epomba B - 1 Kuito B - 1 Mpungu village C - 3 Catambué C - 3 Eretsha E - 4 Kunene River A - 1 Muandoge B - 2 Catota B - 1 Etsha 13 E - 4 Kunyere Channel E - 5 Muandumba B - 1 Cauno C - 3 Etsha 6 E - 4 Kwando River C - 2 Mucundi B - 3 Chanoga E - 5 Evale A - 3 Lake Ngami E - 5 Mucunha C - 2 Chapamuca C - 3 Galangue B - 1 Liabela B - 2 D - 4 Chiave C - 3 Gam D - 5 Licaveca C - 2 Mudumu National Park E - 4 Chicunho B - 1 Gane D - 4 Licua C - 3 Muengo B - 1 Chief's Island E - 4 Garuhwa C - 4 Liliengue B - 2 Mukwe D - 4 Chilele B - 2 Gcwihaba Hills D - 5 Linyanti River E - 4 Mulobezi 5 - 3 Chimué B - 2 Gomoti River E - 4 Linyanti village 5 - 4 Mulondo A - 2 Chinchimane 5 - 3 Gonutsuga E - 4 Liuema B - 1 Mumba B - 2 Chinguanja B - 2 Gove Dam A - 1 Longa River C - 2 Mumbué B - 1

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