Lexical Variation of Chiangmai Dialect

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LEXICAL VARIATION OF CHIANGMAI DIALECT

IN CHIANGMAI PROVINCE IN THAILAND

SUDARAT LEERABHANDH HATFIELD

(Under the Direction of WILLIAM A. KRETZSCHMAR, JR. )

ABSTRACT

This research is a sociolinguistic study to find out whether there is lexical variation in the

Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai province in Thailand. It documents the differences of lexical use

among the Chiangmai people, considers whether social factors such as age, education, sex, and

urban/rural residence cause the differences. This project includes thirty-six speakers spread

across twenty-two districts (Amphurs) in Chiangmai province. For each speaker, responses to

two hundred and eighty-nine different questions, or linguistic variables, are tabulated. The results

are analyzed separately in order to reveal the patterns of variation by the variables of age,

education, sex, and region. The principal method is a questionnaire, which covers nine topics

drawn from daily life. Instead of using fixed questions aimed to elicit short responses, the

questionnaire was used as a guide for conversation. Tape recordings of informal conversation

were also made. Questionnaire responses are transliterated in English Roman script to represent

Chiangmai words exactly as the Chiangmai people pronounce them. It was concluded that age

and education are two social factors that cause lexical variation among the Chiangmai people.

Sex is only a small factor in lexical variation. Region is another social factor which causes lexical variation in the Chiangmai dialect.

INDEX WORDS: Lexicon, Language Variation, Language Change, Variants, Lexical Variation, Lexical Change, Social Variables, Regional Variables, Social Factor, Sociolinguistics, Dialectology, Linguistic Variables, Chiangmai Dialect, Standard Thai

LEXICAL VARIATION OF CHIANGMAI DIALECT

IN CHIANGMAI PROVINCE IN THAILAND

SUDARAT LEERABHANDH HATFIELD

B.A., Chiangmai University, Thailand 1981

M.A., Mahidol University, Thailand 1984

A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2005

Sudarat Leerabhandh Hatfield

LEXICAL VARIATION OF CHIANGMAI DIALECT

IN CHIANGMAI PROVINCE IN THAILAND

SUDARAT LEERABHANDH HATFIELD

Major Professor: William A. Kretzschmar, Jr.

Committee: Don R. McCreary Marlyse Baptista

Electronic Version Approved:

Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2005

To my mother, Sinee Leerabhandh, and my husband, Rob Hatfield,

Without them, I would not have become what I am today. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been successful if it had not been for the support, love,

and patience of many people, to whom I cannot find words to express my gratitude.

First, I would especially like to thank Dr. William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., who served as my

major professor and director of my dissertation, for believing in me and encouraging me to finish what I started. I highly admire his dedication, efficiency in decision-making, valuable advice, and guidance along the way. Special thanks go to Dr. Don R. McCreary and Dr. Marlyse

Baptista, my committee members, who deserve recognition for all the individual help given to me in the past few years. I would like to acknowledge the late Dr. William Provost, at that time as a Director of the Linguistics Program, who gave me a chance to transfer my Ph. D. program from State University of New York at Buffalo, at a time when I was very discouraged and lacked enthusiasm for finishing my degree. Without him, I would not have this day. Finally, I owe a great debt to Lynnette K. Lang, Linguistic Administrative Secretary, who always put her things aside and took care of my needs first.

The second acknowledgements belong to my friends Dr. Paporn Thebpanya and

Sathaporn Petchrawises for all the support they provided such as food, time, and graphic designs in this dissertation.

I want to thank the Hatfield family for hospitality while I was waiting for the defense and taking great care of me during the stay.

My special thanks go to my dearest family, the Leerabhandh family. Thank you mom, dad, Poom, Waew, and all my aunts for giving me love, values, and belief. vi

Finally my greatest thanks go to my dearest husband, Rob Hatfield, who came to my life before it did. Your patience and high level of tolerance to my unpredictable mood swings have been more than highly appreciated. I love you more than that. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v

LIST OF TABLES...... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY OF THAILAND ...... 3

1.2 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUND SYSTEM OF THE STANDARD

THAI DIALECT (BANGKOK THAI DIALECT) ...... 8

1.3 LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHERN THAILAND ...... 10

1.4 LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY OF CHIANGMAI ...... 11

1.5 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUND SYSTEM OF THE

CHIANGMAI DIALECT...... 15

1.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN STANDARD THAI DIALECT AND

CHIANGMAI DIALECT...... 18

1.7 TRANSLITERATION ...... 19

1.8 TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THIS RESEARCH...... 23

2 LITERATURE REVIEW...... 25

2.1 LINGUISTIC RESEARCH IN THAILAND...... 25

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ABOUT DIALECT STUDY IN THAILAND...... 26 viii

2.3 METHODOLOGY USED IN THIS RESEARCH COMPARED TO THOSE

IN THE PAST ...... 40

3 THE SURVEY...... 43

3.1 THE LINGUISTIC VARIABLES AND THE INTERVIEW...... 43

3.2 THE SOCIAL AND REGIONAL VARIABLES ...... 57

4 TALLIES AND SELECTED COMMENTARY...... 66

5 RESEARCH DATA CONCLUSION...... 210

5.1 RESULTS OF THE VARIANTS FOUND FROM THE INFORMANTS.....210

5.2 VARIANTS ASSOCIATED WITH SOCIAL FACTORS...... 215

5.3 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 232

REFERENCES ...... 233

APPENDICES ......

A INFORMANT BIOGRAPHIES...... 239

B VARIANTS EXCLUSIVE TO THE OLD OR THE YOUNG GROUPS ...... 245

C VARIANTS SHARED BY THE OLD AND THE YOUNG GROUPS ...... 254

D SELECTED PICTURES SHOWING SOME VARIANTS ...... 258

E INDEX OF VARIANTS BY QUESTION NUMBER ...... 267

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1.1: Initial consonants in Standard Thai ...... 8

Table 1.2: Single vowels in Standard Thai ...... 9

Table 1.3: Chiangmai dialect initial consonants...... 16

Table 1.4: Chiangmai dialect single vowels ...... 17

Table 3.1: Questionnaire topics ...... 44

Table 5.1: Distribution of the questions and their variants...... 214

Table 5.2: Examples of variants shared by the old and the young groups...... 217

Table 5.3: Examples of word choices in some variants used in the old and the young groups...218

Table 5.4: Numbers of informants between the two age groups with education levels ...... 220

Table 5.5: Examples of variants used exclusively by the old age group that are close to Standard

Thai ...... 221

Table 5.6: Examples of variants used exclusively by the young age group that are close to

Standard Thai...... 222

Table 5.7: Examples of variants that are close to Standard Thai shared by both age groups...... 223

Table 5.8: Variants used exclusively by male or female ...... 225

Table 5.9: Examples of nineteen variants between urban and rural informants showing

unexpected results...... 227

Table 5.10: Examples of variants between the informants of the main city/eastern route, the

northern route, and the western route ...... 230 x

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1.1: Map of Thailand (After Alan Ingram)...... 4

Figure 1.2: Five regions of Thailand: Northern, Northeastern, Central, Eastern and Southern

Thailand (After ETC Asia Co., Ltd.)...... 5

Figure 1.3: The relationship of the four Thai dialects (Pankhuenkhat, 1988) ...... 7

Figure 1.4: Fifteen upper provinces of Northern Thailand (After KSS Wise Ltd., Part.) ...... 10

Figure 1.5: Chiangmai map showing twenty-two Amphurs and two Sub-amphurs (After Thailand

National Statistical Office, 2005)...... 13

Figure 1.6: Chiangmai map showing four groups of districts based on routes (After Thailand

National Statistical Office, 2005)...... 14

Figure 3.1: Nine groups of Amphurs used in the study (After Thailand National Statistical

Office, 2005) ...... 59

Figure 3.2: Nine groups of Amphurs with informants (After Thailand National Statistical Office,

2005)...... 61

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Imagine that we live in the world without having any language to communicate with. Human society would not be the same as it is today. For almost everything that we learn from society, from the first day we are born until the day we die, we use language as a means to communicate. No ordinary humans maintain life each and every day without using language. It is true that we might not use language as much as the air that we breathe but we might have to confess that language is as important. Language is part of one’s everyday activities of life. It is apparent that language is a life-long partner of being human. Sapir (1949:8) wrote that “language is purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. These symbols are, in the first instance, auditory and they are produced by the so-called “organs of speech”. Speech is not a simple activity that is carried on by one or more organs biologically adapted to the purpose. It is an extremely complex and ever-shifting network of adjustments… in the brain, in the nervous system, and in the articulating and auditory organs …. tending towards the desired end of communication”. We can agree from what we have learned that language is composed of sound and mental images of meaning, and that language has its own dynamic system. Each language will have its own sounds and mental images to signify specific meanings. We can also agree that people who speak the same language should be named under the same group or community. However, there is a question whether people in the same group or community and speak the same language actually speak the same. Although human beings are similar from one another in regards to anatomy and physiology of body parts, the complexity and changing dynamics of spoken 2

language make one person differ from another person. Some people might pronounce a word differently than others, while some might have more choices of words and experiences. The purpose of my research is to find out whether there is lexical variation in the Chiangmai dialect among native speakers of Chiangmai dialects in Chiangmai province in Thailand. I want to document differences among choices of vocabulary or lexical variation as well as the differences in pronunciation such as in tonal differences of the Chiangmai people, and I will find out whether social factors such as sex, age, education, and urban/rural residence are associated with the differences. This research is a broad study, encompassing thirty-six speakers spread across the 20,107.1 square kilometers. For each speaker, responses to two hundred and eighty-nine different questions, or linguistic variables, are tabulated. The results are analyzed separately in order to reveal patterns of variation by the variables of age, sex, education, and urban/ rural.Finally, a comparison of words, or variants, used by speakers of different ages will be used to document change in vocabulary over time. The questions for the study were selected. They would provide several synonyms. The first chapter is the introduction of the research and my purpose of doing this research. The second chapter will review existing dialect studies in Thailand, especially northern Thai dialects in the north of Thailand. This includes current research regarding sociolinguistics and language change as well as phonological change in the northern Thai dialects, with comments about each research project. It also provides my methodology used in this research compared to that used in the past. The third chapter describes the experimental design and methodology for my field work and data organization. This will include which speakers were chosen as informants and why. Appendix A accompanying this chapter will contain a brief biographical sketch of each informant. The principles governing the inclusion of items in the questionnaire and the categorization of the informants will also be included. The fourth chapter will display the tallies and selected commentary for each question from the thirty-six informants. The tallies give the number of non-dubious occurrences of each of the variants. Some selected commentary is 3 included for some of the variants (not all are included due to limitations of space), followed by the summaries of what I found from those tallies. Appendix D accompanying this chapter contains some selected pictures of variants that are difficult to find synonymous terms in English. The last chapter, Chapter 5, and its accompanying appendices, Appendix B and C, contain a detailed results of analysis of the variants associated with social factors such as age, education, sex, and urban/rural residence. Route, which is another social factor, has been added later for the analysis. Some specific questions addressed by this research project will be answered here, such as, "Is there lexical variation among the Chiangmai people who speak the Chiangmai dialect?" and "Do social factors play a role in causing lexical variation among the Chiangmai people? If so, which social factors are significant in causing the lexical variation?".

1.1 Linguistic Geography of Thailand Thailand is located in the middle of mainland Southeast Asia between the Andaman Sea and the South China Sea (Figure 1.1). The country covers 514,000 square kilometers (198,000 square miles), about the size of Texas, and has a population of sixty-one million, the majority of whom are concentrated in the fertile central plains and Thailand’s capital, Bangkok. Topography defines Thailand into five regions: Northern, Northeastern, Central, Eastern and Southern (Figure 1.2). The verdant north is mainly mountainous with towering ranges that run along the western border with Burma. In contrast, the northeast is a rural flat river basin. Much of the eastern border with Laos is defined by the Mekong River with tropical rain forest throughout the region. Further south are the rural and poorer hills of northern Cambodia. Thailand’s southern peninsula is where many of the world’s best beaches and islands are found. In 1987 Thailand ranked as one of the twenty most populous nations in the world. The regional breakdown was approximately 16.7 million in the central region (which includes the Bangkok Metropolitan area), 17.8 million in the northeastern region, 8.4 million in the eastern (gulf area), 11.3 million in the northern region (which includes Chiangmai), and 6.8 million in the southern region (with peninsula and islands). 4

Figure 1.1 Map of Thailand (After Alan Ingram, 2005, http://www.caingram.info/Thailand/Pic-htm/thailand-map.htm)

Figure 1.2 Five Regions of Thailand: Northern, Northeastern, Central, Eastern and Southern Thailand (After ETC Asia Co., Ltd, 2005, http://www.gothailand.com/thailand/indexmaps.htm).

Today, the Kingdom of Thailand is a member of the Association of Southeastern Asian Nations (ASEAN). Now a constitutional Monarchy, the Thai kingdom was established in the mid-fourteenth century. Thais still take pride in a long tradition of independence. Unlike all her 6

immediate neighbors, Burma (Myanmar), Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia, the country never fell to European colonial power. The Thai sense of identity is allied with Theravada Buddhism and the Monarchy. Both have been dignified institutions since the Sukhothai period (thirteenth to fourteenth century), an era when the real Thai kingdom (called Siam until 1939) flourished. Indeed, the colors of the modern Thai flag symbolizes the Nation (red), the three forces of Buddhism (white), and the Monarchy (blue). The official language is Standard Thai although people in each region have their own dialects such as northern Thai, southern Thai and northeastern Thai. Sometimes the Thai people call Standard Thai the same as Bangkok Thai dialect or central Thai. Thailand is divided into seventy-six provinces, of which twenty-one provinces are in the north.

1.1.1 Thai Dialect Affiliations There are four regional dialects spoken in Thailand: (1) Central Thai (2) Southern Thai (3) Northeastern Thai and (4) Northern Thai. These four Thai regional dialects are members of the Tai family of languages and they have mutual relationships as shown in Figure 1.3 (Pankhuenkhat, 1988). The Chiangmai dialect presented in this research is one of the northern Thai dialects. Figure 1.3 depicts the relationship of the four Thai dialects by the lexical approach, from which conclusions can be drawn as follows: (1) Central Thai has much relationship to northern Thai, has more relationship to northeastern Thai, and has the most relationship to southern Thai. (2) Southern Thai has much relationship to northern Thai, has more relationship to northeastern Thai, and has the most relationship to central Thai. (3) Northeastern Thai has much relationship to southern Thai, has more relationship to central Thai, and has the most relationship to northern Thai. (4) Northern Thai has much relationship to southern Thai, has more relationship to central Thai, and has the most relationship to northeastern Thai. 7

Four Thai Dialects

Thai Tai

Thai Lao Tai Yuan

(2) Southern Thai Siamese Thai-Lao (4) Northern Thai

(1) Central Thai (3) Northeastern Thai Chiangmai Dialect BK Thai Dialect (Kam Muang) Thai Suphan Dialect Eastern Thai Dialect Thai Khorat Dialect Sukhothai Dialect

Figure 1.3 The relationship of the four Thai dialects (Pankhuenkhat, 1988).

Central Thai has the most speakers by comparison with the other Thai dialects. Central Thai comprises five subdialects as follows: (1) The Bangkok Thai dialect is spoken in Bangkok and central parts of Thailand. 8

(2) The Thai Suphan dialect is spoken in Suphanburi, Prachuap Khirikhan, Petchaburi, Ratchaburi, Nakhonpathom, Kanchanaburi, and certain Amphurs (districts) in Angthong province. (3) The Eastern Thai dialect is spoken in Chanthaburi, Rayong, Trat, and certain areas in Chonburi province. (4) The Thai Khorat dialect is spoken in Nakon Ratchasima province. (5) The Sukothai dialect is spoken in Sukhothai province.

1.2 A Brief Description of the Sound System of the Standard Thai Dialect (Bangkok Thai Dialect) The Standard Thai dialect (Bangkok Thai dialect) sound system is presented briefly as follows:

1.2.1. Consonants 1.2.1.1 Initial consonants There are twenty-one initial consonants in the Standard Thai dialect presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Initial consonants in Standard Thai.

bilabial labio-dental alveolar palatal velar glottal unasp. vl.stop p t c k ʔ asp. vl.stop ph th kh vd. stop b d affricate ch fricative f s h nasal m n ŋ glide y trill r lateral l

* unasp. = unaspirated asp. = aspirated vl. = voiceless [y] = IPA [j] 9

1.2.1.2 Final consonants There are nine final consonants in Standard Thai dialect. They are as follows: [-p], [-t],

[-k], [-ʔ], [-m], [-n], [-ŋ], [-w], [-y]. [-p], [-t], and [-k], are unreleased in word final position.

1.2.1.3 Consonant clusters Phonotactic constraints in two-consonant combinations of sounds in Standard Thai dialect mean that the first position is voiceless stop [p], [t], [k], [ph], [th], [kh], being followed by a trill [r], a lateral [l] and a glide [w]. The twelve consonants clusters in Standard Thai dialect are [pr-], [pl-], [tr-], [kr-], [kl-], [kw-], [phr-], [phl-], [thr-], [khr-], [khl-], and [khw-] .

1.2.2 Vowels 1.2.2.1 Single vowels There are eighteen single vowels: nine short vowels and nine long vowels in Standard Thai dialect presented in Table 1.2. Long vowels are represented by doubling the same vowel.

Table1.2 Single vowels in Standard Thai.

Front Central Back

High i ii ɨ ɨɨ u uu Mid e ee ə əə o oo

Low æ ææ a aa ɔ ɔɔ

1.2.2.2 Diphthongs

There are three diphthongs in Standard Thai dialect: [ia], [ɨa], [ua].

1.2.3 Tones There are five tones in Standard Thai dialect :

Tone 1: Mid-Level Tone; symbol: unmarked Tone 2: Low-Level Tone; symbol: [ ` ] Tone 3: Rising-Falling Tone; symbol: [ ˆ ] Tone 4: High Level Tone; symbol: [ ́ ] Tone 5: Falling-Raising Tone; symbol: [ ˇ ]

1.3 Linguistic Geography of Northern Thailand The Northern part of Thailand borders on the territories of Laos and Myanmar (formerly Burma). It consists of twenty-one provinces, divided into fifteen upper and six lower provinces (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Fifteen upper provinces of northern Thailand (After KSS Wise Ltd., Part, 2005, http://www.trekthailand.net/p1/index.html).

It is the home of the Ancient Lanna Kingdom. The northern Kingdom of Lanna was established at the same time as Sukhothai and endured for 600 years. Its first ruler, Mengrai, 11

extended Lanna and ruled into Burma. Chiangmai was the capital of the Lanna Kingdom for a long time. It was attacked frequently and finally came under the control of Ayutthaya, then Burma. In 1774, King Taksin the Great of Thailand, recovered it from the Burmese. Lanna remained autonomous into the nineteenth century when it finally became a part of the Kingdom of Thailand. Northern Thailand has breathtaking mountains, lush forests (some of them teak), rice fields set in the rich verdant valleys, and several spectacular national parks. Visitors can join a trek to remote villages inhabited by hill tribes where elements of lifestyle have changed little in the last hundred years. There are six main hill tribe groups living in northern Thailand: the Akha, Hmong, Lisu, Karen, Lahu, and Mien. These ‘nomad tribal clans’, some 500,000 in total, began to arrive in Thailand at the end of the nineteenth century, pushed out of their native Tibet, Burma, and China by civil wars and political upheavals. Each group has its own heritage, clothing, language, religion, and culture where they live in peace within the Kingdom of Thailand.

1.4 Linguistic Geography of Chiangmai Chiangmai, ‘The Rose of the North’, is located in a broad fertile river basin of the Ping River, about 761 kilometers from Bangkok. It has an area of 20,107.1 square kilometers, including the area of the mountains and valleys, much of which is farmland. It is located at latitude 16 degrees to the north and longitude 99 degrees to the east. Chiangmai is 1,027 feet above sea level and stretches some 138 kilometers across from west to east. From north to south, it measures some 320 kilometers. Chiangmai is administratively divided into twenty-two districts, called Amphurs (Figure 1.5). With a population of 1,547,085 Chiangmai is one of Thailand’s largest provinces. Of the above number, 170,348 are currently living in Chiangmai’s city area with the rest distributed throughout Chiangmai’s twenty-two Amphurs and two minor districts (Sub-amphurs). Eighty percent of the people in Chiangmai are locals by birth and they speak northern Thai dialect, 12

Chiangmai dialect, or Kam Muang, which varies from Standard Thai (central Thai), the official language. Listed below are the names of each Amphur with a distance in kilometers from Amphur Muang, which is the main center of religion, education, culture, trading, and politics. These Amphurs are grouped according to the route from Amphur Muang (Figure 1.6). The Northern Route consists of Amphurs that are located north of Amphur Muang on highways 1095, 1178, 1001, and 1089; The Western Route is the Amphurs on highways 1012, 1103, 1192, and 1088; and the Eastern Route is the Amphurs on highways 1105 and 118.

I. Main City Route (1) Muang (2) Saraphi 14 kms II. Eastern Route (3) San Kamphaeng 17 kms (4) San Sai 11 kms (5) Doi Saket 19 kms III. Northern Route (6) Mae Rim 12 kms (7) Mae Taeng 33 kms (8) Samoeng 54 kms (9) Chiang Dao 60 kms (10) Wiang Haeng 126 kms (11) Phrao 101 kms (12) Chai Prakarn 125 kms (13) Fang 144 kms (14) Mae Ai 159 kms

Figure 1.5 Chiangmai map showing twenty-two Amphurs and two Sub-amphurs (After Thailand National Statistical Office, 2005) 14

Figure 1.6 Chiangmai map showing four groups of districts based on routes (After Thailand National Statistical Office, 2005)

IV. Western Route (15) Hang Dong 16 kms (16) San Patong 18 kms (17) Mae Wang 77 kms (18) Mae Chaem 116 kms (19) Chom Thong 60 kms (20) Hod 89 kms (21) Doi Tao 129 kms (22) Om Koi 173 kms and two minor districts (Sub-amphurs): (23) Mae On 33 kms (24) Doi Lor 45 kms

1.5 A Brief Description of the Sound System of the Chiangmai Dialect 1.5.1 Consonants 1.5.1.1 Initial consonants There are twenty initial consonants in the Chiangmai dialect presented in Table 1.3. Pankhuenkhat (1982) stated that the sound [ch] is pronounced freely by educated speakers, though most of the time my informants did not use this sound.

1.5.1.2 Final Consonants

There are nine final consonants in the Chiangmai dialect: [-p], [-t], [-k], [-ʔ], [-m], [-n], [-ŋ], [-w], and [-y]. Similarly, [p], [t], and [k] will be unreleased in word final position.

Table 1.3 Chiangmai dialect initial consonants.

bilabial labio- alveolar palatal velar glottal dental

stop vl p ph t th c k kh ʔ vd b d

fricative vl f s h vd

affricate vl (ch) vd

nasal m n ɲ ŋ lateral l

glide w y

* vl. = voiceless [y] = IPA [j] vd. = voiced

1.5.1.3 Consonants Clusters Pankhuetkhat (1982) stated that there are eleven consonants clusters in the Chiangmai northern dialect: [kw-], [khw-], [tw-], [thw-], [cw-], [ʔw-], [nw-], [ŋw-], [sw-], [lw-], and [yw-]. He also added that in clusters with [w] except [kw-] and [khw-], pronunciations of [w] may be lost as in [swàay] becomes [sàay]. However, my informants did not use the consonant clusters

[ʔw-], [nw-], and [yw-].

1.5.2 Vowels 1.5.2.1 Single Vowels There are eighteen single vowels: nine short vowels and nine long vowels in the Chiangmai dialect presented in Table 1.4. Long vowels are represented by doubling the vowels.

Table 1.4 Chiangmai dialect single vowels.

Front Central Back

High i ii ɨ ɨɨ u uu Mid e ee ə əə o oo

Low æ ææ a aa ɔ ɔɔ

1.5.2.2 Diphthongs

There are three diphthongs in the Chiangmai dialect. [ia], [ɨa] and [ua].

1.5.2.3 Tones There are six tones in the Chiangmai dialect. Tone 1: Mid-Level Tone; symbol: unmarked Tone 2: Low-Level Tone; symbol: [ ` ] Tone 3: Rising- falling Tone; symbol: [ ˆ ]

Tone 4: High Level Tone; symbol: [ ˊ] Tone 5 Falling-Rising Tone; symbol: [ ˇ ] Tone 6: High-Falling Tone; symbol: [ ¯ ]

1.6 Comparison between Standard Thai Dialect and Chiangmai Dialect 1.6.1 Consonants 1.6.1.1 Initial Consonants There are twenty-one initial consonants in Standard Thai dialect whereas there are only twenty in Chiangmai dialect. The differences are: (1) Standard Thai has [ch] sound but this sound in Chiangmai dialect is optional; Pankhuetkhat (1982) said that this sound is for educated speakers. (2) Standard Thai has [r] sound whereas Chiangmai dialect lacks this sound. Most [r] sounds in Chiangmai dialect are replaced by [h] sounds. Some are replaced by [l] sounds as well. For example, ST: [rák] ‘to love’ CM: [hák] ST: [rooŋriian] ‘school’ CM: [hooŋhiian]

(3) Standard Thai does not have the [ɲ] sound whereas Chiangmai dialect has this sound. Most Standard Thai use [y] instead. Note that the [y] sound is equivalent to the IPA [j] sound. For example,

ST: [yâa] ‘grass’ CM: [ɲâa] ST: [yaaw] ‘long’ CM: [ɲaaw]

1.6.1.2 Final Consonants Final consonants in both dialects are the same.

1.6.1.3 Consonant Clusters There are twelve consonant clusters in Standard Thai, whereas there are eleven in Chiangmai dialect. The differences are:

(1) Standard Thai allows voiceless stop [p], [t], [k], [ph], [th], [kh], except [ʔ] as the first position whereas Chiangmai dialect allows voiceless stop [t], [k], [th], [kh],

[ʔ], except [p], [c], and [ph] as the first position. 19

(2) Chiangmai dialect also allows a voiceless palatal stop [c], a fricative [s], nasals [n] and [ŋ], a lateral [l], and a glide [y] as the first position. (3) In the second position, Standard Thai allows a trill [r], a lateral [l], and a glide [w], whereas Chiangmai dialect allows only a glide [w].

1.6.2 Vowels There is no difference in both single vowels and diphthongs between both dialects.

1.6.3 Tones There are five tones in Standard Thai whereas there are six tones in Chiangmai. The sixth one is a high-falling tone.

1.7 Transliteration Writing Thai in Roman script is a problem: no truly satisfactory system has yet been devised to assure both consistency and readability. (Cummings, 1999). The Thai government uses the Royal Thai General System of Transcription for official government documents in English but this system was not design for people who cannot read Thai. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) phonetic symbols are for those who are trained to use and read such symbols, not for layman. Therefore, in my research, I devised my transcription to represent Thai words exactly as Thai people pronounce them, not by the spelling but by the true pronunciation. For example, the name of the King is spelled Bhumibol (ภูมิพล). Here, in my research, it will be transcribed as พูมิพน phuuM miH phonM, since the letter “l” at the end of the word is always pronounced as an “n”.

1.7.1 How to Read My Transcription 1.7.1.1 Consonants All twenty-one consonants are represented as follows:

IPA Symbol is represented as My Transcription (1) [p] → [p] (2) [ph] → [ph] (3) [b] → [b] (4) [t] → [t] (5) [th] → [th] (6) [d] → [d] (7) [k] → [k] (8) [kh] → [kh]

(9) [ʔ] → [ʔ] (10) [f] → [f] (11) [s] → [s] (12) [h] → [h] (13) [c] → [c] (14) [m] → [m] (15) [n] → [n]

(16) [ɲ] → [ny] (17) [ŋ] → [ng] (18) [l] → [l] (19) [r] → [r] (20) [w] → [w] (21) [j] → [y]

1.7.1.2 Vowels Most northern Thai vowels have approximate English equivalents. Knowledge of the other foreign languages such as French or German might help pronouncing the vowels that do not equal to English ones. Long vowels are signified by doubling the vowel or sometimes adding the “h”.

All eighteen vowels are represented as follows:

IPA Symbol is represented as My Transcription

(1) [i] → [i] as the ‘i’ in ‘it’

(2) [ii] → [ii] as the ‘ee’ in ‘feet’

(3) [ɨ] and (4) [ɨɨ] → [ue] as the ‘u’ in the word ‘München’ (Munich) in German Language with the former shorter than the latter.

(5) [u] → [u] as the ‘u’ in ‘flute’

(6) [uu] → [uu] as the ‘oo’ in ‘food’

(7) [e] → [e] as the ‘e’ in ‘bet’

(8) [ee] → [eh] as the ‘a’ in ‘hay’

(9) [ə] and (10) [əə] → [oe] as the ‘i’ in sir; the former is shorter than the latter

(11) [o] → [o] as the o’ in ‘bone’ but shorter

(12) [oo] → [oh] as the ‘o’ in ‘toe’

(13) [æ] and (14) [ææ] → [ae] as the ‘a’ in American ‘hat’ 22

(15) [a] → [a] as the ‘u’ in ‘but’

(16) [aa] → [aa] as the ‘a’ in ‘father’

(17) [ɔ ] and (18) [ɔɔ ] → [or] as the ‘aw’ in ‘jaw’; the former

is shorter than the latter

There are three diphthongs in northern Thai vowels: each pair contains short and long vowels

(1) เอียะ เอีย [iə] is represented as [ia]

(2) เอือะ เอือ [ɨə] is represented as [uea]

(3) อัวะ, อัว [uə] is represented as [ua]

Plus a vocalic nucleus with a final [w] or [y].

(1) อํา is represented as [am] as the ‘um’ in “umbrella”

(2) ไอ, ใอ is represented as [ay] as in “my”

(3) เอา is represented as [aw] as in “house”

(4) เอย is represented as [oey] as in ‘eui’ in French such as “feuille” means ‘page’

(5) ออย is represented as [ory] as in “join”

(6) โอย is represented as [ohy] as in the last name of Rock Star David “Bowie”

1.7.1.3. Tones There are six tones in northern Thai dialect. In this research, I decided not to use a diacritic on the word (vowel) to represent tone but to use an uppercase letter after each syllable. If words have more than one syllable, there will be a space between each syllable. Six tones are represented as follows: (1) สามัญ (mid tone) unmarked is represented as M, as in กาย kaayM ‘to irritate’

(2) เอก (low tone) [ ˊ ] is represented as L, as in กาย kaayL ‘to place in a crosswide position’

(3) โท (falling tone) [ ̂] is represented as F, as in กาย kaayF ‘to be bored’ (4) ตร ี (high tone) [ ˊ] is represented as H, as in กา kaaH ‘to trade’ (5) จัตวา (rising tone) [ ˇ ] is represented as R, as in กาย kaayR ‘to visit’ (6) high-falling tone [ ¯ ] is represented as HF, as in เจา cawHF ‘yes’

1.8 Technical Terms Used in This Research (1) “The Chiangmai dialect” refers to the subdialect of the northern Thai dialects spoken in all twenty-two Amphurs and two Sub-Amphurs of Chiangmai province. (2) “The Northern Thai dialect” refers to one of the four Thai regional dialect spoken in Thailand. It covers all twenty-one provinces of the northern part of Thailand. (3) “The Standard Thai” refers to one of the central Thai dialects which is used in school, government and mass media. This Standard Thai is used as official and standard language of Thailand. Sometimes it is called “The Bangkok Thai dialect”. (4) “Informants” refers to people who gave the researcher the Chiangmai dialect data both males and females. (5) “lexical variation” refers to variation of the same lexical item. This variation has the same meaning but differ in consonant, vowel, and/or tone. (6) “Chiangmai lexical items” refers to lexical items which are spoken in Chiangmai province, Thailand. 24

(7) “Standard Thai lexical items” refers to lexical items which are spoken in central Thai especially Bangkok area. (8) “native speaker” refers to a person who is born in a place, resides in that place for a long time and never leaves or migrates to other places.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Linguistic Research in Thailand In Thailand public and private colleges and institutions offer linguistics at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Therefore, there are many linguistic research projects based on systematic linguistic principles. These projects cover not only pure theoretical linguistics to analyze varieties of languages spoken in Thailand, but also applied linguistics such as anthropological linguistics, sociolinguistics, etc. The scope of linguistics research in Thailand covers all five language families in Southeast Asia: (i) Austro-Asiatic language family: Mon, Nyakur, Lawa, Vietnam, Northern Khmer, etc. (ii) Sino-Tibetan language family: Chinese, Karen, Lahu, Akha, etc. (iii) Tai language family: Thai dialects scattered in the 76 provinces of Thailand; Phuan, Southern Laos, Saek, etc. (iv) Hmong-Yao language family: Hmong and Yao (v) Austronesian language family: Moklen, Moken, Urak Lawoi’, Melayu, etc (Ratanakul, 1988). Of all five language families, the Tai language family gains the majority of the research because this language family is the most similar to the Standard Thai in phonology, morphology, and syntax (Liamprawat, 1989). In my research, I am going to focus only on research about the Tai language family, particularly on Thai dialects spoken in the north of Thailand.

2.2 Literature Review about Dialect Study in Thailand There have been research projects dealing with dialect study in Thailand, most of which are specific with regard to a particular topic in a particular region.

2.2.1 Tingsbadh (1985), Tai Dialectology up to the Year 1984 Tingsbadh (1985) is one of the researchers exploring the status of dialects in Thailand. She surveyed the northern Thai dialect, the northeastern Thai dialect, the central Thai dialect, and the southern Thai dialect including sub-dialects of each region from the year 1956 to 1984. However, she did not explore the Standard Thai dialect because the social status of Standard Thai is different compared to others in society. She looked at each dialect using comparative methodology versus sociolinguistic trends. She divided her study into three topics: phonological, morphological, and ‘other aspects’ of each dialect. In the phonological study, she described the phonology of sounds and compared each sound for each dialect. In the second part, she reviewed lexicons (words), looked at dictionaries of each dialect (if available), and compared each lexicon from each dialect. Third, she chose ‘other aspects’ such as types of word formations, looked at syntax to represent the whole dialect of that particular region, and compared particular types of word formation of that dialect. This is a very interesting project since she studied linguistics diachronically, and at that time there were not many studies dealing with this type of analysis.

2.2.2 Prasithrathsint (1988), Sociolinguistic Research on Thailand Language Prasithrathsint (1988) presented the problem of language study in Thailand by associating it with social factors. She looked at thirty-one projects, and concluded by linking social factors as an obstacle of studying language in Thailand. Language study in her opinion covers not only Bangkok Thai dialect or Standard Thai dialect but every Thai dialect the researchers may want to study. I am interested in linking social factors with the lexical variation of Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai, and like Prasithrathsint, I want to prove whether the social factors are the obstacle of studying language. 27

2.2.3 Liamprawat (1989), Status of Language Study in the Western Region Liamprawat (1989) focused on eight provinces in the western region of Thailand: Kanchanaburi, Suphanburi, Nakornpathom, Samutsakorn, Samutsongkram, Ratchaburi, Petchaburi, and Prachuab Kirikhan. Her research was divided into three main groups according to the language family of each language in each regional province. Group one focused on the Tai language Family, Group two focused on the Austro-Asiatic language Family, and Group three the Sino-Tibetan language Family. Her results showed that people in Thailand were willing to study language in the Tai language family the most while those in group two and group three were in a gradual stage. Moreover, people tended to study the status of languages, not where and how the language can be applied.

2.2.4 Weesakul (1983), Linguistic Geography of Sukothai: The Lexical Approach Weesakul (1983) looked at Sukhothai dialect, one of the northern Thai dialects, and found out what other dialects are used besides Sukhothai dialect. She also produced a linguistic map of Sukhothai province based on the results of the study. She gave four reasons as to why she chose Sukhothai as the language to do her research: (1) Brown (1965: 114) studied the evolution of Tai language family and reconstructed the phonological system of ancient Thai including the phonological system of ancient Sukhothai. He also wrote another article on The Language of Sukhothai (1966) and hypothesized that the ancient Sukhothai dialect was the ancestor of southern Thai dialect of today. This led her to want to prove whether Sukhothai dialect in present day usage still had similarities to the southern Thai dialect. (2) Sukhothai province is located half way between the northern region and the central region of Thailand. Most laymen think that Sukhothai dialect is Standard Thai dialect. She wanted to find out whether at least some parts of the Sukhothai dialect are different from Standard Thai dialect.

(3) Sukhothai province is the place where a lot of minorities resided. Each minority group has its own language. She wanted to learn more about this in the Sukhothai province. (4) There are not many studies of Sukhothai dialect so she would like to thoroughly review this dialect. The questionnaire she used in her study consists of thirty semantic units which were selected on the basis of their being represented by different lexical items in northern Thai, northeastern Thai, and central Thai. The questionnaires were sent to the headman (chief) of all 567 villages in the provinces. In her research, she found out that there are three Thai dialects mixing in the Sukhothai area: northern Thai, northeastern Thai, and central Thai. Among the three dialects, central Thai is the most widely used in the plain, in the east, and in the south of the province. Northern Thai is used in the mountainous area in the western part of the province, and northeastern Thai is used in only a few villages located in Hat Siaw, Amphur Srisatchanalai, and the Khlong Maphlap, Amphur Sri Nakorn. Most of the people living in that province migrated from other places such as Laos or other provinces such as Nakorn Ratchasima, Udon Thani, Sakon Nakorn, all of which are in the northeastern region. Furthermore, central Thai and northern Thai are used together in the north of the province. She drew a linguistic boundary between northern Thai and central Thai located at Amphur Thungsalium and Srisamrong. Her research did not discuss why people in the Sukhothai area had to deal with three dialects. Nor did she discuss the mutual intelligibility among the people who speak different dialects in the same area. Moreover, she collected the data by using a postal questionnaire. Such a questionnaire is not the best choice of methodology, since the responses might not represent real usage. We cannot be sure whether the person who answered the questionnaire fairly represented the language of the area. For this dissertation, I did field work and went to all Amphurs in the Chiangmai region. I talked to my chosen informants in person, all selected according to age, education, sex, and place where they live. The data using face-to-face interviewing will be more accurate than that of a postal questionnaire.

2.2.5 Brown (1965), From Ancient Thai to Modern Dialects Brown (1965) dealt with sixty dialects and classified these sixty dialects into seven groups: (1) Shan, spoken in the Shan states of Burma (2) Northern Thai, spoken in the north of Thailand (3) Phuan, spoken by relatively few people in villages scattered through central Thailand (4) Central Thai, spoken in central Thailand, which is divided into three sub-groups: (a) Central Thai as spoken in Suphanburi, Uthong (b) Central Thai as spoken in Phra Nakhorn, Bankok (c) Central Thai as spoken in Khorat, Muang (5) PhuThai, spoken in the provinces of Sakon Nakorn and Nakorn Phanom in northeastern Thailand. (6) Lao, spoken in northeastern Thailand and parts of Laos (7) Southern Thai, spoken in the south of Thailand (Patpong, 1993). Brown also studied the change of ancient Thai to the modern Thai dialects as well as proposed a theory of sound change with reconstruction of language in a more modern way. In former times, in order to reconstruct language, two dialects were paired. Then the researcher compared those paired dialects phoneme by phoneme to produce the reconstruction. But with Brown’s research, he used the writing system and the phonological systems of current Thai dialects to reconstruct by retrogressively going to the ancient Thai language. However, his study is hard to understand due to many symbols he made up. Also people who know and follow the three fundamental principles of the Thai alphabet (high, mid, and low) will have a better understanding of his charts than those who do not.

2.2.6 Somkate (2000), Phonological Change: The Study of Old and New Generation of Northern Thai Dialect (Chiangmai Variety). This research was conducted to find out whether the Chiangmai phonological system in the present time has changed from the past by the influence of Standard Thai. Somkate also considered how the Chiangmai variety has changed, including the motivating factors for phonological change. She discussed how the phonological system of Standard Thai influenced the phonological change in the Chiangmai variety, and what phonological processes were involved in those changes. She collected data from November 1999 to January 2000 from ten informants in personal interviews. The informants were divided into two groups according to age, old and young. Besides interviewing her informants, she collected data from the Northern Thai Dictionary (1996) and previous literature on the phonological system of the Chiangmai variety. She concluded that the majority of the phonological changes which occurred in the young generation involved five types of change: initial consonant, initial consonant cluster, final consonant, vowel, and tonal changes. First, the change of initial consonants can be characterized within five processes: deleting an aspiration, adding an aspiration, changing the place of articulations, changing the manner of articulations, and changing voicing. Second, the changes of the consonant clusters are divided into two groups: the loss of consonant clusters and the simplification of consonant clusters by deleting the second consonant. However, three consonant clusters i.e., [kw], [khw] and [lw] would remain unchanged. Third, the type of final consonant change has only one group, changing into another consonant. Fourth, the types of vowel change can be sub-categorized into six different processes: vowel shortening, vowel lengthening, vowel shift, vowel merge, diphthongization, and monophthongization. Finally, the majority of the tonal change can be described as sporadic at best. She added that these changes of phonological system of Chiangmai variety resulted primarily from standard Thai interference. We can say that Prapaporn’s is another step in dialect study, although she 31

focused on only one factor that affects the Chiangmai dialect, that is, Standard Thai. In my dissertation, however, I aim to consider other social factors as causes of variation such as age, education, and the place where each informant resides. Moreover, some of the data was collected from the Northern Thai dictionary. Some of the words she used may have deteriorated or died while there may well have been some new words which had not been recorded in the dictionary.

2.2.7 Phuangchan (2000), Northern Thai and Laos: A Consonantal Comparison Phuangchan (2000) is another researcher who works with northern Thai Dialects. She wanted to study the differences in the sound system, especially the consonants between northern Thailand and Laos and whether there are some phonological processes involved in these differences. A prepared word list in Thai was used in the interviewing of the informants, who are only two, one of which is herself, who claimed to be Chiangmai by-birth, a northern Thai dialect native speaker. Another informant is a Laotian who comes from Vientiane, Laos, but studied at Chiangmai University majoring in Business Administration with her mother-tongue language as Laos. During the interview, the informant was asked to translate the prepared word list into Laos. The interviewer repeated each word until it was pronounced correctly according to the informant’s perception. The data then was transcribed immediately into phonetic symbols, based on the IPA chart. Her results were that northern Thai (Chiangmai variety) and Laos are mutually intelligible to all Thai and Lao speakers, and shared some characteristics as well as having some contrasts. In northern Thai, there are twenty consonants that correspond to Laos, except northern Thai and Laos have four irregular consonants correspondences which are [p]~[ph], [c]~[s],

[k]~[kh], and [t]~[th]. Only four consonants clusters occur in northern Thai, but not Laos: [ɲw], [tw], [yw] and [ʔw]. They both share six consonants clusters [kw], [khw], [cw], [ŋw], [lw] and [sw]. The distinction between Laos and northern Thai is that Laos has nasalized vowels even in the absence of nasal consonants in the words, whereas northern Thai will have nasalized vowels only in the process of assimilation. 32

This research has a lot of problems in my opinion. First of all, her title misled people since she focused on only Chiangmai dialect but not other northern Thailand dialects. Secondly, she used herself as an informant and claimed in the research that she checked some words with her parents who are also native speakers of northern Thailand (p: 4). She did not clarify how long she had been living in Chiangmai, or how long her parents lived there. Moreover, use of a single informant is not reliable. Third, the data interviewed from both informants were not valid since the Laotian had migrated from her own country to study in Chiangmai; therefore, she could have language mix there between Chiangmai and her language. Plus, education plays a significant part in the making of language change. The education will influence the way of thinking and word variety.

2.2.8 Prapuntasiri (1992), Kinship Terms in Kham Muang: An Ethno-semantic Analysis Prapuntasiri (1992) did a thesis on kinship terms in Kham Muang. I found this quite interesting. She focused on carrying out a componential analysis of the basic kinship terms in Kham Muang and analyzed the use of those kinship terms as pronouns and address terms among kin and non-kin and as a metaphor. She also aimed to point out whether certain significant characteristics in Lanna culture are reflected in the meaning and use of Kham Muang kinship terms. The data used in the study was gathered by interviewing four informants representing speakers of Kham Muang in four provinces: Chiangmai, Chiangrai, Lamphun, and Lampang. All four informants were females and lived in each province. She prepared a form for collecting the data shown below:

Name: ______

Age: ______Province: ______

(1) Meaning (2) Kinship terms (3) others

Fa po:3

Mo me:3

FaBr (0) lung l

Etc.

(1) ‘Meaning’ contains the lexicons or wordlists of the response she wanted to obtain. In order to fill in the form completely, she used the abbreviation such as Fa for ‘Father’, Mo for ‘Mother’ and FaBr (0) means ‘Father’s older brother’ etc. (2) Kinship Terms’ contains the lexicon that she will receive from the informants' responses. For example, lung1 means FaBr (0). (3) ‘Others’ will contain the lexicon that can be used as pronouns and address terms among kin, non-kin, and / or metaphor. For example lung1 is used as a pronoun when the speaker is older than the addressee, but only in a non-kin relationship. The results of this study showed that kinship terms in Kham Muang may be differentiated by four or five dimensions of contrast. In Chiangrai and Lampang dialects the kinship terms are differentiated by generation, lineality, age, and sex. In Chiangmai and Lamphun dialects, another dimension of contrast is added to the kinship system; i.e. parental links. As for the usage of kinship terms as pronominals and address terms among kin and non- kin, it was found that the kinship terms of the upper generation, the greater the age, are used more frequently than the counterparts. This reflects a significant characteristic in Lanna culture…seniority. The analysis of the use of Kham Muang kinship terms as metaphor shows 34

that the word for ‘mother’ is used most, especially to mean “great”, “important”, “origin”, “honor”, whereas its counterpart (‘father’) is not found. This implies the significance of ‘mother’ or “matrilineality” in Lanna culture. Her study is based on ethno-semantics, not sociolinguistics. Ethno-semantics means the study of word analysis in order to understand the point of view, the vision, and way of thinking of the people who used the word. Since her data contained some Chiangmai dialect, I will attempt to use the data she collected and compare the variation between the older and the younger generations and, also, find out whether there are some social factors underlying the differences of those lexicons.

2.2.9 Tantinimitrkul (2001), Variation of the Transition Area between Central Thai and Southern Thai Dialects Based on Social Factors Tantinimitrkul (2001) investigated variation of the transition area between central Thai and southern Thai based on age and two additional social factors - - education and attitude. She hypothesized that the transition area will show a change of people’s choices of speaking more southern Thai than central Thai if the speaker is older, more educated, and has a positive attitude to speaking in southern dialect. The results turned out that age and attitude affect the variation between the two dialects but that concerning education is negated. This thesis is very valuable because the researcher used social factors in analyzing the dialects. Looking at social factors to find out lexical variation is my aim of my dissertation. However, she did not collect the data from the representatives who are residents and born in the south but used the data from representatives who lived in Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand. She collected only twenty target terms. It is likely that people who migrated to another city, although born in a target place of the research, will have a tendency to absorb some lexicon changes. Since she used second- hand informants, the data she collected might not be accurate. In my dissertation, I collected data from the people who were born in Chiangmai and who were stable and never moved to some other locations or provinces in more than ten years. I also collected more than two hundred lexical targets to analyze the data presented for my findings. 35

2.2.10. Patpong (1996), The Comparative Study of Lexical Usage Among Three Generations in Sukhothai Dialect of Tambon Thungluang Amphoe Kirimat Sukhothai Province Patpong (1996) is a study in sociolinguistics. She wanted to compare lexical usage according to age and sex differences, including showing the tendencies of lexical usage among three generations in the Sukhothai dialect at Tambon Thungluang. In conducting the research, she used 1,081 words, 650 of these words being nouns and 431 being verbs. The 1,081 words were then classified into forty-four subgroups according to semantic field. There were eighteen informants, nine males and nine females. She then divided the subjects into three age groups: the first generation with ages of 55 years old and older, the second generation ages being between 35-45 years old, and the third generation with ages of 15-25 years old. From the total of 1,081 words used, ninety-seven lexical items were specially selected for analysis; these were all specific to the Tambon Thungluang, Sukhothai dialect lexical items. The interview was arranged in descending order of age by interviewing the eldest, then the middle age group, followed by the teenager group. The interviews were generally one to two hours in duration. During the interview, the informant was asked to pronounce the prepared word list in Thungluang dialect and then the researcher would repeat the word until it was pronounced correctly according to the informant’s judgment. The data was transcribed immediately in phonetic symbols based on IPA. The review of the data revealed that three generations of the informants were different in their lexical usage. The results revealed that the first generation used the Thungluang lexical items the most. With the other two younger generations the lexical items were used less. There was a large number of alternating usages of Thungluang lexical items and other lexical items used by the other two younger generations. The alternating usage is found to be significant in the third generation to a greater proportion than that of the second generation. Other lexical items were used by the third generation the most with the usage less by the second and the first. Phonological variations were also found in the study. The tones and lexical usage are in the process of change, which is due to 36 standard Thai dialect influences. She also noted that semantic changes were also found, but mainly in the second and third generations. This research is one of but a very few sociolinguistics projects completed and published currently in Thailand. She was able to include age, one of the social factors, to determine the differences between choices of words among these generations. Besides age as one of the social factors, sex, education and urban/rural are what I will use to find out lexical variation in my research study of Chiangmai dialect. Another point is that she still used a short question and answer interview with the eighteen informants. Sometimes the answers that informants gave might not be the only answer for one lexical item. The use of specific questions might lead the informants to give the only one answer, instead of relaxed discourse that I used in my research. Since the informants in my research feel more relaxed and the topic is close to their interests; there will be more variants per lexical item than what she got from her research.

2.2.11 Maryprasith (1991), Aged-Based Variation of the Linguistic Transition Area between Central Thai and Southern Thai: A Lexical Study, Maryprasith (1991) stated in this study that as age is an important social variable that determines language variation, the linguistic transition area between central Thai and southern Thai should vary according to the different age groups. This time her informants were in three age groups: 10-20 years old, 35-45 years old, and 60 years old. She hypothesized that southern Thai lexical items were gradually decreasing and that there are linguistic transition areas between the two dialects: the northernmost one which belongs to the oldest group, the middle one which belongs to the 35-45 year old age group, and the southernmost one which belongs to the youngest group. The study covers the area between Amphur Muang Prachuap Khiri Khan and Amphur Muang Chumporn. It was divided into fifteen sub-areas. A village is selected to represent each area. Thirty informants were interviewed in each village, ten for each age group. Altogether 450 informants were interviewed. 37

A questionnaire, of sixteen semantic units, which were previously tested to be represented by just one central Thai lexical item and one southern Thai lexical item, was used to elicit lexical items from the informants. The results showed that in the majority of the semantic units, the use of southern Thai lexical items is gradually decreasing, whereas the use of the central Thai ones is gradually increasing. The variation of the linguistic transition areas among the age groups agrees with the hypothesis. That of the 60 years and over age group is at Baan Lahan in Tambon Bangsaphan to the north of the transition area of the 35-45 age group which is at Baan Huaysak in Tambon Saithong. Both transition areas are in Amphur Bangsaphannoi, Prachuap Khiri Khan province. The transition area of the 10-20 age group is further south at Baan Na, Tambon Baanna in Chumporn province. My dissertation, however, has a different point of view compared to hers. Using age as one of the social factors, I want to document lexical variation only for one dialect, Chiangmai dialect. She instead used age to find out the transition area between two dialects.

2.2.12 Tanwattananant (1983)The Phonological Change of Initial Voiceless Stop Associated with Social Factors in Chiangmai Dialect Tanwattananant (1983), originally in Thai, showed that the Chiangmai initial voiceless stop consonants [p], [t], [c], [k] have been changed to be close to the Standard Thai consonants. She wanted to find out whether this change correlates with some social factors such as age, region, sex or environment. She collected her data from informants who resided from Tambon Chang Moi Amphur Muang Chiangmai, compared to the informant who resided in Tambon Nong Yang Amphur San Sai Chaingmai. The results were that [p], [t], [c] and [k] which were developed from [*b], [*d], [*j] and [*g] were in the process of changing. [ph], [th], [ch], [kh] were added. Among four sounds, the [t] sound changed the most whereas the [c] sound changed the least. Moreover, all four social factors correlate with this change. By using the statistical method, it was concluded that: 38

(1) kids aged 15-17 had more change than the people aged 45 or over; (2) people who stayed in the city had more change than those in the rural; (3) people who were exposed to the environment received more change from the influence of the environment than those who had less exposed or never been exposed. This research is the same kind as my dissertation. However, I used all twenty-two Amphurs instead of two and I had more informants than she had. Also my focus was about lexicon, not phonology like a lot of researchers in the past have done, so my dissertation will open a new way of analyzing sociolinguistic research.

2.2.13 Paramasiri (1993), Degree of Usage of Kham Muang Lexical Items in Chiangmai: A Study of Geographical Variation Paramasiri (1993) pointed out a relationship between the degree of usage of Kham Muang lexical items and the location of the Kham Muang speakers’ residence. She used fifty semantic units consisting of utensil names, animal names, plant names, and verbs. Questionnaires were sent to a headmaster of a village school in each of the 196 Tambons in Chiangmai. She found that the relationship between communication facility and degree of usage of Kham Muang lexical items is statistically significant at the 0.01 level. Those living in the areas with a higher degree of communication facility use fewer Kham Muang lexical items than those living in the areas with a lower degree of communication facility. In choosing fifty semantic units, she did not explain what criteria she used in order to come up with the lexical items and why the fifty items have to be chosen or whether some other items besides these fifty units could be fitted for this research. The idea to point out here is that in choosing the lexical items in my dissertation, I had listed criteria in choosing such words and why those words are chosen. Since my interview is a relaxed conversation, all lexical items included in the conversation are counted as significant linguistic variables.

2.2.14 Punthong (1979) in An Analysis of Lexical Change Among Three Generations in Kam Muang Dialect Punthong (1979) concerned an investigation of lexical change in Kam Muang, a dialect widely spoken in Chiangmai and other northern provinces. She wanted to find out about the kinds of change in vocabulary usage among the native speakers of the three living generations in Chiangmai. From the analysis of the data, it is apparent that the process of such change starts from the second generation in which people use both the inherited Kam Muang from the first generation and loan words from standard Thai. This process continues in the third generation which prefers Standard Thai loan words over Kam Muang.

2.2.15 Phantachat (1982), Regional Varieties of Khammuang: A Lexical Study Phantachat (1982) investigated the division of Khammuang into regional varieties on the basis of the distribution of vocabulary. The area involved covers eight provinces in the north of Thailand: Mae Hong Son, Chiangmai, Lamphun, Chiang Rai, Lampang, Payao, Phrae, and Nan. In the pilot study, semantic units which are represented by different lexical items in the speech of fourteen speakers from seven provinces were selected for use in the questionnaire. The method of random sampling was used in the selection of a village to represent each sub-area. The questionnaire was sent by post to the head master of the village school. Out of one hundred and twenty five sub-areas, ninety percent returned the questionnaire. Of the sixty-three maps, four do not contain any isogloss and seven contain insignificant isoglosses whereas fifty-two contain significant isoglosses. Forty-four of the fifty-two maps contain bundles of isoglosses, which run from the north to the south of the area under investigation dividing it into areas. She concluded that there are two main sub-dialects of Khammuang: Western Khammuang and Eastern Khammuang. Western Khammuang is spoken in Mae Hong Son, Chiangmai, Lamphun, and Chiang Rai. Eastern Khammuang is spoken in Lampang, Payao, Phrae, and Nan. The linguistic boundary runs close to the provincial boundary separating Lampang and Lamphun, Lampang and Chaingmai, and Chiang Rai and Payao. 40

Again, she used a postal questionnaire, which is not as good because we cannot be sure whether the person who answered the questionnaire fairly represented local speech. Other than that, this is a good sociolinguistic project.

2.3 Methodology Used in this Research Compared to Those in the Past So far from all the research that has been reviewed, there are not many projects dealing with sociolinguistics or language variation especially in the northern dialects. Most research was a repeated analysis from one research project after another. In my research, I used methodology from sociolinguists in America, which is very efficient and receives the data accurately. This methodology is a new and modern way which no one in Thailand has ever used before. Below are summaries of what methodology I am using in this research as well as the drawbacks of the methodology the researchers in Thailand used in the past. (1) I avoid using a postal questionnaire. Such a questionnaire is not the best choice of methodology, since the responses might not represent real usage. There will be some loss of questionnaire since the informants might not send them back or the questionnaire would be lost on the way. Pederson, McDavid, Foster, and Billiard (1974) in A Manual for Dialect Research in the Southern States pointed out that in collecting the data from the informants, the researcher should do it in person to get good and accurate answers. In collecting my data, I went through all twenty-two Amphurs and made an interview in all thirty-six informants’ homes so it is very easy for them to do the interview. In that case I am certain that I received all the data according to my goals. (2) I avoid presenting the name and address of the informants. Under human subjects guidelines, the personal data of all the informants have to be confidential. However, there are some researchers in the past that always reveal the personal data of all the informants. Kretzschmar, McDavid, Lerud, and Johnson (1994) used the tables of informants in avoiding the real names of all the informants they used. The tables of informants in their research contains coding to identify each informant, information about the circumstances of each interview, field 41 workers’ judgments about informants, and sociocultural characteristics for each informant. In my research, the informant ID number is composed of three columns. The first column is a three- or two- letter Amphur abbreviation according to the route in which I grouped them (see Chapter 3) followed by the number of the informant, and finally the abbreviation showing which sex the informant is. For example, CWP13M identifies informant number thirteen from Chiang Dao, Wiang Haeng, and Phrao under the Northern Route who is male. (3) I have distinct criteria for selecting the informants. In the research I have reviewed, there should be criteria in selecting the informants in order that the answers from those informants will be valid. Some informants in the research mentioned above migrated from their hometown a long time ago to another place because of personal matters such as education or occupation. This caused their language to be in contact with the language they were involved with. In my research, I got the idea from Pederson et al (1974) that two speakers were normally selected as representative of the community because of lifelong residence there, one a member of the oldest living generation with little education or compensating experience, one younger and better educated with less insular outlook. All my informants were natives of the community and rooted in the local culture. They had to be born in Chiangmai especially in each Amphur I required, and would never have left or moved out of their own Amphurs (see Chapter 3 ). (4) I avoid using the short question-answer questionnaire. This kind of questionnaire was very popular in the old times but it is not a good one. Sometimes the answers the informants gave might not be the only answer for one lexical item. But under the limited time for the informants to think might lead the informants to give only one answer that just came up at that moment to please the field worker. Such an answer might not be the one that the informants used very often but they just wanted to do their job at that moment. Pederson et al (1974) suggested in his book that interviews required an average of eight hours to complete, divided into multiple sessions, often in the informant’s home. Typical questioning style avoided “how do you say…” questions in favor of less direct approaches to reduce the formality of the interview situation. In my research, I used a relaxed discourse as an interview in the informant’s home and let the 42

informant talk about everyday life. The idea is to get as many responses as possible. With the informal interview the informants produce variants they really use. (5) I do not collect the data in only one specific area and presume that that whole area represents the whole language. Most of the research in the past collected the data in only one specific area and represented the data as the whole language, which is not true. Some research used only one or two informants or even the researcher himself. As mentioned above, I went to all twenty-two Amphurs in Chiangmai. At least one informant was selected randomly per Amphur. Figure 3.2 in Chapter 3 displays the distribution of all thirty-six informants in all twenty-two Amphurs. (6) I will not collect data from the dictionary. Using second-hand information especially from the dictionary may be considered good for a dead language since native speakers of that language cannot be found any more. However, if the language or dialect of interest is still in the active stage, using the dictionary is not good. Some of the words recorded in the dictionary might have deteriorated or died, while there may well be some new words which have not been recorded in the dictionary. I have two hundred eighty-nine linguistic variables to ask the informants. The data is adapted from Pederson (1996) and at least covers almost all areas within the informant’s interest.

CHAPTER 3 THE SURVEY

This chapter will describe the survey design and methodology under two major headings: linguistic and regional / social variables. The first covers the items chosen for the analysis and the ways they were elicited and recorded; the second part discusses the choice of informants and ways they were categorized. Like Johnson (1992), the term question, survey item, and linguistic variable are used interchangeably to refer to a cue designed to elicit an array of words that designate the same object. Likewise, word, synonym, term, response, and especially variant are used to designate the members of a set of verbal responses to each cue. Social variables refers to age, sex or education as grouping devices for categorizing speakers, while the regional variable that serves this purpose is the place where each informant lives.

3.1 The Linguistic Variables and the Interview Selection of the linguistic variables was based on the worksheets of the linguistic Atlas of the Western States (LAWS) Project by Lee Pederson of Emory University (1996). Worksheets in LAWS helped gather needed information about American English usage and the resources of linguistic geography. The survey concerns folk speech in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, three states united by physical geography in the Middle Rocky Mountain province and by social history (Pederson, 1996: 52). In this research, the two hundred and eighty-nine linguistic variables are prepared into two types: linguistic variables under topic and linguistic variables under headword.

3.1.1 Linguistic Variables under Topic These linguistic variables are prepared to cover topics such as food, household items, weather, and other everyday terms, and are grouped into nine databases according to the typical order in the interview. These are listed below as well as some comments under each topic.

Table 3.1 Questionnaire Topics

personal pronouns, kinship terms, items related to religious PERSONAL DATA activity, market, school HOUSE types of dwelling, rooms, furniture, components of house WEATHER weather-related terms, environment-related terms LANDSCAPE mountain ranges, river basins, degree of depth food-and-water related, household-related, garden tools, CONTAINERS & IMPLEMENTS household items HOUSEHOLD GOODS kitchen utensils stockyard, orchard and farming, field domestic animals, FARM & RANCH farm tools FOOD rice, fruits, vegetables, corn TIME & DISTANCE period of time, calendar

Items were chosen if they fit the following criteria: (1) It was assumed it would be productive in eliciting synonyms, thus providing a range of lexical variation. (2) Some items that were less productive of lexical variation were included because it seemed likely that they would have changed in distribution from the past to the new generation (e.g., words like เตาฮังโล, เตาไฟ, เตาฮังโล, and other words referring to stove). All two hundred eighty-nine linguistic variables (item # 1-110) under topic are reviewed below.

3.1.1.1 Personal Data (1-47) (item # 1-26) These items precede mostly from the introductory discussion of personal information including the informant as well as his kinship terms. When talking about himself, he will mention about his mother, father, brother, sister, wife, husband (if the informant is a woman) and kids. He might include his relatives including uncle, aunt, nephew, nieces as well as in-law. Moreover, since at least ninety percent of Thais practice Theravada Buddhism, personal data deals with words like monk, temple, novice, and making merit. Also education is another requirement of Thai people, at least grade 4, so personal data contains words like school and teacher. Another word that occurs together with this topic is the word market since it is the place where people can see each other and have a conversation with one another almost everyday. (1) item #1 เปน poenF ‘I’ (2) item #1.1 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF ‘I’ (female) (3) item #1.2 ผม phomR ‘I’ (male) (4) item #1.3 ฉัน chanR “I” (neutral) (5) item #1.4 ตั๋ว tuaR ‘you’ (6) item # 1.5 เฮา hawM ‘we (incl.)’ (7) item # 2 อี่แม  iiL maeF ‘mother’ (8) item #2.1 แม ผัว maeF phuaR ‘mother-in-law’ (man’s side) (9) item # 2.2 แมยาย maeF yayM ‘mother-in- law’ (woman’s side) (10) item # 3 อี่ปอ iiL porF ‘father’ (11) item # 3.1 ปอผัว porF phuaR

‘father-in-law’ (man’s side) (12) item # 3.2 ปอตา porF taaM ‘father-in-law’ (woman’s side) (13) item # 4 เมีย miaM ‘wife’ (14) item # 5 ผัว phuaR ‘husband’ (15) item # 6 ไป  payH ‘in-law’ (female) (16) item # 7 เขย khoeyR ‘in-law’ (male) (17) item # 8 ลูก luukF

‘kid/young child’ (18) item # 8.1 ละออน laL ornL ‘kid/young child’ (19) item # 8.2 เด็ก dekL ‘child’ (20) item # 8.2.1 ลูกสาว luukF sawR ‘daughter’ (21) item # 8.2.2 ลูกจาย luukF cayM ‘son’ (22) item # 8.2.2.1 คนเกา khonM kawH ‘the eldest’ (23) item # 8.2.2.2 คนหนอย khonM noryHF ’the youngest’ (24) item # 8.3 ผูใหญ phuuF yayL ‘adult’ (25) item # 9 หลาน laanR ‘niece/nephew’ (26) item # 10 เหลน lehnR ‘great niece/nephew’ (27) item # 11 อุย uyH ‘grandparents’ (28) item # 12 ลุง lungM ‘uncle’ (FABR/MOBR) (older) (29) item # 13 ปา paaF ‘aunt’ (FASI/MOSI) (older) (30) item # 14 นา naaH ‘aunt’ (MOBR/MOSI) (younger) (31) item # 15 อา aaM ‘aunt’ (FABR/FASI) (younger) (32) item # 16 วัด watH ‘temple’ (33) 46

item # 16.1 ละออนวัด laL ornL watH ‘boys brought up by monks and stayed in temples’ (34) item # 16.2 ผูนําสวดวัด phuuF namM suatL watH ‘leader before monk’ (35) item # 16.3 คน เก็บซะตางวัด khonM kelp saH tangM watH ‘clerk in temple’ (36) item # 17 ตุ tuH ‘monk’ (37) item # 17.1 เณร nehnM ‘novice’ (38) item # 18 บาตร baatL ‘food container for monk’ (39) item # 18.1 บิณฑบาต binM thaL baatL ‘monk’s morning walks for alms’ (religious activity) (40) item # 19 กาด kaatL ‘market’ (41) item # 20 ยาย yayM ‘grandmother’ (MOMO) (42) item # 21 ยา yaaF ‘grandmother’ (FAMO) (43) item # 22 ตา taaM ‘grandfather’ (MOFA) (44) item # 23 ป ู puuL ‘grandfather’ (FAFA) (45) item # 24 ทวด thuatF ‘great-grandparents

(46) item # 25 พอแมของทวด phorF maeF khorngR thuatF ‘great-great-grandparents’ (47) item # 26 โรงเรียน rohngM rianM ‘school’

3.1.1.2 House (48-77) (item # 27-35)

This topic deals with the house, which in Chiangmai is usually a one-story house raised

on pillars with a wide opening in the front (like a balcony but it is on the first floor) as well as

plain or decorative “kalae”, the highest peak of the roof. Families and neighbors get together in

the balcony to do some activities. There are stairs in order to go up into the house and some stairs

outside the house.

Since the weather in northern Thailand can be relatively cool, the windows of northern

houses are smaller than those in the rest of the country. Some houses are raised on stilts to

prevent flooding or avoid creatures. The kitchen and living areas are often joined together,

which makes good use of the available heat. Outer walls are commonly built to slope outward,

toward the roof, for strength. Some houses have thatched roofs. A steeply slanting roof helps to

channel rainwater off the house, and natural materials such as hardwood, bamboo, and dried

leaves help keep the building cool (Cummings, 1999). The design also reflects spiritual beliefs. 47

The innermost room is believed to be the abode of the spirits of family ancestors, and mostly

they have spirit houses at the entrance of the house near the gate.

(48) item # 27 บาน baanF ‘house’ (49) item # 27.1 บานจั๊นเดียว bannF canH diawM

‘one-story house’ (50) item # 27.2 บานสองจั๊น baanF sorngR canH ‘two-story house’ (51)

item # 27.2.1 จั๊นบน canH bonM ‘upstairs’ (52) item # 27.2.2 จั๊นลุม canH lumF ‘downstairs’

(53) item # 27.2.3 พ ื้นกะลาง phuenH kaL laangF ‘basement’ (54) item # 28 ขั้นได khanF dayM ‘stairs’ (55) item # 29 หอง horngF ‘room’ (56) item # 29.1 หองครัว horngF khruaM

‘kitchen’ (57) item # 29.2 หองนั่งเลน horngF nangF lenF ‘living room’ (58) item # 29.3

หองนอน horngF nornM ‘bedroom’ (59) item # 29.3.1 ตั่ง tangL ‘bed’ (60) item # 29.3.2 ฟูก

fuukF ‘mattress’ (61) item # 29.3.3 ตี้นอน tiiF nornM ‘mattress’ (62) item # 29.3.4 เสื่อ

sueaL ‘mat’ (63) item # 29.3.5 สาด saatL ‘mat’ (64) item # 29.3.6 เตียง tiangM ‘bed’ (65)

item # 29.3.7 แหยง yaengL ‘bed’ (66) item # 30 ก่ําแปง kamL paengM ‘wall’ (67) item #

30.1 เพดาน phehM daanM ‘ceiling’ (68) item # 30.2 ฝาผนัง faaR phaL nangR ‘wall’ (69)

item # 30.3 ฮั้ว huaH ‘fence’ (70) item # 31 หลังคา langR khaaM ‘roof’ (71) item # 31.1

ใบตองตึง bayM torngM tuengM ‘one kind of leaf’ (72) item # 31.2 หญากา nyaaHF kaaM

‘thatch’ (73) item # 32 ประต ู praL tuuR ‘door’ (74) item # 33 หนาตาง naaF taangL

‘window’ (75) item # 34 เสา sawR ‘post’ (76) item # 35 กระทอม kraL thormF ‘hut’ (77)

item # 35.1 เพิง phoengM ‘shade’

3.1.1.3 Weather (78-106) (item # 36-44)

Chiangmai has three seasons: hot (summer), rain (rainy season), and cold (winter).

During the winter months, in the mountainous north, the temperature is cool enough for

cultivation of fruits such as lychees and strawberries but not cool enough to have snow except 48 frost. The forested mountains also promote a spirit of regional independence. Forest, including stands of teak and other economically useful hardwoods, dominates the north. Elephants are used for dragging logs there.

(78) item # 36 ฮอน hornH ‘hot’ (79) item # 36.1 ฮอนแตฮอนวา hornH taeH hornH waaF ‘very hot’ (80) item # 36.2 อวม uamM ‘humid’ (81) item # 36.3 แลง laengH ‘dry’

(82) item # 37 หนาว nawR ‘cold’ (83) item # 37.1 แข็ง khaengR ‘freezing’ (84) item # 37.2

กระดาง kraL daangHF ‘freezing’ (85) item # 37.3 หนาวขนาด naawR khaL naatL ‘very cold’

(86) item # 38 หมอก morkL ‘fog’ (87) item # 38.1 เหมย moeyR ‘fog’ (88) item # 38.2

น้ําคาง naamH khaangH ‘dew’ (89) item # 38.3 น้ําคางแข็ง naamH khaangH khaengR ‘frost’

(90) item # 38.4 แมคะนิ้ง maeF khaL ningH ‘frost’ (91) item # 39 ฝน fonR ‘rain’ (92) item #

39.1 น้ําทวม naamH thuamF ‘flood’ (93) item # 39.2 บะเห็บ baL help ‘hail’ (94) item # 39.3

พาย ุ phaaM yuH ‘thunderstorm’ (95) item # 39.4 ฟาแมบ faaH maepF ‘lightning’ (96) item #

39.5 ฟาผา faaH phaaL ‘lightning strike’ (97) item # 39.6 ฟาฮอง faaH horngH ‘thunder’ (98) item # 40 เมฆ mehkF ‘cloud’ (99) item # 41 ปาไม  paaL maayH ‘forest’ (100) item # 41.1

ซุง sungM ‘log’ (101) item # 42 ลม lomM ‘wind’ (102) item # 42.1 ลมด ี lomM diiM

‘windy’ (103) item # 42.2 ฮม homF ‘shade’ (104) item # 43 เหว hewL ‘wither’ (105) item #

43.1 เฉา chawR ‘wither’ (106) item # 44 ตาย taayR ‘die’

3.1.1.4 Landscape (107-133) (item # 45-55)

There are two kinds of landscape: mountains and valley. The mountains are some 500 meters above sea level and account for eighty percent of Chiangmai province. The most important mountain range is called Doi Luang on the Thai-Burma border, which has the tallest peak called Doi Phahom Pok. There are also the Thanon Thongchai Range, with Doi Inthanon 49

and Doi Suthep as its most important peaks, and the Phi Pan Nam Range, with Doi Khun Tan as

the most important peak, which connects to Lampang, a province south of Chiangmai. The

valleys, or flatlands, are to be found around the River Ping, which is 600 kms long, the longest

river in the province.

(107) item # 45 คอง khorngM ‘canal’ (108) item # 45.1 ค ู khuuM ‘ditch (109) item #

45.2 หนอง norngR ‘marsh’ (110) item # 45.3 บึง buengM ‘swamp’ (111) item # 45.4 ฮอง

เหมือง horngF mueangR ‘gutter’ (112) item # 45.5 ฝาย faayR ‘dam’ (113) item # 45.6 หวย huayF ‘creek’ (114) item # 45.7 น้ําบอ naamF borL ‘pond/well’ (115) item # 46 แมน้ํา maeF naamH ‘river’ (116) item # 47 น้ําตก naamF tokL ‘waterfall’ (117) item # 48 ดอย doryM

‘mountain’ (118) item # 48.1 มอน mornF ‘hill’ (119) item # 48.1.1 ยอดดอย yortF doryM

‘top of the hill’ (120) item # 48.1.2 ตีนดอย tiinM doryM ‘foot of the hill’ (121) item # 48.1.3

หุบเขา hupL khawR ‘valley’ (122) item # 48.1.4 ดอยที่ไมุสูง doryM thiiF mayF sungR ‘small hill’ (123) item # 49 ตี้ราบลุม tiiF raapF lumF ‘plain’ (124) item # 49.1 ดิน dinM ‘soil’ (125)

item # 50 ถนน thaL nonR ‘road’ (126) item # 51 ตี้ลาด tiiF laatF ‘slope’ (127) item # 51.1

หนาผา naaF phaaR ‘cliff’ (128) item # 51.2 จัน canM ‘steep’ (129) item 52 บาห ิน baaL

hinR ‘rock’ (130) item # 53 ลึก luekH ‘deep’ (131) item # 54 เขิน khoenR ‘shallow’ (132) item # 54.1 ตื้น tuenF ‘shallow’ (133) item # 55 ซอย soryM ‘small road’

3.1.1.5 Containers and Implements (134-186) (item # 56.1-75)

Containers and Implements in Chiangmai words are hardly synonymous with English terms because of the cultural and occupational differences between Chiangmai people and

Americans. Most of Chiangmai people are farmers and handicraft makers, and they have many words particular to such occupations. For example, twenty-three items deal with containers that 50

vary from shape to shape. There are six words for basket-like containers (item #58.1-58.6), three

words for jar-like containers (item # 56.1-56.3), etc. Each entry will be provided with a short

description for those who have no knowledge of what each entry looks like. Some selected

pictures of containers can be found in Appendix D.

(134) item # 56.1 โอง ohngL ‘jar’ (135) item # 56.2 ตุม tumL ‘jar’ (136) item # 56.3

ไห hayR ‘jar’ (137) item # 57 ถวย thuayF ‘cup’ (138) item # 57.1 แกว kaewF ‘glass’ (139) item # 57.2 ขัน khanR ‘basin’ (140) item # 57.3 เปก pekH ‘small cup’ (141) item # 57.4 จอก

corkL ‘small cup’ (142) item # 57.5 ขวดโหล khuatL lohR ‘bottle’ (143) item # 57.6 กระบอก

kraL borkL ‘bamboo container’ (144) item # 58.1 เขง khengL ‘round crate’ (145) item # 58.2

ชะลอม chaL lormM ‘bamboo basket’ (146) item # 58.3 ปุงก ี๋ pungF kiiR ‘basket with one side open’ (147) item # 58.4 กระเชา kraL chawH ‘basket with handle on top’ (148) item # 58.5

กระบุง kraL bungM ‘closely woven bamboo basket’ (149) item # 58.6 ตะกรา tal kraaF

‘basket’ (150) item # 59 ถัง thangR ‘bucket’ (151) item # 60 ลัง langM ‘cardboard crate’

(152) item # 60.1 กลอง klorngL ‘box’ (153) item # 61.1 กระดง kraL dongF ‘winnowing

basket’ (154) item # 61.2 กระจาด kraL caatL ‘bamboo basket spreaded face’ (155) item # 62

กระโถน kraL thohnR ‘spittoon’ (156) item # 63 หมอ morF ‘pot’ (157) item # 64 อาง aangL

‘basin’ (158) item # 64.1 กะละมัง kaL laL mangM ‘plastic bowl’ (159) item # 65 ถุง thungR

‘bag’ (160) item # 65.1.1 ถุงแซว thungR saewF ‘bag’ (161) item # 65.1.2 ถุงฮอน thungR

hornH ‘bag’ (162) item # 65.2 ไถ  thayF ‘bag’ (163) item # 65.3 ยาม yarmF ‘bag’ (164)

item # 65.4 เป  pehF ‘backpack’ (165) item # 65.5 กระสอบ kraL sorpL ‘canvas bag’ (166)

item # 65.6 กระเปา kraL pawR ‘bag’ (167) item # 66 โถ thohR ‘vase’ (168) item # 66.1

แจกัน caeM kanM ‘vase’ (169) item # 67 พาน phaanM ‘tray’ (170) item # 68 หอ horL

‘bundle’ (171) item # 68.1 ปก pokH ‘bundle’ (172) item # 68.2 มัด math ‘bundle’ (173) 51

item # 69 จาน caanM ‘plate’ (174) item # 69.2 ชาม chaamM ‘bowl’ (175) item # 69.4 ถาด

thaatL ‘tray’ (176) item # 70 กระปอง kraL porngR ‘bucket’ (177) item # 71 สะหลุง saL

lungR ‘basin’ (178) item # 72.1 ขอบก khorR bokL ‘hoe’ (179) item # 72.2 พลั่ว phluaF

‘shovel’ (180) item # 72.3 เสียม siamR ‘shovel’ (181) item # 72.4 สิ่ว siwL ‘chisel’ (182)

item # 72.5 คราด khraatF ‘rake’ (183) item # 73 มุย muyM ‘axe’ (184) item #73.1 คอน

khornH ‘hammer’ (185) item # 74 ตะป ู taL puuR ‘nail’ (186) item # 75 กระบวย kraL buayM

‘ladle’

3.1.1.6 Household Goods

Again, the different culture makes it difficult to match synonymous terms with English.

These items are mostly used in the kitchen. The ways Chiangmai people cook are somewhat

different from those in the United States, and Chiangmai words describe different utensils

compared to those in the American society. We have different kinds of kindling, although the

electric stove is quite popular nowadays. Old people believe cooking with the old-fashioned

stove, using charcoal, makes food smell better and more delicious than that cooked with the

electric stove. Several types of knives are included here to look for many variants.

(187) item # 76 กระทะ kaL thaL ‘frying pan’ (188) item # 76.1 ตะหลิว taL liwR

‘spatula’ (189) item # 76.2 ปาด paatF ‘ladle’ (190) item # 77 เตา tawM ‘stove’ (191) item #

77.1 ไมเกี๊ยะ maayH kiaH ‘kindling’ (192) item # 77.2 ฟน fuenM ‘charcoal’ (193) item #

77.3 หลัว luaR ‘charcoal’ (194) item # 77.4 ถาน thaanL ‘charcoal’ (195) item # 77.5 เขมา

khaL mawL ‘soot’ (196) item # 78 กรรไกร kanM kayM ‘scissors’ (197) item # 78.1 ไขควง

khayR khuangM ‘screwdriver’ (198) item # 79 มีด miitF ‘knife’ (199) item # 79.1 มีดโต 

miitF tohF ‘knife’ (200) item # 79.2 มีดบาง miitF baangM ‘knife’ (201) item # 79.3 หินฝน 52

มีด hinR fonR miitF ‘knife sharpener’ (202) item # 79.4 มีดเล็ก miitF lekH ‘small knife’ (203) item # 80 เขียง khiangR ‘cutting board. (204) item # 81 ครก khrokH ‘mortar (205) item # 82

สาก saakL ‘pestle’ (206) item # 83 กาน้ํา kaaM naamH ‘teapot’ (207) item # 83.1 กระติก kraL tikL ‘thermos’ (208) item # 84 ตะเกียง taL kiangM ‘lamp’ (209) item # 84.1 เทียน thianM ‘candle’ (210) item # 84.2 ธูป thuupF ‘joss stick’ (211) item # 84.3 ไมขีดไฟ mayH khiitL fayM ‘match’ (212) item # 85 ขี้เถา khiiF thawF ‘ash’

3.1.1.7 Farm and Ranch

Eighty percent of the Chiangmai people earn a living through agriculture and agricultural related professions, including wet-rice farming in the valleys and family ranches in the uplands.

The rice-cycle, upon which the Thais have long believed their health, wealth, and happiness depends, is governed by the advance and retreat of the monsoon rains. As most people in the kingdom define themselves as rice farmers, the monsoon could be said to govern the cycle of life.

The rice goddess must be honored before cultivation if the crop is to be bountiful. The rice grain contains a spirit khwanR and is planted in the rainy season to become “pregnant”.

On ranches, domestic animals are the everyday business of Chiangmai people. Pigs, cows, buffaloes, horses, and poultry such as chickens and ducks are everywhere, and important for people here. Chicken products such as chicken flesh, chicken eggs, and chicken litter for fertilizer are the main stay of farms.

(213) item # 86 เลา lawH ‘sty’ (214) item # 86.1 คอก khorkF ‘sty’ (215) item # 86.2

กรง krongM ‘cage’ (216) item # 86.3 ของ khorngF ‘net’ (217) item # 86.4 สุม sumL ‘coop’

(218) item # 87 ฮั้ว huaH ‘fence’ (219) item # 88 ตง tongF ‘open field’ (220) item # 89 ยุง yungH ‘barn’ (221) item # 90 ตี้นา tiiF naaM ‘farmland’ (222) item # 90.1 ฮองสวน horngF 53

suanR ‘plots for orchard’ (223) item # 90.2 แปลง plaengM ‘plots for land’ (224) item # 90.3

น้ํารอบแปลง naamH rorpF plaengM ‘water around land’ (225) item # 91 รถเข็น rotH khenR

‘garden cart’ (226) item # 92.1 วัว wuaM ‘cow’ (227) item # 92.2 ควาย khwaayM ‘buffalo’

(228) item # 92.3 หมู muuR ‘pig’ (229) item # 92.4 ไก  kayL ‘chicken’ (230) item # 92.5 เปด

petL ‘duck’ (231) item # 92.6 ชาง chaangH ‘elephant’ (232) item # 93 เงิบ ngoepF

‘ bamboo and palm leaves hat’ (233) item # 94 รถไถ rotH thayR ‘tractor’ (234) item # 95

มีดยับ miitF nyapH ‘scissors’ (235) item # 96 บวง buangL ‘lariat’ (236) item # 97 บัวฮดน้ํา

buaM hotH naamH ‘watering can’

3.1.1.8 Food

Rice is the main staple for food in Chiangmai; therefore, there are a large number of

variants of rice depending on how rice is talked about. You can talk about rice before harvesting,

during harvesting, and after harvesting. You can talk about rice for cooking. The same can be

said of fruits, which are tropical fruits. People from other countries will recognize only a few;

therefore, I have selected only six fruits which are more familiar to everybody.

(237) item # 98 ขาว khawHF ‘rice’ (238) item # 98.1 ขาวสาร khawHF saanR ‘milled rice’ (239) item # 98.2 ขาวเปลือก khawHF plueakL ‘unhusked rice’ (240) item # 98.3 ขาวนึ่ง khawHF nuengF ‘sticky rice’ (241) item # 98.4 ขาวขาว khawHF khawR ‘jasmine rice’ (242) item # 98.5 ขาวมัน khawHF manM ‘rice with coconut milk’ (243) item # 98.6 ขาวตม khawHF tomF ‘boiled rice’ (244) item # 98.7 ขาวตอก khawHF torkL ‘popped rice’ (245) item # 98.8 ขาวตัง khawHF tangM ‘crisped rice without caramel’ (246) item # 98.9 ขาวเมา khawHF mawF ‘shredded rice grain’ (247) item # 98.10 ขาวสาล ี khawHF saaR liiM ‘corn’

(248) item # 98.11 แกบ kaepL ‘tablescrap’ (249) item # 99 ลํา lamM ‘tablescrap’ (250) item # 54

100.1 บะกวยเตด baL kuayF tetF ‘papaya’ (251) item # 100.2 บะมวง baL muangF ‘mango’

(252) item # 100.3 บะนอแน  baL norH naeF ‘custard apple’ (253) item # 100.4 บะลําใย baL

lamM yayM ‘longan’ (254) item # 100.5 ลิ้นจ ี่ linH ciiL ‘lychee’ (255) item # 100.6 บะปาว

baL paawH ‘coconut’ (256) item # 101 เห็ด hetL ‘mushroom’

3.1.1.9 Time and Distance

Telling time in Thai culture is different from the American system. People commonly

use military time, such as instead of saying one p.m. or two p.m., we say thirteen or fourteen.

Northern Thai, including Chiangmai, is worse than that because people also tell time by looking

at the sun. Day time begins when sun rises and stops when sun sets. Use of adverbs of time to

describe time is interesting. The word เจา cawH ‘early’(#102.1) is different from person to

person. Ten a.m. is cawH for one but may not for another. Three p.m. is cawH for another and

ten p.m. is also cawH for another.

(257) item # 102 เวลากลางวัน wehM laaM klangM wanM ‘daytime’ (2580 item # 102.1

เจา cawH ‘early in themorning’ (259) item # 102.2 เมื่อตอน mueaF tornM ‘noon’ (260) item #

102.3 เตี้ยง tiangF ‘noon’ (261) item # 102.4 ขวาย khwaayR ‘late’ (time) (262) item # 102.5

ใกลแจง klayF caengF ‘dawn’ (263) item # 102.6 แจง caengF ‘bright’ (264) item # 102.7

แก  kaeL ‘late’ (time) (265) item # 103 บาย baayL ‘afternoon’ (266) item # 104 แลง laengM

‘evening’ (267) item # 104.1 โพเพ  phohH phehH ‘dusk’ (268) item # 104.2 สะลึมสะลือ saL

luemM saL lueM ‘dim’ (269) item # 104.3 สลัว saL luaR ‘dim’ (270) item # 105 เวลากลางคืน

wehM laaM klangM khuenM ‘night time’ (271) item # 105.1 มืด muetF ‘dark’ (272) item #

105.2 ค่ํา khamF ‘night’ (273) item # 105.3 เมื่อคืน mueaF khuenM ‘night time’ (274) item #

105.4 ดึก duekL ‘late at night’ (275) item # 106 วัน wanM ‘day’ (276) item # 106.1 วันน ี้ 55

wanM niiH ‘today’ (277) item # 106.2 กูวัน kuuF wanM ‘everyday’ (278) item # 106.3 วัน

เวนวัน wanM wenH wanM ‘every other day’ (279) item # 106.4 วันหนา wanM naaF ‘the next day’ (280) item # 106.5 วันหลัง wanM langR ‘the next day’ (281) item # 107 วันพูก wanM

phuukF ‘tomorrow’ (282) item # 107.1 วันฮือ wanM hueM ‘the day after tomorrow’ (283)

item # 107.2 วันถัดวันฮือ wanM thatL wanM hueM ‘three days after today’ (284) item # 108

ตอวาน torL waanM ‘yesterday’ (285) item # 108.1 ตอวาวานซืน torL waaM waanM suenM

‘day before yesterday’ (286) item # 108.2 ตอจากตอวาวานซืน torL caakL torL waaM waanM

suenM ‘three days before today’ (287) item # 109 อาทิตยขึ้น aaM thitH khuenF ‘sunrise’ (288)

item # 109.1 อาทิตยตก aaM thitH tokL ‘sunset’ (289) item # 110 หมอกลง morkL longM

‘foggy’

Of all two hundred eighty-nine targets, eighty-six percent are nouns, one percent are

verbs, two percent are pronouns, seven percent are adjectives, and four percent are adverbs. In

treating the data from all informants, each answer is treated as one variant. Most questions were

intended to produce synonymous responses, and seventy-nine percent did yield what could be

called synonyms. Some of the questions clearly produced variants with different referents, while

many variants describe things that might be categorized as the same but might also reflect subtle

differences. For example, บึง buengM ‘marsh’, หนอง norngR ‘swamp’, and กวาน kwaanH ‘big

reservoir’ (# 45.3) are used in a restricted way by some informants to refer to specific types of

'marsh', while some speakers use the terms interchangeably to refer to all varieties. Some only

use one term, and it is not possible to determine whether they are referring only to one particular

variety or not. Likewise, some people make distinction between a room and a living room, while

others do not seem to make this distinction. 56

The important point is that we have no way of ascertaining the referent of any terms.

Some of these words are truly synonymous, while some exhibit the full range of dialect polysemy outlined by Algeo (1989) in his typology of dialect differences, while some might apply to Gőrlach’s (1990) term "heteronomy". These words were all produced as responses to particular worksheet questions which, since informality was valued in the interview, were not rigorously stated in the same way every time but varied from situation to situation. We must rely on the field worker's judgments that they are equivalent, with special usage sometimes noted in the commentary (Johnson, 1992). This still leaves some room for misinterpretation by the field worker, and requires the assumption that the interviewer shares or understands enough about the cultural and cognitive models held by informants to avoid categorization errors. But it should not pose a problem so long as one accepts Wolfram’s idea (1991) that “linguistic variable is a convenient construct employed to unite a class of fluctuating variants rather than a set variants that fit neatly into a predetermined structuralist framework as interchangeable parts of a linguistic rule”.

3.1.2 Linguistic Variables under Headword

Worksheets by headword are a detailed listing of words under each topic. Each entry headword has been exploded as a compound or phrase to make enough reference; for example, for the headword phrase # 106. วัน wanM ‘day’, there are five entries in the list that explode the phrase- - วันน ี้ wanM niiH ‘today’; กูวัน kuuF wanM ‘everyday’; วันเวนวัน wanM wenH wanM

‘every other day’; วันหนา wanM naaHF ‘the next day’ and วันหลัง wanM langR ‘the next day’.

The purposes of entries are to find out whether there are true synonyms, tonal variation, pronunciation difference, or semantic clarification. 57

3.1.3 The Interview

The principal method is a questionnaire. Instead of using fixed questions aimed to

elicit short response, the worksheet, which is divided into series of topics, was used as a guide

for conversation. Tape recordings on informal conversation were also made. Once given each

topic, the informants started conversation that they thought was relevant to the topic. When each target from the sample wordlist was mentioned by the informants, I crossed it out in order to keep track of which targets the informant covered. This worksheet aimed to conduct the interview as a relaxed discourse.

Each wordlist topic will reflect whether pronunciation, lexicon, and tone from each informant varies. Questionnaire responses will be transliterated by using the English Roman script to write as close as possible to the real pronunciation of Chiangmai words. Each syllable is ended with the upper case M, F, R, H, and L for tone (see section 1.7.1). If a word has more than one syllable, there will be a space in between each syllable. It is expected that at least one answer will be given by the informant for each target. Each answer will be tallied for how many times each word occurs in interviews by different informants. All answers will be written up to show the lexical variation of Chiangmai words nowadays.

3.2 The Social and Regional Variables

The localities of doing this research is in Chiangmai province, Thailand. The twenty-two

Amphurs (districts) of Chiangmai combining into nine groups, each of which consists of

Amphurs with a fairly stable population. The criteria used in combining Amphurs are:

(1) The distance; i.e., how far apart each Amphur is. The closer each Amphur with

another, the more likely the same group; 58

(2) The route; i.e., the Amphur in the same route has a tendency to be the same group;

(3) The occupation of the people; i.e. the same occupation the majority of people in

each Amphur, the more likely the same group.

The nine groups of Amphurs are illustrated in Figure 3.1.

I. Main City Route

(1) Muang and Saraphi (MS)

II. Eastern Route

(2) San Kamphaeng, San Sai and Doi Saket (SSD)

III. Northern Route

(3) Mae Rim and Mae Taeng (MM)

(4) Chiang Dao, Wiang Haeng and Phrao (CWP)

(5) Chai Prakarn, Fang and Mae Ai (CFM)

(6) Samoeng (SM)

IV. Western Route

(7) Hang Dong, San Patong and Mae Wang (HSM)

(8) Chom Thong, Hod and Mae Chaem (CHM)

(9) Doi Tao and Omkoi (DO)

Figure 3.1 Nine groups of Amphurs used in the study (After Thailand National Statistical Office, 2005). 60

3.2.1 The Informants

This research includes thirty-six informants. They are representatives from all twenty-two

Amphurs in Chiangmai province (Figure 3.2).

I. Main City Route

(1) Muang: MS1M, MS2F

(2) Saraphi: MS3M, MS4F

II. Eastern Route

(3) San Kamphaeng: SSD7F, SSD8M

(4) San Sai: SSD6F

(5) Doi Saket: SSD5M

III. Northern Route

(6) Mae Rim: MM9F, MM12M

(7) Mae Taeng: MM10M, MM11F

(8) Chiang Dao: CWP13M, CWP14F

(9) Wiang Haeng: CWP15M

(10) Phrao: CWP16F

(11) Chai Prakarn: CFM20M

(12) Fang: CFM17F, CFM19M

(13) Mae Ai: CFM 18F

(14) Samoeng: SM21F, SM22F, SM23M, SM24M

Figure 3.2 Nine groups of Amphurs with informants (After Thailand National Statistical Office, 2005). 62

IV. Western Route

(15) Hang Dong: HSM26F, HSM27M

(16) San Patong: HSM25M

(17) Mae Wang: HSM28F

(18) Chom Thong: CHM30F, CHM31M

(19) Hod: CHM29M

(20) Mae Chaem: CHM32F

(21) Doi Tao: DO33F, DO34M

(22) Omkoi: Do35M, DO36F

The informants are natives of the locality, mainly divided into two subgroups: the first is

between 50 and 60 years old, and the second is 18 to 28 years old. Each subgroup consists of one male and one female with education of at least grade four, which is the minimum required by the

Thai government (elementary school graduates). The group for each survey unit consists of four

informants: two males and two females. Moreover, in each subgroup, either the male or female

has to live in a different community or village, one from a bigger community and one from a

smaller one. The size of the community is judged from the distance from his community to the

main market, which culturally considered very important in the area. Besides this, it can be

judged by the structure of the road in his community, whether a concrete or dirt road. It is not

fixed in advance which specific sex is older than the other or lives in a big or small community.

The main characteristics of all informants are that they must have good mouths, good teeth, and

good hearing. The informants in this study have been categorized according to three social

variables (age, sex, and education) and two regional variables (urban vs. rural, and route).

3.2.2 Age

Informants in each data set were put into two groups by age. The first group is in the age

range of between 50 and 60 years old and represents the older generation. Eleven people were

below 55 and seven people were over 55 years old. The second group is in the range between 18

and 28 years old and represents the younger generation. Twelve people were below 22 years old

and six people were over 22 years old. The purpose is to find out whether there is lexical

variation between these two age groups.

3.2.3 Education

The three classifications of speakers by education in the first group (older generation) are

college level (5), high school level (7), and elementary school level who did not finish high

school (6). These are based on Thailand educational system of classifying the level of education.

This category of education for this group is problematic. The informants in this group are 50 to

60 years old when, in that period of time, school systems in Thailand were far from standardized

and certificates are impossible to classify exactly without researching each institution and

determining what grades were taught there during the particular years the informant attended. In addition, grade levels themselves may have been non-existent in some schools, especially in

Chiangmai, where little modernization occurred at that time, and students went to school for varying time periods in a year owing to agricultural or other responsibilities. This means someone who was graduated from college might have attended the elementary school, dropped out for a year or two, attended back again for high school level, and so on until had finished college. 64

The three classifications of speakers by education in the second group (younger generation) are college level (10), high school level who did not finish college (7), and elementary school level (1). Educational groups have changed from the former since the population is generally more educated today.

3.2.4 Sex

Informants were grouped into two groups: male and female. There are thirty-six informants totally in the two groups with eighteen males and eighteen females respectively.

Among eighteen informants of each group, nine were younger generation and nine were older.

3.2.5 Urban vs. Rural

Informants were grouped based on urban and rural categories. The criteria of judging whether the informants belong to urban or rural depends on the distance from the informant’s house to the main market, which in Chiangmai is considered a very important place in everybody’s life. People in each community will buy and sell things including food in the market area. Sometimes it is the place for meeting other people, having a conversation, getting together on the café along the street near the market, and going back home. So the main market is the landmark for me in judging whether this informant is rural or urban. If the informant’s house is close to the main market, it is in an urban area. If, on the other hand, the informant’s house is farther to the main market, it is in a rural area. The structure of the road is another criteria to judge the region if in the case that there is no main market around that city. For example,

Amphur Doi Tao does not have a main market. When people want to buy things, they will go to the neighborhood area and sometimes exchange things from the neighbors if they don’t want to 65

commute to the next Amphur, which is Amphur Hod, forty kilometers away from them. If the

road in the community where the informant lives is a concrete or asphalt-based road, it is called

urban; if the road is a dirt road or red road, it is called rural. Two speakers from the same group

come from urban areas, while two of them come from the rural areas. Therefore, the urban set consists of eighteen informants and the rural set consists of eighteen as well. This will not account for people who move from the rural to the urban area even for a long time but will count only on the people who were born in the area and never move out of that area.

3.2.6 Route

This social factor is added later for the analysis since I found out that my informants

were grouped according to the routes where they live into nine groups. The details in the criteria

of grouping them into nine groups can be found on page 57 in this chapter.

CHAPTER 4

TALLIES AND SELECTED COMMENTARY

This study differs from most other sociolinguistic analyses by the choice of lexical items as variables rather than phonological or grammatical features. The data used in this study were all collected in an informal interview context like the dialect surveys used in America, so the use of different variants by the same speaker is not the result of style shifting. Numerous claims have been made that particular social groups seem to lead in linguistic change while others are more conservative. By noting which groups of speakers are associated with new words and which with older words, the study provides additional evidence for or against such claims.

What might happen is that informants would offer forms used in many contexts, with the understanding that the field worker would know that they were not always appropriate for any situation. Sometimes informants would note that they themselves did not use a term but they had heard it elsewhere as a way of avoiding nonstandard terms, but just as often they would explicitly state that they would not use the standard term in everyday speech, even though they knew it. If the term was clearly reported as heard from others, it was considered doubtful and not included in compilation for analysis.

This chapter shows tables arranged by question number according to the order asked in the interview. The tallies give the number of non-dubious occurrences of each variant. The

"informid" (short for "informant ID number") identifies who the informants were, and the

"comtext" "(short for "comment text") is what each informant commented on how he used the variant. Due to limitations of space, only responses that have comments could be listed 67 separately since some did not give any comments of why they use such variants at all. At the end of each item, there will be comments made by the researcher about the variants the informants gave. The conclusion from the analysis from these tables will be found in Chapter 5.

I. Personal Data

This topic, especially item # 1-1.5, shows the difference between male and female usage of personal pronoun. These variants are relegated to a particular sex because of cultural norms.

Taboo restrictions apply themselves strictly to the wrong choices of lexicon. Most of the male pronouns imply power or the mental image of being superior. Some male pronouns are obsolete while some are currently used. Even the obsolete ones general use are still used by the ruler, the

King, the governor or the people who are higher status than the addressee. There are also some distinctions in the kinship terms especially the informants' own parents and the in-law parents

(Item # 2-3.2). Looking closely, the males' usage of referring to their in-law parents is different than that of their own parents, while there is not much difference for the women.

Item # 1. เปน poenF ‘I’ ขา khaaF 3 เปน poenF 14 ฮา haaM 6 informid item comtext CWP13M ขา old pronoun used in the past SM24M ขา pronoun used for close friends CFM20M ขา old Thai pronoun for man; addresser is in higher rank 68

CWP13M เปน neutral CWP15M เปน females use most CWP16F เปน can mean plural including speaker HSM25M เปน male can use this pronoun HSM26F เปน neutral SM21F เปน male to everybody MS2F เปน female to female SSD7F เปน man can use DO36F เปน neutral MM11F เปน the same as ฉัน chanR in Standard Thai CHM32F เปน neutral CWP15M ฮา male to male SSD5M ฮา not quite polite to use

CFM19M ฮา close friend; not polite DO34M ฮา for man only DO35M ฮา used with male friend MM10M ฮา will not say to my girlfriend This variation shows that the word เปน poenF mostly will be used by females although it is a neutral one, while the word ฮา haM and ขา khaaF are preferably used by

males. These words in males show their power over the addressees.

Item # 1.1 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF ‘I’ (female) ขา khaaF 5 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF 8 หน ู nuuR 3 เจา cawHF 4

informid item comtext CWP13M ขา being in high rank SM23M ขา Standard Thai old style MS3M ขา show power MS1M ขา like the old King used DO34M ขา mean “I” MS2F ขาเจา woman to everybody MS4F ขาเจา man does not use this SSD6F ขาเจา mostly woman uses this MM9F ขาเจา make cuteness MM12M ขาเจา in old times man can use CWP16F ขาเจา for woman only CHM32F ขาเจา woman used SM21F ขาเจา show inferiority SM22F หน ู shows inferiority for speaker CHM32F หน ู copy from Standard Thai DO36F หน ู neutral for woman of every age MM11F เจา short from ขาเจา khaaF cawHF for woman MM9F เจา woman always uses with everybody

CHM32F เจา showing cuteness and courtesy HSM28F เจา showing inferior than men The word ขาเจา khaaF cawHF and หน ู nuuR are for females while ขา khaaF is neutral pertaining to males. There is only one male informant who said this word can be used for males in the past.

Item # 1.2 ผม phomR ‘I’ (male) ฮา haaM 16 เฮา hawM 5 ก ู kuuM 7 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF 8 ผูขา phuuF khaaF 2 ผม phomR 12 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮา mostly used by males CWP15M ฮา considered impolite CHM31M ฮา male to close friend DO34M ฮา copy from Chinese influence SM24M ฮา male to everybody HSM25M ฮา sometimes impolite CHM29M เฮา neutral SSD5M เฮา neutral for both sexes MM10M เฮา can mean more than one MM12M เฮา include speaker and others CFM19M เฮา northern Thai style SM27M ก ู only when talking to closed friend CFM 20M ก ู considered impolite HSM27M ก ู very impolite SSD5M ก ู friend to friend MM10M ก ู mean “I” MM12M ขาเจา sometimes male uses in the past DO36F ขาเจา mostly woman uses this MS4F ขาเจา woman uses it 71

CFM17F ขาเจา only for woman MS1M ผูขา Standard Thai old style; not many use MM12M ผูขา Standard Thai old style DO35M ผม same as Standard Thai for male SM23M ผม very polite and neutral MM10M ผม polite for man SSD5M ผม use in every occasion MS3M ผม for man only CHM32F ผม I won’t use it because for man ฮา haaM and กู kuuM are mostly used by males whereas ผม phomR is strictly for males; no women use this term or they will be considered strange. ผูขา phuuF khaaF is old style or can be called archaic, while ขาเจา khaaF cawHF in fact is strictly for females. There is only one man who said this term can be used by males in the past.

Item # 1.3 ฉัน chanR ‘I’ (neutral) เปน poenF 10 เฮา hawM 5 เอ็ง engM 1 ฮา haaM 12

ขา khaaF 12 ผม phomR 9 หนู nuuR 8 สัน sanR 1 เจา cawHF 12 informid item comtext CWP13M เปน neutral CWP15M เปน male to everybody 72

CWP16F เปน can mean plural including speaker SSD5M เปน neutral SM23M เปน neutral SM21F เปน neutral CWP13M เฮา plural including speaker and others CWP14F เฮา we (inclusive) CHM30F เอ็ง old style SSD8MF ฮา mostly males use this HSM25M ฮา closed friend HSM27M ฮา impolite form MM10M ฮา male to male; female to female MS1M ฮา mostly young and old people use this CHM31M ฮา male uses more than female HSM27M ขา addresser is in higher rank MS1M ขา old pronoun used in the past DO35M ผม male to everybody DO36F หนู female to everybody for respect

CHM31M สัน northern Thai shift from ฉัน chanR [ch] SSD6F เจา short term from khaaF cawHF

SSD7F เจา mostly for woman ฉัน chanR is very neutral. When using this pronoun, it does not state which sex you are and to what hierarchy you belong in the society. Nor does it show politeness. So, this word can be used with both sexes, but because it is from Standard Thai, which is very formal, the similar word in Chiangmai dialect is เปน poenF.

Item # 2. อี่แม iiL maeF ‘mother’ แม  maeF 36 อี่แม  iiL maeF 6 informid item comtext CWP15M แม current term CWP16F แม same as Standard Thai CWP15M อี่แม northern Thai style CWP16F อี่แม use “อ”ี่ in front of name HSM27M อี่แม  differentiate between own mother and in-law SM21F อี่แม  my own mom CFM17F อี่แม  own mother CHM20M อี่แม  my mother There is not much difference in referring to one's mother, except some people prefer to use the word อ ี่ iiL in front.

Item # 2.1 แมผัว maeF phuaR ‘mother-in-law’ (man’s side) แมผัว maeF phuaR 27 แม maeF 3 informid item comtext

HSM25M แมผัว normal term DO33F แมผัว same as Standard Thai DO34M แมผัว husband is ผัว phuaR so is husband’s mother CHM30F แม mother is mother no matter in-law or not CFM18F แม same as her own mother CWP14F แม  regard in-law as mother of herself 74

Men don’t like to refer to their in-law with the same word as his own parents, no matter mother or father. Women sometimes refer to both with the same word, which means their own parents.

Item # 2.2 แมยาย maeF yayM ‘mother-in-law’ (woman’s side) แมยาย maeF yayM 16 แมเมีย maeF miaM 23 แม maeF 1 แมอุย maeF uyH 1 informid item comtext CWP13M แมยาย same as Standard Thai HSM28F แมยาย normally use this term CWP14F แมเมีย use word for “wife” to call wife’s mother CWP15M แมเมีย wife is เมีย miaM; wife’s mother is mother of miaM CWP16F แมเมีย northern Thai style HSM28F แมเมีย understandable in the village CHM30F แม mother is mother HSM26F แมอุย mother is old อุย uyH means old people There is no difference between แมยาย maeF yayM and แมเมีย maeF miaM except

the former is from Standard Thai and is more formal than the latter, which belongs to the local Chiangmai people. In school when you want to refer to one's wife, it is informal to say เมีย miaM so sometimes using this term for one wife’s mother แมเมีย maeF miaM is not a formal usage.

Item # 3. อี่ปอ iiL porF ‘father’ ปอ porF 35 อี่ปอ iiL porF 6 75

informid item comtext CWP15M ปอ normal term for dad CWP16F ปอ same as Standard Thai CHM29M ปอ formal term to call father HSM26F ปอ Chiangmai dialect changes the consonant from phorF in Standard Thai to be porF CWP13M ปอ my father CWP14F ปอ means father CHM30F ปอ I can say both CWP15M อี่ปอ sometimes northern Thai add อ ี่ iiL in front name CWP16F อี่ปอ northern Thai style CFM19M อี่ปอ does not make any difference to say this word HSM27M อี่ปอ mean the same as dad SM21F อี่ปอ like the old time CFM17F อี่ปอ my father There is no difference between calling father ปอ porF or อี่ปอ iiL porF.

Item # 3.1 ปอผัว porF phuaR ‘father-in-law’ (man’s side) ปอผัว porF phuaR 27

ปอ porF 3 informid item comtext MM10M ปอผัว man’s side MM11F ปอผัว same as Standard Thai CFM19M ปอผัว husband is ผัว phuaR; dad is ปอ porF CFM18F ปอ sometimes called the same as dad CWP14F ปอ no difference between own dad or in-law CHM30F ปอ same as own dad 76

Again, women will call their in-laws the same as their own father, but the men will not do that.

Item # 3.2 ปอตา porF taaM ‘father-in-law (woman’s side) ปอเมีย porF miaM 26 ปอ porF 1 ปอตา porF taaM 5 ปออุย porF uyH 1 informid item comtext CWP13M ปอเมีย normal for northern Thai CWP14F ปอเมีย very directive CWP15M ปอเมีย showing father-in-law CWP16F ปอเมีย differentiate between own dad and in-law HSM27M ปอเมีย my wife’s father CHM30F ปอ same as own dad CHM29M ปอตา normal word in Standard Thai MS4F ปอตา formal standard term for in-law CHM29M ปอตา it is father-in-law HSM25M ปอตา not quite get along with

CWP16F ปอตา my wife’s father HSM26F ปออุย respect term for old man Sometimes the term ปออุย porF uyH is used to joke about the father-in-law, that means 'a very old man'.

Item # 4. เมีย miaM ‘wife’ เมีย miaM 33 แมมัน maeF manM 3 77

informid item comtext HSM28F เมีย normal term for wife SM24M เมีย old Thai style; still use CFM18F เมีย normal term CFM19M เมีย not specific CWP13M เมีย normal CWP15M แมมัน show affection DO35M แมมัน show affection CWP13M แมมัน particular, specific When a husband calls his wife แมมัน maeF manM , that means he really admires, loves, and respects his wife very much. It is sometimes a term of endearment.

Item # 5. ผัว phuaR ‘husband’ ปอมัน porF manM 1 สู suuR 3 ผัว phuaR 30 ปออุย porF uyH 1 informid item comtext CWP18F ปอมัน affectionate word

SM21F สู northern Thai style CWP14F สู show closeness / intimacy CFM18F ส ู equals “honey” in English CHM30F ผัว normal term CHM29M ผัว neutral term DO33F ผัว old Thai style; still use SM21F ผัว normal word HSM26F ปออุย use when satirical means “old man” 78

Sometimes we use ส ู suuR to show intimacy or sometimes use it as a pronoun equal to “you” in English, but one informant said it is equal to “honey”.

Item # 6. ไป payH ‘in-law’ (female) ลูกญิง luukF nyingM 22 ไป payH 9 สะไป  saL payH 1 ลูกลัว luukF luaM 6 ลูกไป luukF payH 7 informid item comtext CWP13M ลูกญิง mean daughter-in-law only CWP14F ลูกญิง in-law same as own daughter CWP15M ลูกญิง northern Thai style CWP16F ลูกญิง short term from ลูกผูหญิง luukF phuF nyingR HSM26F ลูกญิง terms for endearment CHM30F ไป mean any in-law (woman) CHM29M ไป short from สะไป  saL payH HS1M ไป means daughter-in-law only HSM25M สะไป  complete term

DO33F ลูกไป short from ลูกสะใภ  luukF saL payH DO34M ลูกไป substitution term DO33F ลูกลัว old northern Thai term DO34M ลูกลัว not many used now HSM26F ลูกลัว she uses to call her little daughter CHM29M ลูกลัว not quite know this word much SM23M ลูกลัว mom call his youngest sister SM24M ลูกลัว my youngest sister 79

The variant ลูกลัว luukF luaM is quite new for me since I never heard it but there are six informants who said it so I have to count this variant as well.

Item # 7. เขย khoeyR ‘in-law’ (male) ลูกจาย luukF cayM 24 เขย khoeyR 14 informid item comtext SSD5M เขย means son-in-law only SSD6F เขย means any in-law (man only) MM10M เขย same as Standard Thai MS1M เขย means any in-law SM21F เขย Standard Thai term for in-law HSM25M เขย son-in-law SSD7F ลูกจาย same as own son SSD8M ลูกจาย northern Thai style CWP13M ลูกจาย in-law the same as own son CWP14F ลูกจาย own son CHM30F ลูกจาย thinking might be only for Chaingmai CWP15M ลูกจาย can be used both CWP16F ลูกจาย son and son-in-law Most of the time the variant เขย khoeyR is a formal term. It means any male in- law.

Item # 8.2 เด็ก dekL ‘child’ ละออน laL ornL 33 เด็ก dekL 3

informid item comtext CHM31M ละออน any kid MS2F ละออน can mean our own kid MS3M ละออน young kid only MS4F ละออน cover old kid not adult CHM32F เด็ก Standard Thai term DO36F เด็ก any young kid SM22F เด็ก Standard Thai style not include own kid These variants can mean either your own children or any children not related to you. For some people, these words imply adults who are not mature enough.

Item # 8.2.1 ลูกสาว luukF sawR ‘daughter’ ลูกสาว luukF sawR 21 ลูกแมญิง luukF maeF nyingM 7 อี่หนอย iiL nohyHF 1 ลูกมูญิง luukF muuF nyingM 8 ลูกญิง luukF nyingM 5 informid item comtext CWP13M ลูกสาว Standard Thai

CWP14F ลูกสาว normal word CHM30F ลูกสาว normal word CWP15M ลูกแมญิง northern Thai CWP16F ลูกแมญิง any girls HSM26F ลูกแมญิง own girls DO33F ลูกแมญิง own girls DO34M ลูกแมญิง own girls CHM30F อี่หนอย term for endearment 81

SM21F ลูกมูญิง shifted from ลูกแมญิง luukF maeF nyingM DO35M ลูกมูญิง any girls not related to us CHM32F ลูกมูญิง general term for a girl CHM32F ลูกมูญิง any girls DO36F ลูกมูญิง any girls including our own SM22F ลูกมูญิง any girls MS3M ลูกญิง shortened form SSD5M ลูกญิง any girls CFM19M ลูกญิง only my girls DO36F ลูกญิง any female girls MS4F ลูกญิง any girls These variants can mean your own girls, any girls, any women or just a general term for women.

Item # 8.2.2 ลูกจาย luukF cayM ‘son’ ลูกจาย luukF cayM 11 ลูกปูจาย luukF puuF cayM 8 ลูกปอจาย luukF porF cayM 8 ลูกบาว luukF bawL 9

informid item comtext CWP13M ลูกจาย normal word CHM30F ลูกจาย shortened form CWP15M ลูกปูจาย full term for son CWP16F ลูกปูจาย general terms for men HSM27M ลูกปูจาย means our own sons CFM17F ลูกปูจาย own son CHM32F ลูกปอจาย another pronunciation difference 82

DO36F ลูกปอจาย northern Thai style MS2F ลูกปอจาย means any men in general MM11F ลูกปอจาย no specific person SM24M ลูกปอจาย any boys MS3M ลูกบาว common for northern Thai SSD8M ลูกบาว include other boys as well MM9F ลูกบาว only own son SSD7F ลูกบาว our own son HSM28F ลูกบาว any male boys The same happens with these variants since they can mean your own son, any young male kids, or any male adults.

Item # 8.2.2.1 คนเกา khonM kawH ‘the eldest’ คนเกา khonM kawH 17 อาย aayHF 3 อี่ป iiL piiF 2 ลูกเกา luukF kawH 7 เกา kawH 1 ลูกคนเกา luukF khonM kawH 7

อายเกา aayHF kawH 4 ลูกคนหัวป luukF khonM huaR piiR 2 ลูกคนใหญ luukF khonM nyayL 2 ลูกคนโต luukF khonM tohM 2 คนโต khonM tohM 2 ปเกา piiF kawH 2 คนแรก khonM raekF 1 ลูกกอน luukF kornL 1 83

informid item comtext CWP13M คนเกา the first kid HSM26F คนเกา son / daughter CWP13M อาย only the first kid CWP14F อาย brother CFM18F อาย older than the speaker CWP13M อี่ป only for woman CFM18F อี่ป  older than the speaker but female CWP15M ลูกเกา the first son / daughter CWP16F ลูกเกา the eldest one DO35M ลูกเกา the first one CHM 30F เกา the first son / daughter CHM29M ลูกคนเกา only for son MM10M ลูกคนเกา the first child DO35M ลูกคนเกา the biggest one SSD8M ลูกคนเกา the most important one CFM20M ลูกคนเกา the eldest one CWP15M ลูกคนเกา the eldest kid CWP13M ลูกคนเกา the eldest one HSM26F อายเกา only son eldest one MS4F อายเกา not before him SSD7F อายเกา one who was born first in the male SM21F อายเกา the eldest son HSM27M ลูกคนหัวป Standard Thai style CFM20M ลูกคนหัวป  the first kid whatever sex HSM25M ลูกคนใหญ the eldest one SM24M ลูกคนใหญ the eldest one 84

CHM32F คนโต shortened form SM22F คนโต Standard Thai DO36F ปเกา the first daughter CHM32F ปเกา the first female kid but might not be the eldest SM22F คนแรก Standard Thai DO33F ลูกกอน one who comes before others DO35M ลูกคนโต the eldest child SM23M ลูกคนโต the eldest child In formal terms of Standard Thai, the structure of explaining what rank your child is requires the word ลูก luukF in the first position and followed by the rank such as ลูกคน โต luukF khonM tohM. Among informants only males will use this complete terms, while females will shorten the form.

Item # 8.2.2.2 คนหนอย khonM noryHF ‘the youngest’ อี่หนอย iiL noryHF 4 อี่หลา iiL laaHF 7 ลูกหลา luukF laaHF 14 หลา laaHF 4 คนนิ่ว khonM niwHF 2

ลูกคนหนอย luukF khonM noryHF 1 ลูกคนหลา luukF khonM laaHF 2 คนสุดทอง khonM sutL thorngH 2 คนหนอย khonM noryHF 11 ลูกซอย luukF soryH 7 คนหลา khonM laaHF 1

informid item comtext CWP13M อี่หนอย terms for endearment MM12M อี่หนอย the youngest one CWP15M อี่หนอย the smallest one not necessarily the youngest SM23M อี่หนอย for every girl CWP13M อี่หลา the later one CWP14F อี่หลา the last one CFM18F อี่หลา usually add อ ี่ iiL in front of name CWP15M ลูกหลา the youngest one CWP16F ลูกหลา the last one CHM29M ลูกหลา the young one HSM28F ลูกหลา the last one CHM30F หลา the last one; boy or girl CFM17F หลา the little one MS2F หลา the youngest one can be a boy MS1M คนนิ่ว the last one younger than คนหลา khonM laaHF SSD5M คนนิ่ว the little one HSM25M ลูกคนหนอย the little one SM21F คนหลา last but not least

DO35M ลูกคนหลา full name for last but not least CFM20M ลูกคนหลา the last one CHM32F คนสุดทอง no more than this MS4F คนสุดทอง the youngest one DO36F คนหนอย there may be more than one; younger SM22F คนหนอย for the last one only SSD8M ลูกซอย the little one DO33F ลูกซอย unexpected one; come last 86

HSM26F ลูกซอย the little one who is far apart from sister SM21F ลูกซอย the youngest one CWP16F ลูกซอย the smallest one HSM28F ลูกซอย the little one The variant of ลูกซอย luukF soryH is not used by the young generation, as my seven informants are all in the older generation. When asked about this term, the young generation said they did not know these words.

Item # 8.3 ผูใหญ phuuF yayL ‘adult’ คนใหญ khonM yayL 35 อาย aayHF 1 อาย aayL 1 เสี่ยว siawL 1 ผูใหญ phuuF yayL 2 คนหยอย khonM yohyL 1 informid item comtext SSD5M คนใหญ any adults SSD6F คนใหญ the old-aged people CHM30F คนใหญ adults

CFM20M คนใหญ any layman CFM20M ผูใหญ Standard Thai HSM27M ผูใหญ adult, mature people DO33F คนหยอย variation in pronunciation CHM30F อาย older than CHM30F อาย same generation CHM30F เสี่ยว colleagues, friends 87

อาย aayL and เสี่ยว siawL mean any adults who are contemporary with the speaker.

Item # 14. นา naaH ‘aunt’ (MOBR/MOSI) (younger) นา naaH 35 อา aaM 3 informid item comtext CWP16F นา mother-side younger MS1M นา mother-side CWP13M นา younger than mother CWP14F นา younger than mother both sexes HSM26F อา both sides MS1M อา father-side MM12M อา younger than father both sexes Most of the the kinship terms about the aunt who is younger than mother and father are not confused. There is only one informant who switched the term younger aunt to the term older aunt.

Item # 15. อา aaM ‘aunt’ (FABR/FASI) (younger) อา aaM 28

อาว aawM 8 นา naaH 2 อาว aawH 3 อา aaH 2 informid item comtext CWP13M อา younger brother (dad-side) CWP14F อา younger man or woman CWP15M อา younger man (dad-side) 88

MS1M อา father side CHM29M อาว old Thai style HSM27M อาว younger man only MS4F อาว written word in the past HSM28F อาว old Thai style MS1M นา younger man (mom-side) MM12M นา younger than parents DO36F อาว from grandparents’ word DO34M อาว his village uses this word CHM32F อาว aunt CHM32F อา shortened form HSM28F อา make fun of the real word The regular form of this item is อา aaM, so I judge other variants as irregular forms. I cannot tell whether such forms are archaic or deteriorated but the older generation said these forms exist. When checking in the urban area, nobody knows these terms.

Item # 16.1 ละออนวัด laL ornL watH ‘boys brought up by monks and stayed in temples’ ขะยม khaL nyomM 7

ขะโยมวัด khaL nyohmM watH 2 ขะยมวัด khaL nyomM watH 4 informid item comtext CWP13M ขะยม live in the temple CWP14F ขะยม kid in the temple MS3M ขะยม young kids whose parents leave for helping monks MS4F ขะยม one in the temple not monk MM10M ขะยม kid in the temple 89

MM11F ขะยม kids in the temple CFM18F ขะยม kids live and clean the temple SSD8M ขะโยมวัด live and study in the temple MM9F ขะโยมวัด cleaning the temple HSM28F ขะโยมวัด can be adult also SSD5M ขะยมวัด some retired people who help the monks SSD6F ขะยมวัด never heard about the adult but only kids CFM19M ขะยมวัด kids in the temple These variants differ only in pronunciation. Most of them refer to children whose parents leave them for the responsibility of monks to teach and the children also help cleaning the temple. But sometimes they mean the adult who takes care of the temple as well.

Item # 16.2 ผูนําสวดวัด phuuF namM suatL watH ‘leader before monk’ แกวัด kaeL watH 2 ปูจาน puuL caanR 3 informid item comtext CFM20M แกวัด stay in temple for a long time DO34M แกวัด knows a lot of doctrines CFM20M ปูจาน like a teacher or guru

DO34M ปูจาน guru in a temple; not monk MM11F ปูจาน distribute Buddhist besides monk All five informants are old people. When asked, the young generation doesn’t know these terms.

Item # 17. ตุ tuH ‘monk’ ตุเจา tuH cawF 15 ตุ tuH 21 90

พระ phraH 3 พะ phaH 1

informid item comtext CFM19M ตุเจา monk in northern Thai CWP13M ตุเจา monk DO33F ตุเจา monk who can preach DO34M ตุเจา the oldest monk CFM20M ตุ shortened form SM23M ตุ come from สาธ ุ saaR thuH means “respect” CFM17F ตุ Northern Thai CWP14F ต ุ any monks old or young CHM29M ต ุ monks CFM17F พระ Standard Thai CWP16F พระ the formal term CWP15M พระ Thai word HSM26F พะ shortened word; lazy mouth This term means the monk who passes the exam after practicing for many years and can then go out and preach.

Item # 17.1 เณร nehnM ‘novice’ พระ phraH 29 เณร nehnM 3 พระหนอย phraH noryHF 3 พะ phaH 2 พะหนอย phah noryHF 2

informid item comtext CWP13M พระ common word for novice CWP14F พระ northern Thai for novice CWP15M พระ young monk DO33F พระ young monk northern Thai DO34M เณร young monk Standard Thai DO33F เณร young monk who has to practice more MS2F เณร cannot preach yet MS3M พระหนอย novice young monk MS4F พระหนอย show the age of monk SSD7F พะหนอย shortened form MM9F พะหนอย young monk MM9F พะ shortened form MM11F พะ no cluster between consonants In Standard Thai, the word for young monk is เณร nehnM and the monk who practices many years and can preach is พระ phraH. In Chiangmai dialect, the former is ต ุ tuH while the latter is พระ phraH.

Item # 18.1 บิณฑบาต binM thaL baatL ‘monk’s morning walks for alms (religious activity)’ ไปสงขาววัด payM songL khawHF watH 1 มาบิณฑบาต maaM binM thaL baatL 1 กุมบาตร kumM baatL 2 บิณฑบาต binM thaL baatL 15 กุมขาว kumM khawHF 5 มาเก็บ maaM kepL 1 ใสขาวบาตร sayL khawHF baatL 1

informid item comtext CWP13M ไปสงขาววัด give food at the temple CWP13M มาบิณฑบาต give food in front of house CHM30F กุมบาตร monk holds container, we put food inside HSM28F กุมบาตร hold the rice container CHM29M บิณฑบาต normal term for activity HSM26F บิณฑบาต formal word HSM26F กุมขาว main staple is rice CHM32F กุมขาว he has to hold the container around the waist DO34M กุมขาว the rice is in container and the monk carries back CHM31M กุมขาว hold the rice container HSM25M กุมขาว carry the rice container SM21F มาเก็บ monk walks past the house CHM31M ใสขาวบาตร put rice in the container If you are too young, a novice who has not practiced long, you cannot come out to do this activity.

Item # 20. ยาย yayM ‘grandmother’ (MOMO) แมอุย maeF uyH 18

อุย uyH 8 แม maeF 1 อุยหมอน uyH mornL 1 อุยยาย uyH yayM 1 ยาย yayM 9 แมเถา maeF thawF 3

informid item comtext CWP13M แมอุย call all old women CWP14F แมอุย term of respect HSM26F แมอุย distinguish from father’s mother SSD8M แมอุย northern Thai CWP15M อุย shortened form both sides CFM17F อุย any old woman CHM30F แม shortened form HSM26F อุยหมอน show the old aged HSM26F อุยยาย mother’s mother HSM25M ยาย Standard Thai for mother’s SSD8M แมเถา Standard Thai MM9F แมเถา mean old lady HSM28F แมเถา can be either cuteness or satire The word อุยหมอน uyH mornL is Chiangmai dialect, which right now the Standard Thai ยาย yayM is replacing.

Item # 21. ยา yaaH ‘grandmother’ (FAMO) อุยแม uyH maeF 11

อุย uyH 9 แมอุย maeF uyH 25 ยา yaaF 8 แมเถา maeF thawF 3 informid item comtext HSM28F แมอุย northern Thai old woman DO34M แมอุย any old woman CHM31M แมอุย only father’s mother 94

MS2F แมอุย both father’s and mother’s mother CHM30F แมอุย any old people CHM29M แมอุย any old women MS1M แมอุย any old women SSD8M แมเถา Standard Thai old woman MM9F แมเถา old lady HSM28F แมเถา can be either cuteness or satire MS3M ยา Standard Thai MS4F ยา from school; father’s mother CWP13M อุยแม father’s mother northern Thai style CHM32F อุยแม switch from ยาย yayM MM11F อุยแม grandmother dad side HSM28F อุยแม grandmother CWP15M อุยแม  grandmother dad side CFM18F อุยแม  grandmother MM12M อุยแม  call both grandmother and old lady CWP14F อุยแม  old women CWP16F อุยแม  old woman

DO36F อยแมุ  grandmother

CWP15M อุย any old women CWP20M อุย old lady DO36F อุย refer to only old aged women In Chiangmai dialect, the word for grandmother (mother’s side) is แมอุย maeF uyH but grandmother (father’s side) is อุยแม  uyH maeF.

Item # 22. ตา taaM ‘grandfather’ (MOFA) ปออุย porF uyH 18 อุย uyH 8 ปอ porF 1 อุยหมอน uyH mornL 1 อุยตา uyH taaM 1 ปอเถา porF thawF 5 ตา taaM 7 ตา taaR 2 informid item comtext CWP13M ปออุย mother’s father northern Thai style DO34M ปออุย any old men CHM31M ปออุย only mother’s father MS2F ปออุย both father’s and mother’s father CWP15M อุย any old men CWP16F อุย any old people HSM27M อุย any old man DO36F อุย any old people CHM30F ปอ resemble father

HSM28F ปอเถา Standard Thai old man MM9F ปอเถา the old men SSD8M ปอเถา mean the old people MS1M ปอเถา can mean my granddad CHM31M ปอเถา grandfather MS3M ตา Standard Thai MS4F ตา mother’s father only SSD6F ตา correct pronunciation for Standard Thai 96

HSM26F อุยหมอน old men HSM26F อุยตา mother’s father Sometimes Chaingmai people call grandfather (mother’s side) ปออุย porF uyH, and call grandfather (father’s side) อุยปอ uyH porF. But there are not so many people who do so. Most people refer to both with the same word ปออุย porF uyH.

Item # 23. ปู puuL ‘grandfather’ (FAFA) อุยปอ uyH porF 4 อุย uyH 9 ปออุย porF uyH 17 ปู puuL 8 ปอเถา porF thawF 3 informid item comtext CWP13M อุยปอ father’s father northern Thai style HSM26F อุยปอ normal term CWP14F อุยปอ grandfather (father’s side) CFM18F อุยปอ original word CWP15M อุย any old men SM21F อุย any old men or women

HSM28F ปออุย northern Thai old man DO34M ปออุย any old men CHM31M ปออุย grandfather both sides SM22F ปออุย any old man MS2F ปออุย grandfather CHM30F ปออุย any old man HSM28F ปอเถา Standard Thai old man MM9F ปอเถา satire the old man 97

SSD8M ปอเถา Standard Thai is the same word for old men MS4F ปู correct term for father’s father SSD5M ปู Standard Thai Most of the people who go to school will use the word ป ู puuL for grandfather (father’s side) and ตา taaM for grandfather (mother’s side).

II. House Variants from house can be very interesting (Item # 27) since the complete term for referring to a house in Standard Thai, which is formal, is บานเรือน baanHF rueanM; two separate words are combined. In Chiangmai dialect, I found two separate words from the Standard Thai word and one more word which has a pronunciation difference between Standard Thai and Chiangmai dialect.

Item # 27. บาน baanHF ‘house’ เฮือน hueanM 9 บาน baanHF 21 เลือน lueanM 3 informid item comtext CWP13M เฮือน northern Thai word

SSD8M เฮือน old word CWP14F เฮือน house MS3M เฮือน house MS4F เฮือน Chiangmai style SSD7F เฮือน house CHM30F บาน Standard Thai word SM21F บาน northern Thai word DO35M บาน commonly used 98

CHM29M บาน house MM10M บาน house MM11F บาน house SSD5M เลือน shifted from เรือน rueanM in Standard Thai SSD6F เลือน substitute “r” to “l” CFM19M เลือน varies in pronunciation The variant เลือน lueanM is quite unexpected since the Standard Thai full term for house is บานเรือน baanHF rueanM. It is used in writing as in novels, fiction, or formal documents. Most Thai use only บาน baanHF or เรือน rueanM, separately.

Item # 27.2.1 จั๊นบน canH bonM ‘upstairs’ บนเฮือน bonM hueanM 7 ตางบน taangM bonM 18 เติ๋น toenR 2 จั๊นบน canH bonM 10 informid item comtext SM21F จั๊นบน go upstairs by stairs HSM26F จั๊นบน upstairs DO35M จั๊นบน upper level with or without the stairs

HSM25M จั๊นบน opposite of lower level SM21F จั๊นบน upstairs DO36F ตางบน upper level CWP14F ตางบน upper level SSD5M ตางบน above the speaker SSD6F ตางบน can mean the place which is higher than the level SSD7F ตางบน over us DO33F บนเฮือน go inside a house 99

CWP13M บนเฮือน inside a house second floor DO34M บนเฮือน inside a house first floor CHM20M เติ๋น higher level CHM30F เติ๋น the upper level บนเฮือน bonM hueanM can either mean you step up from the street inside the house which is the same level as the street, or go upstairs.

Item # 27.2.2 จั๊นลุม canH lumF ‘downstairs’ กะลุม kaL lumF 1 ตางลุม taangM lumF 16 จั๊นลาง canH laangF 2 ตางลาง taangM laangF 4 จั๊นลุม canH lumF 10 ขะลาง khaL laangF 3 informid item comtext CWP16F กะลุม lower level CWP14F ตางลุม lower floor CWP15M ตางลุม south of house SSD5M ตางลุม lower than the first floor

DO36F ตางลุม go downstairs SSD6F ตางลุม lower than where we stand SSD7F ตางลุม lower level DO34M จั๊นลาง downstairs HSM27M จั๊นลาง lower than where we stand HSM25M จั๊นลุม lower level, on the ground DO35M จั๊นลุม downstairs inside a house HSM26F จั๊นลุม downstairs 100

SM21F จั๊นลุม lower level DO33F ขะลาง downstairs outside a house CWP13M ตางลาง lower than the speaker CWP14F ตางลาง lower level CFM18F ตางลาง downstairs CFM20M ตางลาง lower level จั๊นลุม canH lumF can mean downstairs, the first floor, the basement, the place which is lower than where we stand, or the lower part of anything.

Item # 27.2.3 พื้นกะลาง phuenH kaL laangF ‘basement’ ปนกะลาง puenH kaL laangF 32 ตะลาง taL laangH 1 กะลาง kaL laangF 1 ปนเฮือน puenH hueanM 3 ปน puenH 2 ลองถุน lorngF thunR 2 ใตถุน tayF thunR 1 informid item comtext CWP13M ปนกะลาง basement

CWP14F ปนกะลาง lower level CWP15M ปนกะลาง the balcony (front opening) HSM26F ปนกะลาง basement of a house CHM29M ตะลาง lower level CHM29M กะลาง downstairs SSD8M ปนเฮือน lower level MM9F ปนเฮือน floor of the house HSM28F ปนเฮือน lower level of the house 101

SSD8M ปน level underneath the house MM9F ปน lower level for animals DO35M ลองถุน flat opening below the stairs CHM32F ลองถุน the lower part under the house where pigs stay MS1M ใตถุน level below the stairs In Standard Thai, ใตถุน tayF thunR does not have animals staying there, but in the north, there might be some pigs staying in that area or maybe chickens and ducks.

Item # 29.1 หองครัว horngF khruaM ‘kitchen’ หองครัว horngF khruaM 4 เตาไฟ tawR fayM 2 informid item comtext CWP13M หองครัว follow Standard Thai CWP14F หองครัว place to cook food CHM31M หองครัว where there is a stove MS2F หองครัว follow Standard Thai DO34M เตาไฟ where there is a stove CFM18F เตาไฟ where you cook food

Item # 29.3.1 ตั่ง tangL ‘bed’ เตียง tiangM 4 ตั่ง tangL 30 ยออั๊น yorM anH 3 informid item comtext CWP13M เตียง a bed CFM18F เตียง a bed with mattress CWP14F เตียง a bed can have legs or not 102

CWP15M ตั่ง a couch CWP16F ตั่ง a wooden couch CHM30F ตั่ง a couch no cushion SM24M ตั่ง a couch in a living room CWP15M ยออั๊น a platform raised up high CWP16F ยออั๊น a couch set up high CFM17F ยออั๊น has to be raised up from the floor The difference between เตียง tiangM and ตั่ง tangL is the former can be the same level as the floor such as the bed which does not have legs but the latter has to have legs to raise the platform up from the floor.

Item # 29.3.2 ฟูก fuukF ‘mattress’ สะลี saL liiM 19 ฟูก fuukF 14 informid item comtext DO34M ฟูก contains synthetic fiber MM10M ฟูก can put on couch HSM26F ฟูก for other purposes besides sleeping CWP13M สะลี used for sleeping purpose

CWP14F สะลี put on bed only MS3M สะลี contains kapok MS4F สะลี mattress on bed สะล ี saL liiM contains kapok only while ฟูก fuukF can contain both kapok and synthetic fiber.

103

Item # 29.3.3 ตี้นอน tiiF nornM ‘mattress’ สะลี saL liiM 26 ตี้นอน tiiF nornM 12 informid item comtext CWP13M สะลี for bed only CWP14F สะลี northern Thai word CHM29M สะลี for sleeping purpose CWP15M ตี้นอน borrow from Standard Thai CWP16F ตี้นอน the same as สะล ี saL liiM CHM29M ตี้นอน for sleeping purpose There is no difference between these two variants except one is used mostly in Standard Thai and another is local in the Chiangmai area.

Item # 29.3.6 เตียง tiangM ‘bed’ ตั่ง tangL 4 เตียง tiangM 27 จอง corngM 5 informid item comtext CHM29M จอง heard from his grandparents

HSM28F จอง same as bed CHM31M จอง a place to lie down DO36F จอง sleep on this CHM30F จอง you can sleep on this MM10M เตียง in bedroom MM11F เตียง in bedroom HSM26F เตียง a bed HSM27M เตียง a bed 104

DO35M เตียง a bed CFM18F ตั่ง outside bedroom CWP13M ตั่ง not for sleeping purpose CWP14F ตั่ง set up high from th efloor CHM30F ตั่ง made of wood I don’t know the word จอง corngM but I have heard some people said ไปไรไปจอง payM raiF payM corngM: I don’t know what the exact meaning is. My five informants insist that this word means the same as a bed. Another possibility is that Chaingmai has a word ยอง nyorngM, which means to lie down, and this word may have been changed to be จอง corngM.

Item # 30. ก่ําแปง kamL paengM ‘wall’ ฮั้ว huaH 4 ฮั้วกอ huaH korL 1 ก่ําแปง kamL paengM 24 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮั้ว made of concrete CWP14F ฮั้ว can be made from wire CHM30F ฮั้ว some use trees plant fence

CFM18F ฮั้ว a fence CWP13M ฮั้วกอ the way they set the wall CWP15M ก่ําแปง made of concrete only CWP16F ก่ําแปง can have colors CHM29M ก่ําแปง a wall can be used as a fence HSM26F ก่ําแปง a wall HSM27M ก่ําแปง a wall 105

ก่ําแปง kamL paengM must be made with concrete while ฮั้ว huaH can be made with a wire, a bush that is planted as a row, or concrete.

Item # 30.1 เพดาน phehM daanM ‘ceiling’ ขวน khuanF 5 ฝา faaHF 9 เพดาน phehM daanM 1 informid item comtext CHM32F ขวน northern Thai old word CWP15M ขวน ceiling in the house CWP13M ขวน ceiling CWP14F ขวน the highest part of the house which is inside HSM28F ขวน the high ceiling MS3M ฝา the ceiling of the room SSD5M ฝา can mean the topmost of roof MS2F ฝา screen DO34M ฝา the wall SSD6F ฝา the ceiling MM11F เพดาน Standard Thai word Again the word ฝา faaHF does not have to be the ceiling only. It can mean the screen you put up to separate the room or the area.

Item # 30.2 ฝาผนัง faaR phaL nangR ‘wall’ ผนัง phaL nangR 2 ฝาผนัง faaR phaL nangR 9 ฝา faaR 7 ขางฝา khangF faaR 1 106

ก่ําแปง kamL paengM 1 ผังเอก phangR ekL 7 ฝาเฮือน faaR hueanM 1

informid item comtext CWP13M ผนัง the wall SM21F ผนัง the wall CWP14F ฝาผนัง the wall DO34M ฝาผนัง can have color CHM30F ฝา something cover the room MS2F ฝา screen divide the area SSD5M ฝา wall divide the area SSD6F ฝา wall screen CHM29M ขางฝา near the wall HSM26F ก่ําแปง wall divide exterior and interior MS1M ผังเอก old northern Thai word SSD8M ผังเอก main wall MS3M ผังเอก main wall from the house and the exterior SSD6F ผังเอก main wall MS4F ผังเอก wall SSD5M ผังเอก wall MS2F ผังเอก wall CHM31M ฝาเฮือน divide rooms in house Variant ผังเอก phangR ekL is not natural for me or most informants, but seven did use this word.

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Item # 30.3 ฮั้ว huaH ‘fence’ ฮั้ว huaH 32 ก่ําแปง kamL paengM 1 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮั้ว divide house from street CWP14F ฮั้ว show territory DO34M ฮั้ว made from bricks, concrete, or trees CHM30F ฮั้ว divide house from the exterior CHM30F ก่ําแปง divide room in the house Almost every informant came up with only the one word, except CHM30F who used one extra word to differentiate between the area in the house and the area outside the house.

Item # 32. ประต ู praL tuuR ‘door' ประตู praL tuuR 13 ปะตู paL tuuR 21 ผะตู phaL tuuR 2 informid item comtext SSD8M ประตู door

MM9F ประตู sometimes we don't pronounce [r] sound MM10M ประตู door CFM20M ปะตู we don't have the [r] sound in Chiangmai CWP15M ปะตู door

DO36F ผะตู we pronounce [p] sound HSM26F ผะตู door

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Item # 33. หนาตาง naaF taangL ‘window’ ปอง porngL 16 หนาตาง naaF taangL 20 informid item comtext CWP15M หนาตาง common term nowadays CWP16F หนาตาง term from Standard Thai DO35M หนาตาง people use this term CHM30F ปอง northern Thai word CHM29M ปอง young / new generation don’t know HSM26F ปอง for old people SM21F ปอง will be extinct soon ปอง porngL is the old Chiangmai word which nowadays people, especially the young generation, will forget and instead use the Standard Thai word หนาตาง naaF taangL.

Item # 35. กระทอม kraL thormF ‘hut’ ตูบ tuupL 36 หาง haangF 3 informid item comtext

CWP13M ตูบ in the field HSM26F ตูบ small cottage CFM20M ตูบ on the ground CFM17F หาง raise high from ground DO34M หาง up in the tree CHM31M หาง like a ladder; not touch the ground Chiangmai marks the difference between the hut on the ground and the hut raised up from the ground, while Standard Thai has only one word. 109

III. Weather Entries 36, 37 and 42 offer many variants for phrasal verbs containing many degrees of hot weather, cold weather, and wind. All types of frost (Item # 38.3) occurred mostly in the area close to the mountains, in which at night in winter time the temperature drops below zero.

Item # 36. ฮอน hornH ‘hot’ ฮอน hornH 34 ฮอนมอกกําปอ hornH morkF kamM porM 1 ฮอนอาว hornH awF 1 ฮอนจะตายแลว hornH caL tayR laewH 1 ฮอนแตฮอนวา hornH taeH hornH waaF 8 ฮอนขนาด hornH khaL naatL 14 ฮอนแตฮอนงาว hornH taeH hornH ngawF 3 ฮอนเตมตี้ hornH temR tiiF 1 ฮอนมาก hornH maakF 1 ฮอนนักแก hornH nakH kaeM 7 ฮอนนัก hornH nakH 2 ฮอนจะตายละ hornH caL tayR laH 3 ฮอนแต hornH taeH 1 ฮอนแก hornH kaeL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮอน normal HSM26F ฮอน no wind HSM27M ฮอน sweat MS4F ฮอน burn skin CHM29M ฮอนมอกกําปอ can tolerate the heat CHM31 ฮอนอาว before rain 110

CWP13M ฮอนจะตายแลว very hot CWP14F ฮอนแตฮอนวา hotter than HSM26F ฮอนแตฮอนวา so hot DO33F ฮอนแตฮอนวา hotter than usual MM10M ฮอนแตฮอนวา damn hot CWP15M ฮอนขนาด very hot HSM27M ฮอนขนาด very hot DO36F ฮอนขนาด no wind SSD8M ฮอนขนาด very hot CWP15M ฮอนแตฮอนงาว angry at the heat CWP16F ฮอนแตฮอนงาว hot as if we would die SSD7F ฮอนแตฮอนงาว hot and hotter CHM30F ฮอนเตมตี้ let it be hot HSM26F ฮอนมาก OK

HSM27M ฮอนนักแก look as if not hot MM12M ฮอนนักแก feel hot but still OK CFM20M ฮอนนักแก hot so much that did not want to go out SSD6F ฮอนนักแก very hot CHM32F ฮอนนัก hot

HSM25M ฮอนนัก hot ; not too much, still can put up with CHM31M ฮอนแต truly hot SSD8M ฮอนแก almost burn MM9F ฮอนแก  very hot HSM28F ฮอนแก  hotter than ususal DO33F ฮอนจะตายละ almost die DO34M ฮอนจะตายละ very hot at least hotter than everyday SM24M ฮอนจะตายละ it is a hot day 111

This set shows the variants of how we interpret degrees of the heat. Each variant is transliterated from each informant’s feeling so sometimes the degree is not the same. There is no exact amount of the degree of the heat to use as a basic criteria. It is subjective.

Item # 36.2 อวม uamM ‘humid’ อบอาว opL awF 4 อวม uamM 25 ฮอนอวม hornH uamM 7 ฮอน hornH 1 บด botR 5 กุม kumH 3 informid item comtext CWP13M อบอาว before rain CWP15M อบอาว very humid CWP13M อวม before rain CWP14F อวม humid CWP15M ฮอนอวม hot and sticky HSM26F ฮอนอวม before rain

HSM26F ฮอน hot CHM31M บด no sunshine DO34M บด no sun HSM25M บด dark before rain SM21F บด shade CWP14F บด sun covered by cloud SSD8M กุม sun was covered by cloud

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MM9F กุม cloudy like having rain HSM28F กุม covered with the cloud I got the word บด botR from my informants, all of whom are from the northern Route and the western Route, while those from the main city Route and the eastern Route never used this word at all.

Item # 36.3 แลง laengH ‘dry’ แฮง haengH 4 แหงแลง haengF laengH 4 แหง haengF 12 แลง laengH 2 informid item comtext CWP13M แฮง very dry CWP14F แฮง dry CHM29M แฮง can cause fire CFM18F แฮง dry CWP15M แหงแลง drought CFM17F แหงแลง not enough food HSM25M แหงแลง need rain

CWP16F แหงแลง no rain CHM30F แหง no rain HSM26F แหง no humidity MM10M แลง dry MM11F แลง drought Again the Standard Thai full term for this word is แหงแลง haengF laengH. The Chaingmai dialect contains this full word, and also separates the first word แหง haengF and the word แลง laengH and uses both of them interchangeably. 113

Item # 37. หนาว nawR ‘cold’ หนาว nawR 35 เย็น yenM 3 แข็ง khaengR 36 กระดาง kraL daangHF 16 กะดาง kaL daangHF 21 หนาวจะตาย nawR caL tayR 1 หนาวแตหนาววา nawR taeH nawR waaF 8 หนาวขนาด nawR khaLnaatL 20 หนาวนักเตมตี้ nawR nakH temR tiiF 1 หนาวนัก nawR nakH 2 หนาวนักแก nawR nakH kaeM 5 หนาวแก nawR kaeL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M หนาว cold CHM29M หนาว cold CWP13M แข็ง freezing HSM27M แข็ง frozen zone CWP13M กระดาง freezing

CWP13M หนาวจะตาย very cold CWP13M หนาวแตหนาววาcold to the bone CWP15M หนาวขนาด very cold CHM30F เย็น cool CHM31M เย็น cool CHM29M เย็น breezy wind CHM30F หนาวนักเตมตี้ so cold CHM29M กะดาง nothing moving 114

HSM27M กะดาง curry (one kind of northern Thai dish) MS1M หนาวนักแก feel cold CHM32F หนาวนัก very cold HSM26F หนาวนัก so cold SSD8M หนาวแก too cold HSM28F หนาวแก  too cold SSD6F หนาวแก  very cold MM9F หนาวแก  very cold Again, the degree of coldness varies from one person to another. It is subjective but we have many adverbials to add at the end of the head word cold to carry the degree of the coldness.

Item # 38. หมอก morkL ‘fog’ เหมย moeyR 29 หมอก morkL 7 informid item comtext CWP13M หมอก very dense; cannot see SSD8M หมอก high above the ground HSM28F หมอก cannot touch it

CWP14F เหมย slightly cover ground; mist CWP15M เหมย in the morning very low DO34M เหมย can touch it CHM32F เหมย very light like a snowflake We cannot touch หมอก morkL and it is dangerous to drive, but we can touch เหมย moeyR and it does not affect the driving; in fact, it is very beautiful when we have เหมย moeyR.

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Item # 38.2 น้ําคาง naamH khaangH ‘dew’ เหมย moeyR 19 น้ําคาง naamH khaangH 18 หมอก morkL 5 น้ําหมอก naamH morkL 1 informid item comtext CWP13M เหมย slightly cover ground; mist SSD8M เหมย low above the ground HSM28F เหมย can touch it CWP14F เหมย slightly cover ground; mist CWP15M เหมย in the morning very low DO34M เหมย can touch it CHM32F เหมย very lighted DO35M น้ําคาง dew on leaves SM23M น้ําคาง dew DO35M น้ําคาง dew on leaves CHM32F น้ําคาง dew left on the grass CWP13M หมอก very dense; cannot see SSD8M หมอก high above the ground HSM28F หมอก cannot touch it HSM28F น้ําหมอก you can use both words; หมอก or น้ําหมอก

Item # 38.3 น้ําคางแข็ง naamH khaangH khaengR ‘frost’ ลูกเห็บ luukF hepL 3 บะเห็บ baL hepL 3 เหมยดาง moeyR daangHF 3 แมคะนิ้ง maeM khaL ningH 5 116

เหมยจาง moeyR caangH 4 เหมยคาง moeyR khaangH 1 น้ําแข็ง naamH khaengR 2 เหมยขาง moeyR khaangHF 5 เหมยคาบ moeyR khaapF 3 น้ําคางแข็ง naamH khaangH khaengR 1

informid item comtext CWP15M บะเห็บ hail CWP16F บะเห็บ fall from sky when freezing HSM26F เหมยคาง fog that is frozen CFM18F แมคะนิ้ง special term for my area not all places SM23M แมคะนิ้ง ice frozen on the top of the grass CWP13M แมคะนิ้ง frozen ice DO34M แมคะนิ้ง frozen ice on the grass HSM28F แมคะนิ้ง frozen ice HSM25M เหมยจาง fog that is frozen and big ice CHM31M เหมยจาง fog that is frozen but big size HSM28F เหมยจาง elephant-sized frost SM23M เหมยจาง big frozen ice like elephant CHM29M เหมยจาง big like elephant DO35M น้ําแข็ง frozen dew on leaves SM23M น้ําแข็ง dew that is frozen DO35M เหมยขาง frozen dew on leaves CHM32F เหมยขาง frozen dew left on the grass DO36F เหมยขาง ice from dew that is frozen SM22F เหมยขาง left over on the top of the ground SM23M เหมยขาง frozen ice 117

DO33F เหมยคาบ frozen fog DO34M เหมยคาบ frozen frost SM24M เหมยคาบ frozen dew MM10M น้ําคางแข็ง frost ice HSM25M ลูกเห็บ hail CHM30F เหมยดาง frost that is not moving CHM31M เหมยดาง frost that is frozen CHM32F เหมยดาง frozen dew All the names of frost come from the shape and status of the dew that is frozen when the temperature drops below zero in the winter time in the mountainous area. For example, จาง caangH means elephant so เหมยจาง moeyR caangH means frost that is frozen and has the size of an elephant.

Item # 39.1 น้ําทวม naamH thuamF ‘flood’ น้ํานอง naamH norngM 11 น้ําทวม naamH thuamF 27 น้ําขัง naamH khangR 1 informid item comtext CWP13M น้ํานอง overflow of water

CWP14F น้ํานอง because of rain MM10M น้ํานอง only at the ankle CWP15M น้ําทวม high tide CWP16F น้ําทวม a lot of water MS2F น้ําทวม sometimes high to the waist CHM30F น้ําขัง stagnant water There is one response that is irregular for the item of flooding. Flooding comes because of the downpour of rain with the lack of good gutter to release the water down to 118

the river, and it is temporary. But one informant that answered น้ําขัง naamH khangR might not have given a good response since this means stagnant water and is permanent.

Item # 39.3 พายุ phaaM yuH ‘thunderstorm’ ลม lomM 24 ลมหลวง lomM luangR 1 พายุ phaaM yuH 10 ลมพายุ lomM phaaM yuH 1 ฟาแมบ faaH maepF 32 ฟาแลบ faaH laepF 4 ฟาผา faaH phaaL 36 ฟาฮอง faaH horngH 36 informid item comtext CWP13M ลม wind CWP13M ฟาแมบ lightning CHM29M ฟาแมบ electrical cloud CWP13M ฟาผา thunderbolt CHM29M ฟาผา electric storm; electric strike CWP13M ฟาฮอง thunder

HSM27M ฟาฮอง thunder CHM32F ฟาฮอง thunder CHM29M ลมหลวง gusty wind HSM25M พายุ Standard Thai for storm MS1M ฟาแลบ Standard Thai for lightning SSD5M ฟาแลบ lightning SSD6F ฟาแลบ lightning and has a thunder sound CHM32F ลมพายุ thunderstorm 119

The first four variants show the degrees of wind. If it is strong, it will change from normal wind to thunderstorm. The latter four shows the effects after the thunderstorm occurs.

Item # 40. เมฆ mehkF ‘cloud’ เมฆ mehkF 21 ฝา faaHF 18 informid item comtext SSD6F เมฆ Standard Thai SSD7F เมฆ borrowing from Standard Thai SSD8M ฝา northern Thai word old times MM9F ฝา cloud DO34M ฝา the old people use it CHM29M ฝา the young generation don’t know The term ฝา faaHF is not well-known among the younger generation. I don’t know what this word comes from but there is a word ฝา faaHF which will occur in the face especially when you are exposed to the sunshine too much. Women don’t like this. Perhaps the cloud looks like the one which is on the face of women so they are the same words.

Item # 41. ปาไม  paaL mayF ‘forest’ ปาไม  paaL mayF 12 แพะ phaeH 3 informid item comtext MM10M ปาไม  forest MM11F ปาไม  tropical forest SM23M ปาไม  tropical forest 120

CHM29M แพะ old style from the ancestors HSM28F แพะ heard from mom DO35M แพะ from the ancestors There is one variant that even the informants are not sure what that word is; i.e, the word แพะ phaeH. All three of them who answered said they heard it from their ancestors. However, in Phrae province, which is one of the eighteen upper North provinces of Thailand, there is a place called แพะเมืองผ ี phaeH mueangM phiiR which looks like Stonehenge except that the pillars are made of soil or earth. The word เมือง mueangM means 'city' and the word ผี phiiR means 'ghost' so may be the word แพะ phaeH might mean the forest since this place looks like a forest filled with these soil or earth statues, which also looks like a ghost town.

Item # 41.1 ซุง sungM ‘log’ ไมทุง mayH thungM 17 ไมซุง mayH sungM 9 ซุง sungM 8 ทุง thungM 2 ไม mayH 1 informid item comtext

SSD6F ไมซุง log SSD7F ไมซุง trees were cut in forest CWP15M ไมซุง log HSM26F ไมซุง think of elephant drags log CWP16F ไมซุง log CHM29M ไมทุง substitute ‘th’ to ‘s’ CFM20M ไมทุง log CWP13M ไมทุง log 121

CHM30F ไมทุง log CWP14F ไมทุง log MM10M ซุง log MS1M ซุง log SSD8M ซุง log SM21F ซุง log MM11F ซุง log MM9F ซุง log CFM18F ซุง think about teak MS3M ซุง log SM22F ทุง shortened form SM21F ทุง log HSM25M ไม plank This item has only the pronunciation difference. One informant used the word plank, instead of using the word log, which means any trees that can be cut down and made a log. Most of the time Chaingmai exports teak so when logs are mentioned, we think about teak only.

Item # 42. ลม lomM ‘wind’

ลมจอย lomM coryM 6 ลมแฮง lomM haengM 5 ลมเจย lomM coeyM 1 ลมแตลมวา lomM taeH lomM waaF 3 ลมโจย lomM cohyM 2 informid item comtext CWP13M ลมจอย light wind CHM30F ลมจอย light breezy wind 122

HSM25M ลมจอย cool wind CWP14F ลมจอย light wind CWP15M ลมจอย cool breezy wind CWP16F ลมจอย light wind CWP15M ลมแฮง strong wind CWP16F ลมแฮง gusty wind HSM25M ลมแฮง strong wind CHM29M ลมแฮง gusty wind CFM17F ลมแฮง blow everything away CHM30F ลมเจย breezy wind `DO33F ลมแตลมวา very strong wind DO34M ลมแตลมวา breezy wind SM24M ลมแตลมวา too string a wind MS3M ลมโจย soft wind MS4F ลมโจย wind blows constantly This set shows the degree of wind.

Item # 42.2 ฮม homF ‘shade’ บมี๋แดด borL miiR daetL 1

ฮม homF 20 ลม lomF 3 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮม shady CWP14F ฮม no sunshine HSM26F ฮม sun covered by cloud DO35M ฮม windy not sun CHM29M บมี๋แดด no sunshine 123

SSD5M ลม no sunshine MM10M ลม not hot SSD6F ลม sunshine cannot shine through Most of the time we think that there is no sunshine when ฮม homF is mentioned. Sometimes even when we have very bright sunshine, we can say it is ฮม homF if we find a shady area.

Item # 43. เหว hewL ‘wither’ เหว hewL 16 เหวแหง hewL haengF 2 เหี่ยว hiawL 17 เหี่ย hiaL 3 เฉา chawR 33 ตาย taayR 36 informid item comtext HSM28F เฉา need rain CWP13M เฉา need water MS4F เฉา almost die HSM28F เหี่ยว need water

SSD5M เหี่ยว wither MM9F เหี่ยว like roses kept without water CFM20M เหี่ยว not happy, not fresh DO34M เหี่ย wither DO33F เหี่ย wither DO36F เหี่ย not having encouragement DO35M เหว expired CWP13M เหว wither 124

CWP14F เหว use with flowers CFM18F เหว need water CWP15M เหว wither CWP16F เหว want water HSM26F เหว water please SM24M ตาย pass away SSD6F ตาย die MM10M ตาย die CFM17F ตาย die CFM18F เหวแหง need water CWP14F เหวแหง need water The words เหว hewL and เฉา chawR can refer to when the person is in the emotion of losing or discouragement or lack of willpower. My informants said they used these two words to refer to the person who was broken hearted.

IV. Landscape Entries 45-45.7 include all types of canal depending on size and shape. Entry 47 includes any fast-flowing waters, from rapids to falls. Variants showing different perspective of how people look at the mountain are included here also. The lexicon about mountains, foot of the mountain, and top of the mountain are very interesting, as well as how people interpret valleys and chasms (Item # 48-48.1.3)

Item # 45. คอง khorngM ‘canal’ น้ําเมี๋ยง naamH miangR 36 น้ําเหมือง naamH mueangR 4 ลําหวย lamM huayF 3 ลําเหมือง lamM mueangR 5 125

น้ําแม naamH maeF 1 แม maeF 2 เหมือง mueangR 5 คอง khorngM 6 คือ khueM 10 น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF 4

informid item comtext CWP13M น้ําเมี๋ยง small gutter at back of the yard CWP14F น้ําเมี๋ยง small creek off the canal DO33F น้ําเมี๋ยง small gutter from the river DO34M น้ําเมี๋ยง small gutter CWP13M น้ําเหมือง small gutter at back of the yard CWP14F น้ําเหมือง at the back of the land CHM29M น้ําเหมือง used for irrigation of growing plants CFM18F น้ําเหมือง small gutter for watering vegetables CWP15M ลําหวย small stream from mountain CFM17F ลําหวย from the mountain CWP16F ลําหวย flow from the mountain as a small stream CHM30F ลําเหมือง small gutter SM22F ลําเหมือง small gutter flow into the land CWP15M ลําเหมือง help farmer for growing rice and vegetables MM9F ลําเหมือง small gutter for cultivation HSM26F น้ําแม river HSM27M แม river CFM20M แม river MS1M เหมือง small gutter SSD8M เหมือง small gutter for cultivation 126

MM12M เหมือง small gutter for cultivation MM9F เหมือง small gutter off the canal HSM28F เหมือง small gutter off the canal HSM25M คอง canal SM21F คอง small canal for trade DO35M คอง small canal has a boat CHM32F คือ small canal MS2F คือ stagnant water in canal DO33F น้ําโหย water from mountain DO34M น้ําโหย stream from nthe mountain CHM31M น้ําโหย flow from the mountain SM24M น้ําโหย water from the mountain The difference of the variants is that only น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF and ลําหวย lamM huayF are the ones from the mountains.

Item # 45.1 คู khuuM ‘ditch’ น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF 3 คือ khueM 31 ฮองคือ horngF khueM 3

คู khuuM 4 หนองน้ํา norngR naamH 1 informid item comtext MM10M คู small ditch CHM30F คู small canal cannot transport CHM29M คู small canal for irrigation MM11F คือ small ditch with flow of water CFM18F คือ small ditch 127

CFM18F น้ําโหย stream of water from mountain CWP14F น้ําโหย from the mountain CWP13M น้ําโหย from the mountain CFM18F ฮองคือ small ditch with flow of water CWP14F ฮองคือ small ditch for irrigation CFM19M ฮองคือ ditch SM21F คือ small canal with fish HSM26F หนองน้ํา big canal a lot of fish inside I didn’t expect the word น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF for this item since the word คู khuuM in my opinion is not the one from the mountain while น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF comes from the mountain.

Item # 45.3 บึง buengM ‘marsh’ บึง buengM 21 หนอง norngR 10 กวาน kwaanH 5 informid item comtext CWP13M หนอง man-made marsh CWP14F หนอง nature-made canal, big

CWP15M หนอง marsh full with fish CHM29M บึง marsh have lotus inside HSM26F บึง man-made marsh MS2F บึง large pond cannot swim SSD8M บึง large pond SSD8M กวาน large pond containing fish MS1M กวาน large man-made pond MM9F กวาน large pond 128

กวาน kwaanH is a large pond filled with fish from the King who tries to preserve and breed the fish, while บึง buengM and หนอง norngR are only a marsh may or may not have fish.

Item # 45.4 ฮองเหมือง horngF mueangR ‘ditch’ ฮองเหมือง horngF mueangR 20 ฮองเมี๋ยง horngF miangR 2 ฮองน้ํา horngF naamH 1 น้ําเมี๋ยง naamH miangR 1 น้ําเหมือง naamH mueangR 2 ลองเหมือง lorngF mueangR 3 informid item comtext CWP13M ฮองเหมือง a small ditch at the back of the land CWP15M ฮองเหมือง ditch for agricultural CHM29M ฮองเหมือง small ditch HSM26F ฮองเหมือง small ditch HSM26F ฮองเมี๋ยง a small ditch at the back of the land MM9F ฮองเมี๋ยง ditch for agricultural CWP13M ฮองน้ํา ditch

CWP15F น้ําเมี๋ยง ditch HSM26F น้ําเหมือง ditch MM9F น้ําเหมือง ditch CWP13M ลองเหมือง small ditch CWP15F ลองเหมือง small ditch

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Item # 45.5 ฝาย faayR ‘dam’ เขื่อน khueanL 10 ฝาย faayR 34 เหมือง mueangR 1 คือ khueM 2 informid item comtext CWP13M เขื่อน big dam for electricity CWP15M เขื่อน big dam for agricultural CHM29M เขื่อน produce electricity HSM26F เขื่อน produce electricity DO33F เขื่อน produce elctricity CWP13M ฝาย dam for irrigation CWP14F ฝาย reservoir for reserving water CWP15M ฝาย small dam for agricultural CWP16F ฝาย small dam for agricultural CFM20M ฝาย small dam for irrigation and electricity CHM32F เหมือง small ditch for irrigation HSM28F คือ not knowing difference between”ฝาย” and “คือ” CFM20M คือ small canal for irrigation เขื่อน khueanL is for the production of electricity, while ฝาย fayR is for cultivation .

Item # 45.6 หวย huayF ‘creek’ น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF 4 หวย huayF 14 โหย hohyHF 19 130

informid item comtext CFM18F น้ําโหย from the mountain CWP13M น้ําโหย from the mountain DO36F น้ําโหย from the mountain CWP14F น้ําโหย from the mountain CFM19M หวย from the waterfall CFM20M หวย from the mountain MM12M โหย from the mountain DO34M โหย small stream of water Only the pronuniciation difference occurs here. The meanings are the same.

Item # 45.7 น้ําบอ naamH borL ‘pond, well’ บอ borL 5 น้ําบอ naamH borL 30 informid item comtext SM22F น้ําบอ a man-made well deep in the ground for drinking DO33F น้ําบอ well deep in the ground DO34F น้ําบอ well that use a ladle to scoop water

HSM27M น้ําบอ for drinking purpose MS1M น้ําบอ deep well underground CFM17F บอ a pond CWP13M บอ a pond not deep CWP15M บอ a pond CWP16F บอ man-made pond CHM29M บอ used for drinking or cleaning 131

In old style houses in Chiangmai, people usually have a well dug deeply in the ground and consume the water for household.

Item # 46. แมน้ํา maeF naamH ‘river’ แมน้ํา maeF naamH 26 น้ําโหย naamH hohyHF 12 น้ําฮอง naamH horngF 1 น้ํา naamH 4 น้ําแม naamH maeF 24 informid item comtext MS4F น้ําแม northern Thai substitute word SSD5M น้ําแม river SSD6F น้ําแม followed by name like น้ําแม Thames SSD7F น้ําแม river MS1M น้ําแม  river DO36F น้ําแม  switch the order from Standard Thai SM22F น้ําแม  river CFM17F น้ํา shortened form CWP15M น้ํา water from the river

HSM25M น้ํา river CWP16F น้ํา river CFM17F แมน้ํา Standard Thai CFM18F แมน้ํา at the end of the river CWP13M แมน้ํา river CFM18F น้ําโหย in the mountain CWP13M น้ําโหย from the mountain

CWP13M น้ําฮอง flow like a stream of water 132

The Standard Thai formal word for river is แมนา้ํ maeF naamH, such as แมน้ําปง maeF naamH pingM is for the main river of Chiangmai. Sometimes in Chiangmai dialect they can switch the order to be น้ําแมปง naamH maeF pingM.

Item # 47. น้ําตก naamH tokL ‘waterfall’ น้ําตก naamH tokL 15 น้ําจอก naamH corkL 5 น้ําตก naamH tokR 18 informid item comtext CWP13M น้ําตก waterfall CWP15M น้ําตก from the mountain CWP14F น้ําตก waterfall HSM25M น้ําตก waterfall; many levels MS1M น้ําจอก rapid SSD8M น้ําจอก small stream of rapid MM12M น้ําจอก rapid HSM28F น้ําจอก small waterfall Chiangmai is very famous for very beautiful waterfalls which have many levels. If the waterfall is not high, we call it น้ําจอก naamH corkL.

Item # 48. ดอย doryM ‘mountain’ ดอย doryM 35 ภูเขา phuuM khawR 2 เขา khawR 1 มอน mornF 29 ลูก luukF 2

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แปดอย paeR doryM 3 สัน sanR 1

informid item comtext CWP13M ดอย hill CHM29M ดอย mostly the northern Thai word SSD7F ดอย colloquial CWP13M มอน classifier of hill CWP14F มอน classifier of hill northern Thai word CHM29M มอน classifier of hill HSM25M มอน a mountain, small one not tall CHM32F แปดอย small hill not high CWP13M แปดอย small hill not high CWP14F แปดอย the same as สัน sanR CWP14F ลูก classifier of hill Standard Thai CHM29M ภูเขา common word for hill SSD7F ภูเขา formal HSM25M สัน not high mountain SSD7F เขา lots of mountain Sometimes people use the word ดอย doryM and มอน mornF as one word to mean a mountain.

Item # 48.1.1 ยอดดอย yortF doryM ‘top of the hill’ หลังดอย langR doryM 3 ปายดอย paayR doryM 10 จิกดอย cikL doryM 1 ยอดเขา yortF khawR 2

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ยอดดอย yortF doryM 15 บนดอย bonM doryM 4

informid item comtext CWP13M หลังดอย back of hill CWP14F หลังดอย peak of hill CFM18F หลังดอย peak of the hill SM23M ปายดอย end of hill CWP16F ปายดอย peak of hill DO35M ปายดอย on the hill CHM32F จิกดอย at the end of the mountain HSM27M ยอดเขา topmost CFM20M ยอดเขา the highest point HSM27M ยอดดอย topmost DO33F ยอดดอย highest DO33F บนดอย peak SM21F บนดอย up on the top of the mountain DO34M บนดอย on the mountain The way people interpret the top of the mountain depends on where they are and how they look at the mountain. บนดอย bonM doryM can mean 'on the mountain' but it is not necessary to be at the topmost of the mountain.

Item # 48.1.2 ตีนดอย tiinM doryM ‘foot of the hill’ ตี๋นดอย tiinR doryM 27 ตีนเขา tiinM khawR 2 ตีนดอย tiinM doryM 6 เมิ้งดอย moengH doryM 3

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informid item comtext SM22F ตี๋นดอย foot DO33F ตี๋นดอย end of the mountain CWP13M ตี๋นดอย foot of the hill CHM32F เมิ้งดอย foot of the hill HSM28F เมิ้งดอย foot of the hill DO35M เมิ้งดอย the lower level when coming down the mountain SSD8M ตีนดอย foot of the hill CFM20M ตีนดอย foot CFM20M ตีนเขา foot HSM27M ตีนเขา foot of the mountain The word เขา khawR is shortened from the word ภูเขา phuuM khawR in Standard Thai, but the Chiangmai dialect uses the word ดอย doryM instead, and there is also the word ภูดอย phuuM doryM. I think it is a redundancy since the word ภ ู phuuM also means 'mountain'. There is one word I have never used myself, เมิ้งดอย moengH doryM, but my informants insist that it means 'foot of the hill'.

Item # 48.1.3 หุบเขา hupL khawR ‘valley’ กิ่ว kiwL 18

หนาผา naaF phaaR 15 เหว hehwR 7 หวย huayF 1 หุบเขา hupL khawR 4 กนโหย konF hohyHF 6 กนเหว konF hehwR 6 สะหร็อกหวย saL rorkL huayF 7 เงิ้มผา ngoemH phaaR 5 136

โฮงดอย hongH doryM 3 เงิบผา ngoepF phaaR 6

informid item comtext CWP13M กิ่ว slope to the ground CWP14F กิ่ว small valley in the ground CFM18F กิ่ว small hole in the ground CWP15M หนาผา cliff CWP16M หนาผา cliff CWP15M เหว chasm CWP16F เหว chasm CHM30F หวย space in the air under ground CHM29M หุบเขา valley MS2F หุบเขา valley MM10M หุบเขา valley HSM26F กนโหย bottom of chasm HSM26F กนเหว bottom of chasm DO34M สะหร็อกหวย heard from the grandparents CHM32F สะหร็อกหวย bottom of chasm HSM27M สะหร็อกหวย bottom of the valley DO35M สะหร็อกหวย the deepest part of the valley CFM20M สะหร็อกหวย valleys between two mountains MS1M เงิ้มผา shady at the bottom of hills MM12M เงิ้มผา shady area of the chasm SSD8M เงิ้มผา bottom of hill with a shade DO35M โฮงดอย the end of the mountain with a plain HSM25M โฮงดอย the empty space between two mountains CHM29M โฮงดอย the bottom of the valley 137

SSD8M เงิบผา bottom of hill with a shade MM9F เงิบผา the shady area of the valley HSM28F เงิบผา the deepest valley HSM25M ผา like a cliff CHM32F ผา a cliff very steep DO36F ผา a cliff This set of items is very interesting. There are four words that not so many people have ever used or understood, especially when I checked back to my younger generation informants, who all said that they don’t know what they mean. สะหร็อกหวย saL rorkL huayF and โฮงดอย hongH doryM are not familiar to me either; in fact there are only seven and three informants who answered them, respectively. About the word เงบผาิ ngoepF phaaR and เงิ้มผา ngoemH phaaR, there is a place in Chiangmai called ผาเงิบ phaaR ngoepFwhere there is a shady little valley like a small cliff where people can sit and picnic. That might be the same word or close to the meaning of these two words.

Item # 49. ตี้ราบลุม tiiF raapF lumF ‘plain’ ตี้ลาบ tiiF laapF 4 ปนลาบ puenH laapF 3 ตี้ลาบลุม tiiF laapF lumF 1

informid item comtext MM10M ตี้ลาบลุม plain for rice MM11F ตี้ลาบ plain for agriculture CFM18F ตี้ลาบ no hill or slope CWP13M ตี้ลาบ agriculture purpose SM23M ปนลาบ ground DO35M ปนลาบ plain for cultivation CHM32F ปนลาบ plain land 138

When you talk about ปนลาบ puenH laapF, you can mean the people who are not living on the mountain like the hilltribes people, but when you mention about ตี้ลาบ tiiF laapF, you mean the plain for cultivation.

Item # 49.1 ดิน dinM ‘soil’ ดินดี dinM diiM 30 ดินพุย dinM phuyF 3 ดินบดี dinM borL diiM 30 ดินบพุย dinM borL phuyF 3 informid item comtext DO34M ดินพุย good soil for growing MS1M ดินพุย keep water in the soil CHM31M ดินพุย crumble the soil before planting the seed DO34M ดินบพุย hard soil MM9F ดินบพุย not keep water in the soil CHM31M ดินบพุย soil which is not good for cultivation SM23M ดินดี good soil SM23M ดินบดี bad soil The word พุย phuyF is not familiar to me.There are only four informants who use

this word. They said in their home they use this word all the time when talking about the soil that is not hard so it is good to grow plants. In Standard Thai there is one word, ซุย suyM, used for crumbling soil so you can break the soil and fertilize and prepare for planting your seeds. ดินพุย dinM phuyF has the same texture like that.

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Item # 50. ถนน thaL nonR ‘road’ ถนน thaL nonR 23 หนตาง honR taangM 13 ตาง taangM 4 informid item comtext MS1M ตาง northern Thai word shortened form MM9F ตาง small road MM12M ตาง can be asphalt or dirt road SSD8M ตาง can be small road or highway MS1M หนตาง northern Thai word CHM30F หนตาง dirt road HSM27M หนตาง road SM21F หนตาง road; big one HSM25M ถนน road DO35M ถนน big road ถนน thaL nonR is concrete but หนตาง honR taangM and ตาง taangM can be abstract ideas for telling the direction.

Item # 51. ตี้ลาด tiiF laatF ‘slope’ ตี้ลาด tiiF laatF 5 ผาลาด phaaR laatF 2 เติ้มดอย toemF doryM 2 หลิ่ง lingL 16 จิ๊ง cingH 18 จิ้ง cingF 3 จัน canM 4

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informid item comtext CWP13M ตี้ลาด slope CWP14F ตี้ลาด slope CHM30F ตี้ลาด slope CWP13M จิ๊ง high slope CWP15M จิ๊ง high slope; very steep CWP15M หลิ่ง slope CHM32F หลิ่ง slope; slide HSM27M ผาลาด cliff that are highly slope CFM20M ผาลาด the cliff that is not too steep MS1M เติ้มดอย old Thai found from dictionary MS2F เติ้มดอย from my ancestors SM22F จัน slope; steep MS2F จัน steep MM10M จัน steep CFM17F จิ้ง slided place SM21F จิ้ง steep DO34M จิ้ง steep We have a word ลาดชัน laatF chanM meaning 'slope' in order to avoid too much steepness. In Chaingmai dialect there are two words; one is หลิ่ง lingL mean 'slope' and another is จัน canM mean 'steep'. Yet, slope and steep are not the same as in standard Thai. The word เติ้มดอย toemF doryM is irregular for me. One informant who answered it is a guru in poetry and he said this word has been used in the epic and he said it is almost the same as American Literature sometimes has an Old English word. He called this word an Old Chiangmai word.

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Item # 54. เขิน khoenR ‘shallow’ เขิน khoenR 4 ตื้น tuenF 35 ต่ํา tamL 3 informid item comtext MS4F ตื้น shallow water SSD5M ตื้น shallow CFM17F ตื้น shallow because of sediment DO34M ตื้น can see the bottom of the river CFM17F ต่ํา low DO34M ต่ํา not too high to touch MM10M เขิน high-riser in clothes MM11F เขิน low-tide เขิน khoenR is used with things that are shorter than expected, such as pants that becomes too short for you to wear as you grow up. ตื้น tuenF is for shallow water only. However, in standard Thai we have the word ตื้นเขิน tuenF khoenR used only in the meaning 'shallow water'.

Item # 55. ซอย soryM ‘small road’ กองหนอย korngM noryHF 27 ซอย soryM 9 ขอก khorkL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M กองหนอย small road CWP14F กองหนอย small dirt road CWP15M กองหนอย small road; concrete or dirt CWP16F กองหนอย small red road 142

MM9F กองหนอย bigger than ขอก khorkL but smaller than street SSD8M กองหนอย two-lane but small D035M ซอย small road; concrete CHM32F ซอย off main street MM10M ขอก small road; no car passes SSD8M ขอก small road; only one person can walk MM9F ขอก small road; only bicycle and people not cars The difference of this variant is the size of the road. Compared to ซอย soryM, กอง หนอย korngM noryHF is smaller, but compared to ขอก khorkL, it is bigger.

V. Containers and Implements This wordlist include a large set of containers, some of which do not have exact synonyms with English terms because of cultural and occupational differences between the people of Chiangmai and American communities.

Item # 56. โอง ohngL ‘jar’ หมอโอง morF ohngL 8 โอง ohngL 36 ตุม tumL 12

ไห hayR 35 หอย horyR 1 informid item comtext CWP13M หมอโอง earthen jar storing water CWP14F หมอโอง earthen jar aluminum lid HSM25M หมอโอง yellow earthen jar CFM18F หมอโอง red earthen jar CWP15M โอง earthen jar yellow color 143

DO34M โอง earthen; very large CHM30F โอง fat round barrel but made of earth HSM26F โอง earthen jar DO35M โอง earthen jar CWP16F ไห small jar storing rice HSM26F ไห earthen; handle on each side DO33F ไห earthen; set on head CWP13M ไห smaller than โอง ohngL CHM30F หอย jar storing rice CHM28M ตุม jar storing water DO33F ตุม earthen; no handle CHM31M ตุม mostly keep water MS2F ตุม store water In Chiangmai, people keep rice in the ไห hayR and keep water in the other variants of jar. In Standard Thai we keep rice in a bucket called ถัง thangR; in China ไห hayR is used to keep liquor.

Item # 57. ถวย thuayHF ‘cup’ ถวย thuayHF 20

ถวยแกว thuayHF kaewHF 1 โถย thohyHF 18 แกว kaewHF 36 แกวงวง kaewHF nguangM 1 เกี้ยว kiawHF 3 จอก corkL 24 กอก korkL 26 พาน phaanM 1 144

ขัน khanR 15 แพง phaengF 5 สะหลุง saL lungR 3 เปก pekH 4 กง kongH 6 ตอง torngM 2

informid item comtext DO34M โถย cup CWP14F โถย cup can have handle CWP15M โถย cup no handle DO34M เกี้ยว glass; plastic CFM17F เกี้ยว glass CWP15M เกี้ยว cup for drinking water DO34M กอก small glass; plastic MS2F กอก glass; plastic MM9F กอก small plastic cup HSM28F กอก small plastic for beggar MS2F แกว glass; fragile DO35M แพง for drinking whisky MS1M แพง for whisky MM12M แพง for whisky SSD8M แพง for whisky purpose MS2F ถวย cup; plastic MM9F ถวย cup MS2F จอก small plastic cup for liquor SSD8M จอก small cup MM9F จอก wooden cup 145

SSD8M สะหลุง silverware; put water MM9F สะหลุง silverware; religious purpose HSM28F สะหลุง for religious purpose MM9F ขัน silverware; basin SM23M ขัน plastic basin; take a bath HSM28F ขัน aluminum basin CFM18F เปก for whiskey CWP14F เปก for whisky CWP13M เปก for whisky CFM18F กง for whiskey CWP13M กง small cup for whisky CWP14F กง small cup HSM26F กง for whisky CWP13M แกวงวง cup with a handle CWP13M พาน offering plate for religious CWP13M ถวยแกว foral term for แกว kaewHF CWP13M ตอง small cup HSM25M ตอง small cup A lot of words refer to small cups for whiskey. They are different in the size of

the cup. Three people answered สะหลุง saL lungR, which may not belong to this category because it is the same as 'basin made of silver' and most of the time we use it for religious purposes.

Item # 57.5 ขวด khuatL ‘bottle’ ขวด khuatL 29 ขวดโหล khuatL lohR 3 โหล lohR 2 146

บอก borkL 18 กระบอก kraL borkL 4 กะบอก kaL borkL 13

informid item comtext CWP13M ขวดโหล glass; store food CWP29M ขวดโหล plastic or glass; store everything but water HSM27M ขวดโหล plastic or glass; transparent CWP14F ขวด glass; store water MS1M ขวด cylindrical glass for water DO35M ขวด glass; store water HSM27M โหล glass; many shapes CFM20M โหล glass HSM25M บอก bamboo; stuff with sticky rice, coconut milk HSM27M บอก bamboo MS1M บอก bamboo containing sticky rice DO35M กะบอก bamboo; store water SM23M กะบอก bamboo; keep small things CHM30F กะบอก bamboo container CFM17F กระบอก bamboo; store water CWP16F กระบอก bamboo container SM23M กระบอก store food The difference of the variants is the texture of the bottle. The first three variants are made of glass so they are fragile and transparent so most people put solid food such as cookies and candies or liquid food such as water and juice inside. They can be made of translucent plastic as well, used to store water. The last three variants are made of 147

bamboo; sometimes people put water in them but most of the time they put solid matter such as paper or maps. One special use of the bamboo container is to put sticky rice with coconut milk inside and burn them to eat as a dessert.

Item # 58.1 เขง khengL ‘round crate’ ซา saaH 3 โกย kohyR 11 เขง khengL 22 ซาขี้โค saaH khiiF khohF 1 กวย kuayR 6 informid item comtext CWP13M เขง small round crate; bamboo; contain fish CWP14F เขง big bamboo; transports fruits or fish CWP15M เขง bamboo; put fruits or fish CWP15M ซา bamboo; put charcoal CWP16F ซา bamboo; store things CFM17F ซา big container HSM26F โกย bamboo; put charcoal HSM25M โกย basket made of bamboo

SM21F โกย bamboo container DO34M ซาขี้โค bamboo; garbage bin CFM20M กวย bamboo; store charcoal MS3M กวย put trash inside MS4F กวย can put everything inside SSD8M กวย basket One word that is interesting is ซาขี้โค saaH khiiF khohF. It looks like the container in which you can put a litter of the animals. 148

Item # 58.2 ชะลอม chaL lormM ‘bamboo basket’ ชะลอม chaL lormM 9 ซะลอม saL lormM 2 กวยหนอย kuayR noryHF 6 โกย kohyR 5 ซาลอม saaH lormM 11 กวย kuayR 8 ซาเปาะหีควาย saaH porH hiiR khwaayM 9 ซาลอม saaH lormH 7 informid item comtext SM23M ซาลอม bamboo; round; store fruits HSM28F ซาลอม bamboo; round; store fruits MS1M ซาลอม made of bamboo DO33F ซาลอม for fruits DO34M ซาลอม for sausage SM23M ซาเปาะหีควาย bamboo; round; store soil DO33F ซาเปาะหีควาย for fertilizer DO34M ซาเปาะหีควาย can be used for keeping animal litter SM24M ซาเปาะหีควาย bamboo container

HSM28F กวย bamboo; round; store charcoal MM9F กวย trash bin MS1M กวย store charcoal MM10M ชะลอม bamboo; round; store food MM9F ชะลอม food container CWP13M ชะลอม food container; no liquid CFM17F กวยหนอย small bamboo for charcoal CWP15M กวยหนอย charcoal bag 149

CWP16F กวยหนอย bamboo basket CFM18F ซะลอม small bamboo for food CWP14F ซะลอม for fruits SM23M ซาลอม bamboo for longan or lychee MS1M ซาลอม for fruits MS3M ซาลอม for fruits MS2F โกย trash bin CHM29M โกย trash bin HSM25M โกย put charcoal Most of the time this item is used for storing fruits and food which is solid such as sausage, or fish. I had never heard before that people use ชะลอม chaL lormM for charcoal. In my house in Chaingmai, we put charcoal in กวย kuayR.

Item # 58.3 ปุงกี๋ pungF kiiR ‘basket’ ( with one side open) สะเปาะหีควาย saL porH hiiR khwaayM 3 ปุงกี๋ pungF kiiR 20 ซาหีควาย saaH hiiR khwaayM 4 บุงกี๋ bungF kiiR 1 ซาปงควาย saaH pangR khwaayM 1

ซาควาย saaH khwaayM 1 ซาหลังควาย saaH langR khwaayM 1 informid item comtext CWP13M สะเปาะหีควาย canvas; store soil CWP14F สะเปาะหีควาย bamboo; store soil CHM30F ปุงกี๋ canvas; store charcoal HSM27M ปุงกี๋ tough canvas; store soil CHM30F ซาหีควาย canvas; store soil 150

HSM 26F ซาหีควาย basket one side open; tough HSM27M ซาหีควาย tough canvas basket CHM29M บุงกี๋ canvas; store dirt HSM26F ซาปงควาย basket one side open; tough HSM26F ซาควาย basket one side open; tough A lot of words end up with the word ควาย hhwaayM which originally means 'buffalo'. I think it is a metaphor to make you understand that this basket is tough and strong like a buffalo.

Item # 58.4 กระเชา kraL chawH ‘basket” (handle at top) ตะติ้ว taH tiwF 3 ซา saaH 12 กระเชา kraL chawH 9 ติ้วซา tiwF saaH 1 ขะเชา khaL chawH 2 กะเชา kaL chawH 5 กะเซา kaL sawH 3 กระเซา kraL sawH 3 informid item comtext

CWP13M ตะติ้ว plastic; with handle for flowers CWP14F ตะติ้ว plastic; with handle for New Year CFM18F ตะติ้ว plastic handle on top CWP15M ซา bag contains flowers CWP16M ซา plastic; with handle; for fruits HSM27M ซา bamboo; with handle; for fruits MS1M ซา bag; with handle; for vegetables CHM30F กระเชา plastic; with handle; for flowers 151

CHM29M กระเชา wood, with handle; for fruits CFM20M กระเซา bamboo; with handle; for flowers MS3M กระเซา plastic with handle on top MS4F กระเซา rattan put the fruits in HSM26F ติ้วซา bamboo; with handle; for fruits MS1M ขะเชา basket; with handle; for vegetables MM12M ขะเชา flowers container SM21F กะเชา bamboo; with handle; for fruits CHM31M กะเชา handle at the top SSD7F กะเชา plastic with handle on top DO33F กะเซา bamboo; with handle; for flowers DO34M กะเซา bamboo with handle on top SM24M กะเซา rattan with handle on top This item has a handle on the top to carry. It is typical of the pronunciation of [ch] to be changed to [s] as in กะเชา kaL chawH to กะเซา kaL sawH.

Item # 58.5 กระบุง kraL bungM ‘closely woven bamboo basket’ กระบุง kraL bungM 8 บุง bungM 8

เปยด piatF 31 เจก cekF 1 กะบุง kaL bungM 2 informid item comtext CWP13M กระบุง bamboo CWP13M บุง shortened form MS1M บุง bamboo, on the back CWP13M เปยด small woven bamboo 152

CHM32F เปยด small bamboo HSM26F เปยด small round bamboo HSM25M เปยด bamboo, on the back, put vegetables DO34M เปยด bamboo basket, back packed CHM31M เปยด back packed for Karen tribe CHM31M เจก can carry on head or wrap around waist MM10M กะบุง bamboo basket; have lid MM11F กะบุง bamboo basket, can put vegetables This container is smaller than Item # 58.4 and there is no handle. But there is sometimes a strap made of rattan or bamboo and you can swing it back like a backpack. Only one informant gave the word เจก cekF, and I don’t know about this.

Item # 58.6 ตะกรา taL kraaF ‘basket’ โกย kohyR 7 ซา saaH 19 ติ้วซา tiwF saaH 1 ถัง thangR 4 ตะกรา taL kraaF 6 informid item comtext

HSM25M ซา with or without handle SM21F ซา hamper DO35M ซา trash can CHM32F ซา box HSM27M ซา basket DO33F ถัง plastic with handle for clothes DO34M ถัง wood with wire bail CWP16F ถัง beer container 153

CHM30F ถัง trash can HSM27M โกย trash can HSM25M โกย trash can HSM26F โกย basket for grocery HSM26F ติ้วซา plastic with handle for grocery If you talk about โกย kohyR, most of the time you think about a trash bin. If you talk about ซา saaH, it can be a basket which you can keep everything such as clothes to do laundry, trash, or groceries. For me, ถัง thangR is the metal one or plastic container with or without a handle in which you can put trash or even rice. My informant thinks about a barrel for beer.

Item # 59. ถัง thangR ‘bucket’ ถัง thangR 36 คุยาง khuH yangM 8 ตาง taangM 3 informid item comtext CWP13M ถัง wood with wire bail CWP14F ถัง wood, no handle, set on head CWP15M ถัง metal or wooden with bail

CWP16F ถัง wood with a handle CHM30F ถัง wood with wire bail CHM29M ถัง wood; handle at each side HSM26F ถัง plastic HSM27M ถัง plastic with handle MS1M ถัง for water HSM25M ถัง two gallons for milk SM21F ถัง metal or wooden 154

DO35M ถัง plastic with handle CHM32F ถัง plastic with handle for water DO32F ถัง two gallons for milk SM22F ถัง plastic DO33F ถัง wood, with wire handle DO34M ถัง wood with handle CHM31M ถัง aluminum MS2F ถัง bucket MS3M ถัง galvanized aluminum MS4F ถัง wooden part of ice cream churn SSD5M ถัง only plastic SSD6F ถัง wood with handle SSD7F ถัง plastic with no handle SSD8M ถัง wooden MM9F ถัง metal with a foot pedal MM10M ถัง metal with foot pedal

MM11F ถัง hamper MM12M ถัง plastic for trash CFM17F ถัง wood with handle

CFM18F ถัง metal for trash CFM19M ถัง wood; handle at each side CFM20M ถัง aluminum SM23M ถัง only plastic SM24M ถัง wood or plastic with handle HSM28F ถัง metal DO33F คุยาง plastic with handle DO34M คุยาง plastic with handle 155

SM24M คุยาง plastic for water DO35M คุยาง plastic for water DO34M ตาง plastic SM24M ตาง plastic for trash HSM27M ตาง plastic I am not familiar with the word ตาง taangM but I think there may be a sound change from the word ถัง thaangR.

Item # 60. ลัง langM ‘crate usually made of cardboard’ ลัง langM 36 หีบ hiipL 3 กอง korngL 29 กลอง klorngL 4 กับ kapL 5 informid item comtext CWP13M ลัง cardboard; book CWP14F ลัง plastic; pepsi, coke CWP15M ลัง plastic; pepsi; coke MS1M ลัง cardboard; books

HSM25M ลัง cardboard; storage things SSD8M ลัง cardboard MM9F ลัง cardboard HSM28F ลัง cardboard SSD8M หีบ wood; chest MM9F หีบ wood; books HSM28F หีบ treasure chest; wood CWP13M กอง box made of cardboard 156

CWP14F กอง jewelry box CWP15M กอง cereal box CFM17F กอง plastic cap for pills HSM27M กลอง cardboard; books MS1M กลอง moving boxes MS1M กับ small box for pills SSD8M กับ medicine box; paper package MM9F กับ small box for pills MM12M กับ small box The variant กับ kapL is usually not made of cardboard; in fact, it is sometimes made of paper but most of the time of plastic or metal. However, five informants who are from different areas gave this response.

Item # 61. กระดง kraL dongF ‘winnowing basket’ กระดง kraL dongF 11 ถาด thaatL 12 เบียน bianM 5 กะดง kaL dongF 3 ดง dongF 21

กระจาด kraL caatL 20 ซาเปาะ saaH porH 1 กะจาด kaL caatL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M ดง winnowing basket CWP14F ดง sifter for rice husk CHM30F ดง sifter for rice husk CWP13M กระจาด basket made of interwoven bamboo slivers 157

CWP14F กระจาด bamboo spread face CHM30F กระจาด basket container for things to sell CHM30F กระจาด basket container for things to sell CWP13M ซาเปาะ basket CHM30F เบียน basket CWP14F เบียน winnowing basket DO33F เบียน shake unhusked rice away DO36F เบียน winnowing basket SM21F เบียน winnowing basket HSM25M กะจาด big basket made of bamboo SSD7F กะจาด big wide tray MM11F กะจาด wide spreaded tray HSM25M ถาด tray made of bamboo CWP15M ถาด bamboo tray for rice CWP16F ถาด you can put raw meat in here and leave in the sun DO33F ถาด put food inside DO35M กระดง sifter for husk CHM32F กระดง winnowing basket DO36F กระดง winnowing basket MM11F กะดง for rice only CHM29M กะดง for unhusked rice HSM25M กะดง basket with spread mouth

The term that matches with Standard Thai for this item is กระดง kraL dongF, although there are some pronunciation changes in the variants. There are five informants who answered เบียน bianM , all of whom are females.

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Item # 62. กระโถน kraL thohnR ‘spittoon’ กระโถน kraL thohnR 11 กะโถน kaL thohnR 25 กอกหมาก korkL maakL 2 อองน้ําหมาก orngF naamH maakL 2 โถน้ําหมาก thohR naamH maakL 2 informid item comtext SM21F กะโถน spittoon for saliva CHM32F กะโถน spittoon CFM18F กะโถน spittoon for seeds DO35M กระโถน tobacco extinguisher DO34M กอกหมาก place to keep betel nut CHM29M กอกหมาก spit the juice from the betel nut CHM29M อองน้ําหมาก spit jiuce after chewing betel nut DO34M อองน้ําหมาก spit seeds of the betel nut DO34M โถน้ําหมาก spit juice after chewing betel nut CHM29M โถน้ําหมาก spit the juice from the betel nut In former times women liked to chew betel nut to make their mouths red.When they chew, they spit the seed or the juice in a spittoon.

Item # 63. หมอ morF ‘pot’ หมอดินดํา morF dinM damM 1 หมอหู morF huuR 2 หมอ morF 34 informid item comtext CWP13M หมอดินดํา earthen jar HSM26F หมอห ู aluminum or earthen with handle 159

CWP13M หมอหู earthen jar with handle CWP14F หมอ aluminum pot CWP15M หมอ potluck CWP16F หมอ potluck party CHM30F หมอ curry HSM27M หมอ mostly curry or soup In former times the placenta of the new born baby was put into an earthen pot by the midwife and sometimes in legend they said that earthen pot can keep a bad spirit or a ghost inside. That pot has to be sunk to the bottom of the river so that the spirit will not come out and trouble human beings. Now we use pots for cooking.

Item # 64. อาง aangL ‘basin’ อาง aangL 28 ถวยกะลึง thuayF kaL luengM 4 ถังเป thangR pehM 16 กะละมัง kaL laL mangM 16 ถวยกะเลิ้ง thuayF kaL loengHF 4 ถวยหลวง thuayF luangR 1 informid item comtext

DO33F กะละมัง large tub; rounded MS2F กะละมัง plastic bowl wash clothes DO34M ถังเป large tub; wash clothes CHM31M ถังเป big tub; oval shaped MS3M ถังเป large basin CWP15M ถังเป large basin CHM31M ถวยกะเลิ้ง big tub; ova; shaped DO33F ถวยกะเลิ้ง big plastic tub for washing 160

DO34M ถวยกะเลิ้ง big plastic tub CHM31M ถวยกะเลิ้ง big bowl MS2F อาง bowl wash face MS3M อาง big tub; oval shaped CWP13M ถวยกะลึง big tub; wash vegetables CWP14F ถวยกะลึง big tub CFM18F ถวยกะลึง plastc, big tub or basin CHM30F ถวยหลวง big bowl; หลวง luangR means big We borrow the word กะละมัง kaL laL mangM from Standard Thai to replace the word ถังเป thangR pehM.

Item # 65. ถุง thungR ‘bag’ ถุง thungR 36 โถง thohngR 4 ถง thongR 7 ถุงแซว thungR saewF 5 ถุงซาซาว thungR saaF sawF 3 ถุงใส thungR sayR 1 ถุงฮอน thungR hornH 1

ถุงปากฮูด thungR paakL huutF 1 ไถ thayF 13 ไต tayF 6 informid item comtext CWP13M ถุง paper bag CWP14F ถุง sack CWP15M ถุง cloth, paper or plastic bag CWP16F ถุง paper bag 161

HSM26F ถุง burlap bag CWP13M ถุงปากฮูด bag for coins around waist CWP15M ถุงแซว plastic bag for grocery CWP16F ถุงแซว plastic clear bag for food CHM30F โถง cotton bag HSM27M โถง bag CFM20M โถง bag HSM26F ถุงซาซาว a bag named after a sound of a bag HSM27M ถุงซาซาว a bag named after a sound of a bag HSM26F ถุงใส plastic bag DO34M ไต  small bag around a waist DO33F ไต  small bag wrapped around a waist CHM31M ไต  I have one from mom MS2F ไถ  small bag around a waist MS3M ไถ  never used but see it from the library MM10M ไถ  don’t know much about this MS3M ถง plastic bag for food and drink MS4F ถง paper or plastic bag SSD8M ถง paper bag for grocery MM10M ถุงฮอน bag for hot drink, curry, food In former times when we used coins as a currency, we kept the coins in ไถ  thayF which is wrapped around the waist. The currency is called พดดวง photH duangF.

Item # 65.3 ยาม yaamF ‘bag’ ยาม yaamF 31 ถุงยาม thungR yaamF 1 โถง thohngR 1 162

ถุง thungR 3 ถง thongR 5 โถงสะปาย thohngR saL paayM 1

informid item comtext CWP13M ยาม bag made of cloth; for monk CWP14F ยาม cloth bag put books to school CWP15M ยาม cloth bag with strap on shoulder HSM26F ยาม cloth bag with strap on shoulder MS4F ยาม monk use; yellow color CWP13M ถุงยาม bag made of cloth; for monk CHM30F โถง bag with handle to hold HSM26F ถุง bag with handle HSM27M ถุง bag with a strap CFM20M ถุง book bag MS1M ถง bag with handle HSM28F ถง cotton bag MM12M ถง cotton bag with a strap DO33F โถงสะปาย bag with strap on shoulder Variant ยาม yaamF originally comes from the bag that monks carry, and they are yellow since the costume for monk is yellow. Lately, this variant is adapted to use for a bookbag for anybody to carry to school, and it has many colors.

Item # 65.4 เป pehF ‘backpack’ ถุง thungR 3 กระเปา kraL pawR 5 เป pehF 5

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กะเปา kaL pawR 7 ยาม yaamF 14

informid item comtext CWP13M ถุง backpack the same as bag CWP14F ถุง not known CWP15M กระเปา same as bag HSM28F กระเปา for everywhere HSM27M กะเปา book bag made of leather MS2F เป  borrowing from American MM10M เป  cotton- or nylon-made bag CFM17F เป  for school MS3M เป  for school to put books MM9F เป  book bag SM22F ยาม same as bag HSM25M ยาม book bag DO35M ยาม a backpack This word is a new word which we have borrowed from American culture where they use backpacks in every college and school. There are five people who used this word, all of whom are in the young generation and they all go to school. So they might have adopted this word to use from the school. A lot (14) still use the word ยาม yaamF although they carry or know backpack.

Item # 65.5 กระสอบ kraL sorpL ‘canvas bag’ กระสอบ kraL sorpL 12 ไต tayF 1 กะสอบ kaL sorpL 24 ถุงปุย thungR puyR 1 164

informid item comtext SSD7F กะสอบ heavy bag for boxer SSD8M กะสอบ canvas bag for fertilizer HSM25M กะสอบ for other things CFM18F กระสอบ canvas bag for rice CWP13M กระสอบ canvas bag for rice CWP14F กระสอบ sandbag CWP15M กระสอบ metaphor “กระสอบทราย” CWP16F กระสอบ canvas bag for boxer CWP13M ไต  small bag HSM25M ถุงปุย for fertilizer only I did not expect the word ไต  tayF here because the size of กระสอบ kraL sorpL is much bigger than ไต  tayF. Only one informant gave me this answer. Most กระสอบ kraL sorpL are thick and tough and used for carrying something heavy such as soil, fertilizer, or even sand for the boxer to practice kicking and punching.

Item # 65.6 กระเปา kraL pawR ‘bag’ ถุงหนอย thungR noryHF 1 ถุง thungR 2

กระเปาสะปาย kraL pawR saL payM 3 กระเปาซะตาง kraL pawR saH taangM 3 กระเปา kraL pawR 2 กะเปา kaL pawR 28 informid item comtext CWP13M ถุงหนอย purse for money CWP14F ถุง bag CFM18F ถุง bag with or without a handle 165

CWP15M กระเปาสะปาย bag with strap on shoulder CWP16F กระเปาสะปาย bag with handle CFM17F กระเปาสะปาย bag which can be carried on the shoulder CWP15M กระเปาซะตาง purse no strap or handle CWP16F กระเปาซะตาง purse which does not have handle CFM17F กระเปาซะตาง purse which has the handle HSM25M กะเปา bag for woman SM21F กะเปา bag with handle and/or strap SSD6F กระเปา for party at night CHM30F กระเปา luggage There are many types for bag: กระเปาซะตาง kraL pawR saH taangM can have a handle and can be carried on the shoulder; some have handles but the handles are too short to carry on the shoulder; กระเปา kraL pawR can mean luggage which has wheels and a bar to pull along, or it may not have any wheels.

Item # 66.1 แจกัน caeM kanM ‘vase’ โถ thohR 14 แจกัน caeM kanM 29 แจกันดอก caeM kanM dorkL 1

หมอดอก morF dorkL 5 พาน phaanM 19 ขัน khanR 16 ถาด thaatL 1 informid item comtext CWP13M โถ vase; tall; big mouth CHM30F โถ big tall vase with wide mouth HSM26F โถ big wide mouth vase 166

CWP14F แจกัน vase; tall; small narrow mouth HSM26F แจกัน vase for flower; narrow mouth CHM29M แจกัน vase MS1M แจกัน vase SSD8M แจกัน vase CWP15M พาน stand and broad opening CHM32F พาน used in religion CWP16F พาน big tray made of plastic or silverware CHM30F แจกันดอก vase; put flowers in CHM30F ขัน basin or bowl; silverware CWP14F ขัน aluminum basin MS1M ขัน plastic basin MS1M หมอดอก big pot; contain water for flowers SSD8M หมอดอก big pot; can put joss sticks and candles SM21F ถาด tray for putting flowers on In Chiangmai culture, there is a religious ceremony called ขันดอก khanR dorkL in which you put all the flowers in the basin to pay respect to the Lord Buddha or statue or the image of the monks in the temple. Here ขัน khanR is so big that it looks like a big pot since a lot of people come to join this ceremony.

Item # 68. หอ horL ‘bundle’ หอ horL 36 ปุก pukH 8 ปก pokH 11 มัด matH 36

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informid item comtext HSM25M หอ big bundle for food SM21F หอ bundle of chicken roasted over rice DO35M หอ package CHM32F หอ wrap end and head by rubber band CWP15M หอ sausage package CWP16F หอ cover books CHM32F ปก small bundle CWP16F ปก a bundle SM23M ปก many bundles CHM32F มัด wrap bundle together SSD5M มัด many bundles tied together CWP14F ปุก small bundle CFM20M ปุก small pices together CFM18F ปุก many small bundles หอ horL is only one piece; ปก pokH or มัด math are used if there are many หอ horL.

Item # 69. จาน caanM ‘plate’ ถวยแบน thuayHF baenM 13 จาน caanM 18 โถยแบน thohyHF baenM 9 ถวยตักแกง thuayHF takL kaengM 1 ถวย thuayHF 13 โถยแกง thohyHF kaengR 1 โถย thohyHF 5 โถยตักแกง thohyHF takL kaengR 6 168

ชาม chaamM 6 ถวยตักแกง thuayHF takL kaengR 1

informid item comtext CWP13M ถวยแบน plate CWP15M ถวยแบน glass plate for rice HSM26F ถวยแบน plate cannot put liquid CWP14F จาน plastic plate CWP15M จาน plate HSM26F จาน plate for rice SM22F จาน plate with flat bottom CHM30F โถยแบน plate for putting rice HSM27M โถยแบน plate for solid food DO35M โถยแบน for solid HSM26F ถวยตักแกง bowl for soup or curry HSM27M โถยตักแกง plate for liquid food D033F โถยตักแกง for soup CFM20M โถยตักแกง soup bowl MS1M โถย for soup or curry DO35M โถย for liquid CWP13M ถวยตักแกง for curry only CHM30F โถยแกง curry bowl CWP14F ถวย can fill soup SM22F ถวย for liquid SSD5M ถวย for ice-cream as well MM9F ถวย can be made of paper MM10M ชาม like a cup

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MM11F ชาม from Standard Thai for soup MS1M ชาม for liquid only In Standard Thai we have the word ถวยชาม thuayHF chaamM, which I think is redundant because the words ถวย thuayHF and ชาม chaamM mean the same. Chiangmai has two words separately.

Item # 70. กระปอง kraL porngR ‘bucket’ น้ําคุ naamH khuH 8 กะปอง kaL porngR 33 ฮอม hormM 6 กะหล็อก kaL lorkL 6 informid item comtext CWP13M น้ําค ุ use with well; with rope CWP14F น้ําค ุ with water; with rope CFM18F น้ําค ุ bucket to scoop water from the well CWP15M กะหล็อก bucket with handle DO34M กะหล็อก made of coconut shell MS1M กะหล็อก made of coconut shell MM12M กะหล็อก small bucket

CHM29M กะปอง made of aluminum HSM27M กะปอง aluminum MS1M กะปอง aluminum or plastic HSM28F ฮอม small aluminum bucket HSM27M ฮอม aluminum can DO36F ฮอม small bucket made of aluminum CFM20M ฮอม aluminum can

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CHM30F ฮอม made of aluminum DO33F ฮอม bucket, small one One word which I had not known before is ฮอม hormM. My informants said it is a small bucket or can or tin made of aluminum. The verb to ฮอม hormM means you collect money in the small can or tin for donations which may be related.

Item # 72.1 ขอบก khorR bokL ‘hoe’ ขอบก khorR bokL 15 ขอจาว khorR caawM 1 ขอบก khorR bokR 20 หัวบก huaR bokR 1 กะบก kaL bokR 1 informid item comtext CWP13M ขอบก hoe CWP14F ขอบก hoe dig in the ground CHM29M ขอบก hoe for garden CHM29M ขอจาว hoe used in the garden HSM25M ขอบก dig the ground SM21F ขอบก do the plots of orchard

SSD5M ขอบก hoe DO34M หัวบก dig the ground DO34M กะบก dig the ground Three new variants are included here. I am not familiar with the first one ขอจาว khorR caawM and cannot link it to any other things or action.

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Item # 72.2 พลั่ว phluaF ‘shovel’ พลั่ว phluaF 18 ลั่ว luaF 8 ชะแลง chaL laengM 4 ผาก phaakL 2 ซุน sunH 6 บวง buangF 1 informid item comtext CHM32F พลั่ว used in the garden MS2F พลั่ว dig the dirt to the hoe DO33F ลั่ว implement DO34M ลั่ว dig the ground CWP15M ซุน carry the dirt CWP16F ซุน make a hole in the ground MM9F ซุน carry the dirt MS1M ซุน carry the dirt SSD8M ซุน use in the garden MM12M ซุน dig the dirt CHM29M ชะแลง Standard Thai borrowing SSD5M ชะแลง carry the dirt MS3M ชะแลง carry the dirt CFM20M ผาก not quite known CFM18F ผาก to rake the dirt MM9F บวง carry the dirt Only two informants gave ผาก phaakL and when I checked the response with others, they did not know what this word is. However, six answered ซุน sunH. I thought 172

only some areas used this word, but when I looked at those six informants they came from different places so it may be only me who does not know this word.

Item # 72.5 คราด khraatF ‘rake’ หญาขอ nyaaL khorR 7 ขอจัง khorR cangM 7 คาด khaatF 2 เฝอ fueaR 2 เกี่ยวขอ kiawL khorR 6 ตะขอ taL khorR 1 คราด khraatF 3 ขอเกี่ยว khorR kiawL 9 informid item comtext CWP13M หญาขอ rake the grass CWP14F หญาขอ rake the dried leaves CFM18F หญาขอ rake the dried leaves CWP15M ขอจัง like a fork CWP16F ขอจัง the head is like a hook CFM17F ขอจัง rake the grass

CHM32F คาด rake the grass CHM30F คาด rake the dried leaves HSM26F เฝอ gather leaves CFM20M เฝอ gather leaves DO33F เกี่ยวขอ a hook hooks grass DO34M เกี่ยวขอ a hook hooks dried leaves CHM31M เกี่ยวขอ rake everything in the grass DO34M ตะขอ a hook hooks grass 173

MS2F คราด rake MM10M คราด raker MM11F คราด hook the dried leaves away SSD8M ขอเกี่ยว rake dried leaves MM9F ขอเกี่ยว raker CFM19M ขอเกี่ยว hook the things not needed in the ground HSM28F ขอเกี่ยว rake things fall down from the tree The rake has a fork to hook the grass together, which is the same meaning as ขอ khorR or ตะขอ taL khorR. One interesting point is that there are six informants who use the word เกี่ยวขอ kiawL khorR and nine informants who use the word ขอเกี่ยว khorR kiawL, which has the same meaning.

Item # 74. ตะปู taL puuR ‘nail’ เหล็กกน lekL konM 24 ตะปู taL puuR 12 เหล็กปน lekL pinL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M เหล็กกน old northern Thai word MM9F เหล็กกน nail

CWP14F เหล็กกน Northern word CHM29M ตะป ู Standard Thai CHM32F ตะป ู nail SM22F ตะป ู nail MM9F เหล็กปน nail; rarely used SSD8M เหล็กปน old word mean the same as nail MM9F เหล็กปน nail 174

I never heard the variant เหล็กปน lekL pinL before so I cannot tell the difference between this term and the rest. However, the word ตะป ู taL puuR is from Standard Thai while the word เหล็กกน lekL konM is from Chiangmai dialect.

Item # 75. กระบวย kraL buayM ‘ladle’ น้ําบวย naamH buayM 20 น้ําบวย naamH buayL 3 น้ําคุ naamH khuH 10 น้ําโบย naamH bohyM 2 น้ําทุง naamH thungF 3 informid item comtext CWP13M น้ําบวย wood; scooping water CWP14F น้ําบวย wood; handle HSM27M น้ําบวย dipper SM21F น้ําบวย it reminds me of comets CHM29F น้ําบวย wood; one handle SSD8M น้ําบวย wood; scooping water CHM30F น้ําบวย a long handle DO35M น้ําค ุ aluminum; rope at the end

CHM32F น้ําค ุ aluminum; scooping water form well DO36F น้ําค ุ can be made of rattan SM22F น้ําค ุ aluminum; has a long string MS3M น้ําโบย wood; with handle, dip water MS4F น้ําโบย wood; with handle, dip curry HSM28F น้ําทุง rattan; for well CHM30F น้ําทุง rattan; for scooping water DO36F น้ําทุง a water dipper 175

From what I know, น้ําบวย naamH buayM has a long handle and it is made of coconut shell, while น้ําค ุ naamH khuH has a long string to scoop water from the well or it is similar to a bucket and has a handle to carry.

VI. Household Goods This wordlist includes only kitchen utensils. Entries 77.1 introduce different kinds of charcoal in Chiangmai dialect, whereas Standard Thai will have only one general term ถาน thanL ‘charcoal’. Terms มีด miitF ‘knife’ (Item # 79) were used more frequently by men. Some did handicrafts; some hunted; some worked in the field or ranch; some cut trees, etc. All terms for the knife are related to work, compared to the women who stayed home doing housework. The result is that women have only one general term for knife.

Item # 76. กะทะ kaL thaH ‘frying pan’ หมอขาง morF khangR 20 กะทะ kaL thaH 18 informid item comtext CWP13M หมอขาง northern Thai word CWP14F หมอขาง wok in Chinese CWP15M กะทะ one large round pan

CWP16F กะทะ frying pan HSM25M กะทะ omelette pan Most frying pans in Thailand are like the Chinese wok. Our food is mostly stir fried or sautéed. The omelette that Americans have for breakfast can be served for every meal and we make it in the wok.

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Item # 76.1 ตะหลิว taL liwR ‘spatula’ ปากแบน paakF baenM 7 ปาก paakF 28 ตะหลิว taL liwR 15 ปาด paatF 32 informid item comtext CFM19M ปาด ladle to scoop liquid from pan CHM32F ปาด ladle for liquid food DO34M ปาด ladle CHM31M ปาด dipper CFM20M ตะหลิว spatula for solid food MM12M ตะหลิว frying scooper MM10M ตะหลิว doing omelette SM23M ปาก ladle CWP13M ปาก ladle CWP15M ปาก ladle HSM26F ปาก for soup or curry CFM18F ปากแบน ladle but flat mouth CWP13M ปากแบน fry things in a wok CWP14F ปากแบน to fry things There are two kinds of ladle: one has a flat mouth and we use it with the wok to fry something, which we call ตะหลิว taL liwR ; another is like an icecream scoop used for dipping or scooping liquid food such as soup or curry, which we call ปาก paakF. Standard Thai is ทัพพี thapH phiiM.

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Item # 77. เตา tawM ‘stove’ เตา tawR 12 เตา tawM 17 เตาฮั้งโล tawR hangF lohF 3 เตาไฟ tawR fayM 3 เตาฮังโล tawR hangM lohM 3 informid item comtext CWP13M เตา charcoal stove C WP15M เตา charcoal stove CWP16F เตา gas stove HSM27M เตา gas or charcoal stove CWP14F เตา gas stove HSM25M เตา gas or charcoal stove HSM27M เตาฮั้งโล  charcoal stove only CFM20M เตาฮั้งโล  charcoal stove MS1M เตาไฟ stove; place MM12M เตาไฟ stove DO33F เตาฮังโล charcoal stove only DO34M เตาฮังโล charcoal stove SM24M เตาฮังโล charcoal stove Thai people believe that food that is cooked with a charcoal stove will be more delicious than that cooked with an electric or gas stove. We have many different types of cooking by the charcoal stove, which we call เตาฮั้งโล  tawR hangF lohF, varying in the pronunciation. Currently, the new generation does not know what this kind of stove is. They are familiar with a gas stove, so they call every kind of stove เตา tawM.

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Item # 77.1 ฟน fuenM ‘charcoal’ ไมเกี๊ยะ maayH kiaH 14 เกี๊ยะ kiaH 21 ฟน fuenM 4 หลัว luaR 36 มาน maanF 3 ถาน thaanL 24 ขี้มิ่น khiiF minF 2 หมิ่น minL 25 หมิ่นหมอ minL morF 8 informid item comtext CWP13M ไมเกี๊ยะ kindling CWP14F ไมเกี๊ยะ one kind of wood to help the charcoal burn CWP15M ไมเกี๊ยะ one kind of wood CWP13M หลัว charcoal CWP14F หลัว charcoal; wood CHM29M หลัว charcoal MM9F หลัว charcoal CWP14F ขี้มิ่น soot

CFM18F ขี้มิ่น soot from the burning of the charcoal CWP15M หมิ่น black soot attached to the pot CWP15M ถาน standard Thai; carbon HSM25M ถาน charcoal only CHM29M เกี๊ยะ special wood for kindling MM9F เกี๊ยะ firewood MM12M เกี๊ยะ wood helps charcoal burning DO34M หมิ่นหมอ soot at the pot 179

MM9F หมิ่นหมอ black soot sticked to the pot SM24M หมิ่นหมอ soot from burning HSM28F หมิ่นหมอ soot from cooking MM10M ฟน charcoal, dried leaves, paper SM22F ฟน wood or charcoal DO35M มาน one kind of charcoal HSM28F มาน one kind of charcoal CHM32F มาน one kind of wood as a fuel When we use a charcoal stove, we use kindling called ไมเกี๊ยะ maayH kiaH to help the charcoal or the wood burn. This kind of kindling cannot be found outside of the northern parts of Thailand.

Item # 79. มีด miitF ‘knife’ มีดปายกด miitF payR kotH 4 มีด miitF 34 มีดงก miitF ngokH 2 มีดเหน็บ miitF nepL 3 มีดใหญ miitF yayL 7 มีดลาบจิ๊น miitF laapF cinH 8

มีดลาบ miitF laapF 9 มีดโต miitF tohH 3 มีดปะโต miitF paL tohH 6 มีดเหลา miitF lawR 3 มีดหนอย miitF noryHF 13 มีดซอยจิ๊น miitF soryM cinH 1 มีดบาง miitF baangM 1

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มีดซุย miitF suyM 3 มีดเล็ก miitF lekH 1

informid item comtext CWP13M มีดปายกด knife; end is not straight MM12M มีดปายกด knife with blunt edge for doing wood CWP15M มีดปายกด knife wuth crooked end CWP13M มีดเหน็บ small knife for cutting wood CWP15M มีดเหน็บ small knife for carrying outside DO34M มีดเหน็บ small knife for cutting wood CWP14F มีด knife in general CHM29M มีด knife MS2F มีด every kind of knife DO33F มีด knife SM22F มีด knife CHM32F มีด knife DO34M มีด knife CWP14F มีดเหลา peel the wood CFM18F มีดเหลา knife for peeling the exterior of wood MM1M มีดเหลา knife for peeling off the wood skim CWP15M มีดใหญ chop the wood CWP13M มีดใหญ big knife for cutting HSM25M มีดใหญ big knife for slicing CHM31M มีดใหญ big knife for chopping CWP16F มีดลาบจิ๊น ground the meat CWP15M มีดลาบจิ๊น women’s use for slice meat CHM30F มีดลาบจิ๊น cut meat HSM26F มีดลาบจิ๊น slicer for meat 181

HSM25M มีดลาบจิ๊น grind meat into giner pieces HSM27M มีดโต ground the meat MM10M มีดโต chop meat CFM20M มีดโต chopper HSM27M มีดลาบ cut meat CFM20M มีดลาบ cut meat SM23M มีดลาบ slicer SSD5M มีดลาบ slice meat into smaller thinner piece MS3M มีดลาบ slice meat HSM27M มีดงก small knife; portable CHM29M มีดงก small portable knife HSM25M มีดซอยจิ๊น cut meat DO33F มีดปะโต  cut and ground the meat DO34M มีดปะโต  chop meat SM24M มีดปะโต  chopper MM10M มีดบาง peel fruits MM10M มีดเล็ก small knife not for big job CFM18F มีดซุย small knife; peel wood SM23M มีดซุย small knife for peeling fruits CWP15M มีดหนอย small knife for every purpose

CWP16F มีดหนอย small knife HSM27M มีดหนอย small knife can carry out DO34M มีดหนอย small knife for peeling fruits Various types of knives are included here. The women informants told me they are not quite sure which knife is used with what job since they will be familiar with knives for cooking, such as a chopper or slicer. The rest deal with mens' jobs outside the 182

house, such as cutting wood, grinding planks, etc. So women’s vocabulary for this lexical item will be limited compared to that of men.

Item # 79.3 หินฝนมีด hinR fonR miitF ‘knife sharpener’ บะหินฝนมีด baL hinR fonR miitF 23 หินฝนมีด hinR fonR miitF 10 บาหินฝนมีด baaL hinR fonR miitF 2 informid item comtext CWP13M บะหินฝนมีด add “baL’ in front of name CWP14F บะหินฝนมีด Northern Thai CWP15M บะหินฝนมีด knife sharpener CWP16F บะหินฝนมีด knife sharpener DO35M หินฝนมีด knife sharpener DO36F หินฝนมีด to sharpen knife MS4F บาหินฝนมีด sharpen knife DO36F บาหินฝนมีด knife sharpener SM22F บาหินฝนมีด knife sharpener MS2F บาหินฝนมีด knife sharpener There is no difference between these three variants except the pronunciation.

Item # 82. สาก saakL ‘pestle’ สาก saakL 13 แกนคก kaenR khokR 7 แกนต๋ํา kaenL tamR 18 สากคก saakL khokH 5

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informid item comtext SSD7F แกนต๋ํา northern Thai word CFM20M แกนต๋ํา most common term HSM26F แกนต๋ํา pestle with handle to pound something HSM27M แกนต๋ํา pestle with wood handle SSD8M สากคก Standard Thai word MM9F สากคก not commonly used HSM28F สากคก pestle MM10M สาก used this term more CWP13M สาก made of wood; long handle CWP14F สาก made of stone; short handle DO35M สาก Standard Thai can use this term CHM32F สาก pestle MM12M แกนคก mom used CFM18F แกนคก has a stone handle MS1M แกนคก think of papaya salad CWP15M แกนคก pestle has handle HSM25M แกนคก pestle Standard Thai and Chiangmai dialect have a proverb that connects people who are stupid and do not understand everything to the word สากกะเบือ saakL kaL bueaM, because the pestle will never know whether the things it is pounding are hot, spicy, wet, dry, or sour. The word mortar is คก khokH, and the thing to pound something in the mortar is called แกนคก kaenR khokH because it has a handle to hold while pounding.

Item # 83. กาน้ํา kaaM naamH ‘teapot’ หมอกา morF kaaR 4 กาน้ํา kaaR naamH 35 184

กระติกน้ําฮอน kraL tikL naamH hornH 3 กะติกน้ําฮอน kaL tikL naamH hornH 1

informid item comtext CWP13M หมอกา aluminum pot; two handles CWP14F หมอกา aluminum pot; boiling water CFM18F หมอกา pot put on stove MM12M หมอกา pot put on stove CWP15M กาน้ํา kettle CWP16F กาน้ํา like Hotta Sharp (a brandname) CHM30F กาน้ํา electric teapot CFM17F กระติกน้ําฮอน electric thermos CWP15M กระติกน้ําฮอน thermos CWP16F กระติกน้ําฮอน electric teapot HSM25M กะติกน้ําฮอน electric teapot There is not much difference between the variant กาน้ํา kaaR naamH and กระติกน้ํา ฮอน kraL tikL naamH hornH, except the former used the stove to boil the water while the latter used the electricity.

Item # 84. ตะเกียง taL kiangM ‘lamp’ โกม kohmM 24 ตะเกียง taL kiangM 19 เซียง siangM 5 โคม khohmM 3 informid item comtext CWP13M โกม hang on the post CWP15M โกม hang on the post CWP16F โกม use candle; float up in the sky 185

SSD7F โกม for hanging CWP15M ตะเกียง put on the ground CWP16F ตะเกียง use kerosene HSM25M ตะเกียง for religious MM10M ตะเกียง for the power outrage MS1M เซียง light in front of Buddha image DO34M เซียง for the spirit house MM12M เซียง small lamp for spirit house MS2F เซียง filled with kerosene or oil SSD6F เซียง in spirit house SSD5M โคม cover with “saaR” paper SSD6F โคม light for auspicious event CFM19M โคม hang on the post or float in the sky When we have an auspicious day in Chiangmai, we will light a lamp which is covered by the saaR paper, or sometimes cotton cloth.We fill those with air like balloons and we send the lamp up in the sky. We call these โกมลอย kohmM loryM. In the house most of the โกม kohmM will be hung on posts while ตะเกียง taL kiangM is put on the floor.

Item # 84.1 เทียน thianM ‘candle’ เตียน tianM 36 ธูป thuupF 33 เตียนแซ tianM saeF 6 informid item comtext CWP13M เตียน white candle HSM26F เตียน many colors HSM27M เตียน many shapes 186

MS1M เตียน for decorations HSM25M เตียน floating candles CWP13M ธูป joss stick CWP14F ธูป joss stick MM11F ธูป joss stick for religious purpose CWP13M เตียนแซ  joss stick with long handle CWP14F เตียนแซ  for Chinese religion HSM26F เตียนแซ  long candle but thinner HSM27M เตียนแซ  joss stick CFM20M เตียนแซ  long thin candle CFM18F เตียนแซ  joss stick Not many people use the variant เตียนแซ  tianM saeF nowadays compared to twenty years ago. People use the variant ธูป thuupF instead. The แซ  saeF is long and thin shaped, ธูป thuupF is not much different from เตียน tianM, but it is longer and thinner shaped than เตียน tianM.

Item # 84.3 ไมขีดไฟ mayH khiitL fayM ‘match’ กั๊บไฟ kapH fayM 21 กับไฟ kapL fayM 16

แพม phaemM 6 แปม paemM 4 แกบไฟ kaepH fayM 1 กับเฟย kapL foeyM 7 กับ kapL 3 ไมขีดไฟ mayH khiitL fayM 1

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informid item comtext HSM28F กับเฟย matchbox SM24M กับเฟย matchbox DO34M กับเฟย match in a box DO33F กับเฟย matchbox DO35M กับเฟย pronuniciation change HSM28F กับ in a small box SSD8M กับ box MM9F กับ match in a box HSM28F แปม lighter CHM31M แปม match HSM25M แปม lighter CHM32F แปม lighter CFM20M กั๊บไฟ matchbox CWP13M กั๊บไฟ match in a box CFM19M กับไฟ in a box MM12M กับไฟ lighter DO34M แพม in a box DO33F แพม lighter CHM30F แพม lighter MM10M ไมขีดไฟ Standard Thai CHM29M แกบไฟ in a box Usually ไมขีดไฟ mayH khiitL fayM is in a box but แพม phaemM is a lighter. I never used the word แพม phaemM but instead แปม paemM, which I think has only lost aspiration. The word กับ kapL means a box and the word ไฟ fayM is borrowed from English fire.

188

VII. Farm and Ranch Entry 86 shows different types of stockyard where animals live, whereas entry 89 shows where rice after harvesting would be put. Different terms are used to distinguish plots for doing agriculture and cultivation with plots for orchard. (Item # 90-90.1)

Item # 86. เลา lawH ‘sty’ เลา lawH 32 คอก khorkF 36 กวง kuangR 16 กง kongM 9 กรง krongM 5 ขง khongR 3 ขงนก khongR nokH 3 ของ khorngF 36 สุม sumL 34 กุม kumL 2 informid item comtext CWP13M เลา pig sty CWP13M คอก pig sty

CWP16F คอก pig or chicken sty CWP14F กวง for bird CHM30F กวง for bird or dog CWP14F ของ for fish CHM29M ของ for fish CWP15M กง for bird CHM32F กง most northern Thai word don’t have [r] CWP15M สุม coop for chicken 189

DO33F กุม coop for chicken SSD8M ขงนก for bird only SSD7F ขง for bird or dog Variants unianimously received agreement very well between each informant.

Item # 89. ยุง yungH ‘barn’ หลองขาว lorngR khawHF 24 หลังขาว langR khawHF 5 สางขาว saangR khawHF 8 ดอนนา dornM naaM 3 ยุง yungH 2 informid item comtext MM11F ยุง barn HSM26F ยุง keep animals and tools MM12M หลองขาว where they keep rice after harvest CFM19M หลองขาว keep rice for harvest CWP15M สางขาว barn DO35M สางขาว barn to keep rice DO33F สางขาว barn

CFM17F หลังขาว barn usually at the back of house CWP16F หลังขาว keep rice after harvesting DO35M ดอนนา keep rice after harvest CHM32F ดอนนา place to keep rice CHM29M ดอนนา place to keep rice In Standard Thai we have the word ยุงฉาง yungH chaangR, which means the place where we keep the rice after harvesting. In Chiangmai we replaced the [ch] to [s]. 190

However, we use only the second part which is สาง saangR, which is quite a typical characteristic of the Chiangmai structure (see Item # 27).

Item # 90. ตี้นา tiiF naaM ‘farm land’ ตี้นา tiiF naaM 18 โตง tohngF 17 นา naaM 19 ตง tongF 20 informid item comtext CWP13M โตง open field CWP14F โตง open ranch HSM26F โตง field may not grow rice CWP13M ตี้นา paddy rice field CWP14F ตี้นา for rice paddy HSM26F นา grow rice only HSM27M นา for rice only HSM27M ตง for ranch or growing other things MM12M ตง can be plain empty land MM11F ตง can be a field for cultivation

There is no irregular variant for this item.

Item # 90.1 ฮองสวน horngF suanR ‘plots for orchard’ ฮอง horngF 3 ฮองสวน horngF suanR 21 สวน suanR 9 แปง paengM 17 ฮอน hornM 2 191

พั่น phanF 5 ตี้ tiiF 3 ปุง pungM 3

ทาง thangH 3 informid item comtext SSD7F ฮองสวน plots for orchard MM9F ฮองสวน plot for orchard MM11F ฮองสวน orchard CFM20M ฮองสวน raise land up for plantation HSM27M ฮองสวน for orchard SSD7F แปง plots for land MM10M แปง plot for land; build house SSD8M ต ี้ land MM9F ต ี้ one plot / section DO34M ทาง water around land CHM31M ทาง water for irrigation around land CFM18F ทาง water round land for irrigation DO34M พั่น plot of land CHM32F พั่น unit of land CFM20M ปุง plots CWP13M ฮอง make plot for growing vegetables CWP14F ฮอง raise land up from flooding for plantation HSM28F ฮอน plot / section In Thai language the classifier for the land is แปง paengM, or in standard Thai แปลง plaengM, and for the orchard it is ขนัด khaL natL.Many Chiangmai people use ฮอง horngF as the orchard classifier, which otherwise means the plot that is raised up from the ground to prepare for seed planting. The variant พั่น phanF which five of my 192

informants gave me, stated that it might be a classifier for orchard. The same is true with ฮอน hornM.

Item # 91. รถเข็น rotH khenR ‘garden cart’ ลอยู lorH nyuuH 1 ลอเข็น lorH khenR 1 ลดยู lotH nyuuH 3 ลดเข็น lotH khenR 1 informid item comtext HSM25M ลอย ู can have two wheels HSM25M ลอเข็น wheelbarrow SSD8M ลดย ู wheelbarrow MM10M ลดเข็น like a rickshaw HSM28F ลดย ู wheelbarrow Out of the few variants I received, every variant is just translated from the standard Thai word เข็น khenR, which means 'to pull'. ลดเข็น lotH khenR means the cart that has to be pulled.

Item # 93. เงิบ ngoepF ‘hat made of bamboo and palm leaves’

กุบ kupL 12 หมวกกุบ muakL kupL 3 งอบ ngorpF 9 กุบ kupR 14 หมวก muakL 3 informid item comtext CWP13M กุบ for farmers MS1M กุบ for everybody who is in the field 193

CWP15M หมวกกุบ hat made of bamboo CWP16F งอบ for farmers CHM30F งอบ made of palm leaves prevent rain HSM26F กุบ for farmers HSM27M กุบ prevent heat HSM27M หมวก any kinds of hat The difference between the normal hat and this item is that the hat is sometimes worn for fashion only besides protection from the sun or the wind. But this item is the one used by farmers or orchard people to protect them from the heat and the rain when they work in the field.

Item # 96. บวง buangL ‘lariat’ บวง buangL 16 แฮว haewH 12 กับดัก kapL dakL 3 บวง buangF 5 informid item comtext CWP13M บวง a loop may be from a tree SM21F บวง a lariat

CWP13M แฮว dig in the grounmd to trap animals CWP14F แฮว for big animal CHM30F แฮว for big animal CWP15M กับดัก for small animal; i.e.rat CWP16F กับดัก for small animal MS1M บวง a hole in a ground The difference is that แฮว haewH is for trapping big animals while บวง buangL is sometimes for small animals, or the hoop for catching the horse. 194

VIII. Food “Rice” has remarkable variants (Item # 98). Different types of rice include numerous terms, often distinguished by preparation. Different kinds of corn are also included here; one is local while another is not. Variants of fruits differ in the pronunciation of words more than others.

Item # 98. ขาว khawHF ‘rice’ ขาว khawHF 36 ขาวสาร khawHF saanR 36 ขาวเจา khawHF cawHF 27 ขาวเปยก khawHF piakL 7 ขาวเปลือก khawHF plueakL 4 ขาวเปอก khawHF pueakL 22 ขาวเปยะ khawHF piaL 7 ขาวนึ่ง khawHF nuengF 36 ขาวขาว khawHF khawR 3 ขาวหุง khawHF hungR 3 ขาวมัน khawHF manM 36 ขาวตม khawHF tomF 36 ขาวตอก khawHF torkL 16 ขาวตัง khawHF tangM 8 ขาวแตน khawHF taenR 11 ขาวเมา khawHF mawF 22 informid item comtext CWP13M ขาว rice CWP13M ขาวสาร milled rice MS3M ขาวเปลือก unhusked rice MM9F ขาวเปลือก unhusked rice 195

DO34M ขาวเปยก unhusked rice CFM17F ขาวนึ่ง sticky rice CWP14F ขาวมัน rice with coconut milk MM10M ขาวตม boiled rice MM10M ขาวตอก popped rice MM11F ขาวแตน crisped rice with caramel SM22F ขาวแตน crisped rice with caramel MM12M ขาวเมา shredded rice grain SM22F ขาวตัง crisped rice without caramel CHM30F ขาวเจา white rice SSD8M ขาวเจา cooked rice MM9F ขาวเจา cooked rice SSD8M ขาวเปอก unhusked rice HSM26F ขาวขาว jasmine rice SSD8M ขาวหุง rice in electric rice cooker MM9F ขาวหุง cooked rice DO35M ขาวเปยะ unhusked rice; yellow color The explanation of each type of rice is clear from looking at the preparation of rice; all the informants agree with that explanation.

Item # 98.10 ขาวสาลี khawHF saaR liiM ‘corn’ ขาวสาลี khawHF saaR liiM 30 ขาวสาโล khawHF saaR lohM 5 ขาวโพด khawHF phohtF 7 ขาวปาง khawHF paangF 8

196

informid item comtext DO34M ขาวสาล ี yellow corn MM12M ขาวสาล ี feed animals such as horse, cow DO35M ขาวสาโล white corn; local corn CWP16F ขาวโพด yellow corn MS1M ขาวโพด feed horse MS1M ขาวปาง seeds plant after rice There is no difference between the answer of one informant and the others.

Item # 99. ลํา lamM ‘table scrap’ แกบ kaepL 30 ฮัม hamM 1 ลําขาว lamM khawHF 1 แกบหยะ kaepL nyaL 5 แกบแก kaepL kaeL 5 ลํา lamM 1 informid item comtext CHM30F แกบ table scrap CHM29M แกบ table scrap

SSD8M แกบ table scrap CHM29M ฮัม food left over for animals HSM25M ลําขาว from rice when finishing graining SSD8M แกบหยะ wet husk SSD8M แกบแก  husk from rice The word แกบหยะ kaepL nyaL may be related to the Standard Thai word, which contains แหยะ yaeL 'very soft, watery thing like a glue'. Leftover food that released some juices might fit with this meaning. 197

Item # 100.1 บะกวยเตด baL kuayF tetF ‘papaya’ บะกวยเตด baL kuayF tetF 32 บากวยเตด baaL kuayF tetF 2 บะเตด baL tetF 1 informid item comtext CWP13M บะกวยเตด papaya SSD7F บะกวยเตด eat when ripe only CFM17F บะกวยเตด think of papaya salad MS3M บากวยเตด sometimes pronounced longer DO36F บะเตด not used; somebody said These variants differ only in pronunciation.

Item # 100.3 บะนอแน baL norH naeF ‘custard apple’ นอแน norH naeF 3 บะนอแน baL norH naeF 16 บะนอยหนา baL noryH naaL 1 บะนอยแน baL noryH naeF 13 บานอยแน baaL noryH naeF 2 บะนอแน baL norF naeF 1

บะแน baL naeF 3 informid item comtext CWP13M นอแน  shortened form CWP15M บะนอแน  full term “baL” before name CHM30F บะนอแน  custard apple; white flesh CHM29M บะนอยหนา Standard Thai plus “baL” HSM25M บะนอยแน  half Standard Thai word SSD8M บะนอยแน  this is custard apple 198

SSD8M บะแน  not used; somebody said SSD7F บะนอแน  custard apple MS3M บานอยแน  also custard apple Again, these variants differ only in pronunciation.

IX. Time and Distance This set includes another large set of Chiangmai variants (Item # 102-105). Telling time in Chiangmai dialect is very complicated. The perception of exact time varies from one person to another. For example, เจา cawH ‘early’ can be interpreted differently. It can be 6 am to 11 am for one person only or 3 am to 6 am for another. Some even consider all afternoon before midnight เจา cawH .

Item # 102. เวลากลางวัน wehM laaM klangM wanM ‘daytime’ กางวัน kangL wanM 18 กางวัน kangR wanM 2 เมื่อวัน mueaF wanM 10 กลางวัน klangM wanM 6 ตอน tornM 2 เมื่อตอน mueaF tornM 36

เตี้ยง tiangF 36 informid item comtext CWP13M กางวัน in the day time CWP14F กางวัน in the day time CWP13M ตอน in the day time MS4F ตอน noon time CHM29M เมื่อตอน before noon, noon, and afternoon CWP14F เมื่อตอน mostly focus between noon 199

MS4F เมื่อตอน between 10 am to 3 pm CWP15M เตี้ยง at noon CHM29M เตี้ยง noon time CHM29M กางวัน in the day time MS1M เมื่อวัน in the day time MS1M กลางวัน in the day time These variants are very subjective and there is no rule to state what exact time each variant means.

Item # 102.1 เจา cawH ‘early’ (in the morning) เจา cawH 27 งาย ngaayM 16 กองงาย korngR ngaayM 2 กอนงาย kornL ngaayM 5 informid item comtext CWP13M เจา early in the morning CWP14F เจา 4 am HSM26F เจา can be early in a day DO34M เจา very early in the morning

SM21F เจา before time that you focus SSD7F เจา time when you wake up in the morning CWP13M งาย after waking up DO34M งาย after waking up MS3M งาย (before) breakfast DO35M งาย after waking up CFM20M กองงาย before breakfast HSM27M กองงาย before breakfast 200

SSD8M กอนงาย before breakfast MM9F กอนงาย before breakfast Again, the same words might refer to different concepts. For example, before breakfast of one person might be a different time than another person. Yet, both of them agree that this variant has to mean exactly before breakfast.

Item # 102.4 ขวาย khwaayR ‘late (time)’ ขวาย khwaayR 31 เมื่อขวาย mueaF khwaayR 5 แก kaeL 5 informid item comtext CFM 18F ขวาย late in a day CFM19M ขวาย late in a day DO34M ขวาย late HSM28F แก  over; beyond noon SSD5M แก  too late HSM26F เมื่อขวาย late in a day DO34M เมื่อขวาย too late in time ขวาย khwaayR can mean you are late or can mean the time which is late such as 9 am is

ขวาย khwaayR; not early in the morning. Or 4 pm is ขวาย khwaayR to do anything.

Item # 102.5 ใกลแจง klayF caengF ‘dawn’ ใกลแจง klayF caengF 5 ใกแจง kayF caengF 4 ลุงแจง lungF caengF 3 แจง caengF 36

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informid item comtext CFM20M แจง when there is sunlight CWP14F แจง as soon as rooster crows CWP15M แจง early in the morning SM22F แจง when sun rises CHM30F แจง can see your palm lines DO36F แจง bright MS3M ใกลแจง before sunlight MS4F ใกลแจง before sun rises SSD8M ลุงแจง as soon as sun comes up HSM28F ลุงแจง as soon as sun comes up MM9F ใกแจง before sun rises MM10M ใกแจง before sun comes up There is one interesting interpretation of my informants about the three variants: ใกลแจง klayF caengF in one interpretation is before sun rises; ลุงแจง lungF caengF (originally รุงแจง rungF caengF) means as soon as sun comes up; and แจง caengF means after the sun comes up.

Item # 103. บาย baayL ‘afternoon’ บาย baayL 31 ยามจวาย nyaamM cwaayH 2 ซาย saayH 8 ตาวันซาย taaR wanM saayH 3 informid item comtext CFM18F บาย in the afternoon CFM19M บาย in the afternoon; after 1 pm SM23M บาย in the afternoon 202

MS1M บาย after noon CFM20M ยามจวาย after noon HSM27M ยามจวาย after the sun moves to the left HSM28F ซาย tilt; move to other direction (the sun) HSM27M ซาย the sun moves to the left DO36F ซาย after noon passes by HSM28F ตาวันซาย sun moves to another direction HSM27M ตาวันซาย the sun moves to the left CHM32F ตาวันซาย the sun changes the direction If you let the noon (12 pm) be straight over your head, on your left hand will be the after noon and on your right hand will be before noon. This must be true with the variants ตาวันซาย taaR wanM saayH or ซาย saayH which means left. The word จวาย cwaayH means to pass and the word ยาม nyaamM means time.

Item # 104.1 โพเพ phohH phehH ‘dusk’ พุบค่ํา phupH khamF 10 สะลําสะลัว saL lamM saL luaM 9 แลง laengM 4 โพเพ phohH phehH 13

ใกค่ํา kayF khamF 2 ซุมซิ้ม sumH simH 7 ตะวันกาบแกว taL wanM kaapF kaewHF 1 จุมลุม cumH lumH 3 มืดซุมซิ้ม muetF sumH simH 6 สะลุมสะลิ้ม saL lumH saL limH 9 สะลึมสะลือ saL luemM saL lueM 2 ขะมุกขะมัว khaL mukL khaL muaM 3 203

เปนมืดเปนมัว penR muetF penR muaM 1 สะมุกสมุน saL mukH saL munR 4 มืดสะลุม muetF saL lumH 4

สลัว saL luaR 9 มัวมืด muaM muetF 3 informid item comtext CWP13M พุบค่ํา dusk CWP14F พุบค่ํา close to the night time CWP14F มืดสะลุม vampire time CHM29M มืดสะลุม dark; dusk; quiet CWP15M สะลําสะลัว ghost movie CHM30F สะลําสะลัว dark but has fog CWP16F แลง very late in the evening CHM30F แลง evening CHM29M โพเพ dark night CHM29M ขะมุกขะมัว foggy night DO36F ขะมุกขะมัว dim MS2F ขะมุกขะมัว cannot see good CHM32F สะลึมสะลือ not dark but not bright CHM29M สะลึมสะลือ like when you were woke up at night HSM26F เปนมืดเปนมัว like before rain (cloudy) HSM27M ใกค่ํา before night time HSM27M สะมุกสมุน vampire time DO36F สะมุกสมุน cannot see anything clear HSM25M สะมุกสมุน like when ghost comes CFM17F สลัว dusk with fog HSM27M สลวั not dark not bright 204

MS1M สลัว dim HSM25M ตะวันกาบแกว orange sky before dark HSM25M จุมลุม not quite dark; no sunshine DO35M โพเพ ghost time; dusk; dog howling MS3M ซุมซิ้ม not dark but not bright SSD8M มืดซุมซิ้ม dark; not bright MM9F มืดซุมซิ้ม dark but still see something HSM28F มืดซุมซิ้ม see something like a figure but not clear SSD8M สะลุมสะลิ้ม foggy night HSM28F สะลุมสะลิ้ม foggy night MM9F สะลุมสะลิ้ม dim and dark MM10M มัวมืด dark foggy night SM23M มัวมืด very dark; opaque CWP16F มัวมืด cannot see anything These variants are subjective. Each informant interpreted each variant in his own perspective.

Item # 105. เวลากลางคืน wehM laaM klangM khuenM ‘night time’ กางคืน kangL khuenM 13

เมื่อแลง mueaF laengM 6 กางคืน kangR khuenM 2 กลางคืน klangM khuenM 5 เมื่อคืน mueaF khuenM 26 เมื่อค่ํา mueaF khamF 2 ค่ํา khamF 33

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informid item comtext DO36F เมื่อคืน at night time SM22F เมื่อคืน at night time MM12M เมื่อคืน at night time MS2F เมื่อค่ํา at night time SSD5M กางคืน night time MM10M กลางคืน from sun set MM12M กลางคืน from sun set till sun rise CFM17M เมือแลง evening time HSM26F กางคืน night time CWP13M ค่ํา night time Variant กลางคืน klangM khuenM is the common term in Standard Thai for night time, while เมื่อคืน mueaF khuenM is common for the Chiangmai people.

Item # 105.1 มืด muetF ‘dark’ มืด muetF 36 ทึบ thuepH 1 เดิ่ก doekL 10 เดิ๋ก doekR 14

ดึก duekL 7 ดึ๋ก duekR 5 informid item comtext CWP13M มืด dark CWP14F มืด dark CWP15M มืด dark; cannot see CHM29M มืด dark at night CWP13M เดิ่ก late at night 206

CWP14F เดิ่ก late at night CWP15M เดิ่ก after midnight CWP16F เดิ่ก ghost time CHM29M ทึบ no light out; can be daytime CHM29M เดิ๋ก after midnight CHM31M เดิ๋ก dangerous time; late at night DO35M ดึก late at night CHM32F ดึก after 10 pm MS2F ดึ๋ก after midnight มืด muetF is dark at night but you still can see; ทึบ thuepH is dark at night without seeing anything; and ดึก duekL is late at night. Some people might interpret ดึก duekL after midnight but some might think it is before that time.

Item # 106. วัน wanM ‘day’ วัน wanM 36 วันนี้ wanM niiH 35 วันเนียะ wanM niaH 1 กูวัน kuuF wanM 31 ตึงวัน tuengM wanM 8

วันเวนวัน wanM wenH wanM 5 เวนวัน wenH wanM 29 informid item comtext CWP13M วัน day CWP13M วันน ี้ today CWP13M กูวัน everyday DO34M กูวัน everyday CWP13M เวนวัน every other day 207

CHM29M วันเวนวัน every other day HSM26F ตึงวัน everyday HSM27M ตึงวัน everyday; satirical tone MS2F วันเนียะ shortened form One of my informants said that the variant ตึงวัน tuengM wanM is used with satirical tone. I agree in one sense but there must be some emphasis on pronouncing the word ตึง tuengM, not just a normal tone.

Item # 106.4 วันหนา wanM naaF ‘the next day’ วันหนา wanM naaF 36 วันใน wanM nayM 23 วันหลัง wanM langR 3 วันพูก wanM phuukF 36 วันฮือ wanM hueM 36 วันนึ่ง wanM nuengF 32 informid item comtext CFM18F วันหนา the next day but not tomorrow SM23M วันหนา the next day in the future CFM18F วันใน the next day but not tomorrow

CFM18F วันพูก tomorrow SSD5M วันฮือ the day after tomorrow CWP13M วันนึ่ง three days after today CHM32F วันนึ่ง not said MM11F วันหลัง the next day in the future The word หลัง langR means in the past so it should not mean the next day in the variant วันหลัง wanM langR. However, they interpret that the past means after today going to tomorrow. 208

Item # 108. ตอวาน torL waanM ‘yesterday’ ตอวา torL waaM 34 วันวา wanM waaM 2 ตอวาวานซืน torL waaM waanM suenM 14 ตอวาวันฮือ torL waaM wanM hueM 1 ตอวาซืน torL waaM suenM 1 ตอวานซืน torL waanM suenM 18 วันซืน wanM suenM 9 กอนซืน kornL suenM 6 ตอวันนึ่ง torL wanM nuengF 9 informid item comtext DO34M ตอวา yesterday MS2F ตอวา yesterday CHM29M ตอวา yesterday HSM26F ตอวา yesterday SSD5M ตอวา yesterday DO34M ตอวานซืน the day before yesterday DO34M ตอวันนึ่ง three days before today MS2F ตอวาวานซืน the day before yesterday

CHM29M ตอวาวันฮือ the day before yesterday HSM26F ตอวาซืน the day before yesterday MS1M วันวา yesterday CFM18F วันซืน tne day before yesterday SSD8M กอนซืน the day before yesterday The variant ตอวาวันฮือ torL waaM wanM hueM is problematic because วันฮือ wanM hueM in my knowledge means 'the day after tomorrow' and the word ตอวา torL waaM means 'yesterday'. 209

Item # 109. อาทิตยขึ้น aaM thitH khuenF ‘sunrise’ ตะวันออก taL wanM orkL 20 ตะวันขึ้น taL wanM khuenF 13 แดดออก daetL orkL 1 ตาวันออก taaR wanM orkL 2 informid item comtext CWP13M ตะวันออก sun rises CHM29M ตะวันขึ้น sun rises HSM25M แดดออก sun shines MS3M ตาวันออก sun rises The word ตะวัน taL wanM and the word อาทิตย  aaM thitH means 'the sun'. As soon as the sun comes up in the sky, one informant believes there will be sunshine.

Item # 109.1 อาทิตยตก aaM thitH tokL ‘sunset’ ตะวันตก taL wanM tokL 30 ตะวันตก taL wanM tokR 4 ค่ํา khamF 1 ตาวันตก taaR wanM tokL 2 informid item comtext

SSD8M ตะวันตก sun sets MM9F ตะวันตก sun sets CFM20M ตะวันตก sun sets HSM25M ค่ํา night; not dark MS3M ตาวันตก sun sets The same informant from Item # 109 still believed that as soon as the sun sets, it starts the night time although the sky is still bright.

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CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH DATA CONCLUSION

This present study has offered a description of the vocabulary of the Chiangmai dialect from thirty-six informants of twenty-two Amphurs in Thailand. Cultural forces determine the strength of associations between words and particular social and regional groups. Changes in material culture, in lifestyle, and in institutions have led to losses and gains in the lexicon. This chapter presents the results of the study and concludes whether the social factors such as age, education, sex, urban and rural residence, as well as route are factors associated with lexical variation, and if they are, in what degree they affect the lexical variation.

5.1 Results of the Variants Found From the Informants Of all two hundred eighty-nine linguistic variables, only one hundred forty-six are displayed in Chapter 4. These one hundred forty-six linguistic variables are variables that show at least two variants from each interview from each informant. Some linguistic variables were combined if such variables overlapped in meaning or shared characteristics with others. The eighty-four linguistic variables that were combined are listed below. (1) item # 37.2 กระดาง and item # 37.3 หนาวขนาด are grouped into item # 37 หนาว because they share degree of coldness; (2) item # 38.4 แมคะนิ้ง and item # 39.2 บะเห็บ are grouped into item # 38.3 น้ําคาง แข็ง because they are types of frost; (3) item # 36.1 ฮอนแตฮอนวา is grouped into item # 36 ฮอน because it shares degree of heat; (4) item # 39.4 ฟาแมบ, item # 39.5 ฟาผา and item # 39.6 ฟาฮอง are grouped into item # 39.3 พาย ุ because they are types of thunderstorm; 211

(5) item # 42.1 ลมด ี is grouped into item # 42 ลม because it is the degree of wind; (6) item # 43.1 เฉา and item # 44 ตาย are grouped into item # 43 เหว because they overlap in meaning; (7) item # 45.2 หนอง is grouped into item # 45.3 บึง because it shares some characteristics with marsh; (8) item # 48.1 มอน and item # 48.1.4 ดอยที่ไมสูง are grouped into item # 48 ดอย because they are different types of mountains; (9) item # 51.1 หนาผา is grouped into item # 48.1.3 หุบเขา because it shares meanings with cliff; (10) item # 51.2 จัน is grouped into item # 51 ตี้ลาด because it is one feature of being a slope; (11) item # 54.1 ตื้น is grouped into item # 54 เขิน because it shares meanings with shallow; (12) item # 56.2 ตุม and item # 56.3 ไห are grouped into item # 56 โอง because they share functions of the container; (13) item # 57.1 แกว, item # 57.2 ขัน, item # 57.3 เปก and item # 57.4 จอก as well as item # 71 สะหลุง are grouped into item # 57 ถวย because they all are subgroups of the word cup with different sizes but share the same purpose; (14) item # 57.6 กระบอก is grouped into item # 57.5 ขวด because it shares the same shape and purpose; (15) item # 60.1 กลอง is grouped into item # 60 ลัง because it can be made of the same substance; (16) item # 61.2 กระจาด is grouped into item # 61 กระดง because of the same function; (17) item # 64.1 กะละมัง is grouped into item # 64 อาง because of the same function; (18) item # 65.1.1 ถุงแซว, item # 65.1.2 ถุงฮอน and item # 65.2 ไถ  are grouped into item # 65 ถุง because they are types of bag; 212

(19) item # 66 โถ, item # 67 พาน and item # 69.4 ถาด are grouped into item # 66.1 แจกัน because they share the same function; (20) item # 68.1 ปก and item # 68.2 มัด are grouped into item # 68 หอ because they are different types of bundle; (21) item # 69.2 ชาม is grouped into item # 69 จาน because it is a food container; (22) item # 76.2 ปาด is grouped into item # 76.1 ตะหลิว because it shares the same function; (23) item # 77.2 ฟน, item # 77.3 หลัว, item # 77.4 ถาน and item # 77.5 เขมา are grouped into item # 77.1 ไมเกี๊ยะ but renamed the question to be under ฟน because they are all types of fuels or kindling; (24) item # 79.1 มีดโต, item # 79.2 มีดบาง, and item # 79.4 มีดเล็ก are grouped into item # 79 มีด because they are all different kinds of knives; (25) item # 83.1 กระติก is grouped into item # 83 กาน้ํา because of the same purpose; (26) item, # 84.2 ธูป is grouped into item # 84.1 เทียน because they are used on the same occasion, mostly in religious activity; (27) item # 86.1 คอก, item # 86.2 กรง, item # 86.3 ของ and item # 86.4 สุม are grouped into item # 86 เลา because they are different types of stockyard; (28) item # 87 ฮั้ว is grouped into item # 30.3 ฮั้ว because it is the same word meaning the same thing; (29) item # 88 ตง is grouped into item # 90 ตี้นา because it shares the same purpose; (30) item # 90.2 แปลง and item # 90.3 น้ํารอบแปลง are grouped into item # 90.1 ฮอง สวน because they share some meanings; (31) item # 98.1 ขาวสาร, item # 98.2 ขาวเปลือก, item # 98.3 ขาวนึ่ง, item # 98.4 ขาวขาว, item # 98.5 ขาวมัน, item # 98.6 ขาวตม, item # 98.7 ขาวตอก, item # 98.8 ขาวตัง and item # 98.9 ขาวเมา are grouped into item # 98 ขาว because they are all rice preparation; (32) item # 98.11 แกบ is grouped into item # 99 ลํา because they are table scraps; 213

(33) item # 102.2 เมื่อตอน and item # 102.3 เตี้ยง are grouped into item # 102 เวลา กลางวัน because they mean 'daytime'; (34) item # 102.6 แจง is grouped into item # 102.5 ใกลแจง because it is the same time; (35) item # 102.7 เมื่อตอน is grouped into item # 102.4 ขวายbecause both occur in the daytime; (36) item # 104 แลง, item # 104.2 สะลึมสะลือ and item # 104.3 สลัว are grouped into item # 104.1 โพเพ  because they happen at almost the same time; (37) item # 105.2 ค่ํา and item # 105.3 เมื่อคึน are grouped into item # 105 เวลากลางคืน because they share the same meaning; (38) item # 105.4 ดึก is grouped into item # 105.1 มืด because they share the same meaning; (39) item # 106.1 วันน ี้ , item # 106.2 กูวัน and item # 106.3 วันเวนวัน are grouped into item # 106 วัน because they are calendar time; (40) item # 106.5 วันหลัง, item # 107 วันพูก, item # 107.1 วันฮือ and item # 107.2 วันถัด วันฮือ are grouped into item # 106.4 วันหนา because they share the meaning of the day in the future; (41) item # 108.1 ตอวาวานซืน and item # 108.2 ตอจากตอวาวานซืน are grouped into item # 108 ตอวาน because they share the meaning of a day in the past. There are some linguistic variables each of which yields only one variant with the same word as the question. In that case, such linguistic variables will not be counted or listed because they do not provide any lexical variation. Fifty-nine linguistic variables are under this category. They are (1) item # 1.4; (2) item # 1.5; (3) item # 8; (4) item # 8.1; (5) item # 9; (6) item # 10; (7) item # 11; (8) item # 12; (9) item # 13; (10) item # 16; (11) item # 16.3; (12) item # 18; (13) item # 19; (14) item # 24; (15) item # 25; (16) item # 26; (17) item # 27.1; (18) item # 27.2; (19) item # 28; (20) item # 29; (21) item # 29.2; (22) item # 29.3; (23) item # 29.3.4; (24) item # 29.3.5; (25) item # 29.3.7 ; (26) item # 31); (27) item # 31.1; (28) item # 31.2; (29) item # 34; (30) item # 35.1; (31) item # 37.1; (32) item # 38.1; (33) item # 39; (34) item # 52; (35) item # 53; (36) 214 item # 72.3; (37) item # 72.4; (38) item # 73; (39) item # 73.1; (40) item # 78; (41) item # 78.1; (42) item # 80; (43) item # 81; (44) item # 85; (45) item # 92.1; (46) item # 92.2; (47) item # 92.3; (48) item # 92.4; (49) item # 92.5; (50) item # 92.6; (51) item # 94; (52) item # 95; (53) item # 97; (54) item # 100.2; (55) item # 100.4; (56) item # 100.5; (57) item # 100.6; (58) item # 101; and (59) item # 110. The one hundred forty-six target questions from Chapter 4 produced seven hundred seventy-six variants, with each target exhibiting at least 2 variants. Half of the distribution of the variants falls within the range between 4 and 7 variants per one question. Thirty-five percent of the distribution of the variants provides more than eight responses. This can be concluded that a great deal of variation was documented. Table 5.1 illustrates the distribution of the questions and their variants.

Table 5.1 Distribution of the questions and their variants.

No. of question No. of variants per Total of variants Percentage of (n = 146) each question (n = 776) occurrence of variants

20 2 40 5 %

24 3 72 9 %

28 4 112 14 %

22 5 110 14 %

15 6 90 12 %

12 7 84 11 %

7 8 56 7 %

4 9 36 5 %

5 10 50 6 %

1 11 11 2 %

2 12 24 3% 215

0 13 0 0 %

2 14 28 4 %

2 15 30 4 %

1 16 16 2 %

1 17 17 2%

5.2 Variants Associated with Social Factors There is no necessary one-to-one relationship between language and society. However, we can assume there are probably not any speech communities in which aspects of society have no impact on language whatsoever. The vocabulary of a language is an inventory of the items a culture talks about and it has categorized in order to make sense of the world. Humans interact with the environment all the time; therefore, the environment will influence the concepts of naming objects around human beings in a society. This holds true in Chiangmai province in Thailand as well. Technology grows and spreads out from the capital city, Bangkok, to suburban areas. Chiangmai, which is the biggest province in the North, is no different. New things have to be named. Education spreads widely among people, especially the young generation. What is left over is that some old vocabularies will be obsolete, while some new ones are widely used like a fast fad, causing a serious gap between the old and the young. Grandparents cannot understand what grandchildren talk about and vice versa. It seems like education makes this lexical variation happen but can some other social factors such as age, sex, urban/rural, and route, which is added later for this analysis cause lexical variation? In the following parts, I will discuss about each social factor providing with the data as well as find out about whether each social factor affects lexical variation of Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai province.

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5.2.1 Age Among one hundred forty-six linguistic variables mentioned above, there are one hundred linguistic variables different between the old and the young age group. However, in each set, not every variant that occurs per each set will be totally different between those two age groups. There are some variants per each set that both groups share as well. So in order to be more accurate, only variants, not linguistic variables, will be discussed.

5.2.1.1 Variants Exclusive to the Old or the Young Groups From seven hundred seventy-six variants, there are two hundred and four variants which are exclusive to the old or the young (see Appendix B). One hundred thirty-five variants are used exclusively by the old, whereas sixty-nine variants are for the young. However, the data in this study showed that the number of informants who responded to each variant in both groups is very low. A lot of variants were used by only one informant, so it is not good to use exclusive variants of the old or the young as criteria in determining the lexical variation between the two age group.

5.2.1.2 Variants Shared by the Old and the Young Groups Since exclusive variants are not a major factor to determine the lexical variation between the two age groups, I further examine if variants shared by the two age groups show lexical variation in frequency. There are five hundred seventy-two variants commonly shared by both age groups. Only seventy-two variants were selected for this analysis (see Appendix C). Pederson (1992) in The Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States follows the practice that in any category, any variant used by a majority of the speakers (at least fifty percent of the members) of the category will be considered to be “marked” for that category. These seventy-two variants are examples of word choices that are used by at least fifty percent of the members of a group. The examples of variants common between the old and the young are shown in Table 5.2. Variants (a) are Chiangmai dialect words, while variants (b) represent Standard Thai. The majority of the 217

young generation preferred variants (b) to variants (a) because these words are commonly used in everyday life, such as in television, printed matter, or school. These people also changed the pronunciation of some variants to be more like Standard Thai. For example, item # 43 wither, the old generation pronounced it as hewL, while the young generation pronounced it as hiewL. Only a few used the Chaingmai dialect’s pronunciation when they had an informal conversation with their own family. The old generation, on the other hand, mainly used variants (a) in an informal conversation, but chose variants (b) when they needed to communicate in a formal conversation. This is because they wanted to be accepted to the norms of the society. As a result, it is expected that variants (a) will decline in the future.

Table 5.2 Examples of variant shared by the old and the young groups.

Question Variant Number of respondents

Old Young

33 window (a) ปอง 15 1

(b) หนาตาง 3 17

40 cloud (a) ฝา 15 3

(b) เมฆ 6 15

41.1 log (a) ไมทุง 14 3

(b) ไมซุง 2 7

43 wither (a) เหว 10 6

(b) เหี่ยว 5 12

48.1.3 valley (a) กิ่ว 12 6

(b) หุบเขา 5 10

50 road (a) หนตาง 10 3

(b) ถนน 8 15

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74 nail (a) เหล็กกน 16 8

(b) ตะป ู 2 10

76 frying pan (a) หมอขาง 16 4

(b) กะทะ 2 16

82 pestle (a) แกนต๋ํา 12 6

(b) สาก 4 9

84 lamp (a) โกม 16 8

(b) ตะเกียง 3 6

During the data collection, I experienced the old age group having a greater variety of word choices in some variants, whereas the young used only one general term to represent the variants in that category. These variants sometimes overlap if they are employed in Standard Thai. For example, item # 58.3 basket with one side open and item # 69 plate, six variants are used interchangeably by the old, with only one general term used by the young. (Table 5.3). The details of these items are listed in Appendices B and C.

Table 5.3 Examples of word choices in some variants used in the old and the young groups.

Question Variant Number of respondents

Old Young

58.3 basket with one (a) สะเปาะหีควาย 3 0 side open (b) ซาหีควาย 4 0

(d) ซาควาย 1 0

(e) ซาหลังควาย 1 0

(f) ปุงก ี๋ 11 10

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62 spittoon (a) กอกหมาก 2 0

(b) อองน้ําหมาก 2 0

(d) กระโถน 4 7

69 plate (a) โถยแบน 9 0

(b) ถวยตักแกง 1 0

(d) โถยตักแกง 6 0

(e) ถวยตักแกง 1 0

(f) ถวย 1 12

72.5 rake (a) หญาขอ 7 0

(b) เฝอ 2 0

(d) ตะขอ 1 0

(e) ขอจัง 0 7

77 stove (a) เตาไฟ 3 0

(b) เตาฮั้งโล  3 0

(d) เตา 5 12

In conclusion, there is a significantl difference in variants common between the old and the young people in terms of choices in the lexicon. Therefore, age is one of the social factors that causes lexical variation in variants common between the two age group of Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai province.

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5.2.2 Education Currently today, the younger generation in Thailand tries to get more education since the job market has shifted to those who have higher education. The Thai government, in fact, offers a free program for the young generation to study until Grade 12, not just Grade 4, which is used to be the minimum requirement of the educational system in Thailand. The values of the society have been changing as well. People with higher education can expect the prospect of stable jobs. This causes a problem for the people whose mother-tongue language is not Standard Thai. In the educational system, educators have fought against the use of dialects for a long time because they think dialects are substandard forms of speech. Based on studies of the language of minority groups, sociolinguists have agreed that non-standard speech forms are just as structurally complex, rule-governed, and capable of expressing logical arguments as standard ones (Romaine, 1994). However, the Chiangmai younger generation will try to follow the pattern of Standard Thai and limit their use of their own dialects. In this study the data were collected from the total of thirty-six informants. Seventeen are in university level, twelve are in high school level, and seven are in elementary level (Table 5.4). The following sections examine if education is one of the social factors that affects lexical variation of the Chiangmai dialect.

Table 5.4 Numbers of informants between the two age groups with education levels.

Education level Old group Young group Total

University 5 12 17

High school 7 5 12

Elementary 6 1 7

Total 18 18 36

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5.2.2.1 Variants Exclusive to the Old and the Young Groups Among one hundred thirty-five variants used exclusively by the old and the young group, fifty-six variants are close to Standard Thai. This accounts for forty-two percent of variants used exclusively in the old age group. I observed only a few variants that have slightly different pronunciations. The details of variants differences between the old and the young groups are shown in Appendix B. The result indicated that the majority of the informants in the old age group who responded to the variants which are close to standard Thai are in university and high school categories (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5 Examples of variants used exclusively by the old age group that are close to Standard Thai.

Question Variant close to Education level

Standard Thai University High school Elementary

8.2.2.1 the eldest ลูกคนหัวป  2 0 0

8.3 adult ผูใหญ 2 0 0

27.2.3 basement ใตถุน 1 0 0

45. canal แม  2 0 0

60 cardboard crate ลัง 3 1 0

108. yesterday วันวา 2 0 0

On the other hand, among sixty-nine variants that are used exclusively by the younger generation, there are forty-four variants close to Standard Thai that the young used. This accounts for sixty-four percent of variants used by the young only. It is shown in Table 5.6 that the majority of the informants in the young age group who responded to the variants which are close to Standard Thai are also in university and high school levels. However, since only one young informant was at the elementary level, we cannot prove that education causes this result.

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Table 5.6 Examples of variants used exclusively by the young age group that are close to Standard Thai.

Question Variant close to Education level

Standard Thai University High school Elementary

1.3 I (neutral) หน ู 5 2 1

8.2 kid/child เด็ก 3 0 0

8.2.2.1 the eldest ลูกคนโต 2 0 0

คนโต 2 0 0

คนแรก 1 0 0

22. grandfather ตา 4 3 0 (MOMO)

36.3 dry แหงแลง 3 1 0

39.2 hail ลูกเห็บ 3 0 0

5.2.2.2 Variants Shared Between the Old and the Young Groups Seventy-two variants which are used by at least fifty percent by one group were selected for the analysis (see Appendix C). Within these variants, forty-six are close to Standard Thai. I found that the young people who are in the university or high school used these variants twice as often as those used by the old. This is because Standard Thai is the language taught in school and used in the printed media. The more exposure to the education of the young generation, the more tendency they will adopt the vocabulary from the language of education. Examples of the variants common between both groups are shown in Table 5.7.

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Table 5.7 Examples of variants that are close to Standard Thai shared by both age groups.

Question Variant close to Standard * Education level

Thai Old Young

U H E U H E

33. window หนาตาง 2 0 1 11 5 1

57.5 bottle กะบอก 0 0 3 9 0 1

58.4 basket กระเชา 0 0 1 5 3 0

61 winnowing กระดง 1 0 0 6 3 1 basket

65.4 backpack ยาม 1 0 3 7 2 1

67 tray พาน 2 0 0 11 5 1

* U = University H = High school E = Elementary school

In conclusion, education is another supporting factor that affects lexical variation of the Chiangmai dialects in Chiangmai province. People tend to choose words that are close to standard Thai in formal conversation if they have higher education. Chiangmai children who go to school tend not to use their own dialect but follow the same pattern of Standard Thai. One reason is to keep them in a good shape of identity and being accepted to the norms of the society. It is expected that the gap between language of the old and the young in Chiangmai dialect will be wider in the future. It is likely, however, that young informants used Standard Thai variants in the interview, even if they know Chiangmai variants, because of the observer's paradox - - the interviewer was a college professor. Younger informants may sometimes use Standard Thai even in informal, family conversations, but they still know and can use Chiangmai variants informally.

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5.2.3 Sex Sex is another social factor that creates variation in vocabulary. Although the term gender which means the socio-cultural dimension of the division of humans into male and female person might be a better term to use, I prefer using the term sex and concern myself only with how males and females interact in the lexicon in the community without thinking about the biological determinants between male and female. There are three major points found in this study that can be used to explain why there are lexical variations between both sexes: variant differences between male and female, variant differences in the structure of ranking the children in the family, and variant differences related to the jobs or activities.

5.2.3.1 Variants used exclusively by male or female Among seven hundred seventy-six variants, there are only nineteen variants that were used exclusively by male or female informants. These variants are illustrated in Table 5.8. The variants under this category were associated with the society's view about the cultural position of male and female. Twelve were variants of personal pronouns used exclusively by one sex. The other seven variants are general words used only by females in their everyday life. The unequal status between male and female is reflected mostly in titles and personal pronouns, which are very important and sensitive in Asia countries. Because of cultural norms, pronoun choices are relegated to a particular sex. One point is that pronouns for women always reflect the mental image of being inferior in the society. The image of Thai women has to be very conservative, courteous, and solemn. There is a saying about being a "good" woman that women should not either speak loud, walk noisily, or make eye contact with the person whom she talks to, especially the opposite sex. That is why the personal pronouns for women in Chiangmai mark the status of women’s roles to be lower than men’s. For example, variants # 1.1 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF, เจา cawHF, and หนู nuuR 'I' are terms used by women only. These variants share some sense of being politeness. Variants # 1.2 ก ู kuuM and ฮา haM used by males showed impoliteness, yet they are acceptable in the society. This variant is not appropriate if used by females. The 225 innatist position was summed up very well by John Stuart Mill (Romaine, 1994: 102) when he wrote "when it is to be a boy, to grow in the belief that without any merit or exertion of his own, by the mere fact of being born as able he is by right the superior of all of an entire half of the human race”.

Table 5.8 Variants used exclusively by male or female.

Question Variant Number of respondents Female Male

1. I (a) เปน 9 3

(b) ฮา 0 6

1.1 I (female) (a) ขา 0 5

(b) ขาเจา 7 1

(d) เจา 4 0

1.2 I (male) (a) ผม 1 11

(b) ฮา 0 16

(d) ผูขา 0 2

(e) ขาเจา 7 1

2.1 mother-in-law (man’s side) (a) แม  3 0

3.1 father-in-law (man’s side) (a) ปอ 3 0

5. husband (a) ส ู 3 0

(b) ปอมัน 1 0

8.2 child (a) เด็ก 3 0

61 winnowing basket (a) เบียน 5 0 226

The data presented in Table 5.8 indicated that there was only one variant that was frequently used by females. Nine female informants responded to the variant # 1 (a) poenF, while variants # 1 (b) haaM and (c) khaaF were not used. This is due to the fact that variant poenF is the neutral personal pronoun for both sexes in Chiangmai dialect. Males, on the other hand, had two high frequency variants: variant # 1.2 (a) phomR and variant # 1.2 (b)haaM. This was not surprising, because these two variants were supposed to be used by males only due to the cultural norms. There was only one female who responded to the variant (a) phomR in item # 1.2.1 'I' (male). Her reason was that she would never use this word, because it is for males only (from her comment under item # 1.2.1 in Chapter 4). The results confirmed that variants were used exclusively between males and females, and word choices were chosen strictly based on the cultural norms. Other than that, word choices could be used interchangeably between the two sexes.

5.2.3.2 Variants differences in the structure of ranking the children in the family In terms of ranking the children in the family, I found that male informants always inserted the classifier of children luukF followed by the rank of each child in their family. Female informants, however, usually shortened the form by deleting the classifier luukF, leaving only the rank of the child (see items # 8.2.2.1 and 8.2.2.2 in Chapter 4). In my opinion, adding the classifier in front of the rank expressed the males’ pride of having their own heirs.

5.2.3.3 Variants differences related to the job or activity In this study, I found that there was one question with varieties of variants that related to the men’s job, while women used only a few terms to describe the same word choices under this category. Item # 79 knife is an example of the variants difference related to the jobs or activities (see item # 79 in Chapter 4) 227

In summary, sex is not a social factor which causes much lexical variation of Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai. The result indicated that only 2.5% of variants were different between male and female. There has been a tremendous change in women's roles and occupations which makes the gap between men's and women's lexicon shrinks. Currently, women tend to pursue higher education and are able to enter occupations and political positions that were formerly reserved for men only. As a result, there is not much difference in lexicon choices between men and women. Moreover, there was only one variant that fifty percent of females used, whereas there were two variants that more than fifty percent of males used. This can be concluded that there were no significant differences by frequency as there were for age and education.

5.2.4 Urban vs. Rural Urban and rural criteria are explained in Chapter 3. Seven hundred and seventy-six variants were commonly used between the people from both the urban and the rural areas. There was not much difference in the frequency of the usage among each variant from the people in both areas. However, there were nineteen variants that showed the unexpected results from the analysis. These nineteen variants were also substantially used particularly by one group or the other (Table 5.9)

Table 5.9 Examples of nineteen variants between urban and rural informants showing unexpected results.

Question Variant Number of respondents

Urban Rural

8.2.2 son (a) ลูกบาว 78 2

33 window (a) ปอง 118 5

(b) หนาตาง 9 7 138

40 cloud (a) เมฆ 9 9 128

(b) ฝา 128 6 228

45 canal (a) คือ 1 98

48.1.1 top of the hill (a) ปายดอย 2 88

51 slope (a) หลิ่ง 5 118

(b) จิ๊ง 118 7

67 tray (a) พาน 9 6 138

(b) ขัน 9 128 4

69 plate (a) จาน 9 7 118

74 nail (a) ตะปู 9 3 98

76 frying pan (a) หมอขาง 128 8

(b) กะทะ 9 6 128

86 sty (a) กง 9 3 68

89 barn (a) หลองขาว 158 9

96 lariat (a) แฮว 9 88 4

102.1 early in the morning (a) งาย 108 6

* 9 = close to standard Thai 8 = high frequency variant

From Table 5.9, there were nine high frequency variants used by the people who lived in the urban areas, whereas there were ten used by the people in the rural areas. Two out of the nine

variants used by the people in urban areas are close to Standard Thai, while the seven variants are Chiangmai words. In the same way, there are seven out of the ten variants used by the people in the rural areas that are close to Standard Thai, leaving the three variants which are Chiangmai words. Normally, the people who live in urban areas are close to the standard language, since urban areas are the centers of business and education, compared to the rural areas. The people who live in the urban areas should be more exposed to the Standard Thai than those in the rural areas as a pattern of life in the high technology place like urban areas. However, from my informants' responses, it does not follow the pattern. Since my informants who lived in the urban 229

areas used more Chiangmai dialects than Standard Thai, it is not a good way to conclude that urban versus rural is one of the social factors that causes lexical variation of Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai. Future research with more informants is required to prove this.

5.2.5 Route There are four routes in Chiangmai province: the main city route, eastern route, northern route, and western route (see Chapter 1 for details). The numbers of informants in each route are 4, 4, 16 and 12, respectively. The routes were not part of the original survey design, so the number of informants in each one was not planned to be similar. Since the main city and the eastern route consist of four informants in each group, using the Pederson's (1992) fifty percent of the informants to analyze variants will not be valid. The fifty percent of the informants will be two in each group, which is too low to be reliable. Geographically, the distance between the main city and the eastern route is not too far, only nineteen kilometers (see Figure 1.5 in Chapter 1). There are also many commuters back and forth between the main city and the eastern Amphurs and the occupation of the people in both areas is the same. Therefore, in this study, I will group the main city and the eastern route as one group, called the main city/eastern route, making a total of eight informants for this analysis. Of all seven hundred and seventy-six variants in this study, five hundred and fifty-three variants were evenly used and spreaded out by the informants from all three routes, and the other two hundred and twenty-three were used differently by informants from one route or the other. In this discussion, nineteen were selected as examples to show the distribution of the variants used by informants between these three routes. Table 5.10 shows all nineteen variants of the informants from the three routes. Among nineteen variants that are not shared with all the informants from the three routes, there are fifteen variants that none of the people from the main city/eastern route used. This confirms my decision that the two routes should be grouped under one. Because of the reasons mentioned 230

above, it is clear that route is a social factor that distinguishes the lexical variation of Chiangmai people who live in the main city/eastern route from the northern and western route. The northern route and the western route extend farther from the main city. The furthest Amphur in the northern route from the main city is 159 kilometers (Mai Ai) and the furthest Amphur in the western route is 173 kilometers (Om Koi) (see Figure 1.5 in Chapter 1). It is not convenient for the people who live in both regions to commute to the main city everyday. The travel distance might be a one day's or a few days' trip. This greater distance allows them to feel comfortable to use the Chiangmai dialect in the formal conversation, as well as informal conversation.

Table 5.10 Examples of variants between the informants of the main city/eastern route, the northern route, and the western route

Question Variant M/E N W

6.in-law (female) (a) ลูกลัว 0 2 4

8.2.1 daughter (a) ลูกมูญิง 0 4 4

8.2.2.2 the youngest (a) คนหนอย 0 5 6

27.2.1 upstairs (a) บนเฮือน 0 1 6

36.2 humid (a) บด 0 2 3

41.1 log (a) ไมทุง 0 8 9

43. wither (a) เหว 0 6 10

48.1.1 top of the hill (a) ปายดอย 0 4 6

48.1.3 valley (a) กิ่ว 0 6 12

(b) หนาผา 8 7 0

51. slope (a) จิ๊ง 0 12 6

57.5 bottle (a) บอก 2 0 16

(b) กะบอก 0 4 9 231

58.5 closely woven (a) กระบุง 5 3 0 bamboo basket

58.6 basket (a) โ กย 0 0 7

(b) ตะกรา 5 1 0

65.4 backpack (a) ยาม 0 6 8

72.2 shovel (a) ลั่ว 0 2 6

86. sty (a) กวง 0 8 8

* M/E = main city/eastern route N = northern route W = western route

Among fifteen variants used exclusively by the people living in the northern and western route, there are several high frequency variants used by fifty percent or more of the people who lived in the western route. They are variant # 8.2.2.2 khonM noryHF, variant # 27.2.1 bonM hueanM, variant # 41.1 maayH thungM, variant # 43 hewL, variant # 48.1.1 paayR doryM, variant # 48.1.3 naaF phaaR, variant # 51 cingH, variant # 57.5 borkL, variant # 57.5 kaL borkL, variant # 58.6 kohyR, variant # 65.4 yaamF, variant # 72.2 luaF, and variant # 86 kuangR. In the same way, variant # 41.1 maayH thungM, variant # 48.1.3 naaF phaaR, and variant # 51 cingH show high frequency (fifty percent or more) of use by people in the northern route. There are three variants used by at least fifty percent of the informants in the main city/eastern route: variant # 48.1.3 naaF phaaR, variant # 58.5 kraL bungM, and variant # 58.6 taL kraaF. While the northern and western routes have many words that the main city/eastern route does not have, still the central area has a few dialect words of its own. From the data, it is clear that people who lived farther from the main city will remain more dialect words in their communities. Because of that, their language does not receive as much influence from Standard Thai, which most people in the main city used in formal conversation. They use Chiangmai dialect words to retain their identities and to represent their 232

own communities. On the other hand, those people living closer to the main city will choose to use Standard Thai more than the Chiangmai dialect words in formal conversation, because of the norms of their communities as well, although they do have a few dialect words of their own. Therefore, route is one of the social factors that causes lexical variation of the Chiangmai dialect in Chiangmai province.

5.3 Discussion and Future Research This study was designed as an investigation of lexical variation in its social and cultural context. The choice of lexical variables provides us with numerous examples of speech differences associated with the social factors. There are some social factors that are needed to work on this language as well as the analysis of the data by using quantitative methods, which I still want to study further. In order to do quantitative analysis, more informants are needed to make the statistics more robust. More than sixty informants have to be added in order to further study. Another point is that attention needs to be paid to investigating whether or not variations are increased in the structure of the syntax through discourse analysis. As for the change findings, there are many other facts of cultures in all areas in Thailand that have undergone significant changes, affecting the people. By using the data from the research in the past as well as my data and conducting comparable studies, dialectologists in Thailand can investigate changes in the lexicon. This kind of research will be a valuable addition to theories of language change and can help us all better understand the mechanism behind linguistic change. Last, the border of Chiangmai province is connected to many provinces in Thailand. For example, to the north, it is connected to Chiangrai and Mae Hong Son province. It is also connected to Burma (Myanmar) and China. Since the people along the border communicate with one another all the time, they will exchange the culture and the language as well. Their language will be in contact with the people and language they are involved with. It might be interesting to consider the lexical variation along the border between Chiangmai and those places. 233

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APPENDIX A INFORMANT BIOGRAPHIES

Main City Route Amphur Muang and Saraphi (MS) MS1M: Muang, CM. Male 58. born here. married. 3 kids. Teacher in elementary school in Muang, CM for almost 22 years. Ed: B.A. (Education) Rajaphat Chiangmai. MS2F: Saraphi, CM. Female 28. born here. single. Computer salesperson in the company in Muang, CM. Ed: High school graduates (Grade12) Mont Fort College, CM. MS3M: Saraphi, CM. Male 18. born here. single. Never move to any other cities. Parents own a shop in Night Bazaar. Ed: Freshman Payap University majoring business. MS4F: Saraphi, CM. Female 50. born here. married. 5 kids 2 grandkids. Retired. Used to be a teacher in one of Saraphi School. Now activist of community / village he lives in. Always propose new projects to improve quality of life in that community and always writes good poetries, articles and proses and hang them on board of the community center. Ed: B.A. (Education) Rajaphat Chiangmai.

Eastern Route Amphur San Kampaeng, San Sai and Doi Saket (SSD) SSD5M: Doi Saket, CM. Male 20. born here. single. Never move to any other cities. Still live with parents in Doi Saket (19 kms to the town). Parents are a car dealer in Doi Saket. Ed: Junior Chiangmai University majoring English. SSD6F: San Sai, CM. Female 24. born here. married. No kids. Husband is Muang, CM. also. selling cooked Northern Thai food in Mae Yoy market, between San Sai and Muang, CM. Ed: High school graduates (grade 7) Anubarn Chiangmai. 240

SSD7F: San Kamphaeng, CM. Female 52. born here. married. 3 kids. Own an umbrella factory in Bo Sang subdivision next to San Kamphaeng. Parents used to own this factory. Ed: High school gradates (grade 12) The Prince Royal’s College, CM. SSD8M: San Kamphaeng, CM. Male 55. born here. married. 3 kids. Own a restaurant in San Kamphaeng selling noodles with pork. Husband is a Chinese met while he came as a tourist to San Kamphaong 25 years ago. Ed: Elementary school graduates (grade 4) San Kamphaeng School, CM.

Northern Route Amphur Mae Rim and Mae Taeng (MM) MM9F: Mae Rim, CM. Female 18. born here. single. Father is a teacher in Mae Rim School. Mother is a beautician at home. Ed: High school from Mae Rim Wittayakom School. Ed: Freshman Chiangmai University majoring law. MM10M: Mae Taeng, CM. Male 25. born here. single. Mini-truck driver from Muang, CM. to Mae Rim-Mae Taeng route. Ed: High school certificates (grade 7) Mae Taeng school, CM. MM11F: Mae Taeng, CM. Female 55. born here. married. 5 kids 5 grandkids. Not working. Husband works in a field. Owns field (around 5 rai). Ed: Elementary school graduates. (Grade 4) Mae Taeng School.

MM12M: Mae Rim, CM. Male 50. born here. married. 3 kids 5 grandkids. Retired. Used to work as security guard of a company in Muang, CM. almost 10 years. Before this, became a soldier. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 7) Mae Rim Wittayakom School.

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Amphur Chiang Dao, Wiang Haeng and Phrao (CWP) CWP13M: Chiang Dao, CM. Male 58. born here. married. 5 kids. Village head of one village in Chiang Dao. Wife not working. Owns a pig farm in the house and sells pigs at market. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 12) Chiang Dao Wittayakom School. CWP14F: Chiang Dao, CM. Female 55. born here. married. 4 kids 6 grandkids. housewife. Husband works in a field. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 12) Chiang Dao Wittayakom School. CWP15M: Wiang Haeng, CM. Male 18. born here. single. Just finished high school in here. Will continue college level in Ram Khamhaeng University in Bangkok in May 2005. CWP16F: Phrao, CM. Female 18. born here. single. Ed: Finish high school from Chiang Dao Wittayakom School. back to her hometown. Studied elementary school in Phrao, then moved to Chiang Dao 3 years ago. Freshman Ram Khamhaeng University majoring business (on-line study)

Amphur Chai Prakarn, Fang and Mae Ai (CFM) CFM17F: Fang, CM. Female 19. born here. married. One kid. Own a shop in downtown Fang as a dressmaker. Husband not working full-time but can work where available part-time as a construction worker. Ed: High school graduates (Grade7)

Rangsri School. CFM18F: Mae Ai, CM. Female 50. born here. widow. Lost husband 3 years ago because of HIV. Parents are Hmong so did her husband. Husband was born in Mae Ai. 5 kids 6 grandkids. Not working full-time but baby-sit daytime from 7 am to 8pm. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 7) Fang Chanoopathum School. CFM19M: Fang, CM. Male 28. born here. single. Mini-truck driver from Fang to Tha Ton. Deal with foreigners because Tha Ton is a tourist attraction. Speak good English 242

and Japanese. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 10). Cannot pursue college level because of poverty. CFM20M: Chai Prakarn, CM. Male 50. born here. married. 3 kids. Principle of school in Chai Prakarn. Good knowledge of English and Thai especially in literature and poetry. Ed: B.A. (Education) Chiangmai University.

Amphur Samoeng (SM) SM21F: Samoeng, CM. Female 53. born here. Widow. 5 kids. Lived alone. Husband died long time ago because of stroke. Own a grocery in that sub-division. Lived here almost all her life except the year 1989 lived with her daughter in Fang, CM. come back to Samoeng after spending a year with her daughter. Ed: High school graduates (Grade7) in Samoeng School. SM22F: Samoeng, CM. Female 18. born here. single. Ed: Finished high school at Samoeng. Right now freshman at Rajaphat Chiangmai majoring psychology. SM23M: Samoeng, CM. Male 25. born here. married. 1 kid. Parents own a motor-cycle repair shop in downtown Samoeng. Work in a company in downtown Samoeng weekdays and help his parents in the motor-cycle repair shop in the evenings and weekends. Ed: Vocational school, Muang CM. SM24M: Samoeng, CM. Male 60. born here. married. 5 kids. Live alone. Retired. Used to be a soldier in the Vietnam War almost 30 years ago. Live on a pension from Thai government and some money from his kids. Ed: High school graduates (Grade 7) Samoeng School.

243

Western Route Amphur Hang Dong, San Patong and Mae Wang (HSM) HSM25M: San Patong, CM. Male 28. born here. single. Work as a clerk in Chiangmai University. Ed: Study master degree right now majoring business in Thammast University, Chiangmai campus. Finish bachelor degree from Rajaphat Chiangmai. HSM26F: Hang Dong, CM. Female 50. born here. married. 5 kids. Maid at Porn Ping Hotel, Muang, CM. for almost 5 years. Ed: Elementary school graduates (Grade 4) Hang Dong Wittayakom School. HSM27M: Hang Dong, CM. Male 60. born here. Did not tell whether single or married. People in the village called him “guru” because he knew a lot. Used to be a teacher in a school in Hang Dong and is very good at Northern Thai literature, poetry and verse. Ed: Certificate of teaching Chankasem College in Bangkok. HSM28F: Mae Wang, CM. Female 18. born here. single. In former times, Mae Wang is a sub-district and become district (Amphur) not long ago. The only daughter in the family. The rest are 2 elder brothers and 2 younger brothers. Cannot finish high school because parents believe that daughter does not have to study. Become a maid in one house in Muang, CM. Ed: Elementary school level not graduated (Grade 6).

Amphur Chom Thong, Hod and Mae Chaem (CHM) CHM29M: Hod,CM. Male 21. born here. single. Father and mother divorced and each remarried and had their own kids. Live with his aunt in Hod. Ed: Senior Chiangmai University majoring statistics. CHM30F: Chom Thong, CM. Female 52. born here. married. 5 kids. Worker in a faculty doing wood-craft. Husband also works in the same factory. Ed: Elementary school graduates (Grade 4) Chom Thong Wittaya School. 244

CHM31M: Chom Thong, CM. Male 50. born here. married. 3 kids. Worker in a factory doing silver and silverware. Ed: Elementary school not graduated (Grade 6) Chom Thong school. CHM32F: Mae Chaem, CM. Female 18. born here. single. Half Thai, half hill tribe people (Karen). Ed: Finish high school from Hang Dong School 100 kms from her house. Stay in the principle’s house as a maid for the principal’s kids. Try to continue her college level this May 2005.

Amphur Doi Tao and Om Koi (DO) DO33F: Doi Tao, CM. Female 53. born here. married. 3 kids. Own a grocery shop in down town Doi Tao, not far from school. No market here so her grocery shop was considered big in Doi Tao. Ed: Elementary school graduates (Grade 4) Doi Tao Wittayakom School. DO34M: Doi Tao, CM. Male 54. born here. married. 4 kids. Deputy Sheriff of Amphur Doi Tao. Wife is a teacher of Doi Tao school. Ed: B.S. (Political Science) Chiangmai University. DO35M: Om Koi, CM. Male 18. born here. single. Ed: High school from Doi Tao and got a grant to pursue political science major in Naresuan University, Pitsanuloke, south of Chiangmai in 2005.

DO36F: Om Koi, CM. Female 18. born here. single. A hill tribe person (Karen). Parents work in a field. Ed: Finished high school from Om Koi School. Got a Royal Grant to pursue college level in Naresuan University, Pitsanuloke majoring physical education in 2005. 245

APPENDIX B VARIANTS EXCLUSIVE TO THE OLD OR THE YOUNG GROUPS

* U = University H = High school E = Elementary school

Question Variants Old Young

U H E Total U H E Total

1. I ขา 1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0

1.1 I (female) หน ู 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3

1.2 I (male) ผูขา 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1.3 I (neutral) เฮา 2 3 0 5 0 0 0 0

เอ็ง 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0

หนู 0 0 0 0 5 2 1 8

สัน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

2.1 mother-in-law แม  0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 (man's side)

3.1 father-in-law ปอ 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 (man's side)

5. husband ปอมัน 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

ส ู 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

ปออุย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

6. in-law (female) สะไป  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

8.2 child เด็ก 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 246

8.2.2.1 the eldest อาย 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0

อี่ป  0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

เกา 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ลูกคนหัวป  2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

ลูกคนโต 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

คนโต 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

ปเกา 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

คนแรก 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ลูกกอน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

8.2.2.2 the อี่หลา 2 3 2 7 0 0 0 0 youngest ลูกคนหนอย 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

คนหลา 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

8.3 adult อาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

อาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

เสี่ยว 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ผูใหญ 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

คนหยอย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

14. aunt (MOBR/MOSI) อา 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

15. aunt (FABR/FASI) นา 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

อา 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2

16.1 boys in ขะยมวัด 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4 temple

16.2 temple's แกวัด 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 leader ปูจาน 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0

16.3 temple's clerk ใบยา 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0

17. monk พระ 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 247

20. grandmother แม  0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

อุยหมอน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

อุยยาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

22. grandfather ปอ 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

อุยหมอน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

อุยตา 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ตา 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 7

23. grandfather อุยปอ 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

27. house เลือน 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 3

27.2.1 upstairs เติ๋น 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

27.2.2 downstairs กะลุม 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

จั๊นลาง 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0

ตางลาง 1 3 0 4 0 0 0 0

ขะลาง 1 0 2 3 0 0 0 0

27.2.3 basement ตะลาง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

กะลาง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ลองถุน 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

ใตถุน 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

29.1 kitchen เตาไฟ 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

29.3.1 bed เตียง 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

ยออั๊น 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3

29.3.6 bed ตั่ง 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

30. wall ฮั้ว 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

ฮั้วกอ 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

30.1 ceiling เพดาน 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

248

30.2 wall ผนัง 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

ขางฝา 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ก่ําแปง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ฝาเฮือน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

30.3 fence ก่ําแปง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

35. hut หาง 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 3

36.2 humid ฮอน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

36.3 dry แหงแลง 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 4

38.3 frost เหมยคาง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

น้ําแข็ง 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

เหมยขาง 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5

เหมยคาบ 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

น้ําคางแข็ง 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

39.1 flood น้ําขัง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

39.2 hail ลูกเห็บ 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

39.3 thunderstorm ลมหลวง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ลมพาย ุ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

41. forest แพะ 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 3

41.1 log ไ ม  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

42. wind ลมแฮง 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 5

ลมแตลมวา 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

ลมเจย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

42.2 shade ลม 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 3

43. wither เหวแหง 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

249

45. canal ลําหวย 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3

น้ําแม  0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

แม 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

น้ําโหย 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0

45.1 ditch น้ําโหย 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3

45.5 dam เหมือง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

46. river น้ําฮอง 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

น้ํา 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 4

48. mountain เขา 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

ลูก 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

48.1.2 foot of hill ตีนเขา 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

เมิ้งดอย 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 3

48.1.3 valley หวย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

เงิ้มผา 2 1 2 5 0 0 0 0

โฮงดอย 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

49. plain ตี้ลาบ 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

ปนลาบ 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

ตี้ลาบลุม 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

49.1 soil ดินพุย 2 0 1 3 0 0 0 0

51. slope ผาลาด 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

54. shallow ต่ํา 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3

56. jar หอย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

57.5 bottle กระบอก 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4

58.1 round crate ซา 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 3

ซาขี้โค 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

58.2 basket กวยหนอย 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 6 250

58.3 basket สะเปาะหีควาย 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0

ซาหีควาย 2 0 2 4 0 0 0 0

บุงกี๋ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ซาปงควาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ซาควาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ซาหลังควาย 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

58.4 basket ตะติ้ว 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0

ขะเชา 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

กะเชา 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0

58.5 basket เจก 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

58.6 basket ติ้วซา 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

59. bucket คุยาง 3 1 4 8 0 0 0 0

ตาง 2 1 0 3 0 0 0 0

60. crate กลอง 3 1 0 4 0 0 0 0

61. basket ซาเปาะ 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

เบียน 0 2 3 5 0 0 0 0

62. spittoon กอกหมาก 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

อองน้ําหมาก 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

โถน้ําหมาก 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

63. pot หมอดินดํา 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

หมอห ู 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0

64. basin ถวยกะเลิ้ง 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0

ถวยกะลึง 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

ถวยหลวง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

65. bag ถุงปากฮูด 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

251

65.3 bag ถุงยาม 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

โถง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ถุง 2 0 1 3 0 0 0 0

65.5 canvas bag ไถ 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

ถุงปุย 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

66.1 vase แจกันดอก 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

ถาด 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

69. plate โถยแบน 3 2 4 9 0 0 0 0

ถวยตักแกง 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

โถยแกง 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

โถยตักแกง 2 2 2 4 0 0 0 0

ถวยตักแกง 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

70. bucket น้ําค ุ 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0

ฮอม 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

72.1 hoe ขอจาว 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

หัวบก 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

กะบก 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

72.2 shovel ชะแลง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ผาก 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

บวง 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

72.5 rake หญาขอ 2 3 2 7 0 0 0 0

ขอจัง 0 0 0 0 5 2 0 7

เฝอ 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

เกี่ยวขอ 1 0 3 4 0 0 0 0

ตะขอ 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

252

77. stove เตาฮั้งโล 2 0 1 3 0 0 0 0

เตาฮังโล 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0

เตาไฟ 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

77.1 charcoal ฟน 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4

ขี้มิ่น 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0

79. knife มีดงก 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

มีดเหน็บ 1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0

มีดเหลา 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0

มีดซอยจิ๊น 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

มีดบาง 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

มีดซุย 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

83. teapot หมอกา 0 4 0 4 0 0 0 0

กระติกน้ําฮอน 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3

กะติกน้ําฮอน 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

84. lamp โคม 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 3

84.1 candle เตียนแซ  2 3 1 6 0 0 0 0

84.3 match แพม 1 3 2 6 0 0 0 0

แกบไฟ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

86. sty กุม 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

89. barn ดอนนา 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

ยุง 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0

90.1 plots ปุง 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

ทาง 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

96. lariat กับดัก 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

253

98. rice ขาวเปยก 2 1 4 7 0 0 0 0

ขาวเปลือก 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 4

98.10 corn ขาวสาโล 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5

ขาวปาง 3 1 4 8 0 0 0 0

99. table scrap ฮัม 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

100.1 papaya บากวยเตด 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

บะเตด 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

100.3 custard บะนอยหนา 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 apple

102.1 early กองงาย 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

103. afternoon ยามจวาย 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

105.1 dark ทึบ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

108. yesterday วันวา 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

ตอวาวันฮือ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

ตอวาซืน 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

109. sunrise แดดออก 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

109.1 sunset ค่ํา 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

254

APPENDIX C VARIANTS SHARED BY THE OLD AND THE YOUNG GROUPS

Question Variants Old Young

U H E Total U H E Total

6. in-law (female) ลูกลัว 1 1 2 4 2 0 0 2

7. in-law (male) ลูกจาย 5 5 5 15 7 2 0 9

เขย 2 2 1 5 6 3 0 9

8.2.1 daughter ลูกสาว 2 5 5 12 4 5 0 9

ลูกมูญิง 0 1 1 2 4 2 0 6

ลูกญิง 1 0 0 1 3 1 0 4

8.2.2 son ลูกจาย 2 4 2 8 1 2 0 3

ลูกบาว 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 6

8.2.2.2 the คนหนอย 1 1 1 3 8 0 0 8 youngest ลูกซอย 1 1 3 5 1 0 1 2

27.2.1 upstairs บนเฮือน 1 1 4 6 1 0 0 1

จั๊นบน 0 2 1 3 4 2 1 7

27.2.2 downstairs จั๊นลุม 0 2 1 3 4 2 1 7

29.3.2 mattress สะล ี 2 5 1 8 7 4 0 11

ฟูก 3 2 4 9 3 2 0 5

30.1 ceiling ฝา 1 0 2 3 3 3 0 6

30.2 wall ฝา 0 0 2 2 2 3 0 5

255

33. window ปอง 5 5 5 15 1 0 0 1

หนาตาง 2 0 1 3 11 5 1 17

36.2 humid บด 1 2 1 4 0 0 1 1

39.1 flood น้ํานอง 2 5 1 8 1 2 0 3

39.3 thunderstorm พาย ุ 2 0 0 2 5 2 1 8

40. cloud เมฆ 2 2 2 6 9 5 1 15

ฝา 3 7 5 15 3 0 0 3

41.1 log ไมทุง 3 6 5 14 3 0 0 3

ไมซุง 0 1 1 2 4 3 0 7

42.2 shade ฮม 3 5 5 13 4 3 0 7

43. wither เหว 2 4 4 10 5 0 1 6

เหี่ยว 3 2 0 5 6 5 1 12

45. canal คือ 0 1 1 2 6 2 0 8

45.3 marsh หนอง 1 4 2 7 2 1 0 3

48.mountain มอน 5 7 6 18 8 2 1 11

48.1.1 top of the ปายดอย 0 0 1 1 8 0 1 9 hill

48.1.3 valley กิ่ว 3 5 4 12 5 0 0 5

หนาผา 2 1 2 5 5 5 0 10

50. road ถนน 2 4 2 8 9 5 1 15

หนตาง 3 3 4 10 2 0 1 3

51. slope หลิ่ง 2 0 3 5 7 3 1 11

จิ๊ง 3 6 5 14 2 2 0 4

57. cup โถย 3 5 5 13 5 0 0 5

256

57.5 bottle บอก 6 3 4 14 4 0 1 5

กะบอก 0 0 3 3 9 0 1 10

58.3 basket ปุงกี๋ 3 3 5 11 5 4 0 9

58.4 basket กระเชา 0 0 1 1 5 3 0 8

58.5 basket กระบุง 1 1 0 2 3 3 0 6

บุง 2 3 1 6 2 0 0 2

58.6 basket โกย 2 0 4 6 1 0 0 1

ตะกรา 1 0 0 1 3 2 0 5

61. basket กระดง 1 0 0 1 6 3 1 10

ดง 3 7 5 15 5 0 1 6

65.4 backpack ยาม 1 0 3 4 7 2 1 10

67. tray พาน 2 0 0 2 11 5 1 17

ขัน 4 5 6 15 0 1 0 1

69. plate จาน 1 1 1 3 9 5 1 15

72.2 shovel พลั่ว 2 2 1 5 8 4 1 13

ลั่ว 1 2 4 7 1 0 0 1

74. nail เหล็กกน 3 7 6 16 6 1 1 8

ตะป ู 1 1 0 2 7 3 0 10

76. frying pan หมอขาง 5 6 5 16 4 0 0 4

กะทะ 2 0 0 2 10 5 1 16

77. stove เตา 1 3 1 5 8 3 1 12

77.1 charcoal ถาน 2 4 3 9 9 5 1 15

82. pestle สาก 0 3 1 4 6 2 1 9

แกนต๋ํา 3 5 4 12 6 0 0 6

257

84. lamp โกม 3 7 6 16 3 5 0 8

ตะเกียง 2 0 1 3 10 5 1 16

86. sty กวง 3 6 5 14 2 0 0 2

กง 1 0 0 1 6 2 0 8

89. barn หลองขาว 3 7 6 16 5 2 1 8

93. hat งอบ 0 0 1 1 4 4 0 8

96. lariat แฮว 2 4 3 9 1 2 0 3

102.1 early งาย 3 4 4 11 5 0 0 5

258

APPENDIX D SELECTED PICTURES SHOWING SOME VARIANTS

This appendix displays some selected seventeen pictures showing some variants of items that are difficult to find equal synonyms with English terms. Twelve pictures are from the topic containers and implements; four for farm and ranch; and one for house.

Containers and Implements

Picture 1.1 Item # 58.1 เขง khengL variant เขง khengL 'round crate'.

259

Picture 1.2 Item # 58.1 เขง khengL variant ซา saaH 'basket with handle'.

Picture 1.3 item # 58.2 ชะลอม chaL lormM variant ชะลอม chaL lormM 'bamboo basket'. 260

Picture 1.4 item # 58.5 กระบุง kraL bungM variant กระบุง kraL bungM 'closely woven bamboo basket'.

Picture 1.5 item # 58.5 กระบุง kraL bungM variant เปยด piatF 'closely woven bamboo basket can carry on head or wrap around waist.

261

Picture 1.6 item # 58.5 กระบุง kraL bungM variants กระบุง kraL bungM, บุง bungM, and กะบุง kaL bungM 'closely woven bamboo basket'.

Picture 1.7 item # 58.6 ตะกรา taL kraaF variant ตะกรา taL kraaF 'basket'.

262

Picture 1.8 item # 58.6 ตะกรา taL kraaF variant ติ้วซา tiwF saaH bamboo or rattan basket with handle'.

Picture 1.9 item # 60 ลัง langM variant หีบ hiipL ' chest'.

263

Picture 1.10 item # 61 กระดง kraL dongF variant กระดง kraL dongF 'winnowing basket'.

Picture 1.11 item # 61 กระดง kraL dongF variant กระจาด kraL caatL 'winnowing basket'.

264

Picture 1.12 item # 75 กระบวย kraL buayM variant น้ําทุง naamH thungF 'water dipper m,ade from rattan'.

Farm and ranch

Picture 1.13 item # 86 เลา lawH variant สุม sumL and กุม kumL 'coop'. 265

Picture 1.14 item # 86 เลา lawH variant ของ khorngF 'net for fish trap'.

Picture 1.15 item # 93 เงิบ ngoepF variant งอบ ngorpF 'hat made of bamboo and palm leaves'. 266

Picture 1.16 item # 93 เงิบ ngoepF variant กุบ kupL and กุบ kupR ' hat made of bamboo and palm leaves'.

House

Picture 1.17 item # 29.3.4 เสื่อ sueaL variant เสื่อ sueaL 'mat'. 267

APPENDIX E INDEX OF VARIANTS BY QUESTION NUMBER

Alphabetical order of Transcription for Thai Variants

กะละมัง kaL laL mangM, 64 กะทะ kaL thaH, 76 กาน้ํา kaaM naamH, 83 แกวัด kaeL watH, 16.2 แกบ kaepL, 99 แกว kaewHF, 57 ก่ําแปง kamL paengM, 30 กับ kapL, 60 กับดัก kapL dakL, 96 เกา kawH, 8.2.2.1 (ไม) เกี๊ยะ (maayH) kiaH, 77.1 กิ่ว kiwL, 48.1.3 กลางคืน klangM khuenM, 105 กลางวัน klangM wanM, 102 กลอง klorngL, 60 โกม kohmM, 84 โกย kohyR, 58.1 โกย kohyR, 58.2 กอก korkL, 57 กระบอก kraL borkL, 57.5 กระบวย kraL buayM, 75 กระบุง kraL bungM, 58.5 กระจาด kraL caatL, 61 กระเชา kraL chawH, 58.4 กระดาง kraL daangHF, 37 กระดง kraL dongF, 61 268

กระเปา kraL pawR, 65.6 กระปอง kraL porngR, 70 กระสอบ kraL sorpL, 65.5 กระโถน kraL thohnR, 62 กระทอม kraL thormF, 35 กระติก kraL tikL, 83 กรง krongM, 86 กวย kuayR, 58.1 กวย kuayR, 58.2 (บะ) กวยเตด (baL) kuayF tehtF, 100.1 กุบ kupL, 93 กุบ kupR, 93 ก ู kuuM, 1.2 กูวัน kuuF wanM, 106 กวาน kwaanH, 45.3 ขา khaaF, 1 ขาเจา khaaF cawHF, 1.1 แข็ง khaengR, 37.1 ขัน khanR, 57 ขาว khawHF, 98 เขง khengL, 58.1 เขิน khoenR, 54 เขย khoeyR, 7 ขอบก khorR bokL, 72.1 ของ khorngF, 86 ขวน khuanF, 30.1 ขวด khuatL, 57.5 เขื่อน khueanL, 45.5 ขวาย khwaayR, 102.4 (เมื่อ) ค่ํา (mueaF) khamF, 105 โคม khohmM, 84 คอก khorkF, 86 คอง khorngM, 45 คราด khraatF, 72.5 269

ค ู khuuM, 45.1 งาย ngaayM, 102.1 งอบ ngorpF, 93 จาน caanM, 69 (ลูก) จาย (luukF) caayM, 8.2.2 แจกัน caeM kanM, 66.1 (ใกล) แจง (klayF) caengF, 102.5 จัน canM, 51 เจา cawHF, 1.1 เจา cawH, 102.1 จิ้ง cingF, 51 จิ๊ง cingH, 51 จอก corkL, 57 จอง corngM, 29.3.6 ฉัน chanR, 1.3 เฉา chawR, 43 ชะลอม chaL lormM, 58.2 ชาม chaamM, 69 ซา saaH, 58.1 ซา saaH, 58.2 (ลูก) ซอย (luukF) soryH, 8.2.2.2 ซอย soryM, 55 ซุง sungM, 41.1 ญิง nyingM, 6 เณร nehnM, 17.1 เด็ก dekL, 8.2 ดิน dinM, 49.1 ดอย doryM, 48 ดึก duekL, 105.1 ตะเกียง taL kiangM, 84 ตะกรา taL kraaF, 58.6 ตะหลิว taL liwR, 76.1 ตะป ู taL puuR, 74 ตา taaM, 22 270

(หน) ตาง (honR) taangM, 50 ตาย taayR, 43 ตั่ง tangL, 29.3.1 เตา tawM, 77 ใตถุน tayF thunF, 27.2.3 เตียง tiangF, 102 เตียง tiangM, 29.3.1 เตียง tiangM, 29.3.6 ตี้ราบลุม tiiF laapF lumF, 49 ตี้ลาด tiiF laatF, 51 ตี้นา tiiF naaM, 90 ตี้นอน tiiF nornM, 29.3.3 ตีนดอย tiinM doryM, 48.1.2 เติ๋น toenR, 27.2.1 โตง tohngF, 90 (เมื่อ) ตอน (mueaF) tornM, 102 ตอวาน torL waanM, 108 ตอวานซืน torL waanM suenM, 108 ต ุ tuH, 17 ตื้น tuenF, 54 ตึงวัน tuengM wanM, 106 ตุม tumL, 56 ตูบ tuupL, 35 ถนน thaL nonR, 50 ถาน thaanL, 77.1 ถัง thangR, 59 ถังเป thangR pehM, 64 เถา thawF, 85 ถวย thuayHF, 57 ถุง thungR, 65 เทียน thianM, 84.1 ทึบ thuepH, 105.1 ทุง thungM, 41.1 ธูป thuupF, 84.1 271

นา naaH, 14 หนาผา naaF phaaR, 48.1.3 หนาตาง naaF taangL, 33 น้ําจอก naamH corkL, 47 น้ําคางแข็ง naamH khaangH khaengR, 38.3 น้ําทวม naamH thuamF, 39.1 น้ําตก naamH tokL, 47 หนาว nawR, 37 นิ่ว niwHF, 8.2.2.2 (บะ) นอแน (baL) norH naeF, 100.3 หนอง norngR, 45.3 หนอย noryHF, 8.2.2.2 หน ู nuuR, 1.1 บาน baanHF, 27 บาตร baatL, 18 บาย baayL, 103 (ลูก) บาว (luukF) bawL, 8.2.2 บิณฑบาต binM thaL baatL, 18.1 (จั๊น) บน (canH) bonM, 27.2.1 (น้ํา) บอ (naamH) borL, 45.7 บวง buangL, 96 บึง buengM, 45.3 ปาไม  paaM mayF, 41 ปาก paakF, 76.1 ปาด paatF, 76.1 แปง paengM, 90.1 (สะ) ไป (saL) payH, 6 เป  pehF, 65.4 เปก pekH, 57 เปน poenF, 1 ปก pokH, 68 (อี่) ปอ (iiL) porF, 3 ปอมัน porF manM, 5 ปอเมีย porF miaM, 3.2 272

ปอผัว porF phuaR, 3.1 ปอตา porF taaM, 3.2 ปอง porngL, 33 ป ู puuL, 23 ปูจาน puuL caanR, 16.2 ปุก pukH, 68 ปุง pungM, 90.1 ปุงก ี๋ pungF kiiR, 58.3 ผม phomR, 1.2 ผัว phuaR, 5 ผูขา phuuF khaaF, 1.2 ผูใหญ phuuF yayL, 8.3 ฝา faaHF, 40 ฝา faaF, 30.1 ฝาผนัง faaR phaL nangR, 30.2 ฝาย faayR, 45.5 พาย ุ phaaM yuH, 39.3 เพดาน phehM daanM, 30.1 พลั่ว phluaF, 72.2 โพเพ  phohH phehH, 104.1 พระ phraH, 17 พื้นกะลาง phuenH kaL laangF, 27.2.3 ฟา faaH, 39.3 ฟน fuenM, 77.1 ฟูก fuukF, 29.3.2 ภูเขา phuuM khawR, 48 (อี่) แม (iiL) maeF, 2 แมคะนิ้ง maeF khaL ningH, 38.3 แมมัน maeF manM, 4 แมเมีย maeF miaM, 2.2 แมน้ํา maeF naamH, 46 แมญิง maeF nyingM, 8.2.1 แมผัว maeF phuaR, 2.1 แมยาย maeF yayM, 2.2 273

มัด matH, 68 ไมขดไฟี mayH khiitL fayM, 84.3 เมฆ mehkF, 40 เมีย miaM, 4 มีด miitF, 79 หมิ่น minL, 77.1 เหมย moeyR, 38.1 หมอ morF, 63 หมอกา morF kaaR, 83 หมอขาง morF khangR, 76 หมอก morkL, 38 มอน mornF, 48 (น้ํา) หมอก (naamH) mueangR, 45 มืด muetF, 105.1 มูญิง muuF nyingM, 8.2.1 ยา yaaF, 21 ยาม yaamHF, 65.3 ยาย yaayM, 20 ยออั๊น yorM anH, 29.3.1 ยอดดอย yortF doryM, 48.1.1 ยุง yungH, 89 รถเข็น rotH khenR, 91 ละออน laL ornL, 8.2 หลา laaHF, 8.2.2.2 (จั๊น) ลาง (canH) laangF, 27.2.3 แลง laengH, 36.3 (เมื่อ) แลง (mueaF) laengM, 102.4 ลํา lamM, 99 ลัง langM, 60 เลา lawH, 86 เหล็กกน lekL konM, 74 โหล lohR, 57.5 ลม lomM, 42 หลองขาว lorngR khawHF, 89 274

(ลูก) ลัว (luukF) luaM, 6 หลัว luaR, 77.1 (จั๊น) ลุม (canH) lumF, 27.2.2 วัน wanM, 106 วันฮือ wanM hueM, 106.4 วันหลัง wanM langR, 106.4 วันหนา wanM naaF, 106.4 วันใน wanM nayM, 106.4 วันนึ่ง wanM nuengF, 106.4 วันพูก wanM phuukF, 106.4 สะลี saL liiM, 29.3.2 สะลี saL liiM, 29.3.3 สาก saakL, 82 สัน sanR, 1.3 สัน sanR, 48 (ลูก) สาว (luukF) sawR, 8.2.1 (ฮอง) สวน (horngF) suanR, 90.1 สุม sumL, 86 สู suuR, 5 หาง haangF, 35 ไห hayR, 56 เหว hehwR, 48.1.3 (ลูก) เห็บ (luukF) hepL, 38.3 เหว hewL, 43 เหี่ยว hiawL, 43 หินฝนมีด hinR fonR miitF, 79.3 หีบ hiipL, 60 หอ horL, 68 หวย huayF, 45.6 หุบเขา hupL khawR, 48.1.3 อา aaM, 15 อาทิตยขึ้น aaM thitH khuenF, 109 อาทิตยตก aaM thitH tokL, 109.1 อาง aangL, 64 275

เอ็ง engM, 1.3 โอง ohngL, 56 อวม uamM, 36.2 อุย uyH, 11 ฮา haaM, 1 แฮว haewH, 96 เฮา hawM, 1.2 ฮม homF, 42.2 ฮอน hornH, 36 ฮั้ว huaH, 30.3 เฮือน hueanM, 27

Alphabetical Order for English Variants adult, 8.3 afternoon, 103 ash, 85 aunt (FASI / MOSI) (older), 13 aunt ( MOBR / MOSI) (younger), 14 aunt (FABR / FASI)(younger), 15 axe, 73 backpack, 65.4 bag, 65 bag, 65.3 bag, 65.6 (canvas) bag, 65.5 barn, 89 basement, 27.2.3 basin, 64 basin, 71 (bamboo) basket, 58.2 basket with one side open, 58.3 basket handle at top, 58.4 (closely woven bamboo) basket, 58.5 276 basket, 58.6 (winnowing) basket, 61 bed, 29.3.1 bed, 29.3.6 bed, 29.3.7 bedroom, 29.3 (cutting) board, 80 boys brought up by monks and stayed in temples, 16.1 bottle, 57.5 bright, 102.6 bucket, 59 bucket, 70 bundle, 68 bundle, 68.2 buffalo, 92.2 cage, 86 (watering) can, 97 canal, 45 candle, 84.1 (garden) cart, 91 ceiling, 30.1 charcoal, 77.1 chasm, 48.1.3 chest, 60 (young) child, 8 child, 8.2 chicken, 92.4 chisel, 72.4 clerk in temple, 16.3 cloud, 40 coconut, 100.6 cold, 37 (food) container for monk, 18 coop, 86 277 corn, 98.10 cow, 92.1 (round) crate, 58.1 (cardboard) crate, 60 creek, 45.6 cup, 57 custard apple, 100.3 dam, 45.5 dark, 105.1 daughter, 8.2.1 dawn, 102.5 day, 106 (the) day after tomorrow, 106.4 (the) day before yesterday, 108 daytime, 102 deep, 53 dew, 38.2 die, 43 dim, 104.2 (see # 104.1) ditch, 45.1 ditch, 45.4 door, 32 downstairs, 27.2.2 dry, 36.3 duck, 92.5 dusk, 104.1 early (in the morning), 102.1 (the) eldest, 8.2.2.1 elephant, 92.6 evening, 102.4 everyday, 106 every other day, 106.3 farmland, 90 father, 3 278 father-in-law (man’s side), 3.1 father-in-law (woman’s side), 3.2 female, 8.2.1 fence, 30.3 (open) field, 90 flood, 39.1 fog, 38 foggy, 110 foot of a hill, 48.1.2 forest, 41 freeze, 37 frost, 38.3 glass, 57 grandfather (MOFA), 22 grandfather (FAFA), 23 grandmother (MOMO), 20 grandmother (FAMO), 21 grandparents, 11 great-grandparents, 24 great-great-grandparents, 25 great niece/ nephew, 10 groove, 45 hail, 38.3 hammer, 73.1 (bamboo and palm leaves) hat, 93 hill, 48.1 hoe, 72.1 hot, 36 house, 27 (one-story) house, 27.1 (two-story) house, 27.2 humid, 36.2 husband, 5 husk, 98 279 hut, 35 I, 1 I (female), 1.1 I (male), 1.2 I (neutral), 1.3 in-law (female), 6 in-law (male), 7 jar, 56 jar, 56.3 joss stick, 84.1 kid, 8 kindling, 77.1 kitchen, 29.1 knife, 79 knife sharpener, 79.3 ladle, 75 lamp, 84 lantern, 84 lariat, 96 late (time), 102.4 late (time), 102.7 late at night, 105.1 leader before monk, 16.2 lightning, 39.4 lightning strike, 39.5 living room, 29.2 log, 41.1 longan, 100.4 lychee, 100.5 mango, 100.2 market, 19 marsh, 45.3 mat, 29.3.4 match, 84.3 280 mattress, 29.3.2 mattress, 29.3.3 mist, 38 monk, 17 monk’s morning walks for alms (religious activity), 18.1 morning, 102.1 mortar, 81 mother, 2 mother-in-law (man’s side), 2.1 mother-in-law (woman’s side) 2.2 mountain, 48 mushroom, 101 nail, 74 niece/ nephew, 9 net, 86.3 (the) next day, 106.4 night, 105 night time, 105 night time, 105.3 noon, 102 noon, 102.3 novice, 17.1 opaque, 105.1 (frying) pan, 76 papaya, 100.1 pestle, 82 pig, 92.3 plain, 49 plate, 69 plot for land, 90.1 plot for orchard, 90.1 pond, 45.7 post, 34 pot, 63 281 rain, 39 rake, 72.5 reservoir, 45.3 rice, 98 rice grain, 98 rice with coconut milk, 98 boiling rice, 98 crisped rice, 98 popped rice, 98 sticky rice, 98 white rice, 98 river, 46 road, 50 (small) road, 55 rock, 52 roof, 31 room, 29 school, 26 scissors, 78 screwdriver, 78.1 section for land, 90.1 shade, 35.1 shade, 42.2 shallow, 54 shallow, 54.1 shovel, 72.2 shovel, 72.3 shredded rice grain, 98 sky, 39.3 slope, 51 soil, 49.1 son, 8.2.2 soot, 77.1 spatula, 76.1 282 spittoon, 62 stairs, 28 steep, 54 stove, 77 sty, 86 sunrise, 109 sunset, 109.1 swamp, 45.3 table scrap, 99 teapot, 83 temple, 16 thermos , 83 three days after today, 106.4 three days before today, 108 thunder, 39.6 thunderstorm, 39.3 today, 106 tomorrow, 106.4 top of the hill, 48.1.1 tractor, 94 trap, 96 tray, 66.1 (big) tub, 64 uncle (FABR/MOBR) (older), 12 upstairs, 27.2.1 vase, 66 wall, 30 water around land, 90.1 waterfall, 47 we (incl.) , 1.5 well, 45.7 wife, 4 wind, 42 window, 33 283 windy, 42 wither, 43 yesterday, 108 you, 1.4 (the) youngest, 8.2.2.2