DOCSLIB.ORG

Rainfall-Runoff Modeling of River Kosi Using Scs-Cn Method and Ann

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Rainfall-Runoff Modeling of River Kosi Using Scs-Cn Method and Ann RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELING OF RIVER KOSI USING SCS-CN METHOD AND ANN A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Bachelor of Technology In Civil Engineering By Punit Kumar Bhola and Ashish Singh Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela May, 2010 RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELING OF RIVER KOSI USING SCS-CN METHOD AND ANN A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Bachelor of Technology In Civil Engineering By Punit Kumar Bhola and Ashish Singh Under the supreme guidance of Prof. Ramakar Jha Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela May, 2010 National Institute of Technology Rourkela CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project entitled, ―Rainfall-Runoff modeling of river Kosi using SCS-CN method and ANN‖ submitted by ‗Ashish Singh and Punit Kumar Bhola‘ in partial fulfillments for the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Civil Engineering at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela (Deemed University) is an authentic work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the report has not been submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma. Date: (Prof. Ramakar Jha) Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela - 769008, Orissa ii Acknowledgement We express our gratitude and sincere thanks to Prof. Ramakar Jha for his guidance and constant encouragement and support during the course of my work. We truly appreciate the value and his esteemed guidance and encouragement from beginning to the end of the thesis, his knowledge and company at the time of crisis would be remembered lifelong. Our Sincere thanks to Prof. M. Panda, Head of the Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela for providing all kind of help and support. We are also thankful to all the professors of Civil Engineering Department. We also thank our friends who directly or indirectly helped us in our project work and completion of the report. Last but not the least we would like to thank our parents who taught us the values of hard work by their own example. We would like to share this moment of happiness with our mother and father. They rendered us enormous support during the whole tenure of stay at NIT Rourkela. PUNIT KUMAR BHOLA (10601017) ASHISH SINGH (10601018) Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix 1.INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1 1.1 General ..................................................................................................................................2 2. STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................................4 2.1 Kosi River ..............................................................................................................................5 2.1.1 SunKosi Basin .................................................................................................................5 2.1.2 Arun River Basin ............................................................................................................5 2.1.3 Tamur River Basin .........................................................................................................6 3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................10 3.1 SCS-CN method ..................................................................................................................11 3.2 Artificial Neural Network ...................................................................................................11 4. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................13 4.1 SCS-CN Method of Estimating Runoff Volume .................................................................14 4.1.1 Soils ..............................................................................................................................15 4.1.2 Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) .......................................................................16 4.1.3 Land use ........................................................................................................................16 4.2 Artificial neural network (ANN) .........................................................................................18 4.2.1 NEURAL NETWORK MODEL ..................................................................................18 4.2.1.1 Multilayer Perceptron ...........................................................................................19 4.2.1.2 Radial Basis Function ...........................................................................................21 4.2.2 Rainfall-Runoff Modeling Using ANN ........................................................................22 iv 5. RESULTS & DISCUSSION....................................................................................................24 5. 1 Estimation of missing rainfall data .................................................................................25 5. 2 Upstream and Downstream Discharge Relation .............................................................27 5. 3 Correlation Between the Raingauge Stations ..................................................................25 5.4 Rainfall v/s Downstream flow .........................................................................................28 5. 5 Analysis by SCS-CN Method .........................................................................................29 5. 6 Normalization of Data ....................................................................................................32 5. 7 Analysis by ANN ...........................................................................................................35 5. 8 Comparison .....................................................................................................................37 5. 9 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................38 References .....................................................................................................................................39 Appendixes I. Rainfall-Runoff relationship .......................................................................................... I II. Optimized Network .................................................................................................... XII v Abstract A rainfall-runoff model is a mathematical model describing the rainfall - runoff relations of a catchment area, drainage basin or watershed. In other words, the model calculates the conversion of rainfall into runoff. There can be used many methods to calculate the runoff among which the methods used in the current report are SCS-CN Method Artificial Neural Network (ANN) In rainfall-runoff modeling SCS-CN uses the soil information, rainfall, storm duration, soil texture, type & amount of vegetation cover and conservation practices are considered while a new dimension has been added to the modeling approach through the adoption of the ANN technique as these models possess desirable attributes of universal approximation, and the ability to learn from examples. The performance comparison of both the models is made with coefficient of determination (R2) which is coming to be 0.82 in case of SCS-CN method and 0.89 in case of ANN. Further a comparison is made of both the models i.e. ANN and SCS-CN for the runoff of river Kosi in year 2009. vi List of Figures Figure 1: Kosi river basin in Bihar (Flood Management Information System (FMIS), Bihar) .................... 7 Figure 2: Kosi River basin in Nepal (Rapid hazard and risk assessment post-flood return analysis (2009) UNESCO on behalf of OCHA and UNCT, NEPAL ..................................................................................... 8 Figure 3: Structure of a MLP model with single hidden layer .................................................................... 21 Figure 4:Structure of a RBF model ............................................................................................................. 22 Figure 5: Typical Rainfall- Runoff relationship ......................................................................................... 23 Figure 6: Upstream v/s Downstream Modified discharge relation for year (a) 2005 ............................................................................................................................................... 26 (b) 2006 ............................................................................................................................................... 26 (c) 2007 ..............................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • "MAGIC BOOK" GK PDF in English
    www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co Content 1. Bihar Specific General Knowledge: • History of Bihar • Geography of Bihar • Tourism in Bihar • Mineral & Energy Resources in Bihar • Industries in Bihar • Vegetation in Bihar • National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bihar • First in Bihar • Important Tribal Revolt in Bihar • Bihar Budget 2020-21 2. Indian History: • Ancient India • Medieval India • Modern India 3. Geography: 4. Environment: 5. Indian Polity & Constitution: 6. Indian Economy: 7. Physics: 8. Chemistry: 9. Biology: www.gradeup.co HISTORY OF BIHAR • The capital of Vajji was located at Vaishali. • It was considered the world’s first republic. Ancient History of Bihar Licchavi Clan STONE AGE SITES • It was the most powerful clan among the • Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in Vajji confederacy. Munger and Nalanda. • It was situated on the Northern Banks of • Mesolithic sites have been discovered from Ganga and Nepal Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Singhbhum and Santhal • Its capital was located at Vaishali. Pargana (all in Jharkhand) • Lord Mahavira was born at Kundagram in • Neolithic(2500 - 1500 B.C.) artefacts have Vaishali. His mother was a Licchavi princess been discovered from Chirand(Saran) and (sister of King Chetaka). Chechar(Vaishali) • They were later absorbed into the Magadh • Chalcolithic Age items have been discovered Empire by Ajatshatru of Haryanka dynasty. from Chirand(Saran), Chechar(Vaishali), • Later Gupta emperor Chandragupta married Champa(Bhagalpur) and Taradih(Gaya) Licchavi princess Kumaradevi. MAHAJANAPADAS Jnatrika Clan • In the Later Vedic Age, a number of small • Lord Mahavira belonged to this clan. His kingdoms emerged. 16 monarchies and father was the head of this clan. republics known as Mahajanapadas stretched Videha Clan across Indo-Gangetic plains.
    [Show full text]
  • Report on the Flora and Fauna of the Kanchenjunga Region
    I 1- I I Report Series, # 13 I r Report on the Flora and Fauna of the Kanchenjunga Region Chris Carpenter (Ph.D.) Suresh Ghimire (M.Sc.) Taylor Brown (M.A.) '\Vildlands Study Program, San Francisco State University -n-an 100.;1 Autu.I.....LI. .... ~.//"'T PREFACE The \\'orid Wildlife Fund Nepal Program is pleased to present this series of research reports. Though VrWF has been active in Nepal since 1967. there has been a gap in the public's knowledge of \V\VF' s \vorks. These reports help bridge that gap by offering the conscn'ation community access to works funded andior executed by \V\VF. The report series attests to the din:rsity and complexity of the conservation challenges facing Nepal. Some reports feature scientific research that will enable ecologically sound conservation management of protected areas and endangered species. Other reports represent research in areas that are relatively less known or studied (e.g. the proposed Kanchenjunga Conservation Area or the impact of pesticides in Nepal). The \Vildlands Studies Program. San Francisco State University, has conducted ecological surveys of vegetation and \vildlife in eastern Nepal for the past 5 years. These reports detail the community structure of forests and alpine zones in the Kanchenjunga area. Tree, wildlife. and bird species observed are given with altitudinal and habitat distribution. The report augments \VWF's feasibility study of the proposed Kanchenjunga Conservation Area by providing up-to-date data on this unique and under-studied ecosystem. WWF thanks the Wildlands Studies Program, Dr. Chris Carpenter and his students for their contributions.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrology and Water Resources Development in Nepal
    HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN NEPAL Prepared by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the Nepalese Department of Hydrology and Meteorology under the auspices of the United States Agency for 1!1ternational Development Hyih"ology and Water Resources Development in Nepal by W. W. Evett U. S. Geological Survey Open File Report Contents Page Abstract------------------------------------------------­ 1 Introduction--------------------------------------------- 4 Puysical Features---------------------------------------- 11 Topography------------------------------------------­ 11 Climate---------------------------------------------- 17 Water and History of Nepal------------------------------­ 20 Dnportance of Water in Nepal's Development---------------------------------------- 22 Hydrologic Investigations---------------------------- 23 Surface Water----------------------------------- 24 Ground Water------------------------------------ 28 Meteorology------------------------------------- 30 Quality of Water-------------------------------­ 31 Publication of Hydrologic Data------------------ 36 River Basins of Nepal------------------------------------ 38 Major R~ver Basins----------------------------------- 38 Sapt Kosi--------------------------------------­ 39 Narayani River---------------------------------­ 42 Karnali River----------------------------------­ 48 Sardi River------------------------------------- 51 Minor River Basins----------------------------------- 53 Kankai Mai-------------------------------------­
    [Show full text]
  • Relevant Abstract of Central Water Commission in 1981
    Relevant Abstract of Feasibility Report of Sapta Kosi High Dam Project Prepared by Central Water Commission in 1981 CHAPTER – V CHATRA BARRAGE AND CANAL SYSTEM 5.1 PRESENT & FUTURE IRRIGATION POTENTIAL. 5.1.1 At present, the discharges available in Kosi River are being exploited for irrigation with the construction of two canal systems. An inundation canal takes off on the left bank of Kosi at Chatra to irrigate an area of 0.9 lakh ha (2.24 lakh ac) in Nepal. There is no weir or barrage across Kosi for diversion of water into the canal and flows into the canal depend upon the stage of water in the river. 5.1.2 The other system is the Eastern Kosi Canal taking off from the barrage at Hanuman Nagar about 48 km (30 miles) down stream of Chatra. This canal commands an area of 9.41 lakh ha (23.25 lakh acres) which lies in Bihar in India. Western Canal from this barrage is at present under construction which will have a command of 3.82 lakh ha (9.43 lakh ac) in India and 0.25 lakh ha (0.63 lakh ac) in Nepal. 5.1.3 With the construction of Kosi High Dam, there will be regulated discharges throughout the year which can be used Ex-Chatra as well as Ex-Hanuman Nagar. This will not only bring larger areas under irrigation but also make the present irrigation assured of water supply throughout the year. 5.1.4 The additional gross command that will be brought under irrigation by constructing a barrage at Chatra will be 5.46 lakh ha (13.49 lakh ac) in Nepal and 9.76 lakh ha (24.10 lakh ac) in India (Bihar).
    [Show full text]
  • Policy and Institutions in Adaptation to Climate Change Case Study on Flood Mitigation Infrastructure in India and Nepal
    ICIMOD Working Paper 2013/4 Policy and Institutions in Adaptation to Climate Change Case study on flood mitigation infrastructure in India and Nepal 1 About ICIMOD The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, ICIMOD, is a regional knowledge development and learning centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalayas – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalization and climate change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain people. ICIMOD aims to assist mountain people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the most of new opportunities, while addressing upstream-downstream issues. We support regional transboundary programmes through partnership with regional partner institutions, facilitate the exchange of experience, and serve as a regional knowledge hub. We strengthen networking among regional and global centres of excellence. Overall, we are working to develop an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem to improve the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem services for the billions of people living downstream – now, and for the future. ICIMOD would like to acknowledge the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) for funding this project. ICIMOD gratefully acknowledges the support of its core donors: the Governments of Afghanistan, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
    [Show full text]
  • Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan Countries
    ISSN 0429-9345 FAO Cold water fisheries in the FISHERIES TECHNICAL trans-Himalayan countries PAPER 431 FAO Cold water fisheries in the FISHERIES TECHNICAL trans-Himalayan countries PAPER 431 Edited by T. Petr Toowoomba, Queensland Australia and S.B. Swar Directorate of Fisheries Development Balaju, Kathmandu Nepal FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2002 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 92-5-104807-X All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to [email protected] © FAO 2002 iii PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT This volume contains contributions presented at the Symposium on Cold Water Fishes of the Trans-Himalayan Region, which was held on the 10-13 July 2001 in Kathmandu, Nepal. The objectives were to share information on the status of indigenous fish species and fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan region, improve understanding of their importance in peoples’ livelihoods and assess the potential for further development.
    [Show full text]
  • Water in India - an Overview I
    WWaatteerr iinn IInnddiiaa DDiimmeennssiioonnss ooff CCrriissiiss An Overview of the Water Related Problems in India DDrr.. AArruunn KKuummaarr SSiinngghh KKeeppaa‐‐IInnddiiaa GGrroouupp && Centre for the Study of Developing Societies 2299,, RRaajjppuurr RRooaadd,, NNeeww DDeellhhii‐‐111100005544 1 CONTENTS Preface Part I – Water Management Chapter 1 Dams & Irrigation Dams 1.1 The Rationale of Dam Building 1.2 The Global Picture 1.3 The Financial and Economic Performance of Dams 1.4 The Indian Scene 1.5 The Socio‐Environmental Impacts of Large Dams 1.6 The Contribution of Large Dams to Indian Agriculture 1.7 Acute Need for a Fresh Approach Irrigation 1.8 Distribution of Arable Land 1.9 The Economics of Irrigation 1.10 Politics of Grain-storage and Distribution Chapter 2 Groundwater 2.1 Groundwater Situation in India 2.2 Vast Groundwater Potential in India-Burma-Nepal 2.3 Groundwater Potential in India 2.4 Acute Need for a National Legislation 2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Rajasthan 2.6 Methods of Groundwater Prospecting 2.7 Bhakhra Dam versus Groundwater in Punjab 2.8 WB-Punjab Water Resource Management Project 2.9 Underground Reservoir - An Innovative Concept 2.10 Draft Bill on Groundwater by Union of India 2.11 Groundwater Potential in special Areas 2.12 Impacts of Over-exploitation of Groundwater 2.13 Nitrate Pollution in India’s Groundwater Chapter 3 Watershed Development 3.1 Watershed Development & Concept 3.2 Official Indian Guidelines for Watershed Management 3.3 Revised Official Guidelines for Watershed Development 3.4
    [Show full text]
  • Multi River Expedition - Kayaking & Rafting - 13 Days
    Multi River Expedition - Kayaking & Rafting - 13 Days Highlights Opportunity to explore four of the best white water rivers of Nepal - Bhotekoshi, Balephi, Sun Koshi and Tamur Combination of both Kayaking and Rafting   Costs less than carrying expedition on each river individually Total length of rivers to raft - 336 kilometers For maximum excitement and adrenaline rush Best seasons - Sep -Nov, Mar - Jun These Himalayan rivers provide some of the best white water rafting experience in the world. You will be experiencing continuous white water adventure for several days in rural Nepali setting. As this trip runs for about seventeen days, you will get a chance to build significant bonds between fellow team members. This trip will also deepen your understanding about the rivers, mountains and their impact on rural mountain lives. Oh, by the way do not forget to bring your cameras, you will not want to miss capturing spectacular views of mountains, flora and fauna. If you are seeking for a continuous white water expedition that lasts for several days in a rural Nepali setting, this package is for you.   In this multi river expedition, you will be encountering hundreds of rapids - some famous ones are Harkapur I and II (Class V- ) rapids in Sun Koshi, Gorge (Class IV)  in Bhotekoshi and Hodson’s Sandwich(Class IV+)  in Tamur. We are sure that these challenging rapids will give you adrenaline rush to your heart’s content. Nepal River Runner guides have in depth knowledge of places, you will be passing by. Along the way our guides will be suggesting you to visit significant local places, and will also be sharing interesting stories/folklore related to places and rivers you visit.
    [Show full text]
  • Britain-Nepal Society Journal No.9 1985
    BRITAIN-NEPAL SOCIETY JOURNAL NO.9 1985 T BARCLAYS T B Barclays Merchant Bank PO Box 188 Ebbgate House 2 Swan Lane London EC4R 3TS THE BRITAIN-NEPAL SOCIETY JOURNAL No. 9 (SIIAVER JUBILEE NUMBER) 1985 The first number of our Journal came out in the Silver Jubilee year of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth's accession: since then the J"ournal has prospered and this number comes out in the year of our own Silver Jubilee as a Society. The importance of the Journal is that it provides for the many members of our country-wide Society who are not able to attend meetings in London a record of the lectures arranged for members at the Alpine Club and elsewhere in the capital. The colourful slides that uSually accompany the lectures cannot be reflected in the Journal but the talks do stand very well by themselves and are appreciated both within and outside the Society as growing interest in the Journal has shown. The contents of this the Silver Jubilee number are varied as usual and if a common theme can be said to run through them it must be the subject that has come very much to the fore since the setting up of the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation. The Trust already has strong support within the Society. Nature Conservation is a matter of world-wide concern but it has a special significance in Nepal where the flora and fauna are of such very great interest and of such obvious importance to the economy in that they attract visitors from all over the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Great Himalayan Trail: the Preparatory Study
    Great Himalayan Trail Preparatory Study Netherlands Development Organisation SNV SNV is dedicated to a society where all people enjoy the freedom to pursue their own sustainable development. Our advisors contribute to this by strengthening the capacity of local organisations. ICIMOD The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is an independent ‘Mountain Learning and Knowledge Centre’ serving the eight countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan — and the global mountain community. Founded in 1983, ICIMOD is based in Kathmandu, Nepal, and brings together a partnership of regional member countries, partner institutions, and donors with a commitment for development action to secure a better future for the people and environment of the Himalayan region. The primary objective of the Centre is to promote the development of an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem and to improve the living standards of mountain populations. Great Himalayan Trail Preparatory Study Produced by SNV Nepal and ICIMOD In collaboration with NTB and STN Netherlands Development Organisation Internal report for limited distribution © SNV/Nepal & ICIMOD 2006 Contact SNV Nepal Contact ICIMOD Paul Stevens, Senior Tourism Advisor, SNV Nepal Kamal Banskota, Programme Manager, Agriculture and Rural Income Diversification, ICIMOD Bakhundole, Lalitpur Khumaltar, Lalitpur P.O. Box: 1966, Kathmandu, Nepal P.O. Box: 13226, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: +977-(0)1-5523444 Tel: +977-(0)1-5525313 Telefax: +977-(0)1-5523155 Telefax: +977-(0)1-5524509/5536747 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.snvworld.org Website: www.icimod.org The views and interpretations in this book are those of the authors.
    [Show full text]
  • A Survey of Crop Damage by Rhesus Monkeys and Hanuman Langur in Himachal Pradesh, India…………………………………
    Contents TIGERPAPER A Survey of Crop Damage by Rhesus Monkeys and Hanuman Langur in Himachal Pradesh, India…………………………………. 1 Status of Red Panda in Kanchenjunga Region of Nepal……………… 7 Biodiversity Conservation in the Proposed Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve………………………………………….............. 10 Recovery of Mammalian Fauna in Abandoned Human Settlement Areas in Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand............. 17 A Note on Mouse Deer……………………..………...……….…........ 21 Wild Tiger Ecology & Conservation in the Indian Sub-Continent........ 23 Comparative Study of the Diversity of Birds in Three Reservoirs in Vavuniya, Sri Lanka…………...…………….………...……….... 27 FOREST NEWS Model Forests in Asia-Pacific Continue to Advance...………............. 1 Launching Forum for Model Forests in Indonesia…………….……… 2 IMFNS and FAO Sign Collaboration Agreement on Sustainable Forest Management……………………………………. 2 FAO-RAP Adopts Regional Strategic Framework…………..……... 3 FAO Announces Major Review to Boost Support for Millenium Development Goals…………………………………………………. 4 NWFP Marketing System Development in Lao PDR…..…………….. 5 Southeast Asian Coordinators Plot Strategies for Forest Genetic Resources……………………………………………………………. 7 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Promoting Bioenergy Technologies for Heat Applications………………………………… 8 Reducing Poverty in Upland Communities in the Mekong Region Through Improved Community and Industrial Forestry……………. 9 Rust Never Sleeps…………………………………………………….. 10 Mongolia: Making More Stakeholder Involvement in Forestry a Reality……………………………………………………………..
    [Show full text]
  • 2020 India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED
    MAPPING MADE EASY -2020 India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Table of Contents S.no. Title Page India– Location 2 1 Structure and physiography 4 2 Drainage system 17 3 Climate 24 4 Natural vegetation 52 5 Soils 56 6 1 Page Aspire IASThe name associated with excellence 10/70 Old Rajeneder Nagar N.Delhi www.aspireias.com 8010068998/9999801394 ©2020 ASPIRE IAS. All rights reserved MAPPING MADE EASY -2020 India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED due to their vast east-to-west extent. For 1. India– Location example, the USA has seven time zones. India, extends from Kashmir in the north to Size Kanniyakumari in the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India‘s Indian subcontinent- territorial limit further extends towards the sea • upto 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the It includes the countries — Pakistan, coast. Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and India. • The Himalayas, together with other ranges, • Southern boundary extends upto 6°45' N have acted as a formidable physical barrier latitude in the Bay of Bengal. in the past. Except for a few mountain • the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of passes such as the Khyber, the Bolan, the India, they are roughly about 30 degrees, Shipkila, the Nathula, the Bomdila, etc. it whereas the actual distance measured from was difficult to cross it. north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and • Peninsular part of India extends towards that from east to west is only 2,933 km. the Indian Ocean. (provided the country • distance between two longitudes decreases with a coastline of 6,100 km in the towards the poles whereas the distance mainland and 7,517 km in the entire between two latitudes remains the same geographical coast of the mainland plus everywhere.
    [Show full text]