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I. the Evolution of the Precepts, C) Japan I. The Evolution of the Precepts, C) Japan 1. Mahayana Precepts in Japan (Groner): From Paul Groner – “Mahayana Precepts in Japan” (entry in Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Buswell, ed.)): The history of Mahayana precepts in Japan was decisively influenced by the country’s geography. Japan is an island country; during the Nara period, it was difficult to reach from the Asian mainland, and therefore difficult for ordinations to be performed in the orthodox manner, in rituals presided over by ten monks who had correctly received the precepts. Ganjin (688–763), for example, tried six times to lead a group of monks from China to Japan so that they could conduct a proper ordination… The term Mahayana precepts was frequently used in a polemical manner to criticize the rules of the vinaya. However, most monks who adhered to the vinaya rules believed that they were following precepts that were largely or completely consistent with Mahayana teachings. Ganjin used an ordination platform that included an image of two buddhas sitting in a reliquary. This image is peculiar to the Lotus Sutra and indicated that Ganjin probably interpreted the vinaya in a manner consistent with Tendai teachings that enabled him to “open and reconcile” Hinayana teachings of the mainstream Buddhist schools with those of Mahayana so that no contradiction occurred. Moreover, Japanese monks were also ordained with the fiftyeight rules from a Mahayana text, Fanwang Jing (Brahma’s Net Sutra). In this case, the Mahayana precepts were intended to supplement those found in the vinaya, thereby giving the practitioner a Mahayana perspective. As a result, virtually the entire history of Buddhist precepts in Japan could fall under the rubric of Mahayana precepts. A decisive break with the rules of the vinaya occurred when Saicho (767–822), founder of the Tendai School, argued that his monks should use the fiftyeight Mahayana precepts of the Brahma’s Net Sutra for their ordinations. Saicho’s main objective was to free his monks from administrative control of his adversaries in the Buddhist schools of Nara. His commitment to traditional standards of monastic discipline is revealed in a provision that Tendai monks “provisionally receive the Hinayana precepts” after twelve years on Mount Hiei. Because Saicho died before the court accepted his proposals, Tendai monks were left without clear instructions on how the terse precepts of the Brahma’s Net Sutra were to be interpreted when they were the main basis of monastic discipline…***…Tendai monastic discipline went into general decline…***… A number of monks made efforts to revive monastic discipline…***… The issues and approaches that appeared in Tendai affected other schools in a variety of ways. Many Zen monks also strove to revive the precepts by using “Maha _ya_na precepts.” Eisai (1141–1215), often considered the founder of Rinzai Zen, deemed the precepts from the vinaya to be the basis of Zen and wrote several works on them…***…In conclusion, although Japan is often described as a country where monks do not follow the precepts, they have discussed them continuously for well over a millennium. 2. Saicho: Excerpts from Saicho’s Writings on the Bodhisattva Precepts translated by Paul Groner From now on we will not follow shravaka ways. We will turn away forever from Hinayana (strictures on maintaining) dignity. I vow that I will henceforth abandon the two-hundred fifty (Hinayana) precepts. The great teachers of Nan-Yueh (Hui-ssu) and T’ien-T’ai (Chih-i) both heard the Lotus Sutra preached and received the three-fold bodhisattva precepts (three collections of pure precepts) on Vulture’s Peak. Since then, these precepts have been transmitted from teacher to teacher… I have read the Buddha’s teachings. I know that there are (strictures on) dignity for both the bodhisattva monk (bosatsu-so) and the (lay) bodhisattva (bosatsu), and that there are pure Mahayana and pure Hinayana (teachings). Now, the students of my school shall study Mahayana precepts, meditation, and wisdom. They shall abandon inferior Hinayana practices forever…***… Buddhists with religious minds are called bodhisattvas in the West, and gentlemen (chun-tzu, a Confucian term) in the East. They take the bad upon themselves in order to benefit others. This is the height of compassion. Two types of Buddhist monks exist, the Hinayana and the Mahayana. Buddhists with a religious nature are of the latter type. Today in Japan only Hinayana monks are found; Mahayana monks have not yet appeared. Mahayana teachings have not yet spread (in Japan); thus it is difficult for Mahayana practitioners to arise. 26 I sincerely ask that in accordance with the late emperor’s wish, Tendai yearly ordinands be forever designated Mahayana practitioners and bodhisattva monks (bosatsu so)…***… [From: Petition Asking for Permission to Install Bodhisattva Monks] From Kashmir west, Mahayana and Hinayana are practiced separately. From Hsuan-pu (K’un-lun Mountain in west China where immortals are said to dwell) east, Mahayana and Hinayana are practiced together. Although (Buddhist practice) is different in the east and in the west, both have Buddhist wisdom as their objective. The ultimate and complete doctrine, the pure and perfect teaching, (is found in the) Lotus Sutra. (According to chapter 14 of this sutra, Mahayana monks) may not greet Hinayana monks, nor may they be in the lecture hall together. From now on, we shall encourage our students to abide by the rules set out in the sutras (such as the Lotus, Brahmajala, and Vimalakirti Sutras)…***… Mahayana and Hinayana practitioners should live separately and vie with each other in their practice of Buddhism. Those in the mountains and those in the capital should strive in harmony to protect the nation…***… There are three types of Buddhist temples: 1. Exclusively Mahayana temples where beginning bodhisattva monks (bosatsu so) live. 2. Exclusively Hinayana temples where exclusively Hinayana vinaya masters (risshi) live. 3. Temples in which both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism are practiced (where monks keep Hinayana precepts with a Mahayana mind)…***… (The ordination for) the Mahayana precepts: The three teachers and the witnesses are invited as is specified in the Contemplation of Samantabhadra Sutra (the capping sutra for the Lotus Sutra). Shakyamuni Buddha is asked to be the preceptor for the bodhisattva precepts. The Bodhisattva Manjushri is asked to be the karma-acharya for the bodhisattva precepts. The bodhisattva Maitreya is asked to be the instructor acharya for the bodhisattva precepts. All of the Buddhas of the ten directions are asked to be verifying masters (shoshi) for the bodhisattva precepts. All of the bodhisattvas of the ten directions are asked to be fellow students of the bodhisattva precepts….***… Beginning Tendai yearly ordinand students and beginning students (of other schools) who have turned away from Hinayana to Mahayana teachings shall be granted the above-mentioned Mahayana precepts (daijokai) and thereby become fully-ordained monks (daiso)…***… The two types of bodhisattva [lay and monk] are mentioned in the Lotus Sutra. The Bodhisattva Manjushri and the Bodhisattva Maitreya are both bodhisattva monks. Bhadrapala (of the sixteen bodhisattvas) and the five hundred bodhisattvas are lay bodhisattvas (zaike bosatsu). The Lotus Sutra fully presents both types of men but considers them to be one group. It distinguishes them from Hinayana monks and considers them to be Mahayana practitioners. However, this type of bodhisattva has not yet appeared in Japan. I humbly ask His Majesty to establish this Great Way and transmit the Mahayana precepts…***… Saicho has heard that the Buddha’s precepts vary according to the faculties of the person who follows them. The aims of people differ according to whether they are Hinayana or Mahayana practitioners. The seat of honor (joza) differs according to whether it is occupied by Manjushri or Pindola. The ordination ceremony differs according to whether one or ten teachers participate…***… Now, at this time, I sincerely request that the monks of both courses turn away from Hinayana rules and firmly adhere to Mahayana rules, and that in accordance with the Lotus Sutra, Mahayana rules not be mixed with with the Hinayana ones. In the third month of every year, on the anniversary of the late emperor’s death, we shall initiate those who have been pure in their practice as bodhisattva novices on Mount Hiei. We shall also confer the full bodhisattva precepts (bosatsu daikai) and ordain them as bodhisattva monks…***… The Lotus School was established for the benefit of the nation by the late Emperor Kanmu. Its two (yearly) ordinands are to be Mahayana monks of the Lotus School. Its Sudden and Perfect students do not seek the three vehicles outside the gate. Of what use would the rules on dignity for the sheep vehicle be to them? They do not desire the castle in the middle of the road (on a long journey). How much less would they be likely to take a round-about detour? Tomorrow when they are given riches, they will know their father and know that they are his sons. What need is there to be a stranger (in their own house), or to sweep up dung? On the night when (the king) extols (his troops’) deeds, he undoes his topknot and gives them his pearl. Why should one wish for a mansion? Why should one search for a castle?...***… 3. Early Tendai Understandings of the Precepts (Bodiford): From William Bodiford’s Introduction to Going Forth: “In many ways the status of the vinaya in Japan reflects the same
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