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"MAGIC BOOK" GK PDF in English

"MAGIC BOOK" GK PDF in English

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1. Specific General Knowledge: • History of Bihar • Geography of Bihar • Tourism in Bihar • Mineral & Energy Resources in Bihar • Industries in Bihar • Vegetation in Bihar • National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bihar • First in Bihar • Important Tribal Revolt in Bihar • Bihar Budget 2020-21 2. Indian History: • Ancient • Medieval India • Modern India 3. Geography: 4. Environment: 5. Indian Polity & Constitution: 6. Indian Economy: 7. Physics: 8. Chemistry: 9. Biology:

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HISTORY OF BIHAR • The capital of was located at . • It was considered the world’s first . Ancient History of Bihar Clan STONE AGE SITES • It was the most powerful clan among the • Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in Vajji confederacy. Munger and . • It was situated on the Northern Banks of • Mesolithic sites have been discovered from Ganga and Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Singhbhum and Santhal • Its capital was located at Vaishali. Pargana (all in Jharkhand) • Lord was born at Kundagram in • Neolithic(2500 - 1500 B.C.) artefacts have Vaishali. His mother was a Licchavi princess been discovered from Chirand(Saran) and (sister of King ). Chechar(Vaishali) • They were later absorbed into the Magadh • Chalcolithic Age items have been discovered Empire by Ajatshatru of . from Chirand(Saran), Chechar(Vaishali), • Later Gupta emperor Chandragupta married Champa() and Taradih(Gaya) Licchavi princess Kumaradevi. Jnatrika Clan • In the Later Vedic Age, a number of small • Lord Mahavira belonged to this clan. His kingdoms emerged. 16 monarchies and father was the head of this clan. known as Mahajanapadas stretched Videha Clan across Indo-Gangetic plains. They are: • It is mentioned for the first time in Yajurveda. 1. Kasi 2. Kamboja • The kingdom was started by Ishkavaku’s son 3. 4. Nimi Videh. • Mithijanak Videh established . 5. 6. • Goddess , daughter of King Janak, 7. 8. Assaka belonged to this clan. 9. Vajji (Vriji) 10. • Janakpur (now in Nepal) was the capital of 11. 12. Matsya this kingdom. 13. Chedi 14. MAGADHA Kingdom 15. (Vamsa) 16. Kuru • It is mentioned for the first time in • Three Mahajanapadas were in Bihar namely Atharvaveda. Magadha, Anga and Vajji. • It extended from the Ganga in the north to ANGA Kingdom Vindhyas in the south, Champa in the east to • It is mentioned for the first time in river Sone on the west. Atharvaveda. • Its capital was Girivraja or which was • It comprised of present-day , surrounded by hills on all sides by five hills. Bhagalpur, and Munger. • Later the capital was shifted to Patliputra. • It was situated to the north-east of Magadha • The Magadh Kingdom included Koshal, Empire. Vatsa, and Avanti. • Champa (in present-day Bhagalpur) was the • It played an important role in the capital. development of Buddhism and Jainism. o It was established by king • Two of India’s greatest empires, Maurya and Mahagovind. Gupta, emerged in Magadha. o It was also called Chenanpo (by Pre-Mauryan Dynasties under Magadha Empire Hiuen Tsang) and Malini. BRIHADRATH Dynasty VAJJI Kingdom • Brihadrath was the earliest known king • It consisted of eight clans. Magadha. He was the eldest son of Vasu, • Most important clans were - Licchavi, Kuru king of Chedi. Videha and Jnatrika. • His name has been mentioned Rigveda. • It was located in Northern India.

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• , son of Brihadrath was the most • Mahapadmananda established the dynasty famous king. after killing last Shishunaga ruler • Girivraja (Rajgir) was the capital under Nandivardhana. Jarasandh. • He was also described Mahapadmapati - • Prodyota dynasty succeeded the Brihadrath sovereign of an infinite host or of the dynasty in Magadha. immense wealth HARYANKA Dynasty - 544 B.C. to 492 B.C. • In Mahabodhivamsa, he was called Ugrasen. • Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of this • He founded the dynasty. He was a dynasty and was the contemporary contemporary of Buddha. Alexander. • He established his capital at Rajgir. MAURYAN Dynasty - 321 B.C. to 184 B.C. • He expanded his empire through matrimonial alliances e.g. Kosala • He founded the dynasty with the help of his • He was also the first ruler in history to form mentor or Kautilya or Vishnugupt. permanent forces/army. • He was born as Mura to a Shudra woman in • He also sent royal physician Jivaka to the court of Nanda. for treating Chanda Pradyota, King of Avanti, • In Mudra , he is also referred to as and his longtime rival who later became a Vrishala. friend. • As per Buddhist tradition, he belonged to the Ajatshatru Moriya Kshatriya clan. • He killed his father Bimbisara to become the • He fought Seleucus Nikator, a general of next ruler. Alexander in 305 B.C. He later sent • Lord Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana and Megasthenese to Mauryan court. Lord Mahavira also attained Moksha during • Megasthenesess wrote Indica describing his reign. Mauryan administration. The empire was • First Buddhist Council (483 B.C.) was divided into four provinces, each under one conducted under his patronage at Rajgir. governor. According to him, Mauryan Udayin administration in Patliputra was under a • He also killed his father Ajatshatru to become council of 30 members divided into 6 the next ruler. committees of 5 members each. • He founded the city Patliputra at the • Patliputra has been referred to as Palibothra confluence of rivers Ganga and Sone and in Megasthenesess’ Indica. made it his capital. • Chanakya wrote, "It is considered a treatise SHISHUNAGA Dynasty - 412 B.C. to 344 B.C. on economics, politics, foreign affairs, Shishunaga administration, military, warfare and religion • He was the founder of the dynasty. He was a ever produced." viceroy of Banaras. Bindusara • During this time Magadha had two capitals - • He was also called by the name Amitrochates Rajgir and Vaishali by Greek writers, Mudrasar in Vayu Purana • He finally destroyed the resistance Avanti and Seemseri in Jaina text Rajvalli Katha. and brought to end to the 100-year rivalry. • Deimachus - Syrian ambassador sent by king Kalasoka Antiochus • He shifted his capital to Patliputra and it • Dionysius - sent by Ptolemy II of Egypt continued as the capital of Magadha Empire onwards. • He came to power after killing 99 of his • Second Buddhist Council (383 B.C.) was brothers sparing only one, conducted under his patronage at Vaishali. • War - 261 B.C. - it is mentioned in NANDA Dynasty - 344 B.C. to 321 B.C. Major Edict XIII.

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• After the Kalinga war, Ashoka embraced • His empire included Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Buddhism under influence of monk Pradesh Upagupta. He came to be known as • He married Licchavi princess, Kumaradevi. • Bhabru inscription - Ashoka is revealed as Gold coins were issued to commemorate this king of Magadha event. • Third Buddhist Council - 250 B.C. - was convened by Ashoka under the presidentship • Prayag inscription by Harisen was dedicated of Tissa in Patliputra. to him. It was discovered by A Tryer. It is SUNGA Dynasty written in the language. • Pushyamitra Sunga was the Commander-in- • He was called Napoleon of India for his Chief of Mauryan armed forces. conquests by Vincent Smith. • He overthrew the last Mauryan ruler. It led to • He gave permission to Sri Lankan ruler the persecution of Buddhists and resurgence Meghavarnan to construct a monastery at of . . • Two Ashwamedha Yagyas were held under • He was also known as Kaviraj for his his reign with Patanjali as the main priest - patronizing of art. Inscription of Dhandev Chandragupta II - • Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra was the hero • He killed his brother and married his widow of Kalidasa’s drama, • He used friendly relations and matrimonial alliances to extend his empire. • The most striking difference in the • Navaratna present in his court were: administration of Guptas from Mauryas was 3. Amarasimh that in Mauryas power was centralized while 1. Kalidas 2. Shanku in Guptas power was decentralized. a • Empire was divided into provinces and each province was further divided into districts. 4. Vetalbhatt 5. Vararuchi 6. Panaka Villages were the smallest units. a • Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. 7. Varahamir8. Dhanwanta9. Ghatakarpar • Rule of the Guptas is known as Indian Golden a ri a Age as rapid strides were made in various fields. • Fa-Hien, a Chinese traveller visited during • Aryabhatta stated that earth moved around his reign. the sun and rotates on its own axis. His most Kumaragupta famous work is • He established the which • Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhanta became a centre of learning. and Brihat Samhita. • He was also known as Mahendraditya. • Kalidasa wrote famous dramas like Skandagupta Malvikagnimitram, Abhigyanashakuntalam • Junagarh Inscription - his governor got and Kumarasambhava restoration of Sudarshana Lake. It was • Mrichakatika by Sudraka, Panchatantra by originally constructed by the Mauryas. Vishnu Sharma and Kamasutra by • He was the last of the great rulers and after Vatsyasana were also written in this period. him, the empire began to disintegrate. • Vishnugupta was the last ruler of the dynasty. • He was the son of Ghatotkacha (son of Sri PALA Empire Gupta). • They were the followers of Mahayana and • He was the first king to use the title tantric school of Buddhism. Maharajadhiraja. • Gopala was the first ruler of the dynasty. He was elected democratically. www.gradeup.co

• Odantipur (now in ), a Buddhist Note: was rebuilt and named as by Mahavihara was established by Gopala. subedar Azim-ush-shan who was the grandson of the • Dharmapala captured Kannauj and took the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Azim. title of Uttarapathasvamin ("Lord of the MODERN HISTORY OF BIHAR North"). The arrival of Europeans: • University (in Bhagalpur) was 1. Portuguese - traded in spices for textiles established by Dharmapala. especially cotton • They also constructed many temples, most 2. British - factory at Alamganj in Patna in 1620 important being Sun Temple at Konark. for saltpetre, presently the East India MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF BIHAR Company factory at Gulzar Bagh is turned Bakhtiyar Khilji into govt. printing press. • He was one of the generals of Qutubuddin 3. Dutch - interested in cotton textiles, saltpetre Aibak. and food grains. • He destroyed many monasteries and viharas. 4. Danes - established the factory at Nepali • He also established the town Bakhtiyarpur. Kothi in Patna. • He died in Bihar only. His mausoleum is also Battle of - 22nd October 1764: built-in Bihar Sharif. • British won the Battle led by Hector Munro • During the rule of Slave dynasty, most parts against the combined army of Mughals under of Bihar were under the control of Turks. So Shah Alam II; Mir Qasim, the Nawab of there was continuous fighting to gain control. Bengal and Shuja-Ud-Daulah, the Nawab of • Lakhnauti and Tirhut rulers provided major . resistance. • Two separate Treaties were signed at • Noohani Dynasty emerged as an important Allahabad dynasty in Bihar during the rule of Tughlaqs. o With the Mughals on 12th August • Fulchand, a ruler of Cher Dynasty started the 1765 Jagdishpur fair. o With the Nawab of Awadh on SUR dynasty 16th August 1765. • It was the most important dynasty of Bihar in • Mughals and the Nawab of Bengal lost the the medieval period. effective control of the province of Bengal • Bihar saw a period of glory during the rule of constituting present-day West Bengal, Sher Shah Suri. Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Bangladesh. • The tomb of Sher Shah is built-in . • The Company got Diwani Rights of these • Battle of Chausa, 1539 A.D. - Sher Shah provinces i.e. collection of revenues. defeated Humayun and took the title of • Nawab of Awadh paid huge reparations and Sultan-e-Adil. also ceded some of his territories. • He had a very efficient administration. Bihar and Bengal Famine 1770 and 1783: • His revenue model was later adopted by • In 1783 when famine stuck again, the then Akbar. Governor-General Warren Hastings ordered • He also constructed the present Grand Trunk for the massive dome-shaped granary of road. . • Later Akbar annexed Bihar and Bengal and • Golghar was built by Captain John Garstin in added to his empire. 1786. • Munim Khan was made Governor of Bihar. Permanent Settlement of Zamindari System: • Farrukhsiyar was the first Mughal ruler to be • It was introduced in Bengal, Orissa, and sworn in Patna. districts of Benaras and northern districts of • With the decline of Mughals, Bihar passed Madras by Lord Cornwallis. into the control of the Nawabs of Bengal. • Its architect was John Shore. • After the Battle of Buxar, Bihar passed into • It declared Zamindars as owners of the land. the effective control of the British. www.gradeup.co

• Zamindars could keep 1/11th of the revenue • Secretaries - Chandravanshi Sahay and collected and give 10/11th to the British. They Baijnath Narain Singh were free to fix the rents and exploited the Revolutionary Activities: tenants. • Sachindranath Sanyal - established the • The rise of absentee landlords and branch of Anushilan Samiti in Patna in 1913 moneylenders. • Bankimchandra Mitra of B.N. College - • Later the Bengal Tenancy Act was passed in managed Anushilan Samiti, formed Hindu 1885 to define rights of the tenants. Boys Association for teaching Revolt of 1857 in Bihar: Vivekananda’s ideas. • Governor-General - Lord Canning • Benaras Conspiracy Case 1915 - • Started on 12th June 1857 in Deoghar district Sachindranath Sanyal and Bankimchandra (now in Jharkhand) at the headquarters of Mitra 32nd Infantry Regiment. • Patna Yuvak Sangh formed in 1927 • On 3rd July 1857, the revolt started in Patna • Bihar Yuvak Sangh 1928 in Motihari - Gyan under bookseller Pir Ali. Shah • On 25th July 1857, the revolt started in • Patliputta Yuvak Sangh 1929 - formed in Darbhanga which marked the beginning of Patna by Rambriksha Benipuri and Ambika the widespread revolt in Bihar. Kant Singh • Notable figure: Babu Kuwar Singh of • Monthly Magazine YUVAK was started in Jagdishpur (currently in Bhojpur district) Patna. occupied and he also defeated the • Female revolutionaries - Kusum Kumari British with Nana Saheb at Azamgarh (UP). Devi and Gauri Das Administration of Bihar by the Company: • Limitations - religious overemphasis kept • East India Company created a post of Deputy Muslims aloof, limited upper-caste Governor to administer Bihar. Raja Ram involvement and lack of mass involvement Narayan and Shitab Roy were important made it a subject of govt. suppression Deputy Governors after Battle of Buxar. Champaran Satyagraha: • Revenue Council of Patna was constituted in • Raj Kumar Shukla invited Mahatma Gandhi 1770 later replaced by Revenue Chief of to look into Indigo Planters problem. Bihar in 1781. • Gandhi’s his first Satyagraha in 1917. Other • When Delhi became the capital in 1911, leaders Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan province of Bihar and Orissa was carved out Singh, Mazhar-ul-Haque, Mahadeo Desai, from Bengal making Patna its capital. Narhari Parikh and J B Kriplani. o 22nd March 1912 Bihar was • European planters were forcing farmers to constituted. plant indigo on 3/20th of their lands called • Educational institutions by British: Tinkathiya system. o • It forced the British to appoint a committee to o Patna Science College make the inquiry. Gandhi was also a member. o Bihar College of Engineering He convinced the committee to abolish o Prince of Wales Medical College Tinkathiya system and pay the peasants 25% o Patna Veterinary College compensation. • of India Act 1935 divided Bihar into two Role of Bihar in the freedom movement: separate provinces of Bihar and Orissa • MOTHERLAND newspaper was started in Home Rule League in Bihar: September 1921 by Mazhar-ul-Haque to • Established in (Patna) on propagate Hindu-Muslim unity. 16th December 1916 • Non-Cooperation Movement - Gandhiji led • President - Mazhar-ul-Haque picketing of liquor shops in December 1920 • Vice-Presidents - Sarfaraz Hussain Khan and Purnendu Narain Sinha www.gradeup.co

o J P Narayan left Patna College before o Ramdayalu Singh as first Speaker of his examination to participate in the Legislative Council movement. o Abdul Bari as first deputy Speaker of • All India Congress Session December 1922, Legislative Council. Gaya presided by Chittaranjan Das. It saw o Bihar Tenancy Amendment Act two factions of the Congress clashonentry to removed problems of Kashtkari Legislative Council. Bandobast o Pro-changers - C R Das, Motilal • Sheel Bhadra Yajee joined Subhash Chandra Nehru, Vitthalbhai Patel, and Ajmal Bose to found All India Forward Bloc and Khan was also associated with the o No-changers - Vallabhbhai Patel, C • Quit India Movement - National Flag was Rajagopalachari and M A Ansari unfurled at the Legislative Assembly o Pro-changers formed Swaraj Dal with Peasant Movement: Narayan Prasad as Chairman and • Kisan Sabha organized by MohammadZubair Abdul Bari as Secretary and SrikrishnaSingh in 1922 o A branch of Swaraj Dal was formed • Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha was formed by in Bihar in 1923 under Srikrishna Swami Sahajanand in 1929 against Singh. However, it was not very Zamindari attacks. effective in Bihar • Zamindars also formed the United Political • The boycott of the Simon Commission was Party to suppress peasants led by Anugrah Narayan Sinha • Bihar Kisan Sabha was formed in 1933 • Chhapra Jail Strike - as a protest against lathi • In 1936, when All India Kisan Sabha was charge on Rajendra Prasad and Abdul Bari. formed at , Swami Sahajanand • Civil Disobedience movement - Peasants also Saraswati was its President. refused to pay chaukidari tax. • Peasant movement was an important side o Swadeshi Committee was set up in effect of the independence movement aimed Patna for organizing events. at overthrowing the feudal zamindari system. o Sacchidanand Sinha, Hasan Imam, It was led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Chandravati Devi, Ramsunder Singh • HUNKAR - weekly of the peasant o Bihpur Satyagraha was carried out movement in Bihar by Pandit Yamuna Karjee around the same time. and Rahul Sanskrityayan in 1940 • Bihar Socialist Party formed by Ganga TRIBAL MOVEMENT: Sharan Sinha, Rambriksha Benipuri and REVOLT LEADERS PERIOD REGION Ramanand Mishra in 1931 Ho and Raja Parhat The Chhotanagpur • Bihar Congress Socialist Party formed in Munda 1820s 1934 with J P Narayan as General Secretary Kol Budhu 1831 Chhotanagpur and Acharya Narayan Dev as President Bhagat • General Elections, 1937 after the GoI act Bhumij Ganga 1832 Singbhum 1935 provided for some provincial Narayan and Birbhum autonomy, Congress got the majority in both Santhal Sidhu and 1855 Rajmahal Legislative Assembly and Legislative Kanhu Hills Council but refused to form the government. Munda Birsa 1899 Chhotanagpur o Later Mohammad Yunus became first Munda Prime Minister of Bihar of minority Tana Jatra 1914 Chhotanagpur govt. Bhagat Bhagat o 3 months later on 20 July 1937, Sri • Revolts were mainly against British Singh became the premier annexation of land or their revenue policy or and formed the cabinet. occupation by outsiders or for forest rights.

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They were localized, unorganized and very • Ganga, and Gandak form boundary violent. with UP in some parts • Santhal Pargana was created by the British to • Sone river forms a boundary with Jharkhand pacify the Santhal uprising. Kanhu was in arrested in 1866. Geological Structure of Bihar • Munda Revolt - Forest Regulation Act 1865 • Younger rocks to the north, older rocks to the empowered the British govt. to declare any south forest land as Government Forest and make • North-west is Terai, Central is Gangetic plain rules for it. Under Birsa Munda, it was a and south is a plateau region socio-religious movement (Ulgulan) with • Bihar plain is the youngest to be formed agrarian and political content. Birsa was • Dharwar rocks - South-eastern Bihar - captured on 3rd March 1900. Jamui, Nawada, Munger districts • Tana Bhagat Movement - mainly a religious • Vindhyan rocks - South-western Bihar - movement with the adoption of Hindu Kaimur, Rohtas districts practices. • Plateau region - extends as a narrow belt Post-Independence history: from to • First President of India Dr Rajendra Prasad Climate of Bihar was from Bihar • Continental Monsoon type climate • First Governor of Bihar - Jairamdas • The northern part is cooler compared to the Daulatram southern part • First Chief Minister of Bihar - Dr Krishna • Eastern part receives 200 cm of rainfall while Singh the western part receives 100 cm. • On 15 November 2000, the modern state of • April month has the lowest humidity Jharkhand was carved out from southern • The temperature of the eastern part is reduced Bihar. due to the impact of the Nor’wester showers. GEOGRAPHY OF BIHAR • Nor’wester - tropical cyclonic thunderstorm, • Longitudinal extent - 83º19’ E to 88°7’ E extremely helpful for pre-Kharif crops • Latitudinal extent - 24°20’ N to 27°3’ N • Gaya is hottest in May while coldest in • Distance from east to west - 483 km January. • Distance from north to south - 345 km Soils of Bihar • Bihar has boundaries with the states of UP, • Piedmont Swamp Soil - West-Champaran, Jharkhand and West Bengal. It also borders supports rice, rich in organic matter Nepal in the north. • Terai Soil - found in the Northern belt • Length of Nepal border - 601 km bordering Nepal, Champaran to Kishanganj, • 7 Districts that border Nepal in the west to sugarcane, jute east direction - West Champaran, East • Bhangar - older alluvial soil -loamy, sticky, Champaran, Sitamarhi, Madhubani, , rich in lime, good for paddy and sugarcane, Araria, and Kishanganj Patna and Gaya • 8 Districts that border UP in north to south • Khadar - younger alluvial soil - rich in direction - West Champaran, Gopalganj, nitrogen, good for paddy and wheat, Purina, Siwan, Saran, Bhojpur, Buxar, Kaimur, and Saharsa, Darbhanga Rohtas • Karail-Kewal soil - heavy clay, alkaline, • 8 Districts that border Jharkhand in the west from Rohtas to Bhagalpur, brown to yellow to east direction - Rohtas, Aurangabad, Gaya, • Tal soil - poor drainage, grey, high yield, Nawada, Jamui, Banka, Bhagalpur, and from Buxar to Banka • Balthar soil - the presence of iron, red and • 3 Districts that border WB in the north to yellow, less fertile, in the transitional zone south direction - Kishanganj, , and between Chhotanagpur plateau and Ganga Katihar plain, Kaimur to Rajmahal hills www.gradeup.co

• Bal Sundari - alkaline, Saharsa and • Enters Bihar in Kishanganj Champaran, maize and tobacco • Joins Ganga at Nawabganj in Bangladesh Ganga • In upper course forms an important linguistic • Enters at Chausa forming boundary of boundary between Hindi and Bengali Bhojpur and Saran speaking area. • Northern tributaries - Ghaghra in Sone Saran, Gandak at Sonepur, Bagmati at • Originates in Amarkantak range in MP Munger, Kosi at Kursela, Kali-Kosi at • Joins Ganga near Maner Manihari • Important tributaries are Rihand and North • Southern tributaries - Sone at Maner, Koel Karmanasa at Chausa, at Fathua Punpun • It has the largest catchment area in Bihar • Originates in the Hazaribagh plateau • - connects Patna in • Joins Ganga near the south to in north • Causes heavy flood damage to the east of Ghaghra / Saryu • Originates at Nampa in Nepal • Enters Bihar at Gopalganj • It is also known as Niranjana • Joins Ganga at Chhapra • It is considered a sacred river and flows Gandak past Gaya • Originates at Tibet Waterfalls in Bihar • Enters India near Triveni in Nepal, • Kakolat waterfall - in Nawada near • Forms boundary of Bihar and UP Jharkhand border, fall of 160 ft • Enters Bihar at West Champaran • Karkat waterfall - in the Kaimur hills near • Joins Ganga at Sonepur the Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary • Triveni Canal gets water from this river • Manjhar Kund and Dhua Kund - in Burhi Gandak Sasaram, utilized for power generation • Originates at Someshwar hills in Chautarwa Hot Springs Chaur of West Champaran • Most of the Hot Springs are concentrated in • Flows parallel to river Gandak Rajgir and Munger. • Joins Ganga at Khagaria • Rajgir - Saptdhara, Kund, Makhdum Kosi Kund, Brahma Kund • Notoriously known as Sorrow of Bihar for • Munger - Lakshman Kund, Rameshwar its changing of course Kund, Gaumukh Kund, Sita Kund, Rishi • It is made up of seven channels from Nepal Kund known as Sapt Kosi Flora and Fauna • Enters Bihar through Supaul • Total forest area - 7299 sq. km, 7.75% of total • Joins Ganga at Kursela in Katihar area (1.04% of India’s forest) (IFR2017) Bagmati • Maximum forest area - Kaimur district • Originates in Shivpuri range in Nepal • Minimum forest area - Sheikhpura • Enters Bihar in Sitamarhi • The total area under very dense forest is in • Joins Kosi at Badlaghat West Champaran Kamla • The moist deciduous forest is found in • Originates in Mahabharat Range in Nepal Kishanganj, West Champaran, Kaimur, Gaya near Sindhuliagarhi etc. • Enters Bihar in Madhubani • Dry Deciduous - most abundant in Bihar, • Kamla Barrage has been constructed Kaimur, Purnia, Raxaul etc. • Joins river Bagmati at Badlaghat • Valmiki National Park -located in West Mahananda Champaran, established on 2nd August 1989 • Originates in Sikkim www.gradeup.co

• Valmiki Tiger Reserve consists of Valmiki Buddhist Tourism National Park and Valmiki Wildlife • Kesaria is the highest stupa in India Sanctuary measured from the base in East Champaran. • Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary - Munger, • Vaishali south of Ganga, has several hot springs like o Buddha delivered his last sermon Sita Kund and Rishi Kund, more famous for here. birds than land animals, established on 25 o 2nd Buddhist Council was convened June 1976 by King Kalashoka • Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary - Kaimur, • Patna Bengal Tigers are also found here, several o Its ancient name is Patliputra. waterfalls like Karkat and Telhar waterfall, o It was the capital of many famous the famous lake is Anupam ruling dynasties like Mauryas and Lake, established on 25 July 1979 Guptas • Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary o 3rd Buddhist Council was convened - located in Gaya and Hazaribagh by King Ashoka in 250 B.C. (Jharkhand), previously it was private o Ajatshatru had built up the fort in hunting reserve, established on 14 Patliputra September 1971 o Udayin had set up Patliputra town. • Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary • Bodh Gaya - Bhagalpur stretching from Sultanganj to o It is the most important Buddhist Kahalgaon, only protected area for Gangetic pilgrimage site Dolphins, established on 28 August 1990 o It was earlier known as Uruvela • Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan - located o On the banks of river Niranjana, in Patna, biological park combining a Buddha attained his enlightenment botanical garden with the zoo, established and the tree that sheltered him is on 8th March 1983 known as Miscellaneous o was designated as • Total area - 94,163 sq. km (13th in India) UNESCO World Heritage Site • Population - 10,40,99,452 (3rd in India) o Buddha statue - a huge Buddha Statue • Decadal Growth Rate - 25.4% in sitting posture • Population Density - 1106 Jain Tourism • Sex Ratio - 918 • Vaishali - It is the birthplace of Lord Mahavir • Child Sex Ratio - 935 Jain • Literacy Rate - 61.8% • • Most Populated -Patna o Lord Mahavira breathed his last here. • Least populated - Sheikhpura o Jal Mandir - spectacular marble • Most Dense - Sheohar (1880) temple in the middle of a lotus pond • Least Dense - Kaimur (488) stands marvelously on a rectangular • Largest district Area Wise - West Champaran platform • Smallest district Area Wise- Sheohar o Samosharan Temple - Lord Mahavira TOURISM SECTOR delivered his last teaching here Tourism has been boosted by the establishment of Sikh Tourism Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation. • Patna th • Its main aim is to commercialize all the o 10 Sikh Guru Gobind Singh was tourist resources of Bihar. born here. • Tourist Information Centers, Hospitality o Sri Harmandir Sahib Takht services, Heritage Hotels, Wildlife Gurudwara is located here. Sanctuary, and National Parks etc. have been Hindu Religious Sites developed. • Ahirauli (Buxar) www.gradeup.co

o A temple of Devi Ahalya, the wife of • Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Rishi Gautam Bhagalpur, stretching from Sultanganj to o She was transformed into stone by the Kahalgaon. It is the only protected area for curse of her husband and was Gangetic Dolphins. redeemed only when lord Secular Sites visited the place. • Khudabaksh Library, one of the largest • Singheshwar Sthan in Madhepura is libraries of Asia, is located in Central Patna considered the abode of Lord Shiva. • Didarganj Yakshini is the most treasured • Sitamarhi possession of the o Janki Temple is situated here. • Rajgir - was the ancient capital of the o It is considered as the birthplace of Magadha Empire SITA. • Nalanda hosts the famous ancient University • Sita Kund in Munger - after proving her • Golghar in Patna was built by Captain John chastity, Sita bathed in the pool which Garstin under the order of Lord Warren absorbed her heat Hastings. Sufi Tourism • Qila-i-Rohtas in Rohtas district built by Sher • Shah Suri in 1541 o Khankah Muzibia was founded by • Eighty Pillared Hall of Magadhan empire in Hazrat Pir Muzibullah Quadri (Patna) o Sacred hair of beard of Paigamber • Mauryan pillars at Lauriya Nandangarh, Hazrat Mohammad is preserved here. Rampurva, and Lauriya Areraj o A mela is held here every year. MINERALS AND ENERGY o Sangi Masjid located here constructed RESOURCES by Humayun Minerals • Bihar Sharif • South Bihar has a greater concentration of o Choti Dargah of Hazrat Makhdum minerals than North Bihar Saiyad Shah Ahmed Charampose • Prior to the bifurcation, Bihar was one of the o Around the tomb of Saint Ibrahim leading producers of minerals. Bayu, 10 smaller tombs are also built. • Manganese • Maner Sharif o India is the 5th largest producer and o It was also an important center of has the 2nd largest reserves in the learning world. o Tomb of Makhdum Daulat and o It is used in the Iron and Steel industry Yahiya Maneri is located here for making the alloy. o The ceilings have carved inscriptions o In Bihar, it is found in Patna, Munger from Koran and Gaya. Ecological Sites • Mica • Kakolat Waterfalls - in Nawada district near o 3 varieties of mica are found in India Jharkhand border which has a fall of 160 ft. - Muscovite, Phlogopite, and Biotite. • Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary - Kaimur, Bengal o Mica that is found in Bihar and Tigers are also found here. Other important Jharkhand is Muscovite. sites in it are: o For its insulating property, it is used o Karkat waterfall abundantly in the electronics o Telhar waterfall industry. o Anupam Lake o Prior to the bifurcation, Bihar was a • Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary - Munger, leader in mica production. located south of Ganga. It has several hot o It is found in South-east Bihar in the springs like Sita Kund and Rishi Kund. It is districts of Nawada, Jamui, Banka, more famous for birds than land animals. Bhagalpur, and Munger. www.gradeup.co

o In Jharkhand, it is found in • Gold Hazaribagh, Koderma, and Giridih. o It is found in Munger district. • Pyrite o It is auriferous lodes and some of it is o It is the sulfide of iron, chiefly used found in sands of rivers. for making Sulphuric acid. o It is used for making ornaments and is o Industries like fertiliser, petroleum, also used as an international steel etc. use Sulphuric acid. currency. o Mainly found in the Sone valley and • FELDSPAR Vidhyan belt in Rohtas district. o It is found along with quartz in o Amjhor (Rohtas) has an iron pyrite Pegmatite rocks. industry. o It has applications in ceramic, glass • Limestone and refractory industries. o It chiefly consists of Calcium o Feldspar is found in Munger and Carbonate. . o Limestone deposits are of • LEAD sedimentary origin. o This is obtained from a mineral o Good quality limestone is used in named Galena. cement industry while low quality is o Lead is used in many forms and is used in iron and building construction obtained from a few places in industry. Bhagalpur o In Rohtas and Kaimur, good quality Availability of adequate, reliable, affordable and limestones are found. quality power is necessary for economic growth and • Asbestos to sustain that growth. o It is fibrous in nature. • It generates employment thus leading to the o It can be used in fireproof safes, elimination of poverty and human insulators, insulating mats etc. development. o Asbestos cement is used in making • The per capita power consumption of Bihar is sheets, pipes, and tiles for building 258 kWh much lower than India’s 1122 kWh. purposes. • But still, Bihar has faced the power deficit o In Bihar, it is mainly found in continuously. Munger. • Bihar State Electricity Board was set up in • Monazite is found in Gaya and Munger. April 1958 under the Electricity Supply Act. • Quartz o It was mandated for the generation, o It is found in Munger. transmission, and distribution in o It is used in cement and power Bihar. industries. • Power generation in Bihar is primarily based • Uranium on fossil fuels. o It is found in Gaya. • But to promote renewable energy, Bihar o It is used in nuclear reactors. Govt. has created an agency called Bihar • Beryllium Renewable Energy Development Agency o It is used as a moderator in the nuclear (BREDA) reactor. • Barauni Thermal Power Plant o It is found in Gaya district. o The only power plant under state • Bauxite sector. o It is an important ore of aluminium. o It is based on the oil refinery at o It is not a specific mineral but a rock Barauni. consisting mainly of hydrated o It was established in 1970 with aluminium oxides. Russian help. o It is found in Rohtas district. • Kanti Bijli Utpadan Nigam Limited www.gradeup.co

o It is a joint venture of NTPC and o Important crops - Wheat, Gram, Bihar State Power Generation Rapeseed and Mustard. Company Limited. • Zaid Crops • Kosi Hydel Power Station o They are produced between Rabi and o Constructed on the river Kosi in Kharif crop seasons. Supaul o Important crops - Muskmelon, o It was commissioned in 1970. Watermelon, Gourd etc. o It was handed over to the Bihar govt. • RICE in 16th November 2003 o Main cereal crop of Bihar • New Projects - Thermal o Two crops are grown - Aus (Summer o Nabinagar Power Plant Crop) and Aman (Winter Crop) ▪ The project is located in o Maximum area - Madhubani, Aurangabad. Aurangabad and Rohtas ▪ It will be a coal-based plant. o Maximum production - Rohtas, o Pirpainti Power Plant Aurangabad and West Champaran ▪ The project will be o Maximum productivity - Arwal, constructed at Bhagalpur. Rohtas and Sheikhpura ▪ It will be constructed by • WHEAT NHPC. o The best suited is sandy soil having o Kajara Power Plant the capacity to retain moisture. ▪ The project will be o Ganga Diara and Bagmati plains are constructed at Lakhisarai. most important. ▪ It will be constructed by o Maximum area - Rohtas, East NTPC. Champaran and Aurangabad o New Projects - Hydel o Maximum production - Rohtas, ▪ Chausa Hydel Power Plant in Kaimur and Siwan Buxar o Maximum productivity - Jahanabad, ▪ Mathauli Hydel Power Project Patna and Gaya in West Champaran • MAIZE o Ultra-Mega Power Power Project will o Light clay soil is best for maize e.g. be constructed in Banka. Bal Sundari soil AGRICULTURE o Maximum area - Khagaria • Bihar is primarily an agricultural state where o Maximum production - Katihar, farming is subsistent in nature. Madhepura and Khagaria • Foodgrains are the main crops. o Maximum productivity - Katihar • Gopalganj and Madhepura have the highest • JUTE net sown area. o Bihar ranks 2nd in jute production • There are three cropping seasons in Bihar. after West Bengal • Kharif Crops o It requires alluvial soil with a large o They are also called Bhadai and amount of rainfall. Aghani crops. o Major district for jute production - o They are sown in May-June and Kishanganj and Purnea harvested in September-October. • PULSES o Important crops - Maize, Paddy and o Arhar, gram, urad, masoor, moong Jute. and khesari are grown. • Rabi Crops o Maximum area - Patna, Aurangabad o They are sown in October-November and Muzaffarpur and harvested in March-April. o Maximum production - Patna, Aurangabad and Nalanda www.gradeup.co

o Maximum productivity - Kaimur ROADWAYS • Bihar is known for its Litchi and Mango • Roadways are the most common means of production. transport used by people. • Litchi of Muzaffarpur is famous all over • Development of the people cannot be India. achieved without adequate roads. IRRIGATION • In terms of road length per lakh population, it • The irrigation potential of Bihar is very high is just over 200 km compared to the national but utilization is very low. average of 358 km. • Proper irrigation helps in raising the • However in terms of road density of 210 km agricultural production thus bettering the per 100 sq. km, Bihar is much ahead of other lives of people. states except and West Bengal • Bihar also receives a fair amount of rainfall. • The total length of National Highways is • There is a however uneven distribution of 4595 km. both irrigation facilities and rainfall across • Longest NH in Bihar is NH-31 of which 393 various districts. km is in Bihar. • Share of irrigation by Canals is 37% and • East-West Corridor Tubewells is 30% while wells and ponds o It connects Porbandar to . account for 30%. o It passes through 10 districts. • Almost 3/4th of the Canal irrigated area is in o Kishanganj, Katihar, Purnia, Araria, South Bihar. Supaul, Madhepura, Darbhanga, • SONE CANAL Muzaffarpur, East Champaran and o Eastern Sone Canal taken out from Gopalganj Barun - irrigates Patna, Jahanabad, o It crosses the Gandak River in Bihar. Aurangabad and Gaya o It consists of NH-27. o Western Sone Canal has been taken • Golden Quadrilateral out from Tihri - irrigate Ara, Buxar o It passes through 4 districts. and Rohtas o Kaimur, Rohtas, Aurangabad and • KOSI CANAL Gaya. o Two canals took out from Hanuman o It crosses the Sone River in Bihar. Nagar reservoir o It consists of NH-2 which connects o Eastern Kosi Canal - irrigates Purnia, Delhi to Kolkata. Madhepura and Saharsa. • Major NHs : o Western Kosi Canal - irrigates o NH-19 - Chhapra to Patna Darbhanga district. o NH-57 - Muzaffarpur to Purnia • GANDAK CANAL o NH-82 - Gaya to o Two Canals took out from dam at o NH-85 - Chhapra to Gopalganj Valmiki Nagar o NH-98 - Patna to Rajhara. AIIMS o Saran Canal - irrigates Saran, Patna is on this NH. Gopalganj and Siwan • Major Road Bridges : o Tirhut Canal - irrigates Muzaffarpur, o Mahatma Gandhi Setu on Ganga river Vaishali and East Champaran in Patna • TRIVENI CANAL o Vikramshila Setu on Ganga river in o It is taken out from Gandak River at Bhagalpur Triveni. • Major Rail-Road Bridges : o It irrigates West Champaran district. o Rajendra Setu on Ganga river in • KAMLA CANAL Mokama o It is taken out from Kamla River in o Nehru Setu on Sone river in -i- Darbhanga. Koh o It irrigates mainly Madhubani district. www.gradeup.co

o Abdul Bari Bridge on Sone river working industries, most of the raw material connecting and Bhojpur find a way to Kolkata, Kanpur and Chennai. o Ganga Rail-Road Bridge on Ganga • Bihar Industrial Area Development Authority river connecting Patna and Sonepur (BIADA) RAILWAYS o It was constituted under B I A D Act • Railways started developing quite early in 1974 to promote industrialization in Bihar by the East India Company in 1860-62. Bihar. • Bihar has three railway lines o It has 4 regional offices in Patna, o North-Eastern Railway - North Bihar Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur and o East Central Railway - South Bihar Bhagalpur. o North-East Frontier Railway - North- • Bharat Wagon and Engineering Company East Bihar Limited • Headquarters of the East Central Railway is o It is a PSU located in Mokama located in Hajipur in of o It manufactures rail wagons. Bihar. • Barauni Refinery AIRWAYS o It is located in Begusarai. • There are two international airports in Bihar. o It was established in 1964 with the o Jay Prakash Narayan International help of USSR. Airport, Patna o It is owned by Indian Oil Corporation. o Gaya International Airport - It was o It receives oil from Numaligarh mainly developed for Buddhist oilfield in . tourism in Gaya. • Major Industrial locations in Bihar WATERWAYS o Mokama - Leather, Rail Wagons • Waterways are the cheapest means of o Digha - Leather, Beer transport. o - Sugar • It is environment friendly and fuel-efficient. o Patna - Cracker, Cotton Textile • National Waterway-1 that connects o Bhagalpur - Tussar Silk Allahabad to Haldia passes through Bihar. o Munger - Gun, Cigarette • Bihar Steamer Service is available at o Gaya - Sugar, Lac, Cotton Textile, Bararighat in Bhagalpur Leather • Ara Canal is also used for navigation o - Cotton Textile, Laltern purposes. o Bihar Sharif - Tobacco INDUSTRIES o Darbhanga - Paper • Most of the industries are agro-based. o Samastipur - Paper mill, Sugar • First Sugar manufacturing company was set o Katihar - Jute, Matchstick up by the Dutch in 1840. o - Cement • Bihar State Milk Cooperative Federation o Hajipur - Plywood (COMFED) VEGETATION IN BIHAR o It was established in 1983. Natural vegetation is the primaeval plant cover o SUDHA brand is marketed by unaffected by man either directly or indirectly. COMFED. Ecologically, a forest is a plant community, • The tea industry in Bihar is mostly predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, concentrated in . usually with a closed canopy. • Bhagalpur region has great potential for Silk RECORDED FOREST AREA Industry. • Most of the forest and wildlife resources are • Jute Park is being set up at Maranga in Purnia owned by the Government of India and is district. managed through several departments like • The leather industry is concentrated in the Forest Department. According to India Muzaffarpur and Mokama. Due to only a few State of Forest Report, 2019, the total www.gradeup.co

Recorded Forest Area is 6,877.41 sq km, Forest and Tree Cover which is 7.30% of the total geographical Category Area (in sq km) area of the state. Tree Cover 2,003 (2.1) PROTECTED FOREST Forest Cover 7,306 (7.8) • Those forests where the right to grazing and Total 9,309 (9.9) cultivation are allowed subject to a few CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS minor constraints are known as the protected Depending on rainfall availability, forests are forests. The protected forest area of Bihar is divided into three types: 6,183 sq km, i.e., 89.91% of recorded forest 1. MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST area. o These forests are found in Kishanganj RESERVED FOREST districts North-East area, • Those forests which are permanently Terai belt, and Someshwar hills. earmarked either to the production of Here, rainfall is more than 120 cm. timber or other forest produce in which Therefore, dense forests are found. right of grazing and cultivation is seldom Sal is the most abundant tree. They allowed are known as reserved forests. The shed their leaves in the summer Reserved Forest Area of Bihar is 693 sq km, season. Semai, Champa, Ashok, Ken, i.e., 10.08% of recorded forest area. Mango, and Jamun, Karanj arc other UNCLASSED FOREST varieties found. • Those forests which largely consist o Sal mixed moist deciduous forests of inaccessible forests or unoccupied (Northern moist Sal bearing forest) wastes are known as Unclassed forests. The are distributed mainly in West unclassed forest of Bihar is 1 sq km, Champaran and partly in the valleys i.e., 0.01% of recorded forest area. of Kaimur, Rohtas, Aurangabad, FOREST COVER Gaya, Nalanda, Nawada, Jamui, • According to India State of Forest Report, Banka and Munger. 2019, the forest cover of the Bihar is 7,306 2. DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS sq km, of which o These are the most abundant forest in o Very Dense Forest: 333 sq km, Bihar. Dry deciduous forests are o Moderately Dense Forest: 3,280 sq found in both the plains and the km, and peninsular region in the Southern o Open Forest: 3,693 sq km. districts. • The forest cover of Bihar has decreased by o They are found in the regions with 3% compared to the 2011 report. Bihar’s less than 120 cm of rainfall. Not very forest cover as a percent of the dense, they are small in height. geographical area stood at 7.8 percent, o Amaltas, Shisam, Mahua, Khair, which is lesser than that of the national Palas, Amia, Harr, and Bahera are the average of 21.7 percent. main varieties. Sal mixed dry TREE COVER deciduous forests (Northern dry • Tree cover is defined as small tree patches mixed deciduous forests) occupy and isolated trees outside the Recovered major proportion under natural Forest Area, which are less than one hectare vegetation cover and predominantly in extent. found in Kaimur, Rohtas, • The tree cover of the state has been estimated Aurangabad, Gaya, Nalanda, using—tree Outside Forest (TOF) inventory Nawada, Jamui, Banka and Munger data collected over a period of six years. The districts. estimated tree cover in the state is 2,003 sq o They are found in the Northern part of km. Chhotanagpur plateau and Kaimur hills. Besides this, they are also found www.gradeup.co

in Purnia, Arana, and Raxaul in protection and management North-East Bihar. committees have been created 3. TERM FORESTS on the village level. For o They are found in adjacent areas of keeping public involvement the Nepal border. In hilly areas with intact, the proceeds from this more than 160 cm of rainfall, moist forest are distributed. deciduous forests are found. Dry ▪ SOCIAL FORESTRY: In Shiwalik Sal forests are mainly degraded areas, reforestation distributed in the Shiwalik range in by private and community the West Champaran district. participation is promoted. o Canebreaks (tropical seasonal swamp GENERAL INFORMATION forests) are predominantly found in Information Data the West Champaran district. Sal, Date of Formation 22nd March 1912 Sheesham, Khair, Toon, and Semai Capital of the state Patna are important varieties found here. Latitude of the State 24°20' N to 27°3' N BIHAR FOREST POLICY Longitude of the State 83°19' E to 88°17' • Its objective is to increase the forest cover E upto 33% of the total geographical area to Total Geographical Area of 94,163 sq km meet the National Forest Policy target. The the State State Government has adopted a two-pronged High Court of the State Patna approach which is as follows: Language of the State Hindi and • FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT Length (North to South) 345 km o The purpose under forestry Length (East to West) 483 km development is to increase forest Height above Sea Level 173 ft cover from 6,16,446 hectares to (Average) 31,03,011 hectares. It aims to increase Annual Rainfall 1158 mm forest cover on non-cultivable land. Administration Around 1000 sq km of land has been Information Data selected for this purpose. Districts 38 o Fallow land, school, and college, private institutions have been selected Division 9 under the afforestation programme. Sub-division 101 • REHABILITATION AND Blocks 534 CONSERVATION Panchayats 8406 o In order to arrest the decline in bio- Zila Parishad 38 diversity, rehabilitation and Seats 40 conservation have been given due Rajya Sabha Seats 16 importance in State Forest Policy. Demography o Important ways have been adopted, Information Data such as: ▪ REGENERATION OF Population 10,40,99,452 DEGRADED FOREST AREA: In areas where forest * Male 5,42,78,157 density has declined below 40%, non-governmental * Female 4,98,21,295 organizations, citizens, international institutes have been involved for forest Sex Ratio 918 regeneration. Forest www.gradeup.co

Sex Ratio (0-6 years) 935 ST Population (%) 1.3

SC Population 1,65,67,325 Total Literacy Population 5,25,04,553

* Male 86,06,253 * Male 3,16,08,023

* Female 79,61,072 * Female 2,08,96,530

SC Population (%) 15.9 Literacy rate (%) 61.8

ST Population 13,36,573 Male Literacy Rate (%) 71.2

* Male 6,82,516 Female Literacy Rate (%) 51.5

* Female 6,54,057

INDUSTRIES IN BIHAR Important Industries of Bihar and their Location Industry Location Sugar Motihari, Bihta, Gaya Narkatiyaganj, Gopalganj, Hatwa, Motipur, Saran, Bhojpur, Siwan, Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Dalmianagar, Meerganj Cotton textile Gaya, Phulwari Sharif, Dumraon, Mokama, patna, Barauni, Dalminangar Cement Banjari Dalmianagar Paper Samastipur, Darbhanga, Patna, Barauni, Dalminanagar Plywood Hajipur Jute Katihar, Samastipur, Champaran, Darbhanga, Saharsa, Purnia Match Industry Katihar Blanket Industry Gaya, Purnia, Aurangabad, Motihari Handicraft Madhubani, Bhagalpur, Bihar Sharif, Gaya, Patna, Munger Utensils Siwan, Bihta Industrial Towns of Bihar Town Industries Town Industries Mokama Shoe Factory, the wagon of a goods train Hathwa Vanaspati Digha Leather and beer industry Kanti Thermal power Bihta Sugar industry Narayanpur Medicine Patna Cracker, vermillion Riga Sugar Bhagalpur Tusar silk, handicraft Bagaha Paper Munger Gun, cigarette Mehsi Button Bihar Sharif Tobacco Darbhanga Paper Dumraon Cotton textile, laltern Lohat Sugar Gaya Sugar, lac, cotton textile, leather Samastipur Paper Mill, Sugar Obra Carpet, Woollen cloth Katihar Jute Tandwa Blanket Jamalpur Rail engine repair

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LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN BIHAR National Park/Sanctuary District Year of Area (in Notification sq km) Valmiki National Park West 1989 335.6 Champaran Valmiki Vanya Prani Sanctuary West 1976 880.78 Champaran Bhimbandh Sanctuary Munger 1976 681.99 Pant Vanya Prani Sanctuary Nalanda 1978 36.84 Kaimur Sanctuary Rohtas 1979 1342 Gautam Buddha Bird Sanctuary Gaya 1971 259.5 Udaypur Vanya Prani Sanctuary West 1978 8.87 Champaran Nagi Dam Bird Sanctuary Jamui 1987 7.91 Nakti Dam Bird Sanctuary Jamui 1987 3.32 Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary Bhagalpur 1990 50 km Kanwar Jheel Bird Sanctuary Begusarai 1989 63.11 Baralia Jheel Salim Ali Jubba Sahni Bird Sanctuary Vaishali 1997 1.96 Kusheshwar Asthan Bird Sanctuary Darbhanga 1994 29.17

FIRST IN BIHAR: PERSONALITIES, EVENTS, STRUCTURE AND STATE SYMBOLS Personalities Name

First Governor during British India James David Sifton

First Governor Jairamdas Daulatram

First Muslim Governor Zakir Hussain

First Chief Minister Dr Krishna Singh

First Female Chief Minister Rabri Devi

First Harijan Chief Minister Bhola Paswan Shastri

First Muslim Chief Minister Abdul Ghafur

First Education Minister Sir Ganesh Dutt

First Speaker of Legislative Assembly Ramdayalu Singh

First Open University

First Poet Vidhyapathi

First Non-Congress Chief Minister Mahamaya Prasad Sinha

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First Democratic election of Bihar held in March 1937. Mohammad Yunus formed the Govt and became first Premier (April- July 1937) of Bihar province. First Chief Justice of Sir Justice Edward Maynard Des Champs Chamier before Independence

First Indian Chief Justice of Patna High Pandit Lakshmi Kant Jha Court after independence

First Female Chief Justice of Patna High Justice Rekha Doshit Court after Independence

First Gyanpeeth Award Winner Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

First Hindi Newspaper Sarvhitaishi

First English Newspaper Searchlight

First Bhojpuri Film Hey Ganga Maiya Tohe Piyari Chadhayibo (1963)

First Maithili Film Kanyadaan (1965)

First Hindi Film Kal Hamara Hai

First Magadhi film Bhaiyaa, (1961)

First Doordarshan Centre Muzzafarpur

First International Cricket Stadium in Moin-ul-Haq Stadium (Previously Known as Rajendra Bihar Nagar Stadium)

First Tiger Reserve Valmiki National Park, a tiger reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary (Located in Champaran District)

The First Republic of the World Vaishali (Bihar)

First ancient University of Bihar Nalanda University

The First University of Bihar during First European to enter in Bihar Portuguese

State Symbols: considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism, State Tree: Peepal Jainism and Buddhism. Gautam Buddha attained Peepal is the state tree of Bihar. The scientific name enlightenment (bodhi) while meditating underneath of the Peepal tree is Ficus religiosa or sacred. It is a Ficus religiosa. The site is in present-day Bodh found in the sub-continent of India. Peepal tree is Gaya in Bihar, India. www.gradeup.co

State Flower: Marigold Hembram religious Marigold the state flower of Bihar. The scientific & Paica sentiment name of Marigold is Tagetes erecta, Blooms Murmu naturally occur in golden, orange, yellow. Marigold Munda Birsa 1899- Against is extensively used flower in the state. Munda 1900 alienation of State Bird: Home Sparrow tribal land Home Sparrow is the state bird of Bihar. The Tana Jatra Bhagat 1914 Against scientific name of House Sparrow is Passer Bhagat landlord and domestics. Generally, sparrows are small, plump, contractors brown-grey birds with short tails. Many species nest BIHAR BUDGET 2020-21: on buildings, trees and the house. Sparrows are HIGHLIGHTS among the most familiar of all wild birds. They are • The Finance Minister, Mr. Sushil Kumar primarily seed-eaters, though they also consume Modi, presented the Budget for Bihar for the small insects. financial year 2020-21 on February 25, 2020. State Animal: OX State Animal of Bihar is Ox also known as a bullock. • Sushil Modi has presented the budget of Mainly, used for ploughing, for transport (pulling Bihar 11 times as a Finance Minister. carts, hauling wagons and even riding), for threshing Constitutional Provision of Budget for State and grain carts, hauling wagons and even riding), for Key terms Used in Budget threshing grain by trampling and for powering • As per Article 202 of the Constitution of machines that grind grain or supply irrigation among India the Governor of a State shall, cause to other purposes. be laid before the House or Houses of the State Fish: Mangur Legislature of the State a Statement of the IMPORTANT TRIBAL REVOLTS IN estimated receipts and expenditure of the State for a financial year. BIHAR: NAME; PEOPLE • This estimated statement of receipt and ASSOCIATED; YEAR; expenditure for a financial year named in the NATURE/OBJECTIVE Constitution as the “Annual Financial Name People Year Nature and Statement” is commonly known as of the Associated Objective “Budget”. Revolt Revenue – Receipt & Expenditure Ho and Raja Parhat 1820, Against Revenue Receipt: Munda 1827, Britishers new o The receipts received which cannot be 1899, land revenue recovered by the government. 1900, policy o It comprises income amassed by the 1860- Government through taxes and non-tax 1920 sources like interest, dividends on Kol Budhu 1831- Against investments. Bhagat 32 transfer of land Revenue Expenditure: to outsiders o Expenditure incurred by the Union Bhumij Ganga 1832- Against land Government for purposes other than for the Narayan 33 revenue policy creation of physical or financial assets. of Britishers o It includes those expenditures incurred for the Santhal Sidhu- 1855- Against usual functioning of the government Kanhu 56 moneylenders, departments, grants given to state contractors etc. governments and interest payments on the Sapha Baba 1870 Against debt of the Union Government etc. Hor Bhagirath restriction on Capital – Receipt & Expenditure Revolt Manjhi, Lal Capital Receipt:

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o Receipts which generate liability or decrease o Monetary value of all finished goods and the financial assets of the government. services made within a country during a o It includes borrowings from the Reserve specific period Bank of India and commercial banks and Overview of the Budget other financial institutions. • The Gross State Domestic Product of Bihar o It also consists of loans received from foreign for 2020-21 (at current prices) is projected to governments and international organization be Rs 6, 85,797 crore. and repayment of loans granted by the Union • This is 11.1% higher than the revised government. estimate for 2019-20. GSDP for 2019-20 (at Capital Expenditure: current prices) is estimated to be 19.6% o Spending incurred by the government which higher than that in 2018-19. results in the formation of physical or • Total expenditure for 2020-21 is estimated to financial possessions of the Union be Rs 2, 11,761 crore, a 2.8% decrease over government or decrease in financial liabilities the revised estimates of 2019-20. of the Union Government. • In 2019-20, total expenditure is estimated to o It contains expenditure on procuring land, increase by 8.6% (Rs 17,259 crore) from the equipment, infrastructure, expenditure in budget estimates. shares. • Total receipts (excluding borrowings) for o It also includes mortgages by the Union 2020-21 are estimated to be Rs 1, 84,352 government to Public Sector Undertakings, crore, an increase of 21.5% as compared to state and union territories. the revised estimate of 2019-20. Direct Tax • In 2019-20, total receipts (excluding o Taxes which are imposed directly on borrowings) are estimated to fall short of the individual and company. budgeted estimate by Rs 25,415 crore (14.3% o It comprises income tax and corporation tax. of the budgeted estimate). Indirect Tax • Revenue surplus for 2020-21 is targeted at Rs o Taxes which are imposed on goods and 19,173 crore or 2.8% of the Gross State services. Domestic Product (GSDP). o It comprises taxes like service tax, excise • Fiscal deficit is targeted at Rs 20,374 crore taxes, and customs duties. (2.97% of GSDP). Fiscal Policy • In 2019-20, Bihar is estimated to observe a o Fiscal policy is the means by which a government adjusts its expenditure levels and revenue deficit (3% of GSDP) as against a tax rates to monitor and influence a country’s budget target of revenue surplus (3.8% of GSDP). economy. Revenue Deficit • Fiscal deficit is estimated to rise from the o It is the additional expenditure of government budgeted 2.8% of GSDP to 9.5% of GSDP at over revenue receipts the revised stage. Fiscal Deficit Grants to Local Bodies o It is the difference between the total o The state government provides grants to local expenditure of the government and its total bodies. receipts, not including the borrowing. • In 2020-21, Bihar has assigned Rs 15,211 Primary Deficit crore as establishment and committed o Fiscal deficit – interest payments= Primary expenditure for local bodies, a decrease of Deficit 8.3% over the revised estimates of 2019-20. Non-Tax Revenue • This expenditure head includes Finance o Government revenue not generated from Commission grants of Rs 7,434 crore. taxes. Highest allocation Gross Domestic Product (GDP) www.gradeup.co

• In 2020-21, the highest increase in o The Patna Medical College and allocations was observed in Water Supply, Hospital (PMCH) will be upgraded Sanitation, Housing and Urban Development into a world-class hospital by 2025. (8%), police (6%), and irrigation and flood • Agriculture and Rural Development control (6%) sectors over the revised o Krishi Yantra Banks will be estimates of the previous year. established at Panchayat level. • Significant decrease in allocation was o In 2021, organic certification will be observed in Energy (48%) and transports done in 21,000 acres of land. (19%) sectors. o Under the third phase of the Pradhan • Per capita Gross State Domestic Product Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, 6,162 o The per capita GSDP of Bihar in km of roads will be upgraded. 2018-19 (at constant prices) was Rs 33,629, 9% higher than the • Per capita GSDP: The per capita GSDP of corresponding figure in 2017-18. Bihar in 2017-18 (at current prices) was Rs. o In 2017-18, the per capita GSDP of 42,242. This is 12.7% higher than the figure Bihar was the lowest among all states. for 2016-17 (Rs. 37,478) • Unemployment: According to the Periodic The main department wise annual plan outcome Labour Force Survey (July 2017-June 2018), (2020-21) the unemployment rate in Bihar was 7.2%, S. Name of the Department Percent which is higher than that at the all-India level N Expendi age (6.1%). o ture (in (%) Crore) New Scheme / Policy in Budget 2020-2021 1. Education Department 2126.24 20.20 • Green Budget: o The state government will present a 2. Rural Development 16014.8 15.21 Green Budget which will indicate the department 8 state’s spending on programmes related 3. Rural work department 961900. 9.14 to environment conservation and climate 00 change. 4. Social Welfare 799763. 7.60 o The Jal Jeevan Hariyaali Yojana is Department 00 estimated to be one of the major schemes 5. Health Department 561000. 5.33 under the Green Budget. 00 o In 2020-21, Rs 3,051 crore will be spent 6. Road Construction 558100. 5.30 on: (i) rejuvenation of water bodies, (ii) Department 00 rainwater harvesting, (iii) solar energy 7. Public health 535100. 5.08 and energy efficiency, (iv) drip Engineering 00 irrigation, and (v) tree plantation. 8. Panchayati Raj 243452. 2.31 Department 00 • Upgradation of various hospitals: 9. Agriculture Department 239508. 2.28 o 12 district hospitals will be upgraded 00 as model hospitals. o The Indira Gandhi Institute of 1 SC and ST Welfare 170005. 1.62 Medical Sciences (IGIMS), Patna 0. Department 00 will be upgraded into a super 1 Science and Technology 94000.0 0.89 speciality hospital with an increase in 1. 0 the number of beds from 1,032 to 1 Other Department 234560. 22.29 2,732. 2. 59

Expenditure in Education Sector www.gradeup.co

• The state government has made the highest allocation of Rs 35,191.05 crore or in Comparison of states’ expenditure on key sectors percentage 20.20 to the education with Other States department. Education: Provision for expenditure in the health sector: • Bihar has allocated 19.3% of its total budget • The work of construction of 11 new medical for education in 2020-21. This is higher than college hospitals and a new dental college the average expenditure (15.9%) allocated will be started. This includes medical for education by states (using 2019-20 BE). colleges to be established in Chhapra, Health: Purnia, Samastipur, Begusarai, Sitamarhi, • Bihar has allocated 5.2% of its total budget Jhanjharpur, Siwan, Buxar, Bhojpur and on health, which is marginally lower than the Jamui. average allocation for health by states • A dental college will also be started in (5.3%). Nalanda. Agriculture: • The government will provide 310 types of • The state has allocated 3.5% of its total medicines free of cost to patients with expenditure towards agriculture and allied cancer and diabetes medicines under the activities which is significantly lower than free drug delivery scheme. the average allocated by states (7.1%). • Also, surgical items will also be made Rural development: available free of cost. • Bihar has allocated 12.8% of its expenditure For agriculture in the budget: on rural development. • The diesel subsidy of Rs 350 per acre per • This is significantly higher than the average irrigation has been increased to Rs 500 per allocation for rural development by states acre in the year 2018-19. (6.2%). • Also, for the promotion of organic farming Water Supply and Sanitation: in the year 2019-20, the grant of 6,000 will • Bihar has allocated 4% of its expenditure on be increased to 8,000 per farmer. water supply and sanitation. • This region also connects to about 70 • This is significantly higher than the average percent of the population of Bihar. allocation for water supply and sanitation by Amount for Patna Metro: states (2.4%). • The proposal for construction on two routes Housing: of Patna Metro Rail Project has been sent to • Bihar has allocated 4.6% of its total the Center by the Urban Development and expenditure on housing, which is higher than Housing Department. the average allocation for housing by states • A provision of Rs 17887.56 crore has been (1.4%). made for this project in the budget for the Roads and bridges: financial year 2019-20. • Bihar has allocated 3.7% of its total Electricity in all houses: expenditure on roads and bridges, which is • The Bihar state government said that the lower than the average expenditure of 29 government has done the work of providing states (4.2%). electricity to all the houses of the state Police: before the prescribed limit. • Bihar has allocated 4.9% of its total • The work of providing electricity to all the expenditure on police, which is higher than houses in 39,000 villages of the state was the average allocation for police by states done before the deadline of December 2018 (4.1%). and Bihar has become the eighth state to do Expenditure in 2020-21 so.

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• Capital expenditure for 2020-21 is proposed • Bihar’s share in the centre’s tax revenue will to be Rs 47,010 crore, which is a decrease of increase from 4.06% during the 2015-20 1.9% over the revised estimates of 2019-20. periods to 4.13% for 2020-21 (an increase of • Capital expenditure includes expenditure 2%) as per the recommendations of the 15th affecting the assets and liabilities of the state, Finance Commission. such as: Tax Revenue: a. capital outlay, i.e. expenditure which • Total own tax revenue of Bihar is estimated leads to the creation of assets (such as to be Rs 34,750 crore in 2020-21, an increase bridges and hospitals), and of 1.9% over the revised estimates of the b. repayment and grant of loans by the previous year. state government. • The own tax to GSDP ratio is targeted at • Bihar’s capital outlay for 2020-21 is 5.1% in 2020-21, which is lower than the estimated to be Rs 38,745 crore, which is revised estimates for 2019-20 (5.5%). 0.2% higher than the revised estimates of This implies that the growth of tax collections is 2019-20. estimated to be slower than the growth of the • The revised estimates for capital outlay are economy. 5.7% higher as compared to the budget estimate for the year 2019-20. • Revenue expenditure for 2020-21 is proposed to be Rs 1, 64,751 crore, which is a decrease of 3% over revised estimates of 2019-20. • This expenditure includes the payment of salaries, interest, and subsidies. Receipts in 2020-21 • The total revenue receipts for 2020-21 are estimated to be Rs 1, 83,924 crore, an increase of 21.5% over the revised estimates of 2019-20. • Of this, Rs 39,989 core (22%) will be raised by the state through its own resources, and Rs 1,43,935 core (78%) will come from the centre in the form of grants (28% of revenue receipts) and the state’s share in central taxes (50% of revenue receipts). Devolution: • In 2020-21, receipts from the state’s share in central taxes are estimated to increase by 43.8% over the revised estimates of 2019-20. • However, as per the revised estimates of 2019-20, the receipts from the state’s share in central taxes are estimated to decrease by 28.9% as compared to the budget stage. Reason • This may be due to a 19% cut in the union budget for devolution to states, from Rs 8,09,133 crore at the budget stage to Rs 6,56,046 crore at the revised stage.

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HISTORY ANCIENT INDIA Chronology of Important Events in Indian History Year Event Importance 2 Million BC to 10,00 BC Palaeolithic Period Fire was discovered 2 Million BC to 50,000 BC Lower Palaeolithic Tools made of limestones were 50,000 BC to 40,000 BC Middle Palaeolithic used. They are found in 40,000 BC to 10,000 BC Upper Palaeolithic Chotanagpur plateau and Kurnool district

From 10,000 BC The Mesolithic Age Hunters and Herders Microlith tools were used

7000 BC The Neolithic age Food producers Use of polished tools Pre-Harappan Phase – 3000 BC Chalcolithic Age Use of Copper – first metal

2500 BC Harappan Phase Bronze age civilization, development of Urban culture 1500 BC-1000 BC Early Rig Veda period

1000BC-500BC Later Vedic period Growth of 2nd Urban phase with the establishment of Mahajanapadhas 600 BC – 325 BC Mahajanapadhas 16 kingdoms with certain republics established 544 BC – 412 BC Haryanka Dynasty Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Udayin

412 BC – 342 BC Shisunaga Dynasty Shisunaga and Kalashoka 344BC – 323 BC Nanda Dynasty Mahapadmananda

563 BC Birth of Buddhism established 540 BC Birth of Mahavira 24th Tirthankara of Jainism 518 BC Persian Invasion Darius

483 BC 1st Buddhist council Rajgir 383 BC 2nd Buddhist Council Vaishali 326 BC Macedonian Invasion Direct contact between Greek and India 250 BC 3rd Buddhist council 322 BC – 185 BC Mauryan Period Political unification of India, 322 BC – 298 BC Chandragupta Maurya Dhamma policy of Ashoka, the 298 BC – 273 BC Bindusara growth of art and architecture 273 BC – 232 BC Ashoka 232 BC – 185 BC Later Mauryans

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185 BC – 73 BC Sunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Sunga 73 BC – 28 BC Kanva dynasty Vasudeva founded the dynasty 60 BC – 225 AD Sathavahana dynasty Capital at Paithan, MH

2nd BC Indo-Greeks Menander(165-145AD) 1st BC – 4th AD The Shakas Rudradaman (130 AD – 150 AD)

1st BC – 1st AD The Parthians St Thomas arrived in India during the reign of Gondophernes 1st AD -4th AD The Kushans (78 AD – 101 AD) 72 AD 4th Buddhist Council Kashmir 3rd BC – 3rd AD Sangam age Convene of Sangam Commune, Rule of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas 319 AD – 540 AD The Gupta Age 319 AD – Gupta Age 319 – 334 AD Chandragupta I The golden age of India 335 – 380 AD Samudragupta Development of numerous art and 380 – 414 AD Chandragupta II literature. 415 – 455 AD Kumaragupta Nagara style of Temple Building 455 – 467 AD Skandagupta

550 AD – 647 AD Vardhana Dynasty Harsha (606-647 AD) Kannauj assembly and Prayag assembly held Huan-Tsang visited Harsha’s assembly 543 – 755 AD Chalukyas of Vatapi Development of Vesera style 575 - 897 AD Pallavas of Kanchi Structural temples in Dravida style started to develop MEDIEVAL INDIA Early Medieval Period (650 – 1206 AD) Year Event Importance

750 – 1150 AD Rule of the Palas Capital at Munger, Bihar

752 – 973 AD The Rasthrakutas Capital at Malkhed 730 – 1036 AD The Pratiharas Ruled western India

712 AD First Muslim Invasion Mahmud Bin Qasim invaded India

850 – 1279 AD The Cholas Capital at Tanjore, epitome moment for Dravidian Architecture

998 – 1030 AD First Turk invasion Mahmud of Ghazni

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1175 – 1206 AD Second Turk invasion Mahmud of Ghori

1178 – 1192 AD Prithviraj Chauhan First battle of Tarain in 1191 between Prithviraj and Mahmud of Ghori 1192, Second battle of Tarain

The Sultanate Period (1206 – 1526 AD) The Slave Dynasty Year Event Importance 1206 – 1210 AD Qutbuddin Aibak Known as Lal Bakhsh, began the construction of Qutb Minar 1211 – 1236 AD Shamsuddin Iltumish Real founder of Delhi sultanate 1236 – 1240 AD Razia Sultana First and only Muslim lady whoever ruled India 1240 – 1266 AD Weak successors 1266 – 1287 AD Ghiyasuddin Balban Established Diwan-i-Arz

The Khalji Dynasty Year Events Importance 1290 – 1296 AD Jalaluddin Khalji Founder of Khalji dynasty 1296 – 1316 AD Allaudin Khalji Did many administrative reforms, introduced the Dagh and Chehra system

The Tuglaq dynasty Year Events Importance 1320 – 1325 AD Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq Founder 1325 – 1351 AD Mohammed-Bin-Tuglaq Introduction of administrative reforms and certain ambitious projects 1351 – 1388 AD Firoz Shah Tuglaq Built great cities 1398 – 1399 AD Taimur Invasion Taimur, the descendant of Chengiz Khan, invaded during the reign of Muhammad Shah Tuglaq The Sayyid dynasty 1414 – 1451 AD The Lodhi Dynasty (1451 – 1526 AD)

Year Events Importance 1451 – 1488 AD Bahlol Lodhi Founder of Lodhi dynasty 1489 – 1517 AD Sikander Lodhi Founded the city of Agra 1517 – 1526 AD Ibrahim Lodhi Babur defeated Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat Vijaynagar and Bahmani Kingdoms Vijaynagar Kingdom www.gradeup.co

Year Events Importance 1336 – 1485 AD Sangama Dynasty Founded by Harihara and Bukka 1485 – 1505 AD Saluva Dynasty Saluva Narasimha 1505 – 1570 AD Tuluva Dynasty Veer Narashima 1509 – 1529 AD Krishna Deva Raya A gifted Scholar, contemporary of Babur 1570 – 1650 AD Aravidu Dynasty Founded by Tirumala

Bahmani Kingdom Year Events Importance 1347 – 1358 AD Alaudin Hasan Bahman Shah Founded the Bahmani Kingdom at Gulbarga 1397 – 1422 AD Tajuddin Firoz Shah 1422 – 1435 AD Ahmad Shah Wali Mughal Empire 1526 – 1530 AD Babur Founder of Mughal empire after the 1st Battle of Panipat 1530 – 1540 AD Humayun He was defeated by Sher Shah 1555 – 1556 AD 1540 – 1555 AD Sher Shah defeated Humayun and ruled from 1540-45 AD 1556 2nd Battle of Panipat Akbar Vs. Hemu 1556 – 1605 AD Akbar Established Din-i-illahi, expanded Mughal empire 1605 – 1627 AD Jehangir Captain William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe visited the Mughal court 1628 -1658 AD Shahjahan The pinnacle of Mughal empire and art and architecture 1658 – 1707 AD Aurangazeb Beginning of the decline of the Mughal empire 1707 – 1857 AD Later Mughals Decline and disintegration of the Mughal empire with gaining strength of the British Maratha State and Maratha Confederacy Maratha state 1674 – 1720 AD Year Events Importance 1674 – 1680 AD Shivaji Contemporary of Aurangazeb and the biggest challenge for the Mughals in Deccan 1680 – 1689 AD Sambhaji 1689 – 1700 AD Rajaram 1700 – 1707 AD Tarabai 1707 – 1749 AD Shahu The rise of Peshwas 1713 – 1720 AD Balaji Vishwanath The first Peshwa Maratha Confederacy 1720 – 1818 AD 1720 – 1740 AD Baji Rao I 1740 – 1761 AD Balaji Baji Rao www.gradeup.co

1761 AD Third battle of Panipat Defeat of Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali 1761 – 1818 AD Later successors Anglo Maratha Wars 1775 – 1782 AD 1st Anglo Maratha War British were defeated 1803 – 1806 AD 2nd War Marathas were defeated and they signed the Subsidiary Alliance 1817 – 1818 AD 3rd War Marathas were decisively defeated MODERN INDIA Bengal

Year Events Importance

1717 – 1727 AD Murshid Quli Khan Capital of Bengal transferred to Murshidabad 1727 – 1739 AD Shujauddin 1739 – 1740 AD Sarfaraj khan 1740 – 1756 AD Alivardi Khan 1756 – 1757 AD Sirajuddaulah Battle of Plassey 1757 – 1760 AD Mir Jafar 1760 – 1764 AD Mir Qasim Battle of Buxar

Mysore Year Events Importance 1761 – 1782 AD Haider Ali Establishment of Modern Mysore state 1766 – 1769 AD 1st Anglo – Mysore war Haider Ali defeated the British 1780 – 1784 AD 2nd Anglo – Mysore war Haider Ali was defeated by Sir Eyrecoot 1782 – 1799 AD Tippu Sultan Continued the 2nd war 1790 – 1792 AD 3rd Anglo – Mysore war Tipu ceded half of his territory 1799 4th Anglo – Mysore war Tipu Sultan died

Punjab 1792 – 1839 AD Maharaja Ranjit Singh Founder of Sikh rule 1845 – 1846 AD 1st Anglo – Sikh war Sikhs were defeated 1848 – 1849 AD 2nd Anglo – Sikh war Dalhousie annexed Punjab Advent of Europeans in India 1498 Portuguese East India company Headquarters at Cochin and 1600 English East India company Madras, Calcutta and Bombay 1602 Dutch East India company Pulicat, Nagapattinam 1616 Danish East India company Serampore 1664 French East India company Pondicherry Carnatic wars

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1746-48 1st Anglo-French war Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1749-54 2nd Anglo-French war Treaty of Pondicherry 1758-63 3rd Anglo-French war Treaty of Paris Freedom Struggle 1857 First war of Indian independence Revolt due to socio-religious and economic causes 1885 Formation of Indian National A O Hume Congress 1885 – 1905 Moderate phase Dominated by Dadabai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjea 1905 – 1917 Extremists Phase Dominated by Lal-Bal-Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh 1905 Bengal Partition Curzon announced the partition 1905 – 1908 Swadeshi movement Boycott of foreign products 1906 Muslim league formation 1906 Calcutta Session of INC Swaraj as the goal 1907 Surat split Question on extending the movement to the rest of India 1909 Morley – Minto reforms The separate electorate for Muslims 1915 – 1916 Home rule movement BG Tilak and Annie Besant 1916 Lucknow Pact Pact between Congress and League 1916 Lucknow session Extremists admitted in Congress Gandhian Era Early life 1893 – 1914 Gandhi in South Africa Foundation of Natal Indian Congress, Sathyagraha and CDM against British excesses 1915 – 1948 Gandhi in India 1915 Arrived in Bombay. First two years to tour India and not to participate in any political movement 1917 Champaran Campaign Against the Indigo cultivators 1918 Ahmedabad First hunger strike 1918 Kheda First non-cooperation movement 1919 Rowlatt Sathyagraha Against the Rowlatt act and Jallianwala massacre 1920-22 Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement 1924 Belgaum session Gandhi elected as Congress president 1930 -34 Civil disobedience movement Dandi March Gandhi – Irwin Pact 2nd Roundtable conference Resuming the Civil disobedience movement 1940-41 Individual satyagraha 1942 Quit India movement Do or die

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Important Events during this period 1919 Rowlatt act Gandhi gave a call for Rowlatt satyagraha

1919 Jallianwala Massacre

1920-22 Khilafat and Non-cooperation Hindu Muslim unity movement

1922 Chauri Chaura incident Gandhi called off NCM

1923 Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party Enter legislative councils

1927 Simon commission All white commission to review the 1919 act

1928 Nehru committee report To determine the principles of the constitution 1929 Jinnah’s 14 points

1929 Lahore session Purna Swaraj 1930 Civil disobedience movement Dandi March

1931 Gandhi Irwin Pact To ask Gandhi to participate in the 2nd RTC

1931 2nd RTC held in London

1932 Communal award

1932 Poona Pact 1935 Government of India act Provisional autonomy

1937 18 months rule of Congress begins

1939-45 World War II begins

1939 Congress ministries resign

1940 August offer Linlithgow proposed to seek India’s cooperation in the World War

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1941 Individual Satyagraha

1942 Cripps mission 1942 Quit India movement

1943 Gandhi’s 21 days fast

1944 C R Formula 1945 Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference

1945 INA Trails 1946 RIN Ratings Mutiny

1946 Cabinet mission plan

1946 Formation of Interim government

1946 Formation of the constituent assembly 1947 Atlee’s announcement

1947 Mountbatten Plan

1947 Indian independence act, 1947

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION John Marshall, the first scholar to use the term “Indus valley civilization”. The civilization flourished between 2500 BC-1750 BC. Geographical Extent of IVC 1. Extent: The Indus valley civilization extended from Sutkagandor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, ) in the South.

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Image source: NCERT ● Rectangular houses with brick-lined 2. Important cities bathrooms and wells together with stairways City River Archaeological are found Importance ● Use of Burnt bricks Harappa Ravi A row of 6 ● Underground drainage system (Pakistan) Granaries, ● Fortified citadel Mother goddess Agriculture of Indus Valley Civilisation figurines ● Hindon – Cotton – Major trade good – Mohenjodaro Indus Great Granary, earliest people to produce Cotton. (Pakistan) Great bath, ● Proofs of Rice husk found Image of ● Wheat and Barley were majorly cultivated Pashupati ● Use of wooden ploughshare. They had no Mahadeva, idea about Iron implements. Image of Domestication of animals Bearded man ● Ox, Buffalo, Goats, Sheep and Pigs were and Bronze domesticated image of a ● Asses and camels were used as Beasts of woman dancer Burden () Bhogava Port city, ● Elephants and Rhino were known Double burial, ● Remains of horse found in Surkotada and Terracotta horse evidence of horse in Mohenjo-Daro and figurines. Lothal are also found. But the civilization Chanhudaro Indus The city without was not horse-centered. (Pakistan) a citadel Technology and crafts Indus City divided ● Bronze (Copper + tin) tools widely used (Gujarat) into 3 parts. ● Stone implements were still in vogue Kalibangan Ghaggar Ploughed field ● Potter’s wheel was put to full use () ● Bronzesmiths, Goldsmiths, Boat-Making, Banawali Ghaggar - Brick-laying etc were other occupations (Haryana) commonly found Rakhigarhi (Ha - - Trade of Indus Valley Civilisation ryana) ● Presence of granaries, weights and measures, Ropar (Haryana seals and uniform script signifies the ) importance of trade Mitathal - - ● The barter system was widely prevalent (Haryana) ● Lothal, Sutkagendor were port cities used for Bhagatrav - - conducting trade (Gujarat) ● Trade destinations – Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia. Contacts with Mesopotamia Rangpur (Gujar - - civilization are also seen at) The political organization of IVC Sutkagandor - - ● Cultural homogeneity achieved through a (Pakistan) strong central authority Sukotada - - ● No temples or religious structures found. (Gujarat) Harappa was possibly ruled by Merchants Kot Diji class. (Pakistan) ● Weapons are rarely found. Town planning and Structure of IVC Religious practices of IVC ● Grid system (Chess-board) of town planning ● Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess. www.gradeup.co

● Phallu and Yoni worship. ● Decreasing fertility due to increasing salinity ● Pashupati Mahadev seal found with the on the account of the expansion of the nearby elephant, tiger, rhino and a bull surrounding desert. him with two deer near his feet. ● Sudden subsidence of uplift of land causing Tree and animal worship of IVC floods. ● Pipal tree worship was found. ● Earthquakes caused changes in the course of ● One-horned Unicorn recognized as Rhino Indus. and the humped bull was commonly ● Harappan culture destroyed by invading worshipped. Aryans. ● Use of Amulets to ward off ghosts and evil Post-urban Phase (1900BC – 1200BC) spirits. ● Sub-Indus Culture ● The lion was not known in Harappan culture. ● Primarily chalcolithic The Harappan script ● Development of Ahar Culture, ● Harappan script Pictographic in nature but Culture and Jorwe Culture at various phases not deciphered so far. in post-Harappan Civilization. ● They are recorded on seals and contains only Early Vedic Period (1500BC-1000BC) a few words 1. Aryans appeared in India around 1500 BC ● Harappan Script is the oldest script in Indian and settled near Eastern Afghanistan, NWFP, Sub-continent Punjab and fringes of western . Weights and Measures The whole region is called as the Land of ● Use of standardized weights and measures to Seven Rivers. keep accounts of private property, to indulge 2. The Aryans came into conflict with the in trade and commerce etc. indigenous inhabitants Dasyus and the Aryan ● Weights are found in multiples of 16. chief who overpowered them is called as Harappan Pottery of IVC Tarsadasu. ● Well-developed Pottery techniques with 3. Sapta Sindhu mentioned in the Rig Veda. elaborate designs of trees and circles. Sindu is the river of Par Excellence while ● Redware pottery painted with black designs. The Saraswati or Naditarana is the best of Seals of Indus Valley Civilisation rivers in the Rig Veda ● Seals were used for the purpose of trade or Rig Vedic name Modern Name worship. Images of animals such as Buffalo, Sindu Indus bull, tiger etc were found inscribed in the Vitasta Jhelum seals Asikani Chenab Statue of IVC Parushni Ravi ● Discovery of Bronze statue of a naked Vipas Beas woman and bearded man steatite statue Sutudri Sutlej Terracotta figurines of IVC Later Vedic period (1000 BC - 500 BC) ● Terracotta – Fire baked earthen clay The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly ● Used as toys or objects of worship on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age ● Massive stone works were not found in of Rig Veda. Harappa which shows the poorly developed 1. Later Vedic Texts artistic works made of stone a. The Veda Samhitas Origin, maturity and end of IVC i. Sama Veda – The book of chants with hymns ● Pre-Harappan Settlements – Lower Sindh, taken from Rig Veda. This Veda is important for Baluchistan and Kalibangan. Indian Music. ● Mature Harappa – 1900BC – 2550BC. ii. Yajur Veda – The book consists of sacrificial ● Causes for the Decline of Civilization. rituals and formulae. iii. Atharva Veda – This book consists of charms and spells to ward of evils and diseases www.gradeup.co b. The Brahmanas – Consists of the explanatory d. The Puranas part of the Vedas. Sacrifices and rituals have also i. 18 Maha Puranas – Dedicated to specific deities been discussed in great detail. such as Brahma, Surya, Agni, Saiva and Vaishnava. i. Rig Veda – Aitreya and Kaushitiki Brahmana They include Bhagavata Purana, Matsya Purana, ● Consists of 1028 hymns divided into 10 Garuda Purana etc mandalas (books). ii. 18 Upa Puranas – Lesser known texts ● In IIIrd Mandala, Gayatri mantra is addressed e. The Upvedas to solar deity Savitri. i. Ayurveda - Medicine ● X Mandala addressed to Purusha Sukta ii. Gandharvaveda - Music ii. Yajur Veda – Shatapata and Taittariya iii. Arthaveda - Vishwakarma iii. Sama Veda – Panchvisha, Chandogya, iv. Dhanurveda - Archery Shadvinsh, and Jaiminaya f. Shad-Darshanas or Indian Philosophical iv. Atharva Veda - Gopatha Schools c. The Aranyakas – Concluding portions of i. Samkhya Brahmanas, also called as Forest texts are written ii. Yoga mainly for the hermits and students living in forests. iii. Nyaya d. The Upanishads – Appearing at the end of the iv. Vaisheshika Vedic period, they criticized the rituals and laid stress v. Mimansa on right belief and Knowledge. vi. Vedanta Note- Satyamev Jayate has been taken from Buddhism and Jainism Mundaka Upanishad. Causes of Origin 2. Vedic literature – 1. The Kshatriya reaction against the Following the Later Vedic age, a lot of Vedic domination of the priestly class called Literature was developed, inspired by the Samhitas Brahmanas. Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, which follow the Smriti – Literature which was both belonged to the Kshatriya clan. written in comparison to Shruti – Word of Mouth 2. Indiscriminate killing of cattle for Vedic tradition. Important texts in Smriti tradition are sacrifices and for food had led to the further subdivided into destabilization of the new agricultural a. Vedangas economy which was dependent on cattle for i. Shiksha - Phonetics ploughing the fields. Both Buddhism and ii. KalpaSutras – Rituals Jainism stood against this killing. ● Sulva Sutras 3. The growth of cities with the increase in the ● Grihya Sutras circulation of Punch Marked coins and trade ● Dharma Sutras and commerce had added to the importance iii. Vyakarna - Grammar of Vaishyas who looked for a new religion to iv. Nirukta - Etymology improve their position. Jainism and v. Chhandha - metrics Buddhism facilitated their needs vi. Jyotisha - Astronomy 4. The new forms of property created social b. Smriti inequalities and the common people wanted i. Manu Smriti to get back to their primitive form of life ii. Yajnavalkya Smriti 5. Growing complexity and degeneration of iii. Narada Smriti Vedic religion. iv. Parashara Smriti Difference between Jainism and Buddhism and v. Brihaspati Smriti Vedic Religion vi. Katyayana Smriti 1. They did not attach any importance to the c. Mahakavyas existing Varna system i. The 2. They preached the Gospel of non-violence ii. The

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3. They accepted Vaishyas, including the 1. Buddhism does not recognize the existence of Moneylenders who were condemned by god and soul Brahmanas 2. Women were also admitted to the Sangha. 4. They preferred simple, puritan and ascetic Sangha was open to all, irrespective of caste living and sex Buddhism 3. Pali language was used which helped in the Gautama Buddha and Buddhism spread of Buddhist doctrines among the Gautama Buddha was born in 563 BC in the common people Republican clan of in Lumbini near 4. Ashoka embraced Buddhism and spread it to Kapilavastu. His mother was a princess from Central Asia, West Asia and Srilanka Kosalan dynasty. 5. Buddhist Councils Four Sights of Buddha’s life at the age of 29 had First Council: The first council was held in moved him to the path of renunciation. They are the year 483 B.C at Saptaparni caves near ● An old man Rajgriha in Bihar under the patron of king ● A diseased person Ajatshatru, during the first council two ● An ascetic Buddhist works of literature were compiled ● A dead person Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka by Upali Important events in the life of Buddha Second Council: The second council was Events Places Symbols held in the year 383 B.C at Vaishali under the Janma Lumbini Lotus and Bull patron of king Kalashoka Mahabhinishkr - Horse Third Council: The third council was held in amana the year 250 B.C at Patliputra under the Nirvana Bodh Gaya Bodhi Tree patron of King Ashoka the Great, during the Dharmachakra Saranath Wheel third council Abhidhamma Pitaka was added Pravartana and Buddhist holy book Tripitaka was Mahaparinirva Kusinagar Stupa compiled. na Fourth Council: The fourth council was Doctrines of Buddhism held in the year 78 A.D at Kundalvan in ● Four noble truths Kashmir under the patron of king Kanishka, 1. Dukha – life is full of sorrow during this council Hinayana and Mahayana 2. Samyuda – there are causes for the sorrow were divided. 3. Nirodha – they can be stopped Importance and influence of Buddhism 4. Nirodha gamini Pratipada – Path leading Literature towards the cessation of sorrow 1. Tripitaka ● Ashtangika Marga 1. Sutta Pitaka – Buddha’s sayings 1. Right observation 2. Vinaya Pitaka – Monastic code 2. Right determination 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka – religious 3. Right exercise discourses of Buddha 4. Right action 2. Milindapanho – a dialogue between 5. Right speech Menander and Saint Nagasena 6. Right memory 3. Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha – the great 7. Right meditation chronicles of Sri 8. Right livelihood 4. Buddhacharita by Ashvagosha ● Madhya Marga – to avoid the excess of both Sects luxury and austerity 1. Hinayana (Lesser Wheel) - They believe in ● Triratna – Buddha, Dharma and Sangha the real teachings of Gautam Buddha of Special features of Buddhism and the causes of its attaining Nirvana. They do not believe in idol spread worship and Pali language was used in the Hinayana text www.gradeup.co

2. Mahayana (Greater Wheel) - They believe ● In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th that Nirvana is attained by the grace of of Vaishakha), outside the town of Gautam Buddha and following Jrimbhikgrama, he attained the supreme Boddhisattvas and not by following his knowledge (Kaivalya). teachings. They believe in idol worship and ● From now on he was called Jaina or Sanskrit was used in Mahayana text Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers 3. Vajrayana - They believe that Nirvana is were named Jains. attained by the help of magical tricks or black ● He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy. magic. At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, Bodhisattvas near Patna, in 527 BC. 1. Vajrapani Five vows of Jainism 2. Avalokitesvara or Padmapani ● Ahmisa – non-violence 3. Manjushri ● Satya – do not speak a lie 4. Maitreya (Future Buddha) ● Asteya – do not steal 5. Kshitigriha ● Aparigraha – do not acquire property 6. Amitabha/Amitayusha ● Brahmacharya – celibacy Buddhist architectures Three main principles 1. Places of Worship – containing the ● Ahimsa relics of Buddha or Bodhisattvas. Chaityas ● Anekantavada are the prayer hall while Viharas are the place ● Aparigraha of residence of monks Triratna of Jainism 2. Development of Cave architecture eg. ● Right faith – Samayak Shradha in Gaya ● Right Knowledge – Samayak Jnan 3. Development of Idol worship and ● Right Conduct – Samayak karma sculptures Five types of knowledge 4. The growth of universities of par ● Mati jnana excellence which attracted students from all ● Shruta jnana over the world ● Avadhi jnana Jainism ● Manahparayaya Jnana ● Jainism believes in 24 Tirthankaras with ● Keval Jnana Rishabdev being the first and Mahavira, Jain council contemporary of Buddha being the ● 1st Council at Patliputra under the Patron of 24th Tirthankara. Chandragupta Maurya in 300 BC during ● The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: which the 12 was compiled Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of ● 2nd Council at Vallabhi in 512 AD during Banaras. which the final compilation of 12 Angas and ● The 24th and the last Tirthankar was 12 Upangas was done Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). Sects ● He was born in Kundagram (Distt ● Shwetambars – Sthulabhadra – People who Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC. put on white robes. Those who stayed back in ● His father Siddhartha was the head of the North during the times of famine Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister ● Digambar – Bhadrabahu – Exodus of monks of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. to Deccan and South during the times of ● Mahavira was contemporary to Bimbisara. Magadhan famine. They have a naked attire ● Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Jain Literature Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became Jain literature used Prakrit, which is a common his first disciple. language of people than using Sanskrit. In this way, ● At 30, after the death of his parents, he Jainism reached far and wide through people. The became an ascetic. important literary works are www.gradeup.co

● 12 Angas ● Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi) – ● 12 Upangas Its capital was important as a trade and ● 10 Parikramas education centre (Ancient Taxila university) ● 6 Chhedsutras during the later Vedic age. ● 4 Mulasutras ● Kamboj (Hazara dist of Pakistan, North- ● 2 Sutra Granthas east Kashmir) – Its capital was Rajapur. ● Part of Sangam literature is also attributed to Hazara was an important trade and commerce Jain scholars. centre of this kingdom. Mahajanapadas, Haryanka Dynasty, Shishunaga ● Avanti (Malwa) – Avanti was divided into Dynasty, Nanda Dynasty two parts north and south. The northern part ● Magadha (Patna, Gaya and Nalanda had its capital at Ujjain and the southern part districts) – The first capital was Rajagriha had its capital at Mahismati. and the later capital was Pataliputra. ● Chedi (Bundelkhand) – Shaktimati was the ● Anga and Vanga (Munger and capital of Chedi. Chedi kingdom was spread Bhagalpur) – The capital was Champa. It between Yamuna and Narmada rivers. One of was a prosperous business centre. the families from this kingdom later merged ● Malla (Deoria, Basti, region) – into the Kalinga kingdom from this royal The capital was . It was the seat of family. many other smaller kingdoms. Their main ● Shurasena (Brajmandal) – Its capital was at religion was Buddhism. and its most famous ruler was ● Vatsa (Allahabad and Mirzapur) – The Avantiputra. capital was Kaushambi. The most important Sources of Sixteen Mahajanapadas ruler of this kingdom was King Udayan. ● Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu (Buddhist ● Kashi (Benaras) – The capital was Varanasi. Literature) Though many battles were fought against the ● Bhagavati Sutta (Jain Literature) Kosala kingdom, eventually Kashi was Dynasties merged with the Kosala kingdom. Haryanka Dynasty ● Kosala (Ayodhya) – Though its capital was (1) Bimbisara (544BC-492BC) which is identical with Sahet- 1. Haryanka is the name of a new dynasty Mahet but Ayodhya was an important town founded in Magadha by Bimbisara. He was in Kosala. Kosala also included the tribal also called Seniya who was the first Indian to Republican territory of Sakyas of Kapilvastu. have a regular and standing army ● Vajji (Muzaffarpur and Vaishali) – Vajji 2. Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha. was the seat of a united republic of eight 3. Pataliputra and Rajagriha were the capitals of smaller kingdoms of which Lichchavis, the Magadha kingdom. Magadha falls in the Janatriks and Videhas were also members. Patna region of Bihar. ● Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut and present- (2) (492BC-460BC) day Delhi) – The capital city was 1. He followed a more aggressive policy. Indraprastha. Gained control of Kashi and Vajji. Built the ● Panchala (Western Uttar Pradesh) – Its fort of Rajgir. capital was at Kampila. Earlier a monarch 2. He convened the 1st Buddhist council state, it later became an independent republic. (3) Udayin (460BC-440BC) Kannauj was an important town in this 1. He laid the foundation of Pataliputra and kingdom. shifted the capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra ● Matsya kingdom (Alwar, Bharatpur and Shishunaga Dynasty (412BC-344BC) Jaipur) – Its capital was Viratanagar. ● People elected Shishunga over Nagadasaka ● Ashmaka (Between Narmada and (last Haryanka ruler) thereby ending the Godavari) – Its capital was at Pertaii and Haryanka dynasty Brahamdatta was its most important ruler. www.gradeup.co

● Shishunga was succeeded by Kalashoka who 5. Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by convened the 2nd Buddhist council Upagupta or Nigrodha, a disciple of Buddha Nanda Dynasty (344BCC-323BC) 6. For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka ● Mahapadma Nanda was the founder and the started the institution of Dharmamahamatras. first king of the Nanda dynasty. Ashokan Inscriptions ● He overthrew the Magadha dynasty and 1. Ashokan inscriptions carried royal orders established the new Empire. He was known through which he was able to speak directly as Sarvakshatrantak and Ugrasena to the people. There were rock edicts and ● Mahapadma was known as Ekrat – the sole pillar edicts which were again divided into monarch major and minor. ● Initially, the Nanda Dynasty inherited a large 2. The 14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka tell kingdom of Magadha and subsequently, the about the principles of Dharma boundaries of the Nanda Dynasty were 3. The Kalinga rock edict explains the expanded in all directions by its rulers. principles of administration after Kalinga ● Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of the Nanda war. In his Kalinga edict, he mentions ‘‘All Dynasty. During his rule, Alexander invaded men are my children’’ North-West India by 326 BC 4. The Major Rock Edict XII of Ashoka deals Mauryan Empire with the conquest of Kalinga. 5. The term ‘Ashoka’ was mentioned only in the Maski Minor rock edict. Foreign Invasions in India Iranian Invasion – 518 BC Iranian rules Darius penetrated into NW India in 516 BC and annexed Punjab, West of Indus and Sindh. This was 20th province of Iran and contributed 1/3rd of the total revenue of Iran due to fertile lands. Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed a large number of Indians in the war against Greeks. Alexander’s Invasion He defeated the last king of the line of Darius, Xerxes in 333 BC and 331 BC. After occupying the realm of the Persian king, Alexander crossed the Hindukush Bindusara (298-273 BC) mountains in eastern Afghanistan in 327 BC. He was known to Greeks as Amitrochates and he After annexing Iran, Alexander moved into India patronized the Ajivika sect. through Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila Ashoka readily submitted. He met Porus at Jhelum where he 1. Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and defeated him in the Battle of Hydaphes but later ruled up to 232 BC. He was known as restored his kingdom to him. Alexander marched till ‘Devanampriya Priyadarsi’ the beautiful one the Beas river but his army refused to accompany who was the beloved of Gods. him. He remained in India from 326-325 B.C after 2. Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC. which he was forced to retreat. Kalinga is in modern Orissa. 3. Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Princep. 4. After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka became a Buddhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war, he replaced Bherighosha by Dhammaghosha Central Asian contacts and their results The Indo-Greeks www.gradeup.co

The series of invasions began in 200 BC by the ● They appointed military governors called Bactrian Greeks who were pushed by the Scythian Strategos tribes. ● Mahayana style of Buddhism developed with ● Menander (165-145 BC) was the most Gandhara and Mathura schools of Art famous ruler who was converted to supporting the Buddhism. Buddhism by Nagasena. The questions of Kushans Empire Menander were compiled as Milindapanho. Background of Kushans ● Indo-Greeks were the first to issue Gold ● Kushans succeeded the Parthian rulers. coins in India and they were also the first to ● Yue-chi tribe was divided into five clans and issue coins which could be definitely they were one among them, also called as attributed to Kings. Tocharans. ● They introduced the features of Hellenistic ● They were from steppes in north Central Asia Art through which Gandhara style had and were nomadic. developed. ● First, they occupy Bactria or north The Shakas (1st BC – 4th AD) Afghanistan. were displaced there by ● The Shakas or Scythians replaced Indo- them. Greeks. There were five branches of Shakas ● Moving southwards gradually, they crossed and they controlled a much larger territory. the Hindu Kush and occupied Gandhara, and ● Vikrama Samvat started in 57 BC when a replaced Parthians and Greeks in those areas. king called as Vikramaditya in Ujjain ● The empire was vastly extending from Oxus defeated the Shakas. and Khorasan in Central Asia to Ganga and ● Rudradaman I (AD 130-150) was a famous Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. king who ruled over western India. He ● Kushanas unified several parts of Central repaired the Sudarshana lake in Kathiawar. Asia, Iran, Entire Pak, and most part of The Parthians Northern India bringing under one ruler. ● They originally belonged to Iran and they Dynasties of Kushanas replaced the Shakas in the NW India. There are 2 dynasties of the Kushan tribe that ruled ● During the times of Gondophernes, India. St.Thomas is said to have come to India for First: the propagation of Christianity. ● Founded by Kadphises, House of chiefs. The Kushans ● Term: 28 years starting from 50 AD ● They were nomadic people of Central Asia ● Two rulers Kadphises I (Kujul Kadphises) who ruled from the Oxus to the . and II (Vema Kadphises), ruled under this ● The Kadaphises I and II ruled for 28 years dynasty. from 50 AD. They were replaced by ● They both issued a large number of Coins. the Kanishka. Kadphises I, minted a large number of copper ● Peshawar was their first capital and Mathura coins in sync with Roman coins. Kadphises II the second. issued gold money and also expanded the ● Kanishka started the Shaka era in 78 AD. kingdom to the far east. ● Kanishka patronized Buddhism by holding a Second: Buddhist council in Kashmir where the ● Kanishka succeeded the House of Kadphises. doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism Kanishka kings further expanded the was finalized. kingdom over lower Indus basin and upper Impact of the Central Asian Contacts India. The authority was much higher over ● Advances in building activities and pottery the Gangetic basin. ● They had a better cavalry ● The large number and purer gold coins were ● They identified themselves as an integral part issued by them, found mainly in the west of of India Indus. ● Satrapy system of Government developed www.gradeup.co

● Kanishka continued to rule the northwestern ● His court was adorned by the part until 230 AD. Several of his successor Navaratnas including Kalidasa and intermingled completely into India, and also Amarasimha. acquired Indian names. Vasudeva was the ● His exploits are glorified in Iron last ruler of the dynasty. Pillar at Qutub Minar The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire ● Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien (399- 414AD) visited India during his period. 1. Art ● Gupta period is called the Golden age of ancient India. Art was mostly inspired by Religions. ● Rock cut caves – Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh caves ● Structural temples – Dashavatar temple of Deogarh, Laxman temple of Sirpur, Vishnu temple and Varah temple of Eran. The growth of Nagara style also enabled the development of temple architecture in India ● Stupas – Dhammek stupa of , Ratnagiri stupa of Orissa, Mirpur Khas in 1. Chandragupta I (319-334 AD) Sindh developed in this period. ● He was the first great ruler of the ● Paintings – Ajanta paintings and Bagh caves Gupta Dynasty. He assumed the title paintings Maharajadhiraja. Married Licchhavi ● Sculpture – the Bronze image of Buddha princess near Sultanganj, Sarnath and Mathura school ● Started the Gupta Era by 319-20 AD flourished during this period which supports ● The original type of Gold coins the growth of Mahayana Buddhism and Idol Dinaras was issued. worship. 2. Samudragupta (335-380 AD) ● Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other ● He followed a policy of violence and Hindu gods were also found. conquest which led to the 1. Literature enlargement of the Gupta empire ● Religious ● Harisena, his court poet, vividly Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vayu mentions his military exploits in Purana etc were re-written. Dignaga Allahabad inscriptions and Buddhagosha were certain ● He reached Kanchi in the south which Buddhist literature written in this was ruled by Pallavas period ● Meghavarman, the ruler of Srilanka, ● Secular sent a missionary for permission to a. Mudrarakshasha by build a Buddhist temple at Gaya Vishakadatta ● Samudragupta is called as Napoleon b. Malavikagnimitra, of India Vikramorvashiyam, 3. Chandragupta II (380-412 AD) AbhijanaShakuntalam – ● He adopted the title Vikramaditya Dramas by Kalidasa ● He conquered Malwa and Gujarat c. Ritusamhar, Megadoot, which provided him access to the sea Raghuvamsam, which enabled trade and commerce. Kumarasambhavam – Ujjain was made as the second capital Poetries by Kalidasa www.gradeup.co

d. Mricchakatika by Sudraka Cheras e. Kamasutra by Vatsyayana ● They had Palmyra flowers as their Garland f. Panchatantra by Vishnu ● Pugalur inscriptions mention of three Sharma generations of Cheras ● Scientific ● Senguttuvan introduced Pattni cult or a. Aryabhatiya and Surya Worship of Kannagi as ideal wife Siddhanta by Aryabhatta Cholas b. Romaka Siddhanta ● Karikalan built Kallanai (Check dam) against c. Mahabhaskarya and River Laghubhaskarya Pandyas by Bhaskara ● Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi d. Pancha Siddhanta, Vrihat Maruthanar describes the socio-economic Jataka, Vrihat Samhita conditions of the Pandyas by Vrahamihira ● Invasion by Kalbharas led to their decline Sangam Age - The Dawn of History in the Deep These kingdoms had a profitable trade with the South Roman empire. They produced Pepper, Ivory, Pearls, Sangam Period Precious stones, Muslin, Silk, Cotton etc. which led Sangam period is the period in the history of ancient to prosperity in their region. spanning from c. 3rd century BC to c. Rise of social classes 3rd century AD. It is named after the famous Sangam ● Enadi – captains of the army academies of poets and scholars centred in the city of ● Vellalas – Rich peasants Madurai. ● Arasar – ruling class ● Kadaisiyar – the lowest class ● Pariyars – agricultural labourers Four castes mentioned in Tolkappiyam ● Arasar – Ruling class ● Anthanar – Brahmanas ● Vanigar – People involved in Trade and Commerce ● Vellalar – Labourers Five-fold division of land Land Type of Chief Chief Three early kingdoms land deity occupatio Kingdo Capital Port Emble Famou n m m s Ruler Kurunji Hilly tracts Murugan Hunting Cheras Vanji – Muzuri Bow Sengutt and honey Modern and uvan collection Kerala Tondi Cholas Uraiyur Kaverip Tiger Karikal and atinam/ an Puhar Puhar. Mullai Pastoral Mayon Cattle They rearing and had an dealing efficient with dairy Navy products Pandya Madura Korkai Fish Nedunz s i for heriyan Pearl Fishing www.gradeup.co

Marudha Agricultur Indira Agricultur ● Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar is the earliest m al al of Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil Grammar but also provides information on Neidhal Coastal Varunan Fishing Political and Social conditions of Sangam and salt period manufactu Epics ring ● Silapadhikaram by Elango Adigal ● Manimegalai by Sitthalai Sathanar ● Valayapathi Palai Desert Korravai Robbery ● Kundalagesi ● Sivaga Sinthamani Chalukyas and Sangam administration THE CHALUKYAS ● Avai – the imperial court ● Chalukyas were the rulers and ● Kodimaram – tutelary tree of every ruler their History can be classified into three eras: ● Panchmahasabha 1. The early western era (6th - 8th century), 1. Amaichar – ministers the era which belonged to Chalukyas of 2. Senatipathiar – Army chief (Vatapi); 3. Otrar – Spy 2. The later western era (7th - 12th century), 4. Thoodar – Envoy the era which belonged to Chalukyas of 5. Purohitar – Priest Kalyani; ● Kingdom’s division 3. The eastern Chalukya era (7th - 12th 1. Mandalam/Nadu – Province century), the era which belonged to 2. Ur – town Chalukyas of Vengi. 3. Perur – Big village Pulakeshin I (543-566) was the first 4. Sitrur – Small village independent ruler of Badami dynasty. The Sangams capital of his kingdom was Vatapi in Bijapur. Sangam Place Chairman Surviving Pulakeshin I was succeeded texts by Kirthivarma I (566-596). After his 1st Then- Agasthiyar Nil untimely death, his brother Mangalesha Madurai (597-610) was made the caretaker ruler as the 2nd Kapadapu Agasthiyar Tolkappiy son of Kirthivarma I - Prince Pulakesin ram and am II was a baby. Mangalesha made several Tolkappiy failed attempts to kill the prince but was ar killed himself by the prince and his friends. 3rd Madurai Founder - Ettutogai, The most famous king of the Chalukyan Mudathiru Pattu Pattu dynasty was Pulakeshin II (610-642), the maran (10 idylls) son of Pulakeshin I. Pulakeshin II was a Nakkirar contemporary of Harshavardhana. He Tamil language and Sangam literature defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of ● Narrative – Ettutogai and Pattupattu which the Narmada and his reign is remembered as are called Melkankakku – 18 Major works. the greatest period in the history of They are divided into Agam (love) and Karnataka. Puram (Valour) 4. The rise of the Eastern Chalukyan Era was ● Didactive – Pathinenkilkanakku – 18 minor started by Pulakeshin II brother Kubja works. They deal with Ethics and Morals. Vishnuvardana after conquering ● Thirukkural – Written by Thiruvalluvar is a the and the Kalingas. treatise covering various aspects of life. 5. By 631, the Chalukyan Empire was at its peak. It extended from sea to sea. Their fall www.gradeup.co

began when Pulkeshin II was defeated and temple at Kanchi is built killed by the Pallavas under the able by Narasimhavarma II. After the accidental leadership of Narsimhavarma I. The death of his elder sons in Pallavas attacked their capital Badami & 722, Narasimhavarma II too died grieving. captured it. 8. Parameshwaravarma II the youngest son 6. Under the leadership Of Vikramaditya I of Narasimhavarma II, came to power in (655-681) the Chalukyas rose to power once 722 after the death of his father. The Pallava again. Vikramaditya I defeated his kingdom was in a state of disarray after the contemporaries Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and death of Parameshwaravarma II in 730 as Kerala rulers to establish his supremacy over he had no heirs to the throne. the Chalukyan Empire in the southern region. 9. After some brief infighting for the throne 7. Vikramaditya I was succeeded among the family, Nandivarma II came to by Vikramaditya II (733-745) who also power. Nandivarma then went on to marry defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to the Rashtrakuta princess Reeta Devi and re- capture a major portion of the Pallava established the Pallava kingdom. kingdom. 10. Dantivarma (796-846) 8. The fall of the Chalukyan Empire started with succeeded Nandivarma II who ruled for 54 Vikramaditya II‘s son, Kirtivarma II (745), long years. Rastrakuta who was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga defeated Dantvarma and ruler, Dhantidurga, who went on to establish was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846. the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas PALLAVA DYNASTY The struggle for domination – Palas, Pratiharas 1. After the decline of the , and Rashtrakutas – tripartite struggle the Pallava dynasty, founded ● There was a common struggle between these by Shivaskandavarman emerged in South kingdoms over the control of Kannauj which India. enabled them to control the fertile upper 2. Kanchi was the capital of the Pallava dynasty. Gangetic plains 3. Some of the leaders who are worth The Palas mentioning are Simhavarama I ● They dominated Eastern India. Sivaskandavarma I, Veerakurcha, ● Founded by Gopala in 750 AD and succeeded Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, by Dharam Pala. The Pala rulers were Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa. defeated by the Prathiharas and Rashtrakutas 4. The decline of the Pallavas started after in the North. Samudragupta defeated Vishugopa. ● They were patrons of Buddhism. 5. The Pallavas kingdom was re-established ● Dharmapala revived the Nalanda by Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma University by setting aside 200 villages for II, who ended the Kalabhras‘ dominance its expenses. He also founded Vikramashila in 575 AD and re-established his kingdom. University and built many Viharas for 6. Vikramaditya I was defeated Buddhist monks. by Parameshwaravarma I in 670 and ● They had trade contacts and cultural links restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king. with South-East Asia. Sailendra Dynasty Eventually, Parameshwaravarma I was sent many ambassadors and asked permission defeated by the combined armies of the to build a monastery near Nalanda Chalukyas, the Pandyas ( lead by their ruler The Pratiharas Arikesari Maravarma) and another prominent ● They dominated Western India and Upper enemy of the Pallavas. Gangetic valley 7. Narasimhavarma II, a peace-loving ruler, ● The real founder and major ruler succeeded Parameshwaravarma I after he was Bhoja with title Adivaraha died in 695. The famous Kailashanatha www.gradeup.co

● Al-Masudi, a Baghdad traveller, visited India ● The empire was founded by Vijaylala, a during the times of Pratiharas in 915-16 AD feudatory of Pallavas, in 850 AD. ● Rajashekar, a great Sanskrit poet, and ● Rajaraja (985-1014) and Rajendra I (1014- dramatist lived at the court of Mahipala 1044) were the greatest Chola kings. They ● The attacks by Rashtrakuta rulers, Indra III followed a policy of annexation which and Krishna III led to the faster dissolution of included annexing Sri Lanka, Maldives, the empire Pandyas and Cheras to control the prosperous The Rashtrakutas trade with South-East Asian countries ● They dominated Deccan and certain ● Rajarajeshwara temple was built in 1010 at territories in North and South India. Kingdom Tanjore. was founded by Dandi Durga with capital at ● Rajendra I assumed the title Malkhed Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of ● Amogavarsha was a great king. He was Ganga) and instituted a new capital at the credited with writing the first poetics book in banks of Kaveri called Kannada. He also built the Capital city, “Gangaikondacholapuram” Manyakhet. ● Rajendra I also undertook a naval expedition ● They were in the constant contest with the against revived Sri Vijaya Empire of Indo- Pallavas, the Cholas and the Chalukyas in the China South ● The ruler of Sailendra dynasty had built a ● Krishna I built the rock-cut temple of Shiva Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam. at Ellora ● The strong navy of Chola led to the ● They had a tolerant religious policy which conversion of Bay of Bengal into “Chola favoured their foreign trade lake” Political ideas and Organizations ● The Cholas encouraged Local Self- ● The king was the centre of administration and Government in the villages under their his position became hereditary administration ● Royal household = Antahpur Chola Government ● Administration in Palas and Pratiharas ● The King administered his territories with 1. Bhukti – Province under Uparika advice from his Council of Ministers 2. Mandala or Visaya – district under ● Chola administration Visayapati 1. Mandalams – Provinces 3. Group of Villages – Samanthas or 2. Valanadu – minor provinces Bhogapatis. 3. Nadu – district 4. Pattala – smaller unit 4. Kurram – a group of villages ● Administration in the Rashtrakutas ● Infrastructure: Royal roads were built, 1. Rashtra – Province under Rashtrapati irrigation projects were undertaken 2. Visaya – district ● Village assemblies: the Ur – general 3. Bhukti – smaller unit assembly of the village; the Mahasabha – the ● Grama-Mahajana – Village elder gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages ● Kotwal – responsibility to maintain law and which were called Agraharas order Cultural life ● Nad-Gavundas/Desa-gramakutas – ● Kailashnath temple in Kanchi, Brihadeswara hereditary revenue officers in Deccan temple in Tanjore are examples of Dravidian The Chola Empire architecture ● The Chola empire, which arose in the ● After the fall of Cholas, the Hoysalas 9th century, brought a large part of the continued the tradition with building temples Peninsula under their control. With a strong in Halebid (Hoysaleshwara temple), an Navy, they conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives example of Chalukyan architecture. and had a strong foreign trade. www.gradeup.co

● Sculpture art attained its heights with ● Muizzudin Muhammed ascended the throne Gomateshwar statue in Sharvana Belagola at Ghazni while Chauhan’s powers were also and Bronze Nataraja statue constantly rising. With the capture of Delhi, ● Bhakti movement started with Alvars and the Chauhans and Ghurids were in the direct Nayanars flourished in 6th to 9th Their contest. writings “Tirumurai” is seen as Fifth Veda. ● 1st Battle of Tarain (1191) Muhammed Ghori Kamban’s Ramayan is also considered as a Vs. Prithviraj Chauhan – Ghurids lost the classic in Tamil literature. battle ● Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are regarded as the ● 2nd Battle of Tarain(1192) Muhammed Ghori three gems of Kannada Poetry Vs. Prithviraj Chauhan – Prithviraj Chauhan The Rajput States lost the battle. This led to Delhi and Eastern Rajputana Rajasthan passing under the Turkish rule. There was an expansion of aggressive and ● Muhammad Ghori entrusted the positions expansionist Turk tribesmen in the North-western under Qutbuddin Aibak, who later found the India whose main mode of warfare was rapid Slave dynasty and led to the foundations of advance and retreat. The disintegration of Gurjara- Delhi Sultanate. Bakthiyar Khalji has Pratiharas in North-Western India led to a time of entrusted the positions east of Benares. political uncertainty. The Chauhans of Ajmer The Ghaznavids ● The Chauhans were the feudatories of ● Mahmud (998-1030) ascended the throne of Gurjara-Pratiharas Ghazni ● Ajayaraj Chauhan, king of Sakhambari ● Firdausi was a court-poet of Ghazni. His established a city called Ajayameru which famous work “Shah Namah” was a watershed was later known as Ajmer in Iranian renaissance ● His successor Vigraharaj captured Dhillika ● Mahmud was a plunderer and destroyer of from Tomar Kings temples. In 1025, he raided and plundered the ● After the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, the Somnath temple in Gujarat. He undertook 17 dynasty was weakened. raids in India and constantly fought against ● Qutbuddin Aibak dealt the final blow by the Hindushahi rulers defeating the dynasty in 1197 AD. ● Seljuk Empire was established with the death The Tomars of Delhi of Mahmud ● The Tomars were the feudatories of the The Rajput States Pratiharas. ● The break-up of the Pratiharas empire led to ● They founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D. the formation of Rajputana states. During 9th-12th century, the Tomars of Delhi ● Few important of these were- ruled parts of the present-day Delhi and (a) Gahadavalas of Kannauj Haryana. (b) Paramaras of Malva ● Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, (c) Chauhans of Ajmer Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D. ● Few other significant states were Kalachuris ● Chauhans captured Delhi in middle of the near Jabalpur, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, 12th century and the Tomars became their Chalukyas of Gujarat, Tomars of Delhi etc. feudatories. ● Rajputs patronized Hinduism and Jainism to Mewar a certain extent. ● Mewar is a region of south-central Rajasthan ● They also upheld the Varna system and the state in western India. Privileges of Brahmanas ● It includes the present-day districts of Turkish Conquests Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, ● The Seljuk empire was replaced by Pirawa Tehsil of Jhalawar District of Khwarizmi empire in Iran and Ghurid empire Rajasthan, Neemuch and Mandsaur of in Ghur. and some parts of Gujarat. www.gradeup.co

● The region was a part of the Rajput-ruled Khajuraho. Vidyadhara is noted for having Mewar Kingdom or the Udaipur Kingdom. In commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva 1568, Akbar captured Chittorgarh, the capital Temple. of Mewar. ● Paramal the last Chandela ruler was defeated Maha Rana Sanga (1508 - 1528) by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D. ● Rana Sanga of Mewar belonged to the The Paramaras of Malwa Sisodiya clan who was a contemporary to ● They were a part of Agnivanshi Rajput Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur. dynasty. Established in 9-10th Century, they ● The Battle of Khanwa, 1527 took place were vassals of Rashtrakutas between Babur and Rana Sanga in which ● They made Dhar as their capital. Bhoja was Babur won and established the Mughal’s rule an important ruler in their period. firmly in North India. ● The later Paramara rulers moved their capital Maha Rana Pratap (1572 - 1597) to Mandu after Dhar was sacked multiple ● Rana Pratap of Mewar belonged to the times by their enemies. Sisodiya Rajputs as was Rana Sanga. ● Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramara ● He was a contemporary of Akbar. king, was defeated and killed by the forces of ● When Akbar sent a number of envoys in Alauddin Khalji of Delhi in 1305 CE making Rana Pratap as a vassal and The Chalukyas of Gujarat submitting to Akbar, Rana refused and the ● The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of what is Battle of Haldighati was fought on 1576 now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western between Raja Man Singh I of Amber and India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Maha Rana Pratap in which Maha Rana Their capital was located at Anahilavada Pratap was defeated by the Mughals. (modern Patan). Marwar ● Mularaja was the founder of the dynasty. ● In 1194, Mahmud of Ghori defeated Jaichand During the rule of , I, Mahmud of of Kannauj. Ghazni plundered Somnath temple. ● His descendant, Sheoji, established ● Mularaja is said to have built Mulavasatika themselves at Mandore city in Marwar. temple for Digambara Jains and the ● The Jodhpur state was founded in the 13th Mulanatha-Jinadeva temple for the century by the Rathore clan of Rajputs, who Svetambara Jains. claim descent from the Gahadvala kings of ● The Dilwara Temples and the Modhera Sun Kannauj. Temple have constructed during the reign of ● The Rathore rulers of the Indian princely Bhima I. state of Jodhpur were of an ancient dynasty ● Rani-ki-Vav was commissioned by Queen established in the 8th century. Udayamati ● However, the dynasty's fortunes were made The Kalachuris of Tripuri by Rao Jodha, first of the rulers of the ● The Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of Rathore dynasty in Jodhpur in 1459. central India during 7th to 13th centuries The Chandelas of Bundelkhand from their capital Tripuri near Jabalpur. ● Established them in the 9th century. ● The kingdom reached its zenith during the Harshadeva was the founder of this dynasty. reign of Lakshmikarna, who assumed the ● Bundelkhand was also known as title Chakravartin after military campaigns Jejakabhukti against several neighbouring kingdoms ● Mahoba was the capital of Chandela during ● The Karan temple at Amarkantak was built the period of Chief Yasovarman by Lakshmikarna (1041 – 1173 CE) ● Kalinjar was their important fort. Vijayanagar and Bahmani Empire ● The Chandelas built the most famous Vijayanagar Kingdoms Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050 A.D. and a number of beautiful temples at www.gradeup.co

assassinating Immadi Narashima 1509 – Krishna 1) He re-established the 1529 Deva internal law and order Raya situation and restored the old territories of Vijayanagar which were usurped by other powers. 2) Architecture: he built the Vijay Mahal, Vithal swami temple and Hazara Mahal. The Sangama Dynasty 3) Foreign Travelers: Duarte ● Sangama dynasty was founded by Harihara Barbosa and Dominigo Paes and Bukka, who were the feudatories of were Portuguese travellers Kakatiyas of Warangal in 1336. who visited Vijayanagar Year Ruler Significance empire. 1336 – Haihara I Laid the foundations of 4) The Ashtadiggajas: 1356 Vijayanagar empire Peddana, Timmaya, 1356 – Bukka I Strengthened the city of Bhattamurthi, Dhurjati, 1379 Vidyanagar and renamed it Mallan, Raju Ramachandra, to Vijaynagar Surona and Tenali 1379 – Harihara Son of Bukka I Ramakrishna. 1404 II 5) He maintained the friendly 1406 – Deva 1) Built a dam across relationship with Portuguese 1422 Raya I Tungabadhra governor Albuquerque 2) Nicolo de Conti visited 6) He took the Vijaynagar titles Yavanaraja 3) Induction of Muslim Sthapnachrya, Abhinava cavalrymen and archers in Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha etc army begun 7) Literature: he 1423 – Deva 1) He was called Praudh composed Amuktamalayada 1446 Raya II Deva Raya –Telugu work on Polity 2) His inscriptions have the and Jambavati Kalyanam title Gajabetekara – Sanskrit Drama 3) Dindima was the court 1529 – Achyuta Farnao Nunij, a Portuguese poet 1542 Deva horse trader visited 4) Abdur Razzak, Persian Raya Vijaynagar Traveler, envoy of Sharukh 1542 Venkata I Rama Raja exercised real visited Vijaynagar power The Suluva Dynasty 1543 – Sadashiv The Battle of Talikota was Year Ruler Significance 1576 a Raya fought in 1565 in which the 1486 – 1491 Suluva Narashima Founder of Suluva dynasty five kingdoms of the 1491 Tirumal Narasimha Minor during the reign of Narasa Nayaka Bahmani Empire fought 1491 – 1505 Immadi Narashima Vasco-da-Gama landed in Calicut during hisagainst reign the Vijaynagar and The Tuluva dynasty imposed a crushing defeating Year Ruler Significance on Vijaynagar, executing 1505 – Vira Son of Narasa Nayaka, Rama Raja and looting the 1509 Narashim became the King after city and destroying it a completely www.gradeup.co

Caesar Frederick, a ● The Bahmani capital was Hasanabad Portuguese traveller, Visited (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it Vijaynagar was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar) The Araveedu dynasty (1570 – 1650 AD) Year Ruler Significance ● Tirumal Raya ruled in this period in the name 1347 – Allaudin Known as Hasan Gangu, of Sadashiva Raya. He shifted his capital 1358 Hasan founded the Bahmani from Vijaynagar to Penugonda. Bahman kingdom with capital at Administration in the Vijaynagar Empire Shah Gulbarga ● Territorial division 1397 – Tajuddin 1) He determined to make 1. Rajyas or Mandalams – Provinces 1422 Firoz Deccan as the cultural centre 2. Nadu – District Shah of India due to the decline of 3. Sthala – Sub-district Deccan Sultanate in the 4. Grama – Village North ● Ayngar System, a body of 12 functionaries to 2) He improvised the ports of conduct village affairs developed. Chahul and Dabhol ● Pagodas/Varahas – Gold coins issued in 3) He inducted Hindus in Vijaynagar administration on a large ● Amaram – territory with fixed revenue were scale given to Military chiefs 4) He encouraged the pursuit called Palaiyagar or Nayaks who had to of Astronomy and built an maintain a fixed number of horses, elephants observatory near Daulatabad and foot soldiers for the service of the state 1422 – Ahmad 1) Last great ruler who 1435 Shah transferred the capital from Architecture Gulbarga to Bidar ● They had a vibrant combination of 2) He was called as Wali for Chalukyan, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola style his association with Sufi in their temple architectures. Gesu Daraz ● Dravida style was developed in Vijaynagar 1463 - Mahmud 1) He was granted the title which had a large number of Pillars and Piers. 1482 Gawan Malik-ul-Tujjar and was the ● Mandapas with rising platforms were made Prime minister of Sultan along with Amman Shrine in temples Muhammad Shah III ● Stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata were Lashkari inscribed on the walls of Vijaynagar temples. 2) His military expeditions ● Important temples are led to the weakening of the 1. Vithalswami and Hazara Rama Vijaynagar Empire. The loss temple – of the port of Goa and 2. Tadapatri and Parvati temple – Dabhol dealt a serious blow Chidambaram to the Vijaynagar Empire 3. Varadaraja and Ekambranath Temple 3) He divided the kingdom - Kanchipuram into 8 provinces or Tarafs, The Bahmani Empire each governed by a Tarafdar ● The Bahmani Empire was situated in the 4) Khalisa lands were set north and acted as a dominating rival to the aside for the expenses of Vijaynagar Empire. Sultan ● It was founded by an Afghan, Alauddin 5) He built a magnificent Hasan in 1347. Madarasa in Bidar ● For the first time, the use of Artillery was heard in their battles.

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Dynasties of Delhi Sultanate 6) He completed the Dynasty Perio Prominent rulers construction of Qutb Minar d of 1236 Razia 1) The first and the only Rule – Sultana Muslim lady who ever ruled Mamluk 1206 – Qutubuddin Aibek, 1240 India or Slave 1290 Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, 2) Though a popular ruler, dynasty Ghiyasuddin Balban she was disliked by the Chahalgani who wanted to put Khilji 1290 – Alauddin Khilji a puppet ruler at the throne dynasty 1320 3) She was defeated and Tughlaq 1321 – Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, killed by Bandits while in a dynasty 1413 Firoz Shah Tughlaq fight Sayyid 1414 – Khizr Khan 1240- An era of After the death of Raziya, dynasty 1450 1266 weak weak rulers ascended the Lodhi 1451 – Ibrahim Lodhi rulers throne, who were supported dynasty 1526 by the Nobles. Bahram Shah, Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) Masud shah and Nasiruddin Muhammad were the Year Ruler Important Facts successors. 1206 - Qutbudd 1) Most trusted slave of 1266 An era of 1) A strong and centralized 1210 in Aibak Muhammed of Ghori – Balban government was established 2) Died in 1210 while 1287 2) He acted as a champion playing Chaughan (Polo) of Turkish Nobility 3) He was granted the 3) He broke the strength of title Lakh Bakhsh Chahalgani to restore the 4) He constructed powers of the Monarchy the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque 4) He established Diwan-i- in Delhi and Adhai din ka arz, military department jhonpra at Ajmer towards a strong army 5) He also started the 5) He adopted a policy of construction of Qutb Minar in blood and iron to restore the the honour of Sufi law and order problems saint Khwaja Qutbuddin 6) He insisted on the Bakthiyar Kaki ceremony of Sijada and 1210 Illtutmis 1) The real consolidator of Paibos – h Turkish conquests 7) He took up the title Zil- 1236 2) He saved the Delhi i-illahi Sultanate from the invasion of 1218 - Change 1) The Mongol leader who the Mongol, Chengiz Khan 1227 z Khan prided in being called 3) He introduced the the Scourge of God currency system of Tanka and 2) They attacked the Jittal Khwarizmi empire and sacked 4) He organized Iqta the flourishing cities System – land grant to soldiers 3) Delhi Sultanate became and nobility the only important Islam state 5) He set up of this period the Chahalgani system – 4) Illtutmish, in 1221, nobility of 40 members refused an asylum request of Jallaudin, who was defeated www.gradeup.co

by Changez Khan. Changez Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 1320-24 Khan did not cross River Muhammad Tughlaq 1324-51 Indus, which saved the weak Firoz Shah Tughlaq 1351-88 sultanate from loot and Mohammad Khan 1388 plunder. Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq Shah II 1388 The Khaljis (1290- 1320) Abu Baqr 1389-90 Year Rulers Important Facts Nasiruddin Muhammad 1390-94 Humayun 1394-95 Nasiruddin Mahmud 1395-1412 1290 Jalaluddi 1) He checked the monopoly – n Khalji of Turkish nobility and followed Ruler Period Important facts 1296 a policy of tolerance of Rule Ghiyas 1320- 1. Khusrau Khan, the last king uddin 1325 of the Khilji dynasty was 1296 Allauddi 1) He separated religion from Tughla killed by Ghazni Malik, and – n Khalji politics and proclaimed, q Ghazni Malik ascended the 1316 ‘Kingship knows no kinship’ throne assuming the title 2) He followed an imperialist Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. and annexation policy. He 2. He died in an accident and annexed Gujarat, Ranthambore, his son Jauna (Ulugh Khan) Malwa, Mewar etc succeeded him under the title Administrative reforms Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. 1) By series of 4 Ordinances, Moha 1325- 1. Prince Jauna, Son of Allaudin took steps to avoid the mmad- 1351 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq problems caused by the nobles bin ascended the throne in 1325 2) He introduced the Dagh – Tughla 2. He tried to introduce many branding of horse and Chehra – q administrative reforms. He a descriptive roll of soldier’s had 5 ambitious projects for system. which he has 3) By setting up markets, become particularly Allauddin fixed the cost of all debatable. commodities Taxation in the Doab (1326) 4) He constructed the Alai Transfer of Capital (1327) fort and Alai Darwaza – Introduction of Token entrance of Qutb Minar Currency (1329) 5) He also built the palace of Proposed Khurasan thousand pillars called Hazar Expedition (1329) Sutun Qarachil Expedition (1330) 6) Amir Khusrau was the 3. His five projects have led to court poet of Allaudin revolts all around his empire. 1316 Mubarak His last days were spent in – Khan checking the revolts 1320 1335 -- Madurai became 1320 Khusrau Ghazi Malik deposed Khusrau independent (Jalaluddin Khan Khan in a rebellion. Ahsan Shah) 1336 -- Foundation of Vijayanagar (Harihar & Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1412) Bukka), Warangal became Emperor Period independent (Kanhaiya) www.gradeup.co

1341-47 -- Revolts of Sada Emperor Period Amirs & Foundation of Khizr Khan 1414-21 Bahamani in 1347 (Hasan Mubarak Shah 1421-33 Gangu) Muhammad Shah 1421-43 He died in Thatta while Alauddin Alam Shah 1443-51 campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave. Ruler Perio Important facts Firoz 1351- 1. He was a cousin of d of Shah 1388 Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. Rule Tughla After his death, the nobles and Khizr 1414- 1. Timur's nominee captured q the theologians of the court Khan 1421 Delhi and was proclaimed the selected Firoz Shah as the next new Sultan and the first of the Sultan. Sayyid Dynasty. 2. Established of Diwan-i- 2. They ruled over Delhi and Khairat (department for poor surrounding districts. and needy people) and Diwan- Mubara 1421- 1. He succeeded Khizr at the l-Bundagan (department of k Shah 1434 throne after his successful slaves) expeditions against Mewatis, 4. Making Iqtadari system Katehars and the Gangetic hereditary. Doab area. 5. Construction of canals for 2. He was killed by the nobles irrigation from the Yamuna to in his own court. the city of Hissar Muham 1434- 1. The nobles put Muhammad 6. From the Sutlej to the mad 1443 Shah on the throne, but could Ghaggar. From the Ghaggar to Shah not survive the in-fighting Firozabad among the nobles in the court. 7. From Mandvi and Sirmour 2. He was authorized to rule a Hills to Hansi in Haryana. meagre area of around 30 8. Establishment of four new miles and rest of the Sultanate towns, Firozabad, Fatehabad, was ruled by the nobles. Jaunpur and Hissar. Alam 1443- The last Sayyid king After 1388- 1. The Tughlaq dynasty would Shah 1451 descended in favour of Bahlol Firoz 1414 not survive much after Firoz Lodhi and he retired. Thus Shah Shah's death. The Malwa, began the Lodhi dynasty, Tughla Gujarat and Sharqi (Jaunpur) which confined to Delhi and a q Kingdoms broke away from few surrounding areas. the Sultanate. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) 2. Timur Invasion: (1398-99) Ruler Perio Important facts Timur, a Turk, invaded India d of in 1398 during the reign of Rule Muhammad Shah Tughlaq, the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. His army mercilessly sacked and plundered Delhi. 3. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule to Punjab which ended the Tughlaq dynasty. Sayyid dynasty (1414 – 1450) www.gradeup.co

Bahlol 1451 1. Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Ibrahi 1517 1. He was the last king of Lodhi Lodhi -88 Afghan sardars who established m -26 dynasty and the last Sultan of himself in Punjab after the Lodhi Delhi invasion of Timur 2. He was the son of Sikandar 2. He founded the Lodhi dynasty. Lodhi He founded the rule of the Lodhi 3. The Afghan nobility was brave dynasty by usurping the throne and freedom-loving people but it from the last of the Sayyid rulers. was because of its fissiparous and 3. He was a strong and brave individualistic tendencies that the ruler. He tried to restore the glory Afghan monarchy was of Delhi by conquering territories weakened. Moreover, Ibrahim around Delhi and after the Lodhi asserted the absolute continuous war for 26 years, he power of the Sultan. succeeded in extending his 4. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, governor of Punjab invited Babur Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, to overthrow Ibrahim Lodhi; Gwalior etc. Babur accepted the offer and 4. He was a kind and generous inflicted a crushing defeat on ruler. He was always prepared to Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle help his subjects. of Panipat in 1526. 5. Though he was himself 5. No Sultan of India except illiterate, he extended his Sultan Ibrahim had been killed patronage to art and learning. He on the battlefield. died in 1488. Important Central Departments Sikan 1489 1. Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Department Function dar - Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Lodhi 1517 Bihar and Western Bengal. 2. He shifted his capital from Diwan-i-Risalat (Foreign Department of appeals Delhi to Agra, a city founded by Minister) him. 3. Sikandar was a fanatical Diwan-i-Ariz Military department Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi 4. Temple at Naga Kot and ordered Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves the temples of Mathura to be destroyed. 5. He took a keen interest in the Diwan-i-Qaza-i- Department of justice development of agriculture. He Mamalik introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar's yard) of 32 digits for Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of measuring cultivated fields. pensions 6. He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked Diwan-i-Mustakhraj Department of arrears religious tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus. Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity

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Diwan-i-Kohi Department of ruled from agriculture 1540-45 AD 1556 2nd Battle of Akbar Vs. Diwan-i-Insha Department of Panipat Hemu correspondence 1556 – 1605 Akbar Established AD Din-i-illahi, Important Central Officials expanded Post Role Mughal empire Wazir The Chief Minister of the State in 1605 – 1627 Jehangir Captain Charge of revenue and finances, AD William controlled by other departments. Hawkins and Ariz-i- Head of Military department Sir Thomas Mamlik Roe visited the Qazi Legal Officer(dispensed civil law Mughal court based on Muslim law Shariat) 1628 -1658 Shahjahan The pinnacle Wakil-i-dar Controller of the royal households. AD of Mughal Barid-i- Head of the state news agency empire and art mumalik and Amir-i- Officer-in-charge of royal feasts, architecture majlis conference and festivals. 1658 – 1707 Aurangazeb Beginning of Majlis-i-am Council of friends and officers AD the decline of consulted on important affairs of the Mughal empire state. 1707 – 1857 Later Mughals Decline and Dahir-i- Head of the royal correspondence. AD disintegration mumalik of the Mughal Sadr-us- Dealt with religious matters and empire with sudur endowments. gaining Sadr-i- Officers-in-charge of the religious strength of the Jahan and charitable endowment. British Amir-i-dad Public prosecutors Babur (1526 - 1530) Naib wazir Deputy Minister ● Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire in Mushrif-i- Accountant general India, traced his ancestry to the Timurid mumalik dynasty. Mughal Empire ● In 1517 Ibrahim Lodhi succeeded Sikander Mughal Empire Lodhi. 1526 – 1530 Babur Founder of ● Embassies from Daulat Khan and Rana AD Mughal empire Sanga inviting Babur to displace Ibrahim st after the Lodhi led to the 1 Battle of Panipat in 1526. 1stBattle of ● Babur used an Ottoman (Rumi) device in this Panipat war. 1530 – 1540 Humayun He was ● Babur also heavily used Gunpowder in this AD defeated by war, though it was known in India in earlier 1555 – 1556 Sher Shah times. AD ● The Battle of Khanwa (1527) was fought 1540 – 1555 Sur Empire Sher Shah between Rana Sanga and Babur. With the AD defeated defeat of Sanga, Babur’s position got Humayun and strengthened in the Gangetic plains. ● He declared the war as a Jihad and assumed the title Ghazi after his victory. www.gradeup.co

● Babur composed Tuzuk-i-Baburi, a Masnavi ● In the Battle of Chausa, 1539, Sherkhan and the Turkish translation of a well-known defeated Humayun for the first time and Sufi work. Tuzuk-i-Baburi was translated assumed the name Shershah. into Persian as Baburnama by Abdur Rahim ● Later in 1540 he completely defeated Khankhana Humayun in the Battle of Kanauj and ● He built two mosques, one at Kabulibagh, founded the Sur dynasty. Panipat and another in Sambhal, Rohilkhand Architecture: Humayun (1530 – 1540 and 1555 - 1556) ● Shershah constructed the Grand Trunk ● Humayun became the Mughal Emperor on 29 Road from Sohargaon to Attock (Calcutta to December 1530 at the age of 23. Amritsar) He introduced the National ● In the Battle of Chausa, 1539, Humayun was Highway concept for the first time in India. defeated for the first time by Shershah Suri. Now the Grand Trunk Road is known ● In the next year (1540) Shershah completely as Shershah Suri Marg. Its part from Delhi to defeated Humayun in the Battle of Amritsar is known as National Highway -1. Kanauj and founded the Sur dynasty. ● He also built roads from Agra to Jodhpur and ● After the lapse of 15 years, Humayun re- Chittoor and Lahore to Multan. He built captured the Empire by defeating the last Sur Sarais at a distance of every two Kos. These ruler Sikandar Shah Suri in the Battle of sarais later developed into Market towns, Sirhindh, 1555, after which he ruled only for Qasbas. They were also used as stages for 6 months. news-services, Dak-Chowkis. ● The period from 1540 to 1555 is known as the ● He built the Purana Qila in Delhi (its period of the temporary eclipse of the Construction was started by Humayun) and Mughal. his own Mausoleum (Tomb) at Sasaram in ● Humayun died by an accidental fall from the Bihar. staircase of his Library ‘Shermandal’ at the ● He also constructed the Khooni Darwaza Puranakwila in Delhi on 24 January 1556. (blood-stained gate) the gateway of ● Humayun was an accomplished Firozshah Kotla in Delhi. mathematician and astronomer. He earned Economy and Administration the title Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among ● He was the first ruler to introduce the Mughals Silver Rupiya (one rupiya was equal to 64 ● Humayun’s biography Humayun Namah was dams) and gold coin Ashrafi. written by Humayun’s sister Gulbadan ● Administrative divisions: Begum. The language used to write this 1. Iqta – Province under Haqim or Amin biography was a mixture of Turkish and 2. Sarkar – District under Shiqdar-i- Persian. Shiqadaran or Munsif-i-Munsifan Architecture during Humayun’s Period 3. Pargana – Taluk under Shiqdar or ● The Purnakwila was constructed by Munsif Humayun but its construction was completed 4. Gram – Village under Muqqadam or by Shershah. Amil ● Humayun’s tomb is situated in Delhi (the first ● He made local Muqaddams/Zamindars building in India having double domes) responsible for local crimes which was built by Haji Begum ● Hindi poet Malik Muhammed Jayasi ● In 1533 Humayun built the city of Dinpanah completed his Padmavat, during his reign. (world refuge) in Delhi. Mughal Empire Sher Shah Suri (Sur Empire) Akbar (1556 - 1605) ● Shershah’s original name was Farid. Yea Significance ● His family came to India from Afghanistan. r 155 Akbar ascends the throne at the age of 14 6 www.gradeup.co

155 2nd Battle of Panipat between Hemu and ● Maharaja Man Singh: Akbar’s military 6 Bairam Khan(khan-i-khannan). Hemu gets commander. defeated in the battle ● Bhagawandas: Son of Bharmal 156 Akbar becomes independent at the age of ● Abdur Rahim Khankhana: Hindi Poet 0 18 and dismisses Bairam Khan ● Mulla Do Pyaja 156 Abolition of Jizyah tax Administration 4 Land revenue 157 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, ● Akbar started the Annual assessment system 1 was laid where land was assessed by Qanungos or 157 Mansabdari system introduced hereditary holders of land and tax collected 4 by Karoris. 157 Ibadatkhana was built ● In 1580, a new system Dahsala (prices over 5 the last 10 years) were calculated. The land 157 Battle of Haldihatti fought between Rana was measured using the Zabti system which 6 Pratap and the Mughal army led by Raja was an improvement over the Dahsala Man Singh system. It was also known as 158 Dahsala Bandobast system introduced Todarmal’s Bandobast 0 ● In Batai system, the production was divided 158 Din-i-illahi – a new religion was in fixed proportions. 2 propounded by Akbar which was s ● In Nasaq system, rough calculation of synthesis of values taken from several Peasant’s payments over the past years was religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism etc. calculated and the empire’s share was fixed. It was a move against religious orthodoxy ● Types of Cultivable Lands and bigotry. He followed the policy of Sulh- 1. Polaj – land under cultivation every kul or peace to all. year 2. Paratti – fallow land ● Akbar was an illiterate person, but he was a patron of men of eminence. He maintained a 3. Chanchar – land fallow for 2-3 years Scholastic Assembly (Navratnas) in his court. 4. Banjar – land fallow more than 2-3 They included the following personalities. years ● Taccavi – loans to the peasants ● Abul Fazal: Akbar’s court historian who wrote Akbar’s biographical works Ain-i- ● Land divisions for the purpose of revenue Akbari and Akbar Namah. 1. Khalisa – lands kept separately to meet the expenses of the emperor ● Abul Faizi: Persian poet and brother of Abul Fazal. He translated Mahabharata into 2. Jagir – land was given to nobles or Persian in name ‘Razam Namah’ and mansabdars to meet their expenses Bhaskaracharya’s mathematical work 3. Inam – land was given to religious Leelavati into Persian. persons Mansabdari System: This was introduced to maintain ● Mian Tansen: His original name was Ram Thanu Pande. He was the court Musician of a huge army. Ranks (Mansabs) were awarded to Akbar. He composed a Raga, Rajdarbari in nobles. They were divided into Zat (Personal status) honour of Akbar. and Sawar (Cavalryman required to maintain). Along ● Birbal: His real name was Mahesh Das. He with this, Dagh and Chehra system were also was the court jester of Akbar. followed. Mansabdars were assigned Jagirs which ● Raja Todarmal: Raja Todarmal was Akbar’s they used to pay the salary of soldiers finance or revenue minister. He formulated Important Posts: Akbar’s revenue system Zabti and Dashala ● Wazir/Diwan – Head of Revenue department systems. Raja Todermal also translated ● Subedar – Governor of a province Bhagavatapurana into Persian. ● Mir Bakshi – head of Military who was also the head of nobility www.gradeup.co

● Barids – Intelligence officers and Abul Hassan and Bishan das were ● Waqia-navis – news reporters famous painters in the court of Jahangir. ● Mir Saman – in charge of imperial ● Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh-i- households and royal workshops (Karkhanas) Jahangiri in the Persian language. ● Chief Qazi – head of Judicial departments ● Jahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at ● Chief Sadr – responsible for charitable and Shahdara in Lahore. religious endowments Architecture ● Diwan-i-am – open durbar 1. Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens ● Ghusal Khana – private consultation chamber in Srinagar. Architecture during Akbar’s period 2. He completed the tomb of Akbar at Sikandara ● He built Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad 3. Jahangir introduced the vigorous use of Fort, Humayun’s tomb and Fatehpur Sikri Marble instead of red sandstone and use of near Agra. Pietra dura for decorative purposes. Nurjahan ● At Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar built Ibadat Khana built Itimad-ud-daula/Mirza Ghiyas Beg’s or Hall of Prayer in which he called selected Marble tomb at Agra theologians and mystics with whom he 4. He built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own discussed religious and spiritual topics. mausoleum at Shahdara ● Akbar built Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Shah Jahan (1628 - 1658) Sikri in 1601 to commemorate ● Shah Jahan was born on 5th January 1592 at his victory over Gujarat. Lahore. His childhood name was Khurram. ● He opened Ibadat Khana to people of all He ascended the throne in 1628. religions and took liberal views in discussing ● He married Arjumand Benu Begum, daughter religions. of Asaf Khan, brother of Noor Jahan. She Jahangir (1605 - 1627) later came to be known as Mumtaz Mahal ● Jahangir came to the throne in 1605. He which means beloved of the Palace. issued 12 ordinances. He established Zanjir- ● Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese il-Adal – Chain of Justice in Agra Fort and settlements at Hoogly in 1631-32. was known for his strict administration of ● The Gateway of Red Fort is the Lahore Gate. Justice. It is here at the Lahore Gate that the Prime ● He married Mehrunnisa, an Afghan widow in Minister of India hoists the National Flag and 1611 and Later he gave her the titles Noor addresses the nation on the Independence Mahal (light of the palace), Noor Jahan (light Day. of the world) and Padshah Begum. ● In 1656 Shahjahan constructed the Jama ● In 1606 Jahangir executed fifth Sikh Masjid in Delhi. It is the biggest masjid in Guru, Guru Arjun Dev because he helped India. The first masjid in India was Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel against constructed at Kodungallur in Kerala him. (Cheraman Palli) in 644 AD by Malik Ibn ● In 1609, Jahangir received William Hawkins, Dinar. an envoy of King James I of England, who ● Shah Jahan’s period is known as the Golden reached India to obtain trade concession. Age of Mughal Empire. ● In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of ● The Portuguese introduced European Jahangir as the first ambassador of James I of painting in India during the reign of Shah England in the court of Jahangir. As a result Jahan of his efforts, the first English factory was ● In 1658 Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his established at Surat in Gujarat. son Aurangzeb and he died in 1666, after ● Period of Jahangir is considered as eight years. His daughter Jahan Ara was also the Golden Age of Mughal Painting. kept in prison along with him at the Agra Jahangir himself was a painter. Ustad Mansur Fort.

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● Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh was a famous court. He reintroduced Jizyah and Pilgrimage scholar. He translated Bhagavat Gita and tax. Sixty Upanishads into Persian. He also wrote ● In 1675, he executed 9th Sikh Guru, Guru a book titled Mujm-ul-Behrain (Mingling of Teg Bahadur because of his reluctance to the Oceans) He also translated Atharva Veda accept Islam. Guru Gobind Singh, the last into Persian. Sikh Guru, organized his followers under ● Shah Jahan was a famous lyricist who wrote Khalsa to fight the tyranny of Aurangzeb. He in Hindi. The famous Peacock Throne was was assassinated in 1708. built by Shah Jahan. It was abducted from ● Aurangzeb’s son built Bibi ka Makbara in here by Nadir Shah in 1739 during his Indian 1679 AD in memory of his mother Rabia- invasion (Persian conqueror). Now it is kept Durrani. at the London Tower Museum, Britain. ● The only building by Aurangzeb in Red Fort ● French travellers Bernier and Tavernier, is Moti Masjid. He also built the Badshahi Italian travellers Nicoli Manucci, Peter Masjid in Lahore. Mundi visited India during Shah Jahan’s Later Mughals period. Year Ruler Significance Architecture 1707 Bahadur Original name – Muazzam ● Shah Jahan’s period is considered as the – 12 Shah I Golden Age of Mughal Architecture and 1712 Jahandar Ascended the throne with Shah Jahan is known as the Prince of – 13 Shah the help of Zulfikar Khan Builders. 1713 Farrukh Sayyid brothers helped ● In 1631, he started the construction of Taj – 19 Siyar him in ascending the Mahal in memory of his wife and completed throne in 1653. Ustad Iza, a Turkish/ Persian was its 1719 Muhammad Nadir Shah raided India. architect. British administrator Furguson – 48 Shah Weak successor called it ‘a love in marble’ 1748 Ahmad Ahmad Shah Abdali raided ● In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital – 54 Shah India. Mughals ceded Shahjahanabad in Delhi and shifted the Punjab and Multan capital from Agra to there. He also built 1754 Alamgir II Delhi was occupied by Takht-i-Taus or Peacock throne. – 59 Ahmad Shah Abdali and ● In 1639, he started the construction of Red later plundered Fort in Delhi on the model of Agra fort built 1759 Shah Alam Lived outside Delhi by Akbar. The Diwan-i- Aam, Diwan-i-Khas – 06 II and the Moti Masjid are situated inside the 1806 Akbar II Pensioner of East India Red Fort. The Moti Masjid in Agra was – 37 Company conferred the constructed by Shah Jahan. title Raja on Raja Ram Aurangzeb (1658 - 1707) Mohan Roy ● Aurangzeb imprisoned his father and made 1837 Bahadur 1857 Revolt took place himself the Padshah in 1658. But his actual – 57 Shah II under his nominal coronation was conducted in 1659. He leadership. Was deported defeated Dara and crowned himself under the to Burma title “Alamgir”. He was the last great Mughal Emperor after which the disintegration had Bhakti and Sufi Movement in Medieval India started. Bhakti Movement ● Aurangzeb is known as ‘Zinda Pir’ or living Development in South India saint because of his simple life. ● The development of the Bhakti movement ● He was a staunch and orthodox Muslim who took place in Tamil Nadu between 7th and banned singing and dancing in the Royal 12th CE.

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● It was reflected in the emotional poems of ● Devotion on Sakar form of god. Rama and the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) Krishna were seen as avatars of Lord Vishnu. and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). The main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, ● These saints looked upon religion not as cold Tulsidas and Chaitanya who espoused the formal worship but as a loving bond based path of salvation through the medium of upon love between the worshipped and poetry, songs, dance, and kirtans. worshipper. Sursagar by Surdas, Ramacharitmanas by Tulsidas Philosophical schools were important works during this period. Philosophy Founder Bhakti Saints Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja ● Ramananda – first great saint in North India Dvaitadvaita / Nimbarka ● Kabir – the disciple of Ramananda, Nirguna Bhedabhed saint, sought Hindu-Muslim unity, his Dvaita Madhava followers are called Kabir Panthis Shudadvaita Vishnu swami ● Guru Nanak – founder of Sikhism, social Advaita (non-dualism) Sankaracharya reformer and Nirguna saint Significant Facts ● Chaitanya – Krishna bhakti cult and founder ● Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti, and of Gaudiya or Bengal Vaishnavism Manikkavasagar were prominent Nayanars. ● Purandara das – laid the foundations for The hymns of the first three are mentioned modern Carnatic music in Thiruvasagam was written by ● Vallabhacharya – propounded the principle Manikkavasagar. of Pushti Marg ● Tirumurais is the collection of works of Bhakti saints of Maharastra Dharma Nayanars which is called as the fifth Veda. ● Jnanadeva – founder of Bhakti movement in ● Andal was a women Alvar saint. There were Maharashtra; bhavarthadipka – Marathi 12 Alvars and 63 commentary of Bhagavad Gita Nayanars. Periyapuranam by Shekkihzar ● Namadeva – founder of the Vithoba or traces the life history of Nayanars Vithal cult which was known as Varkari sect ● Divya Prabhandam was the collection of ● Eknath – Wrote Bhavartha Ramayana – hymns by Alvars commentary on Ramayana Development of Bhakti movement in North India ● Tukaram – Wrote devotional poetry known ● The saints wrote in local languages, Tamil as Abhangas and Telugu and were, therefore, able to reach ● Ramdas – Dasabodha – Compilation of his out to many people. They also translated writings and sermons Sanskrit works in local languages. Few saints Sufi Movement are Sufism in India 1. Jnanadeva – Marathi ● The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan. In 2. Kabirdas, Surdas, Tulsi das – Hindi the beginning, the main centres were Punjab 3. Shankaradeva - Assamese and Multan which later spread to Kashmir, 4. Chaitanya and Chandidas - Bengali Bihar, Bengal, and Deccan. ● Sanskrit, which was prevalent in the north, Abu Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs. was given a new form as the movement They were divided into moved to North. Bhagavata Purana was a 1. Ba-shara: Orders which followed the Shariat significant work in 9th century and an and its directives such as Namaz and Roza. important component of Bhakti movement Chief of them are Chisthi, Suhrawadi, ● Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had Firdwasi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi preached devotion to a Nirankar form of god. 2. Be-shara: They were not bound by Shariat. The followers of Guru Nanak identify The Qalandars belonged to this group themselves as Sikhs. Silsilahs The Vaishnavite movement www.gradeup.co

● The Chishti Silsilah: Founded by Khwaja ● In 1690, a factory was established at Suttanati Moinuddin Chisti who made Ajmer as the by Jab Charnock. In 1698, following the centre of learning. His disciples were Sheik acquisition of zamindari of three villages Hamiduddin and Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. of Suttanati, Kalikata and Govindpur, the Baba Farid, the disciple of Sheikh city of Calcutta was founded. Fort William Nizamuddin Auliya made Delhi as an was set-up in 1700. important centre. Sheik Nasiruddin Mahmud, ● In 1717, John Surman obtained a Farman famously called Nasiruddin Chirag-i- from Farrukhsiyar, which gave large Dilli was also the famous Chisthi saint concessions to the company. This Farman has ● The Suhrawadi Silsilah: founded by Sheik been called the Magna Carta of the Company. Shihabuddin Suhrawadi, it was established ● Battle of Plassey (1757) English defeated by Sheik Bahauddin Zakariya in India. He set Sirajuddaula, the Nawab of Bengal. up Khanaqa at Multan and received the title ● Battle of Buxar (1764) Captain Munro Shaikhul Islam. defeated joint forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), The arrival of Europeans in India Shujauddaula (Awadh) and Shah Alam II Portuguese (Mughal). ● Vasco-da-Gama reached the port of Calicut Danes in 1498 during the reign of king Zamorin ● The Danish East India Company was (Hindu ruler of Calicut). formed in 1616. ● Settlements: Daman, Salsette, Chaul, and ● The Danish colony 'Tranquebar' was Bombay (West coast), San Thome (near established on the Southern Coromandel Madras) and at Hooghly. coast of India. ● Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second ● Settlements Serampur (Bengal) and Governor of India (first being Fransisco de Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) sold their Almeida) arrived in 1509 and captured Goa settlements to the English in 1845. in AD 1510. French Dutch ● The French East India Company was ● Dutch East India Company was formed in formed by Colbert under state patronage in AD 1602. 1664. The First French factory was ● Dutch were defeated by English at the Battle established at Surat by Francois Caron in of Bedara in AD 1759 and as per the 1668. A factory at Masulipatnam was set-up agreement, the Dutch gained control over in 1669. Indonesia and the British over India, Sri ● French were defeated by English in the Lanka and Malaya. Battle of Wandiwash (1760). ● Settlements They set-up their first factory at Peasant Movements in India Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other factories Important Civil Uprisings were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Year Uprising Facts Naga pattanam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal, and 1763- Sanyasi Causes: Famine of 1770 and Kasimbazar. 1800 Revolt the harsh economic English (or) Fakir exploitation by the British ● The English East India Company was formed rebellion Participants: Peasants, in 1599 under a charter granted by Queen dispossessed zamindars, Elizabeth in 1600. Jahangir granted a Farman disbanded soldiers and rural to Captain William Hawkins permitting the poor. Equal participation of English to erect a factory at Surat (1613). Hindus and Muslims was ● In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe succeeded in seen getting an imperial Farman to trade and Leaders: Debi Chaudhurani, establish a factory in all parts of the Mughal Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Empire by ruler Jahangir. Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak www.gradeup.co

Literary works: Anandmath Pazhassi resistance by peasants under and Devi Chaudhurani by Raja the leadership of Pazhassi Bankim Chandra Raja. Chattopadhyay 1799 Civil Massacre of Benares by 1766- Revolt Causes: Introduction of Rebellion Wazir Ali. He was the fourth 1774 in Midnap Permanent Settlement in Awadh Nawab of Awadh who was ore and System in Bengal and later deposed and pensioned Dhalbhum dispossession of off by the British. Zamindaries 1800; Uprisings Rebellion by Strikara Bhanj Leaders: Damodar Singh and 1835- in Ganjam and his son Dhananjay Jagannath Dhal 1837 and Bhanj, the zamindars of 1769- Revolt of Causes: Rise of low-caste Gumsur Gumsur against the British. 1799 Momarias Momaria peasants to 1800- Uprisings Agrarian landlordism and the challenge the authority of 1802 in feudal system Ahom kings Palamau Results: The Ahom king, 1795- Poligars Poligars were the landlords though survived the 1805 revolt belonging to South India. rebellion, finally fell to a They rose in revolt against Burmese invasion and came the British due to their under British Rule revenue demands. 1781 Civil Causes: Plan of Warren Kattabomman Nayakan, Uprisings Hastings to meet the war Oomaithurai and Maruthu in expenses against Marathas Pandian were the important Gorakhpur and Mysore. English officers chiefs in the revolt. , Basti, and were involved as Izaradars or 1808- Diwan Causes: the State of revenue farmers in Awadh. 1809 Velu Travancore fell into arrears 1794 Revolt of Causes: British asked for Thampi’s after agreeing into Raja of help from the Raja of revolt Subsidiary alliance. The Vizianagar Vizianagaram, Ananda British resident of am Gajapatiraju, to oust the Travancore was meddling in French from Northern the internal affairs of the Circars. After their victory, state. This made Velu the British went back on their Thampi to rise against the words, demanded a tribute Company. His call to revolt from the Raja and asked him was known as Kundara to disband his troops. Raja Proclamation. Vizayaramaraju, the son of 1808- Disturbanc The insurgency by Bundela Late Ananda Gajapatiraju 1812 es in chiefs after Bundelkhand rose up in revolt. He was Bundelkha was attached with Bengal later killed in a battle. nd Presidency. The disturbances 1799- Revolt of Dhundia was a Maratha were put down by 1800 Dhundia leader who rose up in revolt contractual obligations in Bednur against the British. He was called Ikarnamahs with the defeated by Wellesley in Bundelas. 1800. 1813- Parlakime Resistance from Parlakimedi 1797; The Extension of British 1814 di Raja Narayan Deo against 1800- resistance paramountcy over Kottayam Outbreak the Company 1805 of Kerala and exorbitant rates of tax on 1816- Kutch Causes: Simham the peasants led to a mass 1822 Rebellion www.gradeup.co

· British interference in · Introduction of Bengal internal affairs of Kutch. standard weights and · British administrative measures innovations 1844 Kohlapur · Gadkaris rose in revolt · Excessive land assessments and against the British due to Leader: Raja Bharmal II of Savantvad administrative Kutch i revolts reorganization and 1816 Rising at Causes: unemployment Bareilly · Imposition of Police Tax 1840’ Wahabi · Islamic revivalist · Discontent due to alien s movement movement founded by Syed administration Ahmed of Rai Bareilly 1817 Upsurge in High revenue assessment · Conversion of Dar-ul-Harb Hataras from Hataras resulted in into Dar-ul-Islam Dayaram revolting against · Jihad declared on Sikhs the Company. and later on British 1817 Paika The Paiks of Odisha were 1840’ Kuka · Founded by Bhagat Rebellion the traditional landed militia. s Movement Jawahar Mal in Western or Paike Causes: Punjab. Another major Bidroh · The English company’s leader was Baba Ram Singh conquest of Odisha and the who founded the Namdhari dethronement of the Raja of Sikh Sect Khurda had greatly reduced 1782- Narkelberi · The first armed peasant the power and prestige of the 1831 a Uprising uprising against the British Paiks. · Titu Mir inspired Muslim · The extortionist land peasants to rise against revenue policies caused Hindu landlords further resentment among 1825- The Pagal · Founded by Karam Shah the zamindars and peasants. 1835 Panthis consisting of the Hajong and · Increase in the prices of Salt Garo tribes due to taxes · They refused to pay rents · Abolition of Cowrie and attacked the houses of currency Zamindars · Requirement of payment 1838- Faraizi · Founded by Haji Shariat- of taxes in Silver are other 1857 Revolt Allah of Faridpur causes · Dadu Mian organized his Leader: Bakshi Jagabandhu followers to expel British Bidyadhar from Bengal 1818- Waghera · Resentment against alien 1836- Moplah · Took place in Kerala 1820 Rising rile 1854 Uprisings Causes: · Exactions of the Gaekwad · Hike in revenue demands of Baroda · Reduction in field sizes 1828 Ahom · British attempts to · Oppression of officials Revolt incorporate Assam into their 1859 Indigo territory after the First -60 Revolt ● Indigo was identified Burma War as a major cash crop · Gomdhar Konwar was the for East India leader to lead the revolt Company’s 1840’ Surat Salt · Raise in taxes on salt from Investments in the s Agitations 50 paise to 1 rupee 18th www.gradeup.co

● Indigo had 1890s Later Place: Ranchi and worldwide demand - Munda and Chotanagpur similar piece-goods, 1900s Ulugulan Led by: Birsa Munda opium and salt. uprising Cause: against feudal and ● Indigoplanting in zamindari system and Bengal dated back to exploitations by money 1777 when Louis lenders, denial of their Bonnard, a rights over forested areas. Frenchman 1855- Santhal Place: Bihar introduced it to the 56 rebellion Led by: Sido and Kanhu Indians. Causes: ● The Indigo revolt (or · Against feudal and Nil bidroha) was a zamindari system and peasant movement exploitations by money and subsequent lenders. It later turned out uprising Anti-British and was of indigo farmers suppressed. against · Among the numerous the indigo planters tribal revolts, the Santhal that arose in uprising was the most Chaugacha village of remarkable one. When Nadia in Bengal in the Permanent Settlement 1859. was introduced in Bengal in 1793, the Santhals were Tribal Revolts in India During British Period employed as laborers with 1. Non-Frontier tribal revolts the promise of wages or Year Uprising Facts related to the rent-free lands. However, s uprising they were forced to become 1778 Pahriyas Place: Rajmahal Hills agricultural surfs, exploited rebellion Led by: martial Pahariyas at will. Cause: against the British 1837- Kandh Place: from Tamil Nadu to expansion on their lands 56 uprising Bengal 1776 Chuar Place: Bengal Led by: Chakra Bisoi uprising Led by: Chuar aboriginal Cause: Interference in tribal tribesmen customs and imposition of Cause: economic new taxes. privatization by the British 1860s Naikada Place: M.P. and Gujrat 1831 Kol Place: Chotanagpur Movement Cause: against British and uprising Led by: Buddho Bhagat caste Hindus. Cause: British rule 1870s Kharwar Place: Bihar expansion and land rebellion Cause: against revenue transfers settlement activities. 1827- Ho and Place: Singhbhum and 1817- Bhil revolts Place: regions of Western 1831 Munda Chotanagpur 19 & Ghats uprising Led by: Raja Parahat and 1913 Cause: against company others rule and to form Bhil Raj. Cause: British expansion 1967- Bhuyan Place: Kheonjhar,Orissa and revenue policy 68;18 and Juang Led by: Ratna Nayak and 91-93 rebellion Dharni Dhar Nayak www.gradeup.co

Cause: Policy of annexation the British after the 1880s Koya Place: Godavari region of Burmese War. revolts Andhra Pradesh Result: Leader: Raja Anantayyar · The British had pledged to Cause: against feudal and withdraw after the first zamindari system and Burmese War(1824-26) exploitations by money from Assam but in contrast, lenders, denial of their the British attempted to rights over forested areas. incorporate the Ahoms 1910 Bastar Place: Jagdalpur area territories in the company’s revolt Cause: New feudal and dominion after the war. forest levies. · This initiated a rebellion in 1914- Tana Place: Chhota Nagpur area 1828 under the leadership of 15 Bhagat Led by: Jatra Bhagat and Gomdhar Konwar. movement Balram Bhagat. · Finally, the company Cause: against interference decided to follow a of outsiders, began as conciliatory policy and Sanskritization movement. handed over upper Assam to 1916- Rampa Place: Andhra Pradesh Maharaja Purandar Singh 1924 revolts region Narendra and parts of the Leader: Alluri Sitarama kingdom was restored to the Raju Assamese king. Cause: Interference in tribal 1830 Khasi’s Place: Hilly regions of customs and imposition of s revolt Meghalaya new taxes. Leader: Nunklow ruler 1920 Jharkhand Places: Chhotanagpur Tirath Singh onwa uprising region; parts of Bihar, Cause: against the rds Orissa and West Bengal. occupation of hilly regions. Adivasi Mahasabha was Result: formed in 1937. · Due to the compulsory 1920s Forest Led by: By Chenchu tribals enlistment of labourers for - Satyagraha & by Karwars road construction led the 1930s s Cause: Khasis to revolt under the · British interference in leadership of Tirath Singh, a internal affairs of tribal Khasi chief. The Garos areas joined them. · British administrative · The long and harassing innovations warfare with Khasis · Excessive land continued for four years and assessments was finally suppressed in 1940s Gond · To bring together the early 1833 uprising believers of Gond dharma. 1930 Singhpho’s Place: Assam 2. North-East Frontier Tribal Uprisings s rebellion Cause: British interference Year Uprising Facts in internal affairs of tribal s areas and administrative 1823 Ahom’s’ Place: Assam innovations along with -33 revolt Cause: against non- Excessive land assessments. fulfilment of the pledges of 1917 Kuki’s Place: -19 revolt www.gradeup.co

Cause: aginst Britsih labour ● As per some British historians, it was just a recruitment policies during peasant sepoy mutiny. WW1. Important facts of the Revolt 1920 Zeliangson Place: Manipur ● Meerut incident s g Led by: Zemi and Liangmei - 19th Berhampur Native Infantry refused to Movement tribes use the newly introduced Enfield rifle and m Cause: British failed to utiny broke out in February 1857, later protect these tribes during dissolved in Mar' 1857. Kuki’s violence. ● The 34th Native Infantry's young sepoy, 1905 Naga Place: Manipur Mangal Pandey, fired at his unit's sergeant -31 Movement Led by: Jadonang major at Barrackpore. It was against British rule ● The 7th Awadh Regiment was also disbanded and about setting up of a ● Meerut rose to revolt May 10, they released Naga Raj. their imprisoned comrades, killed their 1930 Hereka Place: Manipur officers and moved to Delhi after sunset. s Cult Led by: Rani Gaidinliu ● Delhi- Centre of the Great Revolt As a result of this Leaders of the revolt movement, Kabui Naga ● At Delhi, the symbolic leadership was to the Association was formed in Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, but the real 1946 command was led by General Bakht Khan. ● Kanpur rose under Nana Saheb, Tantia The Revolt of 1857 Tope, AZimullah Khan. Sir Hugh Wheeler, The Revolt of 1857 is of steppingstone and is commanding the station, surrendered. Nana regarded as the primary outburst of resentment of Saheb declared himself the Peshwa and simmering anger due to the prevailing discontent Bahadhur Shah as Emperor of India against the Britishers. Many revolts took place later ● Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reign such as battles of Plassey and Buxar, which are of Lucknow and Birjis Qadir, her son, was regarded as the landmark and decisive battles in declared Nawab. Henry Lawrence, the shaping the modern historical regime. British resident, was killed. The remaining The genesis of the revolt: Europeans were evacuated by Sir Colin ● The revolt was started by the soldiers and Campbell, the new commander - in - chief. later spread across the country by peasants, ● At Bareilly, Khan Bahadur, in Bihar, artisans, and so on. The soldiers had worked , Zamindar of Jagdishpur for the East India Company and sacrificed and Maulvi Ahmadullah of led their lives for the sake of others. the revolt at their respective places. ● People of different religions of India came ● Rani Laxmibai, the most outstanding leader together and fought united for one cause in of the revolt, was driven out of Jhansi with this revolt. the application of Lapse's Doctrine as Lord Nature of the revolt Dalhousie, the Governor-General refused to ● Revolt of 1857 began as a revolt of the sepoys allow her adopted son to succeed to the but eventually secured the participation of the throne. masses. Political & Socio-religious Organization before INC ● V.D. Savarkar called 1857 revolt as the First Pre-Congress Political organizations in Bengal War of Indian Independence. Name of Year of Founder/a Objectives/ ● Dr S.N. Sen describes it as "having begun as Organizati formati ssociates Remarks a fight for religion but ended as a war of on on independence." Bangabha 1836 Associate · Promot ● Dr R.C. Majumdar considers it as neither the saha s of Raja ion of Bengali first, nor national, nor a war of independence. Ram education and www.gradeup.co

Prakasika Mohan build public separate Sabha Roy opinion legislative · Deman council, ded for abolition of freedom of stamp duties, press; entry of etc. Indians to The East 1866 Dada · Welfar higher India (Londo Bhai e of Indians. offices; etc. Associatio n) Naoroji · To Zamindari 1838 Dwarkan · To n* make general Associatio ath safeguard the public of n/ Tagore interests of England Landholde landlords. familiar with rs’ Society · Only the condition legal of Indians. machinery · It had was used to branches in raise their Bombay, demands. Madras and British 1839 William · To Calcutta. India (Englan Adam, make general The 1875 Sisir Instigate the Society* d) Friend of public of Indian Kumar feelings of Raja Ram England League Ghosh nationalism. Mohan familiar with Roy the condition The 1876 Surrendra · To of Indians. Indian nath unify public · Also Associatio Banerjee opinion on used legal n of and key political machinery to Calcutta Ananda issues. raise their (Indian Mohan · Voice demands. National Bose was raised for The 1843 George · to Associatio civil services Bengal Thomson. present the n) reform British Members actual · It was India included condition of later merged Society ‘Young people of with Indian Bengal’ British India. National group Congress. British 1851 · It is the *It was established in England (not in Bengal). Indian merger of Associatio Zamindari Pre-Congress Political organizations in Bombay n Association and Madras: and the Organizati Year of Founder/ Remarks Bengal ons formati Associate British India on s Society. Bombay 1852 Jagannath · They · raised Associatio Shankers used to take many n heth, Sir up public demands like (Bombay Jamshedji grievances www.gradeup.co

Native Bhai, through Presidenc Pherozsh opposing Associatio Naoroji constitutional y ah Mehta Lord Lytton’s n) Fardonji, means. Associatio and K. T. policies and Dadabhai n Telang the Naoroji controversial The Poona 1867 Mahadev · They Ilbert Bill. Sarvajanik a Govind fought for Madras 1849 Gazulu · It was Sabha at Ranade legal rights of Native Lakshmin first of such Pune peasants and Associatio arasu type in farmers. n Chetty Madras. · Connec The 1884 M. · It was ted common Madras Viraragha formed to people with Mahajan vachari, oppose the British Sabha B. government Government. Subraman policies · B. G. iya Aiyer through Tilak was also and P. peaceful a member of Ananda ways. this Sabha. Charlu The 1885 Badruddi · It was Bombay n Tyabji, aimed at Pre-Congress Socio-Religious Organizations: Organizations Year of Place of Founder/Associates Objectives/ Remarks formation operation Atmiya Sabha 1814 Bengal Raja Ram Mohan Roy It was formed to attack social evils of Hinduism and spread of monotheism. It campaigned against caste rigidities, idol worship, social evils like Sati, etc. Brahma Samaj 1828 Bengal Raja Ram Mohan Roy The long-term agenda of Brahma Samaj was to purify Hinduism from evils of idolatry, meaningless rituals and to preach monotheism. Dharma Sabha 1830 Bengal Raja Radhakant Deb To counter the propaganda of Brahma samaj. Even he was the supporter of ‘Sati System’. However, it was in favour of the promotion of western education (including women). Tattvabodhini 1839 Bengal Maharishi The systematic study of Sabha Debendranath Tagore India’s past with rational outlook and to propagate the ideas of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. www.gradeup.co

Young Bengal 1830s Bengal Henry Vivian Derozio To foster the ideals of movement/ equality, fraternity, liberty Derozians and freedom; to question all authority; political and social reforms. Prathna Samaj 1867 Bombay Founder: Atmaram Women education, widow Pandurang remarriage, denounce caste Associate: M. G. system and raising the age Ranade, R. G. of marriage for both boys Bhandarkar and N. G. and girls. Chandavarkar Brahma Samaj of 1866 Bengal Keshav Chandra Sen To promote inter-caste India marriages; denounce caste system; assimilate ideas from all religions Arya Samaj 1875 Earlier Dayanand Saraswati ● Establish a Bombay; casteless and then shifted classless society in to Lahore India. ● It propagated the infallibility of Vedas; ● Encouraged inter- caste marriages and ● Widow remarriage; ● Strongly criticized the Hindu belief system regarding Maya and moksha. Sadaran Brahma 1878 Bengal After the split of 1878, the Samaj disgusted followers of Keshav Chandra Sen established this new organization. It was based on the original ideals of Brahma Samaj. Tayyuni 1839 Karmat Ali Jaunpuri Based mainly on the teaching of Shah Walimullah movement. Indian Reform 1870 Bengal Keshav Chandra Sen To organize people against Association child marriage and improve women’s social condition Satya Sodhak 1873 Bombay Jyotibha Phule Social service; upliftment Samaj (Truth of women and lower caste seeker’s society) by providing them education

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Deccan 1884 Bombay M.G Ranade Spread of education in Educational Western India Society Theosophical 1875 United States Madame H. P. ● Accepted the Society (In 1882, Blavatsky and M. S. Hindu beliefs of headquarters Olcott. incarnation and were shifted to Annie Besant took transmigration of Adiyar) charge after the death of the soul. Olcott. ● Aimed to work for the universal brotherhood of humanity without any discrimination based on religion, race, caste, creed or colour. Seva Sadan 1885 Behramji M. Malabari This organization took care of exploited and discarded women of society. It was not caste or class specific and was open to all. Rehnumai 1851 Bombay Dada Bhai Naoroji, K. It was a socio-religious Mazdayasnan R. Cama, S. S. Bengalee reform movement of Sabha (Religious Parsis. The main objective reform of this organization was- Association) upliftment of women, removal of the purdah system, promote western education in the Persian community. It also aimed at restoration of the Zoroastrian religion.

Governor-General and Viceroy of India ● In the Battle of Plassey, the Nawab was Governors of Bengal (1757–74) defeated by the British despite having a larger Robert Clive force. ● Governor of Bengal during 1757–60 and ● Clive ensured an English victory by bribing again during 1765–67 and established Dual the Nawab’s army Commander Mir Jaffar, Government in Bengal from 1765–72. who was installed as Bengal’s Nawab after ● Clive’s initial stay in India lasted from 1744 the battle. to 1753. ● Clive was also able to capture some French ● He was called back to India in 1755 to ensure forts in Bengal. British supremacy in the subcontinent against ● For these exploits, Robert Clive was made the French. Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. ● In 1757, Clive along with Admiral Watson ● As a result of this battle, the British became was able to recapture Calcutta from the the paramount power in the Indian Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah. subcontinent.

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● Bengal became theirs and this greatly control and to make British the supreme increased the company’s fortunes. (Bengal power. was richer than Britain at that time). ● Fort William College at Calcutta. ● This also opened up other parts of India to the ● Formation of Madras Presidency in 1801. British and finally led to the rise of the British ● 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)-defeat and the Raj in India. For this reason, Robert Clive is death of Tipu Sultan; 2nd Anglo-Maratha also known as “Conqueror of India”. War (1803–05)-defeat of the Scindia, the ● Vansittart (1760–65): The Battle of Buxar Bhonsle and the Holkar; Treaty of Bassein (1764). (1802). ● Cartier (1769–72): Bengal Famine (1770). Subsidiary Alliance in India Governors-General of Bengal (1774–1833) ● The Subsidiary Alliance System was used by Warren Hastings (1772–1785) Wellesley to bring Indian Slates within the ● First Governor-General of Bengal. orbit the British political power. The system ● Brought the Dual Government of Bengal to played a very important part in the expansion an end by the Regulating Act, 1773 of the Company’s dominions and many new ● Became Governor-General in 1774 through territories were added to the Company’s the Regulating Act, 1773. possessions. ● Wrote an introduction to the first English ● There were four stages in it:- In the first stage, translation of the ‘Gita’ by Charles Wilkins the Company undertook to lend its troops to ● In 1781, he founded the Calcutta Madrasa, the friendly Indian prince to assist him in his for the promotion of Islamic studies wars. ● He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal ● In the second stage, the Company’s sent with William Jones in 1784. troops to the field on their own account with ● Auctioned the right to collect land revenue to the assistance of an Indian ally who made a the highest bidder; Divided Bengal into common ally. districts and appointed collectors and other ● The next stage was reached when the Indian revenue officials. ally was not to supply men but money. The ● Rohilla War (1774); 1st Anglo-Maratha War company undertook to raise, train and equip (1776–82): 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780– an army under English officers and render to 84). the ally a fixed number of troops on receiving Lord Cornwallis (1786–93) a sum of money towards the cost of these ● Established lower courts and appellate courts troops. ● Sanskrit College established by Jonathan ● The final stage was the next logical step. The Duncan Company undertook to defend the territories ● Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal in of an Indian ally and for that purpose 1793 stationed a subsidiary force in the territory of ● Introduction of Cornwallis Code the state. The Indian ally was asked not to pay ● Introduction of Civil Services in India money but surrender territory from the ● 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (defeat of Tipu and revenue of which the expenses of the the Treaty of Serinagpatanam, 1792). subsidiary force were to be met. Sir John Shore (1793–98) ● The Indian states were to conduct ● Policy of Non-intervention negotiations with other states through the ● Charter Act of 1793 Company. ● Battle of Kharda between Nizam and the ● The state had to accept a British Resident at Marathas (1795). its headquarters. Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) ● The Alliance enabled the Company to ● He adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance- maintain a large standing army at the expense a system to keep the Indian rulers under of Indian princes. It disarmed the Indian

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states and threw British protectorate over ● Annexed Coorg (1834), Central Cachar them. (1834) on the plea of misgovernment. ● The states that accepted this policy were the Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835–1836) Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the ● Passed the famous Press Law, which Raja of Tanjore, the Nawab of Awadh, the liberated the press in India (called Liberator Peshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the the Press). Scindia, the Rajputs of Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc. Lord Auckland (1836–42) George Barlow (1805–1807): Vellore Mutiny (1806) ● 1st Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42)—a great Lord Minto I (1807–1813) blow to the prestige of the British in India. ● He concluded the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) Lord Ellenborough (1842–44) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh. ● Brought an end to the Afghan War. ● Charter Act of 1813 was passed. ● Annexation of Sindh (1843) Lord Hastings (1813–1823) ● War with Gwalior (1843). ● Ended the policy of Non-intervention and Lord Hardinge I (1844–48) adopted the policy of intervention and war. ● 1st Anglo-Sikh war (1845–46) and the Treaty ● Creation of Bombay Presidency in 1818. of Lahore 1846 (marked the end of Sikh ● Establishment of Ryotwari System in sovereignty in India. Madras. ● Gave preference to English education in ● Anglo-Nepalese War (1813–23); 3rd Anglo- employment. Maratha War (1817–18). Hastings forced Lord Dalhousie (1848–56) humiliating treaties on Peshwa and the ● Shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery Scindia from Calcutta to Meerut. Lord Amherst (1823–28) ● Shimla was made the permanent ● First Anglo Burmese War (1824-26) headquarters of the army & summer capital. ● Acquisition of territories in Malay Penisula; ● Formation of Gurkha regiments took place in Capture of Bharatpur (1826). his reign. Lord William Bentick (1828–33) ● Youngest Governor-General of India (36 ● Most liberal and enlightened Governor- Years), & also known as General of India; Regarded as the Father of ● Father of Indian Telegraph Modern Western ● Father of Indian Railways ● He carried out social reforms such as the ● Father of Indian Postal system abolition of Sati Pratha with the help of Raja ● Father of Indian Engineering Services Ram Mohan Roy, Suppression of Thuggee. ● Maker of modern India ● Annexation of Mysore (1831). ● Abolished Titles and Pensions, Widow ● Passed the Charter Act of 1833, which Remarriage Act (1856). provided that no Indian subject of Company ● Introduced the system of Centralized control was to be debarred from holding an office on in the newly acquired territories known as account of his religion, place of birth, descent Bon-Regulation system and colour. ● Recommended the Thomsonian system of ● On the recommendation of Macaulay Vernacular education for the whole of the Committee made English the medium of Northwestern Provinces (1853) higher education in India. ● Wood’s Educational Despatch of 1854 and ● Established first Medical College in Calcutta. opening of Anglo-Vernacular Schools and Governors-General of India (1833–58) Government Colleges. Lord William Bentick (1833–35) ● Started the first railway line in 1853 ● First Governor-General of India (connecting Bombay with Thana) ● Abolished provincial courts of appeal and ● Started an electric telegraph service. circuit set up by Cornwallis, the appointment ● Laid the basis of the modern postal system of Commissioners of revenue and circuit. (1854) www.gradeup.co

● A separate public works department was set ● Created the Indian Forest Department and up for the first time. recognised the native Judicial service. ● Started work on the Grand Trunk Road and ● He introduced various reforms and became developed the harbours of Karachi, Bombay the member of Punjab Board of and Calcutta. Administration after the second Sikh war. ● Introduced Doctrine of Lapse (Captured ● He was known as the Saviour of Punjab. Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambhalpur Lord Mayo (1869–72) (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), ● Introduced financial decentralization in India Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854); Fought 2nd ● Established Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) and annexed the Mayo College at Ajmer for the princes whole of the Punjab; 2nd Anglo-Burmese ● Organised the Statistical Survey of India War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma ● Established the Department of Agriculture & or Pegu; Annexation of Berar in 1853; Commerce. Annexation of Avadh in 1856 on charges of ● He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in maladministration. office by a Pathan convict in Andamans in Lord Canning (1856–58) 1872. ● The last Governor-General and first Viceroy ● For the first time in Indian history, a census of India was held in 1871. ● Revolt of 1857; Passed the Act of 1858, Lord Northbrook (1872–76) which ended the rule of the East India ● Kuka Movement of Punjab took a rebellious Company. turn during his period. ● Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse. Lord Lytton (1876–80) Governor-General & Viceroys (1858–1947) ● Most infamous Governor-General pursued Lord Canning (1858–62) free trade and abolished duties on 29 British ● He was the Governor-General during Mutiny manufactured goods which accelerated drain of 1857 and after the war, he was made the of the wealth of India first Viceroy of India. ● Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in ● The Indian Councils Act of 1862 was passed, 1877) when the country was suffering from a which proved to be a landmark in the severe famine constitutional ● Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen ● The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure Victoria was declared as the Kaiser-i-Hind (1859) was passed ● Arms Act (1878) made mandatory for Indians ● The Indian High Court Act (1861) was to acquire a license for arms enacted ● Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act ● Income Tax was introduced for the first time (1878) in 1858 ● Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Service ● The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and in 1878-79 and lowered the maximum age Madras founded in 1857. limit from 21 to 19 years Lord Elgin I (1862–63) Lord Ripon (1880–84) ● Wahabi Movement (Pan-Islamic ● Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882 Movement). ● The First Factory Act, 1881 to improve ● High Courts were established at Calcutta, labour condition Bombay and Madras in 1862 ● Resolution of Local Self Government in 1882 Sir John Lawrence (1864–69) ● Resolution on Land Revenue Policy ● Telegraphic communication was opened with ● Appointed Hunter Commission (for Europe; education reforms) in 1882 ● Expanded canal works and railways ● The Ilbert Bill controversy erupted during his ● Bhutan War (1865) time (1883) which enabled Indian district ● Advocated State-managed railways www.gradeup.co

magistrates to try European criminals. But Lord Hardinge II (1910–16) this was withdrawn later. ● Annulment of the partition of Bengal (1911). Lord Dufferin (1884–88) ● Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi ● 3rd Burmese War (Annexation of Upper and (1911). Lower Burma) in 1885. ● Delhi Darbar and Coronation of King George ● Establishment of Indian National Congress in V and Queen Mary (1911). 1885. ● Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Lord Lansdowne (1888–94) Madan Mohan Malviya (1915). ● The second Factory Act of 1891; Lord Chelmsford (1916–21) Categorization of Civil Services into ● Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and imperial, provincial and subordinate. Annie Besant (1916). ● Indian Council Act of 1892 (introduced ● Lucknow Pact between Congress and elections which were indirect). Muslim League (1916). ● Appointment of the Durand Commission to ● The arrival of Gandhi in India (1915). define the line between British India and ● Champaran Satyagraha (1917). Afghanistan (1893). ● Montague’s August Declaration (1917). Lord Elgin II (1894–99) ● Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at ● The Munda uprising (under Birsa Munda) of Ahmedabad (1918). 1899. ● Government of India Act (1919). ● Convention delimiting the frontier between ● Repressive Rowlatt Act (1919). China and India was ratified. ● Jalianwala Bagh Massacre (1919). ● The great famine of 1896–97. ● Khilafat Movement (1920–22). ● Lyall Commission appointed after famine ● Non-cooperation Movement (1920–22). (1897). ● Saddler Commission (1917) and an Indian Sir ● The assassination of two British officials- S. P. Sinha was appointed Governor of Rand & Amherst-by Chapekar Brothers in Bengal. 1897. Lord Reading (1921–26) Lord Curzon (1899–1905) ● Criminal Law Amendment Act and abolition ● Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 of cotton excise under Andrew Frazer. ● Repeal of Press Act of 1910 & Rowlatt Act ● Set up the Universities Commission and of 1919 accordingly the Indian Universities Act of ● Violent Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) 1904 was passed. ● Foundation of CPI (1921) ● Set up the Department of Commerce and ● Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) Industry. ● Foundation of Swaraj Party (1923) ● Calcutta Corporation Act (1899). ● Kakori Train Dacoity (1925) ● Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper ● Foundation of RSS (1925) Currency Act (in 1899) and put India on a ● Murder of Swami Shardhanand (1926). gold standard. ● Suppressed non-cooperation movement. ● Partition of Bengal took place in 1905. Lord Irwin (1926–31) ● Created the NWFP and Archaeological ● Simon Commission announced in 1927. Survey of India. ● Butler Commission (1927); Nehru Report Lord Minto II (1905–10) (1928). ● Swadeshi Movement (1905–08). ● 14 points of Jinnah (1929); Lahore session of ● Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906. Congress and ‘Poorna Swaraj’ declaration ● Surat session and split in the Congress (1929). (1907). ● Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). ● Newspapers Act, 1908. ● Dandi march (1930). ● Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909. ● 1st Round Table Conference (1930). www.gradeup.co

● Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Governor Generals of Independent India (1947–50) ● Martyrdom of Jatin Das (hunger strike). Lord Mountbatten (1947–48) Lord Willingdon (1931–36) ● The first Governor-General of free India; ● 2nd Round Table Conference (1931). Kashmir acceded to India (Oct. 1947); ● Civil Disobedience Movement (1932). Murder of Gandhi (Jan. 30, 1948). ● The announcement of MacDonald’s C. Rajagopalachari (June 1948–January 25, 1950) Communal Award (1932). ● The last Governor-General of free India; The ● 3rd Round Table Conference. only Indian Governor-General. ● Foundation of Congress Socialist Party-CSP INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1934). EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL ● Government of India Act (1935). CONGRESS (1885) ● Burma separated from India (1935). ● Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant ● All India Kisan Sabha (1936). in the British Government took the initiative ● Poona Pact was signed between Ambedkar to form an all-India organization. and Gandhi. ● Thus, the Indian National Congress was Lord Linlithgow (1936–43) founded and its first session was held at ● First General Election (1936–37). Bombay in 1885. ● Congress ministries in 1937 and Resignation ● The history of the Indian National Movement of Congress ministries in 1939. can be studied in three important phases: ● ‘Deliverance Day’ by Muslim League in o The phase of moderate nationalism 1939. (1885-1905) when Congress ● Foundation of Forward Block by S.C. Bose continued to be loyal to the British (1939). crown. ● Lahore Resolution (1940); August Offer o The years 1906-1916 witnessed- (1940); Cripps Mission (1942); Quit India Swadeshi Movement, the rise of Movement (1942) and Outbreak of Second militant nationalism and the Home World War in 1939. Rule Movement. The repressive Lord Wavell (1943–1947) measures of the British gave rise to ● R. Formula 1944; Wavell Plan and Shimla extremists within Congress like Bipin Conference in 1945. Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak ● End of 2nd World War in 1945. and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lai, Bal, Pal), ● INA Trials in 1945; Naval mutiny in 1946. along with Aurobindo Ghosh ● Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its o The period from 1917 to1947 is proposals by Congress. known as the Gandhian era. ● Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on Important Sessions of Indian National Congress 16th August 1946 and the first meeting of the Year Venue President constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1885 Bombay W.C.Bannerji 1946. 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji Lord Mountbatten (March–August 1947) 1893 Lahore " ● Announced the 3 June 1947 Plan; 1906 Calcutta " Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in 1887 Madras Badruddin Tyyabji the House of Commons and passed by the (first Muslim British Parliament on July 4, 1947. President) ● Appointment of 2 boundary commissions 1888 Allahabad George Yule (first under Sir Cyril Radcliffe. English President) 1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn 1890 Calcutta Sir Feroze S.Mehta

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1895, Poona, S.N.Banerjee resign due to protest 1902 Ahmedabad by Gandhiji (as 1905 Banaras G.K.Gokhale Gandhiji supported 1907, Surat, Madras Rasbehari Ghosh Dr.Pattabhi 1908 Sitaramayya). 1909 Lahore M.M.Malviya Rajendra Prasad 1916 Lucknow A.C.Majumdar was appointed in (Reunion of the his place. Congress) 1940 Ramgarh Abdul Kalam Azad 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant (first 1946 Meerut Acharya woman President) J.B.Kriplani 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru 1948 Jaipur Dr.Pattabhi 1920 Calcutta (sp.ses Lala Lajpat Rai Sitaramayya. sion) 1921,192 Ahmedabad, G C.R.Das Moderate Nationalism 2 aya ● Surendranath Banerjee: was called the 1923 Delhi (sp.sessi Abdul Kalam Azad Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the on) (youngest Partition of Bengal. He founded the Indian President) Association (1876) to agitate for political 1924 Belgaon M.K.Gandhi reforms. He had convened the Indian 1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (first National Conference (1883) which merged Indian woman with the Indian National Congress in l886. President) ● Subramanya Aiyar preached nationalism 1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru (first through the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He also All India founded the Hindu and Swadesamitran. Youth Congress ● Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Formed) Old Man of India. He is regarded as India’s 1929 Lahore J.L.Nehru (Poorna unofficial Ambassador in England. He was Swaraj resolution the first Indian to become a Member of the was passed) British House of Commons. 1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel ● Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded as the (Here, resolution on political guru of Gandhi. In 1905, he founded Fundamental rights the Servants of India Society to train and the National Indians to dedicate their lives to the cause of Economic Program the country. was passed) Indian National Movement (1905-1917) 1932, Delhi, Calcutta (Session Banned) ● The period from 1905 was known as the era 1933 of extremism in the Indian National 1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad Movement. ● The extremists or aggressive nationalists 1936 Lucknow J.L.Nehru believed that success could be achieved 1937 Faizpur J.L.Nehru (first through bold means. session in a village) ● The important extremist leaders were Lala 1938 Haripura S.C.Bose (a Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin National Planning Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. Committed set-up Leaders of the Extremists underJ.L.Nehru). ● The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar 1939 Tripuri S.C.Bose was re- Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and elected but had to Aurobindo Ghosh www.gradeup.co

● Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real ● The women and students took to picketing. founder of the popular anti-British movement Students refused using books made of foreign in India. He was known as ‘Lokamanya’. He paper. attacked the British through his weeklies The ● It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who realized the Maratha and the Kesari. He was jailed twice importance of boycott as a weapon that could by the British for his nationalist activities and be used to paralyze the whole British in 1908 deported to Mandoli for six years. He administrative machinery in India. set up the Home Rule League in 1916 at ● The boycott and Swadeshi movements were Poona and declared “Swaraj is my birth-right instrumental in the establishment of swadeshi and I will have it.” enterprises - textile mills, banks, hosiery, ● Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the tanneries, chemical works and insurance ‘Lion of Punjab’. He played an important role companies. Swadeshi stores were opened. in the Swadeshi Movement. He founded the ● This made the British reverse the partition of Indian Home Rule League in the US in 1916. Bengal and unite it in 1911. He was deported to Mandalay on the ground Hind Swaraj of sedition. He received fatal injuries while ● When the movement against the partition of leading a procession against the Simon Bengal was at its height the annual session of Commission and died on November 17, the Congress was held at Calcutta in 1906 1928. under the president ship of Dadabhai Naoroji. ● Bipin Chandra Pal began his career as a ● This session is very important because of the moderate and turned an extremist. conciliation between the Moderates and ● Aurobindo Ghosh was another extremist Extremist leader and he actively participated in the ● The Congress condemned the Partition of Swadeshi Movement. Bengal. In the words of DadaBhai Naoroji, it ● He was also imprisoned. After his release, he is a bad blunder of England. settled in the French territory of Pondicherry ● Promotion of education was declared as the and concentrated on spiritual activities aim of Congress. PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905) ● The Swadeshi and the Boycott were accorded ● Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. full support by the Congress. For the first ● The reason for partition was given as an time Boycott was authorised to be used as a attempt to improve administration. political weapon. ● But the real aim was to ‘Divide and Rule’. Formation of Muslim League (1906) The partition was done in order to create a ● In December 1906, during the Muhammadan separate State for Muslims and so introduce Educational conference in Dacca, Nawab the poison of communalism in the country. Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea of Swadeshi Movement establishing a Central Muhammadan ● The Swadeshi Movement involved Association to take care of Muslim interests. programmes like the boycott of government ● Accordingly, on 30th December 1906, the All service, courts, schools and colleges and of India Muslim League was founded. Another foreign goods, Promotion of Swadeshi goods, prominent person, Aga Khan was chosen as Promotion of National Education through the its president. establishment of national schools and Surat Session (1907) colleges. ● The INC split into two groups -The ● It was both a political and economic extremists and The moderates, at the Surat movement session in 1907. ● In Bengal, even the landlords joined the ● Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lai while the movement moderates by G.K. Gokhale.

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● Controversy arose over the elected president, ● Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept Sohan Singh Bhakna. him. ● The name was taken from a weekly paper, ● Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be Ghadar, which had been started on November chosen. 1, 1913 to commemorate the 1857 revolt. ● The government after this launched a massive ● HQ was at San Francisco. attack on extremists by suppressing their ● The outbreak of the First World War newspapers and arresting their leaders. provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909) to free India from a Government which was ● The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of indifferent to their cause. the 1892 reforms, also known as the Morley- ● They began to return to India in thousands for Minto Reforms after the names of the then a coordinated revolt in collaboration with the Secretary of State (Lord Morley) and the then Bengal revolutionaries. Their plan was foiled Viceroy (Lord Minto). at the last moment due to treachery. ● It increased the members of the Legislative Komagata Maru Incident Assembly from sixteen to sixty. ● The importance of this event lies in the fact ● A few non-elected members were also added. that it created an explosive situation in ● Though the members of the Legislative Punjab. Council were increased, they had no real ● Komagata Maru was the name of a ship powers. They remained mainly advisory in which was carrying 370 passengers, mainly character. Sikh and Punjabi Muslim would-be ● They could not stop any bills from being immigrants, from Singapore to Vancouver. passed. Nor did they have any power over the ● They were turned back by Canadian budget. authorities after two months of privation & ● The British made another calculated move to uncertainty. sow the seed of communalism in Indian ● It was generally believed that the Canadian politics by introducing separate electorates authorities were influenced by the British for the Muslims. Government. ● This meant that from the constituencies ● The ship finally anchored at Calcutta in dominated by Muslims only Muslim September 1914 but the inmates refused to candidates could be elected. board the Punjab-bound train. ● Hindus could only vote for Hindus, and ● In the ensuing with the police near Calcutta, Muslims could only vote for Muslims. 22 persons died. ● Many leaders protested against this ● Inflamed by this and with the outbreak of the communal electorate policy of the British to War, the Ghadr leaders decided to launch a ‘Divide and Rule’. violent attack on British rule in India. Annulment of Bengal Partition ● They urged fighters to go to India. Bengal ● It was decided to annul the partition of revolutionaries were contacted; Political Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb the menace of dacoities were committed to raising funds revolutionary terrorism. mainly in Punjab. ● The annulment came as a rude shock to the ● Thus, an explosive situation was created in Muslim political elite. Punjab. ● It was also decided to shift the capital to Delhi NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST as a sop to the Muslims, as it was associated WORLD WAR with Muslim glory, but the Muslims were not ● The First World War started in the year 1914. pleased. ● This War was fought among the nations of ● Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal Europe to get the colonial monopoly. During and Assam were made a separate province. wartime, the British Government made an Ghadar Party (1913) www.gradeup.co

appeal to the Indian leaders to join hands with ● Two Home Rule Leagues were established, them in their time of crisis. one by BG Tilak at Poona in April 1916 and ● Indian leaders agreed but they put their own the other by Mrs Annie Besant at Madras in terms and conditions i.e. after the war was September 1916 over, the British government would give ● Tilak’s Movement concentrated on Constitutional (legislative and Maharashtra (excluding Bombay), administrative) powers to the Indian People. Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar ● Unfortunately, the steps taken by the British ● Annie Besant’s Movement covered the rest of government during World War I created India (including Bombay) unrest among the Indian people. This was Complete List of Newspapers and Journals during because the British government had taken a British India huge loan during wartime which they had to Name of the Year and Name of the repay. Paper/Journ Place from Founder/Edito ● They increased the rent from the land, i.e. al which r lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in Published the British Army. Bengal 1780, James Augustus ● They increased the price of necessary goods Gazette Calcutta Hickey and imposed taxes on personal and Sambad 1821 Raja Ram professional income. Kaumudi (we Mohan Roy ● As a result, they had to face protest from ekly in Indian society. Bengali) ● Farmers and workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Mirat-ul 1822, Raja Ram Kheda and Ahmedabad actively protested Akbar (First Calcutta Mohan Roy against the exploitative policies of the British journal in government. Persian) ● Lakhs of students left schools and colleges. Banga-Duta ( 1822, Raja Ram Hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice. A weekly in Calcutta Mohan Roy and Women also significantly contributed to this four Dwarkanath movement and their participation became languages- Tagore wider with the emergence of Gandhi. English, ● The boycott of foreign cloth became a mass Bengali, movement, with thousands of bonfires of Persian, foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky. Hindi) Lucknow Session (1916) Bombay 1838, Robert Knight ● The 31st Session of the Congress was held at Times (from Bombay and Thomas Lucknow in 1916. 1861 onwards, Bennett ● It was presided over by the Ambica charan The Times of Majumdar who was a prominent lawyer and India) was actively associated with the Congress Rast 1851 Dadabhai since its birth. Goftar (A Naoroji Home Rule League Movement 1916 Gujarati ● By early 1915, Annie Besant had launched a fortnightly) campaign to demand self-government for Hindu Patriot 1853, Girishchandra India after the war on the lines of white Calcutta Ghosh colonies Somprakasha 1858, Dwarkanath ● She campaigned through her newspapers, Calcutta Vidyabhushan New India & Commonweal, and through Indian Mirror 1862, Devendranath public meetings and conferences Calcutta Tagore and NN Sen www.gradeup.co

Bengalee (this 1862, Girishchandra Bande Parish Madam Bhikaji and Amrita Calcutta Ghosh (taken Matram Cama Bazar over by SN Free Vancouver Taraknath Das Patrika- the Banerjea in Hindustan first 1879) Ghadr San Francisco Ghadar Party vernacular Talwar Berlin Virendrnath papers) Chattopadhay National 1865, Devendra Nath Bombay 1913, Pherozshahs Paper Calcutta Tagore Chronical (a Bombay Mehta, BG Amrita Bazar 1868, Jessore Sisirkumar daily) Horniman Patrika District Ghosh and The 1920, Delhi KM Pannikkar (Bengali in the Motilal Ghosh Hindustan as a part of Akali beginning and Times Dal Movement later on Leader (in Madan Mohan English Daily) English) Malviya Bangadarshan 1873, BankimChandra Bahishkrit 1927 BR Ambedkar a Calcutta Chatterjee Bharat The 1875, Robert Knight Kudi Arasu 1910 E.V. Statesman Calcutta (Tamil) Ramaswamy The Hindu 1878, Madras GS Aiyar, Naicker Viraraghavchari (Periyar), SS and Subba Rao MIrajkar, KN Pandit Joglekar The Tribune 1881, Lahore Dayal Singh Bandi Jivan Bengal Sachindranath Majeetia Sanyal Sudharak Gopal Ganesh National 1938, Delhi Jawaharlal Agarkar Herald Nehru Hindustani GP Verma Tagzin-ul- 1871 Sir Syed Ahmed and Advocate Akhlaq Khan Kesari 1881, Tilak, (journal) (Marathi Bombay Chiplunkar, Kesari 1881 Bal Gangadhar daily) and Agarkar (Marathi Tilak Maharatta Daily (English Newspaper) Weekly) Comrade 1911 Maulana Swadeshamitr Madras GS Aiyar (Weekly Mohammad Ali an English Paridasak Bipin Chandra Newspaper) (Weekly) Pal Al- Balagh 1912 Abul Kalam Yugantar 1906, Bengal Barindra Kumar and Al-Hilal Azad Ghosh and (Both urdu Bhupendranath weekly Dutta newspaper) Sandhya 1906, Bengal Brhamanabanda Pratap (Hindi 1913 Ganesh Shankar b Upadhay Newspaper) Vidyarthi Indian London Syamji Krishna Independent 1919 Motilal Nehru Sociologist Verma (Newspaper)

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Moon Nayak 1920 BR Ambedkar ● As per law, the farmers were entitled to (Marathi remission if the produce was less than a Weekly) quarter of the normal output. Young India 1919 M K Gandhi ● Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s (Weekly guidance, led the farmers in protest against Journal) the collection of taxes in the wake of the Nav Jeevan 1929 M K Gandhi famine. (Weekly Rowlatt Act (1919) Newspaper) ● In 1917, a committee was set up under the Harijan 1931 M K Gandhi presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look (Weekly into the militant Nationalist activities Journal) ● Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the Hindustan 1936 Madan Mohan Central Legislative Council Dainik Malviya ● As per this Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. Indian National Movement (1917-1947) ● No appeal or petition could be filed against Champaran Satyagraha (1917) such arrests. ● The first civil disobedience movement by ● This Act was called the Black Act and it was Gandhi in the freedom struggle. widely opposed. ● Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo ● An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in 1919. Bihar to investigate the conditions of the ● Meetings were held all over the country. farmers there. ● Mahatma Gandhi was arrested near Delhi. ● Champaran struggle is called the first ● Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi. Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested ● It was during this time that Gandhi was given in Amritsar. the names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919) people. ● The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on Ahmedabad Mill Strike (Feb-March 1918) 13 April 1919 and it remained a turning point ● The next scene of Gandhiji's activity was in in the history of India’s freedom movement 1918 at Ahmedabad where an agitation had ● In Punjab, there was unprecedented support been going on between the labourers and the to the Rowlatt Satyagraha owners of a cotton textile mill for an increase ● On 13 th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest of pay. festival), a public meeting was organized at ● While Gandhiji was negotiating with the mill the Jallianwala Bagh (garden) owners, he advised the workers to go on ● Dyer marched in and without any warning strike and to demand a 35% increase in opened fire on the crowd wages. ● According to the official report, 379 people ● The strike was withdrawn and retrieval later were killed and 1137 wounded in the awarded the 35% increase that the workers incident. had demanded. ● Rabindranath Tagore renounced his ● Ambalal Sarabhai's sister, Anasuya Behn, knighthood as a protest was one of the main lieutenants of Gandhiji Khilafat Movement (1920) in this struggle in which her brother and ● The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement Gandhiji's friend was one of the main was the defeat of Turkey in the First World advisories. War. Kheda Satyagraha (March 1918) ● The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres ● 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda (1920) were felt by the Muslims as a great district of Gujarat due to droughts. insult to them. www.gradeup.co

● The whole movement was based on the Swaraj Party Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of ● Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Turkey) was the religious head of the Das formed a separate group within the Muslims all over the world Congress known as the Swaraj Party on 1 ● Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, January 1923. Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were ● In the Central Legislative Council Motilal the prominent leaders of this movement. Nehru became the leader of the party whereas ● Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das. in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims ● After the passing away of C.R. Das in June together to achieve the country’s 1925, the Swaraj Party started weakening. independence. Simon Commission ● The Khilafat Movement merged with the ● In November 1927 the British Government Non-Cooperation Movement launched by appointed the Simon Commission to look Mahatma Gandhi in 1920: into the working of the Government of India Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) Act of 1919 and to suggest changes. ● It was approved by the INC at the Nagpur ● The Commission consisted of Englishmen session in December 1920. without a single Indian representative ● The programmes of the Non-Cooperation ● The Commission arrived in India in Feb 1928 Movement were: and was met with countrywide protests. o Surrender of titles and honorary ● Peaceful demonstrators were beaten by the positions police in many places. Lala Lajpat Rai was o Resignation of membership from the assaulted and soon after died. local bodies. Nehru Report (1928) o Boycott of elections held under the ● In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, provisions of the 1919 Act Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to o Boycott of government functions. produce a Constitution ● Boycott of courts, government schools and ● The challenge was accepted by the Congress, colleges. which convened an all-party meeting on 28 ● Boycott of foreign goods February 1928 ● Establishment of national schools, colleges ● A committee consisting of eight was and private panchayat courts. constituted to draw up a blueprint for the ● Popularizing Swadeshi goods and khadi. future Constitution of India. ● National schools such as the Kashi ● It was headed by Motilal Nehru Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934) Jamia Millia Islamia were set up. ● In the prevailing atmosphere of restlessness, ● No leader of the Congress came forward to the annual session of the Congress was held contest the elections for the Legislatures at Lahore in December 1929. ● In 1921, mass demonstrations were held ● During this session presided over by against the Prince of Wales during his tour of Jawaharlal Nehru the Congress passed the India. Poorna Swaraj resolution ● Most of the households took to weaving ● Moreover, as the government failed to accept cloths with the help of charkhas. the Nehru Report, Congress gave a call to ● But the whole movement was abruptly called launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. off on 11th February 1922 by Gandhi ● The Congress had also observed January 26, following the Churi Chaura incident 1930, as the Day of Independence. ● In the Gorakhpur district of U.P. Earlier on 5 ● The same date later became the Republic Day th February an angry mob set fire to the police when the Indian Constitution was enforced in station at Churi Chaura and twenty-two 1950. policemen were burnt to death www.gradeup.co

Dandi March ● Mahatma Gandhi protested against the ● On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began his Communal Award and went on a fast unto famous March to Dandi with his chosen 79 death in the Yeravada jail on 20 September followers to break the salt laws. 1932. ● He reached the coast of Dandi on 5 April ● Finally, an agreement was reached between 1930 after marching a distance of 200 miles Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi. ● On 6 April formally launched the Civil ● This agreement came to be called the Poona Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt Pact. The British Government also approved laws. of it. ● On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the ● Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial programme of the movement which included Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed making of salt in every village in violation of Classes in place of 71 as provided in the the existing salt laws; Communal Award. Round Table Conferences Third Round Table Conference (1932) First Round Table Conference ● Congress again did not take part in it. ● Held in November 1930 at London and it was ● Nonetheless, in March 1933, the British boycotted it by the Congress. Government issued a White Paper. ● In January 1931 in order to create a ● Which became the basis for the enactment of conducive atmosphere for talks. the Government of India Act, 1935. ● The government lifted the ban on the Government of India Act, 1935 Congress Party and released its leaders from Main features of this act were - prison. ● Provision for the establishment of an All ● On 8 March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was India Federation at the Centre, consisting of signed. the Provinces of British India and the ● As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to Princely States suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement ● It did not come into existence since the and participate in the Second Round Table Princely States refused to give their consent Conference. for the union ● In September 1931, the Second Round Table ● Division of powers into three lists viz. Conference was held at London Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. ● Mahatma Gandhi participated in the ● Introduction of Diarchy at the Centre Conference but returned to India ● The Governor-General and his council disappointed as no agreement could be administered the “Reserved subjects” reached on the demand for complete ● The Council of Ministers were responsible independence and on the communal question. for the “Transferred” subjects ● In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience ● Abolition of Diarchy and the introduction of Movement was resumed. Provincial Autonomy in the provinces. ● The government responded to it by arresting ● The Governor was made the head of the Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel and by Provincial Executive but he was expected reposting the ban on the Congress party (not bound) to run the administration on the Communal Awards advice of the Council of ministers. ● The Communal Award was announced by the ● Provincial Legislatures of Bengal, Madras, British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assam in August 1932. were made bicameral. Poona Pact (1932) ● Extension of the principle of Separate ● On 16 August 1932, the British Prime Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an Christians and Anglo Indians announcement, which came to be as the ● Establishment of a Federal Court at Delhi Communal Award. with a Chief Justice and 6 judges. www.gradeup.co

Second World War & National Movement Cripps Mission (1942) ● In 1937 elections were held under the ● In the midst of worsening wartime provisions of the Government of India Act of international situation, the British 1935 Government in its continued effort to secure ● Congress Ministries were formed in seven Indian cooperation seent Sir Stafford Cripps states of India. to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as ● On 1 September 1939, the Second World War Cripps Mission. broke out. Quit India Movement (1942-1944) ● The British Government without consulting ● The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear the people of India involved the country in of an impending Japanese invasion of India the war. led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign ● As a mark of protest the Congress Ministries for the British to quit India. in the Provinces resigned on 12 December ● Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim 1939 government could be formed only after the ● The Muslim League celebrated that day as British left India and the Hindu-Muslim the Deliverance Day problem sorted out. ● In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded ● The All India Congress Committee met at the creation of Pakistan. Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the August offer famous Quit India Resolution. During the course of the 2nd World War, in order to ● On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British or die’ Government made an announcement on 8 August ● On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government 1940, which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’, arrested all the prominent leaders of the which proposed – Congress. ● Dominion status as the objective for India. ● Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at ● Expansion of viceroy’s executive council & Poona. setting up of a constituent assembly after the ● Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, war consisting of Indians to decide their and other leaders were imprisoned in the constitution according to their social, Ahmednagar Fort. economic and political conceptions subject to ● At this time, leadership was provided by Ram fulfilment of the obligation of the Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. Government regarding defence, minority ● The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this rights, treaties with states & all India services movement was important. ● No future constitution to be adopted without ● A large number of students also left their the consent of minorities. schools and colleges to join the movement. Individual Satyagraha ● The youth of the nation also participated in ● In order to secure the cooperation of the this movement with patriotism. Indians, the British Government made an ● In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from announcement on 8 August 1940, jail. ● The August Offer envisaged that after the ● Quit India Movement was the final attempt War a representative body of Indians would for the country’s freedom. be set up to frame the new Constitution. ● The British Government ordered for 538 ● Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three jailed. months imprisonment. ● At least 7,000 people were killed. ● Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi ● This movement paved the way for India’s and imprisoned for four months. freedom. It aroused among Indians the ● The individual Satyagraha continued for feelings of bravery, enthusiasm and total nearly 15 months. sacrifice. www.gradeup.co

Rajgopalachari Formula ● The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at ● Rajagopalachari, the veteran Congress Red Fort in Delhi leader, prepared a formula for Congress- ● Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai League cooperation, accepted to Gandhi. and Tej Bahadur Sapru fought the case on ● It was a tacit acceptance of the League’s behalf of the soldiers demand for Pakistan. Cabinet Mission (1946) ● Hindu leaders led by Vir Savarkar ● After the Second World War, Lord Atlee condemned the CR Plan. became the Prime Minister of England. Desai-Liaqat Pact ● On 15 March 1946 Lord Atlee made a ● Bhulabhai Desai, leader of the Congress with historic announcement in which the right to Liaqat Ali Khan, leader of the Muslim drafted self- determination and the framing of a a proposal for the formation of an interim Constitution for India were conceded. government at the centre, consisting of — ● Consequently, three members of the British o an equal number of persons Cabinet - Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford nominated by the Congress & League Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to in the central legislature India. This is known as the Cabinet Mission. o 20% reserved seats for minorities ● The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for ● No settlement could be reached between the the solution of the constitutional problem. Congress and the League on these lines ● Provision was made for three groups of ● But the fact that a sort of parity between the provinces to possess their separate Congress and the League was decided upon, constitutions. which had far-reaching ● The Cabinet Mission also proposed the Wavell Plan formation of a Union of India, comprising ● A conference was convened by the viceroy, both British India and the Princely States. Lord Wavell; at Shimla in June 1945 ● The Union would remain in charge of only ● Aimed to reconstruct the governor general’s foreign affairs, defence and communications. executive council pending the preparation of leaving the residuary powers to be vested in a new constitution. the provinces till a new government was Indian National Army elected. ● On 2 July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose ● Both the Muslim League and the Congress reached Singapore and gave the rousing war accepted the plan. cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’ ● Consequently, elections were held in July ● He was made the President of Indian 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Independence League and soon became the Assembly. supreme commander of the Indian National ● The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General Army. seats. ● The names of the INA’s three Brigades were ● The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim the Subhas Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and seats. Nehru Brigade ● An Interim Government was formed under ● The women’s wing of the army was named the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 after Rani Lamiae September 1946. ● The Indian National Army marched towards Mountbatten Plan (1947) Imphal after registering its victory over ● On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee Kohima. announced in the House of Commons the ● After Japan’s surrender in 1945 definite intention of the British Government ● The INA failed in its efforts. Under such to transfer power to responsible Indian hands. circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan. ● Thus, to effect the transference of that power ● Then on his way to Tokyo, he died on 18 Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as August 1945 in a plane crash Viceroy to India. www.gradeup.co

● Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers ● They adopted became India’s Viceroy on 24 March 1947. ‘downward filtration ● The partition of India and the creation of theory’ instead of mass Pakistan appeared inevitable to him. education. ● After extensive consultation, Lord Note: ‘Downward filtration Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of theory’ means teaching a few India on 3 June 1947. upper- and middle-class people ● The Congress and the Muslim League would produce interpreters ultimately approved the Mountbatten Plan. which would eventually Indian Independence Act, 1947. penetrate to the masses. ● The British Government accorded formal However, this theory failed approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting miserably as envisaged by the the Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947. British but has helped in the ● The partition of the country into India and growth of Modern Intelligentsia Pakistan would come into effect from 15 who shaped the struggle for August 1947. independence. Education during the British Period Wood’s ● This was also known as Individual ● Calcutta Madrasah was Despatch, 1854 “Magna Carta of efforts under established by Warren English Education in company rule Hastings in 1781 to India”. study Muslim laws and ● It rejected ‘downward customs. filtration theory’. ● Jonathan Duncan ● It recommended English established Sanskrit for higher studies and college at Banaras in vernaculars at the school 1791 for Hindu laws and level. philosophy. ● Secular education. ● Fort William College ● Encouraged private was set up in 1800 by enterprises. Wellesley for the Hunter ● Its objective was to training of civil servants Education assess the Wood of the Company. (It was Commission, Dispatch. closed in 1802). 1882-83 ● It emphasized on state’s Charter Act of ● 1 lakh rupees were to be role in improving 1813 spent by the company education. for the promotion of ● Advocated for transfer education in India. of control to local bodies Lord ● Amidst Orientalist- (district and municipal Macaulay’s Anglicist controversy, boards). Minute of 1835 Macaulay supported the Rayleigh ● To review the latter view. Commission, performance of ● The English language 1902 universities in India. was chosen as the sole Indian On the recommendation of medium of education. Universities Rayleigh commission, the act ● The government decided Act, 1904 provided for: to spend limited ● greater control over resources for teaching universities western sciences and literature. www.gradeup.co

● Universities were given Education ● The main principle of due importance for (1937) ‘learning through research and studies. activity’. ● the number of fellows ● secular in approach. reduced. ● First seven years of ● Rules were made stricter schooling through for private college mother tongue and affiliations. English after 8th. ● Gopal Krishna Gokhale Sergeant Plan ● The sergeant was the called this move a of Education, educational advisor to “retrograde measure”. 1944 the British Government. Government ● Government refused to ● He advocated a number Resolution on take up the of reforms and aimed to Education responsibility of make the Indian Policy, 1913 compulsory education. education system ● It urged the provincial equivalent to that of government to do the England in 40 years. But same. it seriously lacked ● Even private players methodology for were encouraged. implementation. It was Saddler ● The commission was set just lip service of the University up to review Calcutta government. Commission, University which later Revolutionary movements 1917-19 extended to all Chapekar brothers (1897) universities. ● This was the first political assassination of ● 12+3 program (12-year British officer post-1857. schooling and 3-year ● Damodar, Balkrishna and Vasudev Chapekar degree) shot at WC Rand, Chairman of the Special ● A separate board of Plague Committee. secondary and ● The Chapekar brothers were hanged. intermediate education Alipore Bomb Conspiracy (1908) were to be set up. ● Douglas Kingsford was a British Chief ● It laid stress on Female Magistrate who was the target of the bomb education, applied thrown at Muzaffarpur. scientific and ● Instead, two women died in the attack. technological education, ● Prafulla Chakki and Khudiram Bose, who teachers’ training. threw the bomb. Prafulla Chakki committed Hartog ● Laid emphasis on suicide while Bose (18 years) caught and Committee, primary education. sentenced to death. 1929 ● Quality of education was ● Aurobindo Ghosh, Barin Ghosh, Kanailal given priority over a Dutt and 30 other members of Anushilan number of schools and Samiti were also tried in this case. colleges. Curzon Wyllie’s assassination (1909) ● Admissions were highly ● He was assassinated in London by Madan Lal restricted. Dhingra in the evening of 1 July 1909. Wardha ● Zakir Hussain ● Madan Lal Dhingra had close ties with Scheme of committee formulated the Indian House. Basic this national scheme for Howrah Gang Case (1910) basic education. www.gradeup.co

● Arrest and trials of 47 Bengali Indian Chakraborty Subodh Roy etc. They were not Nationalist of Anushilan Samiti because of able to raid arms but able to cut the the murder of Inspector Shamsul Alam in telephones and telegraph wires. Calcutta. ● He uncovered the revolutionary network of Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929) and the Anushilan Samiti that linked the murder and Lahore Conspiracy Case (1931) other robberies. ● Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Azad and Rajguru Delhi Lahore Conspiracy Case (1912) avenged the death of Lala Lajpat Rai by ● Assassination attempted on Lord Hardinge, killing General Saunders in 1928. the then Viceroy of India. ● Batukeshwar Dutt and Bhagat Singh threw a ● On the occasion of the transfer of British bomb in the central assembly against the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, a bomb was passage of public safety bill and trade dispute thrown into the viceroy’s carriage. Lord bill. The intention was to popularise the Hardinge was injured and an Indian attendant activities and philosophy. was killed. ● Bhagat Singh was arrested for the case of the ● it was led by Rash Bihari Bose and Sachin killing of General Saunders; this was known Chandra Sanyal. as Lahore conspiracy case. The Ghadar Movement (1913) ● After the trial, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and ● 1907 Lala Hardayal started a weekly called Rajguru executed by hanging in March 1931 Ghadar. and ● His association with more leaders led to the ● Chandrashekhar Azad also died the same formation of the Ghadar party in 1913 in year in February in the gun battle with the North America. This movement was planned police in Allahabad. to temper the loyalty of Indian troops, form Important Revolutionary Organisations secret societies and assassinate British Name of Year Affect Founders/Associate officials etc. Organisat of ed d members ● This movement was intensified because of ion Form Area the Komagata Maru incident. ation Kakori Conspiracy (1925) Anushila 1902 Bengal Promodha Mitter, ● Case of a train robbery near Kakori in Uttar n Samiti region Jatindranath Pradesh. Banerjee, Barindra ● It was led by the youth of Hindustan Kumar Ghosh and Republican Association including Ram others. Prasad Bismil, Chandrashekhar Azad, Jugantar Activ Bengal Aurobindo Ghosh, Thakur Roshan Singh, Ashfaqulla Khan and Party e region Barin Ghosh others. durin and Jatindranath ● In 1924 Hindustan Republican Army was g the Mukherjee or Bagha founded at Kanpur by Sachin Sanyal and first Jatin Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee with an aim to Worl organise armed revolution to overthrow d War colonial government. Mitra 1899 Nasik, Savarkar and his ● In September 1928 many of the major Mela Bomba brother revolutionaries gathered at Firoz Shah Kotla, y and set up a new association by adding ‘socialist’ Poona into their names. region Abhinav 1904 Nasik, Savarkar and his Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930) Bharat/ Bomba brother ● It was led by Surya Sen and others were Young y and Loknath Bal, Kalpana Dutta, Ambika India www.gradeup.co

Society Poona (Mitra region Education during the British Period mela Individual ● Calcutta Madrasah was merged efforts under established by Warren into this) company rule Hastings in 1781 to Swadesh 1905 Bengal Ashwini Kumar study Muslim laws and Bandhab region Dutta customs. Samiti ● Jonathan Duncan Hindusta 1924 Kanpu Sachindra Nath established Sanskrit n r Sanyal, Narendra college at Banaras in Republic Mohan Sen, Pratul 1791 for Hindu laws and an Ganguly philosophy. Associati ● Fort William College on was set up in 1800 by (HRA) Wellesley for the Hindusta 1928 New Chandrasekhar training of civil servants n Delhi Azad, Bhagat of the Company. (It was Socialist Singh, Sukhdev closed in 1802). Republic Thapar Charter Act of ● 1 lakh rupees were to be an 1813 spent by the company Associati for the promotion of on Army education in India. (HSRA) Lord ● Amidst Orientalist- Bharat 1926 Lahore Bhagat Singh Macaulay’s Anglicist controversy, Naujawa Minute of 1835 Macaulay supported the n Sabha latter view. Indian 1905 Londo Shyamji Krishna ● The English language Home n Varma was chosen as the sole Rule medium of education. Society ● The government decided Gadar 1913 USA Lala Hardayal to spend limited Party & resources for teaching Canad western sciences and a literature. (North ● They adopted Ameri ‘downward filtration ca) theory’ instead of mass Indian 1907 Califor Taraknath Das education. Independ nia Note: ‘Downward filtration ence (USA) theory’ means teaching a few League upper- and middle-class people Berlin 1915 Berlin Virendranath would produce interpreters Committ Chattopadhyay, which would eventually ee for Bhupendra Nath penetrate to the masses. Indian Dutta, Lala However, this theory failed Independ Hardayal and others miserably as envisaged by the ence with the help British but has helped in the of the German growth of Modern Intelligentsia foreign office www.gradeup.co

who shaped the struggle for ● It urged the provincial independence. government to do the Wood’s ● This was also known as same. Despatch, 1854 “Magna Carta of ● Even private players English Education in were encouraged. India”. Saddler ● The commission was set ● It rejected ‘downward University up to review Calcutta filtration theory’. Commission, University which later ● It recommended English 1917-19 extended to all for higher studies and universities. vernaculars at the school ● 12+3 program (12-year level. schooling and 3-year ● Secular education. degree) ● Encouraged private ● A separate board of enterprises. secondary and Hunter ● Its objective was to intermediate education Education assess the Wood were to be set up. Commission, Dispatch. ● It laid stress on Female 1882-83 ● It emphasized on state’s education, applied role in improving scientific and education. technological education, ● Advocated for transfer teachers’ training. of control to local bodies Hartog ● Laid emphasis on (district and municipal Committee, primary education. boards). 1929 ● Quality of education was Rayleigh ● To review the given priority over a Commission, performance of number of schools and 1902 universities in India. colleges. Indian On the recommendation of ● Admissions were highly Universities Rayleigh commission, the act restricted. Act, 1904 provided for: Wardha ● Zakir Hussain ● greater control over Scheme of committee formulated universities Basic this national scheme for ● Universities were given Education basic education. due importance for (1937) ● The main principle of research and studies. ‘learning through ● the number of fellows activity’. reduced. ● secular in approach. ● Rules were made stricter ● First seven years of for private college schooling through affiliations. mother tongue and ● Gopal Krishna Gokhale English after 8th. called this move a Sergeant Plan ● The sergeant was the “retrograde measure”. of Education, educational advisor to Government ● Government refused to 1944 the British Government. Resolution on take up the ● He advocated a number Education responsibility of of reforms and aimed to Policy, 1913 compulsory education. make the Indian education system www.gradeup.co

equivalent to that of ● Cultivators could sale, mortgage and lease England in 40 years. But land on the condition that they pay taxes it seriously lacked regularly. methodology for THE MAHALWARI SYSTEM: implementation. It was The system of Mahalwari was introduced by Holt just lip service of the Mackenzie and was mainly centralised in Ganga government. valley, the North West province, parts of Central India and Punjab. This was a modified form of the Zamindari System zamindari system. This was in congruence with the In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent traditional system of joint land rights on the villages Settlement system for fixing the land revenue at a in the said provinces. Its provisions were: permanent amount. It was introduced in areas of ● The village was taken as a unit for assessment Bengal and Bihar. It was later extended to Orissa, of land revenue. Northern Districts of Madras and Districts of ● On the whole community in the village, Varanasi. In this system, zamindars were recognised taxation was imposed as its rights were as the owner of lands. Its provisions are: common. ● Zamindars and revenue collectors were ● The landlord or head of the family claimed to converted into landlords. They acted as be the landlord of the village or the estate agents of government in collecting land (mahal) with whom the settlement was taken revenue from ryots. place. ● The right of ownership of land made ● There was a periodic revision of land hereditary and transferable. revenue. ● The attempt of the official was to secure the ● The collection target was to be divided maximum amount. Hence rent of revenue among cultivators. was fixed very high. ● So everyone was responsible to meet the ● Zamindars were to give 10/11th of the rental target of revenue. they derived, keeping the only 1/11th for ● The farmer was given the right to sell or themselves. mortgage the respective proper ● If rental of zamindar’s estate increased as a result of the extension of cultivation and improvement in agriculture, he would keep the entire amount of the increase. ● On the other hand, even if the crop had failed, he had to pay his revenue rigidly on the due date; otherwise, his lands were to be sold. THE RYOTWARI SYSTEM: This system was introduced on the recommendation of Reed and Thomas Munro by Waren Hasting. It was considered to be a continuation of the state of affairs that existed in the past. It was introduced in parts of Madras and Bombay Presidencies at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Its provisions were: ● The cultivator was to be recognised as the owner of his land. So the payment of land revenue was direct to be done by him. ● It was not a permanent system and was revised periodically after 20 to 30 years when revenue demand was raised. www.gradeup.co

GEOGRAPHY ● In the east, Himachal Pradesh and the mountain region of Uttarakhand have a India and the Administrative Units; the States common frontier with Tibet. and Union Territories ● Nepal has its border with Uttar Pradesh and a. Physiography of India Bihar. ● India lies in the northern hemisphere of the ● West Bengal and Sikkim also touch the globe between 8o 4’ N and 37o6’ N latitudes Nepalese border for a small distance. o o and 68 7’ E and 97 25’ E longitudes. ● India-Afghanistan and Pakistan-Afghanistan ● The southern extent goes up to 6o45’ N international boundary are called the Durand latitude to cover the last island of the Nicobar Line, determined as a ‘military-strategic group of islands. The southern extreme is border’ between British India and called Pygmalion Point or India Point. Afghanistan. ● The Tropic of Cancer passes through the ● The boundary between with Pakistan and middle part of India and crosses the eight Bangladesh (East Pakistan) was finalized at states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya the time of partition in 1947 through the Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West ‘Radcliff Award’. Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. ● In Punjab, the frontier runs through a smooth ● The total land frontier of 15,200 km passes and fertile plain, which is purely man-made. through marshy lands, desert, plains, The Indian frontier with Pakistan in Kashmir mountains, snow-covered areas and thick is still disputed and has led to strained forests. relations between the two countries since ● The maritime boundary of 6100 km along the partition in 1947. main landmass which increases to 7516 km ● The eastern boundary of India is formed by a of the coastlines of Andaman-Nicobar and complex chain of the Himalayan offshoots Lakshadweep Islands are added to it. consisting of the Mishmi, the Patkai, the ● India commands a total geographical area of Naga hills, the Barail range, the Mizo hills 32,87,263 sq.km which is roughly 0.57% of and finally the Arakan Yoma mountain the area of the earth and 2.4% of the total area range. of the land hemisphere. ● The Arakan Yoma is submerged in the Bay ● India is the seventh-largest country of the of Bengal for a sufficiently long stretch and world after Russia, Canada, USA, China, emerges again in the form of Andaman and Brazil and Australia (all are mentioned in the Nicobar Islands. descending order). ● The boundary line between India and ● India’s area is almost equal to the area of Bangladesh crisscrosses the vast Ganga- Europe (excluding Russia), one-third of Brahmaputra delta. This boundary runs Canada, one-fifth of Russia, eight times of through an entirely flat country in which Japan and twelve times of the United there is not even a small mount or hill which Kingdom. could be used for demarcating the boundary ● India has roughly a quadrangular shape. It between two countries. measures about 3,214 km from north to south ● Bangladesh and India share a the fifth-longest and about 2933 km from east to west, the land border in the world, including Assam, difference between the two is just 281km. Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and West b. Land frontiers of India Bengal. ● The Himalayan ranges from a natural frontier ● There is a maritime boundary of 6100 km between India and China. In the north-west, along with the main landmass which Jammu and Kashmir share the international increases to 7156 km if the coastlines of border with Sinkiang and Tibet in China. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are added to it. www.gradeup.co

● The nearest neighbour in the south across the ● Similarly, the Eight Degree Channel forms seas in Sri Lanka which is separated from the boundary between the Lakshadweep and India through the narrow channel of Palk Maldives islands. Strait. ● Name of the Country Length in Km

Bangladesh 4,096.7

China 3,488

Pakistan 3,323

Nepal 1,751

Myanmar 1,643

Bhutan 699

Afghanistan 106

Total 15,106.7 The states having a common boundary with the neighboring countries. Country States

Pakistan 3 States: Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat and 2 Union Territories- Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh

Afghanistan 1 Union Territory- Ladakh

China 4 States: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and 1 Union Territory- Ladakh

Nepal 5 States: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim

Bhutan 4 States: Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Myanmar 4 States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

Bangladesh 5 States: West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura and Mizoram

Quick Glance at States Area-wise: State Area (Km2) Capital Main Language

Rajasthan 342,239 Jaipur Rajasthani, Hindi

Madhya Pradesh 308,245 Bhopal Hindi

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Maharashtra 307,713 Mumbai Marathi

Uttar Pradesh 240,928 Lucknow Hindi

Gujarat 196,024 Gandhinagar Gujarati

Karnataka 191,791 Bengaluru Kannada

Andhra Pradesh 162,968 Hyderabad Telugu

Odisha 155,707 Bhuvaneswar Oriyya

Chhattisgarh 135,191 Raipur Hindi

Tamil Nadu 130,058 Chennai Tamil

Telangana 112,077 Hyderabad Telugu

Bihar 94,163 Patna Hindi

West Bengal 88,752 Kolkata Bengali

Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 Itanagar Tribal

Jharkhand 79,714 Ranchi Hindi

Assam 78,438 Assamese

Himachal Pradesh 55,673 Shimla Hindi

Uttarakhand 53,483 Dehradun Hindi

Punjab 50,362 Chandigarh Punjabi

Haryana 44,212 Chandigarh Hindi

Kerala 38,863 Thiruvananthap Malayalam uram

Meghalaya 22,429 Shillong Khasi, Garo, English

Manipur 22,327 Imphal Manipuri

Mizoram 21,081 Aizawl Mizo, English

Nagaland 16,579 Kohima Angami Ao

Tripura 10,486 Bengali, Tripuri Agartala

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Sikkim 7,096 Gangtok Lepcha, Bhutia

Goa 3,702 Panaji Marathi, Konkani

Union Territories Area (sq. km) Capital Language

Andaman and Nicobar Is. 8,249 Port Blair Andamanese, Nicobarese

Delhi 1,490 New Delhi Hindi

Puducherry 492 Puducherry Tamil, French

Dadra and Nagar Haveli 603 Daman Gujarati, Marathi and Daman and Diu

Chandigarh 114 Chandigarh is Hindi, Punjabi, itself the capital and Haryanvi of two states i.e. Punjab and Haryana.

Lakshadweep 32 Kavaratti Malayalam

Jammu Kashmir - Srinagar Kashmiri, Urdu (Summer capital) Jammu (winter capital)

Ladakh - Leh, Kargil Urdu, Hindi, English

Physical Geography of India of the country attributed to the convergence ● India has vast diversity in physical features. of Gondwana land with the Eurasian plate. ● This diversity of landmass is the result of the ● The Northern part of the country has a vast large landmass of India formed during expanse of rugged topography consisting of a different geological periods and also due to series of mountain ranges with varied peaks, various geological and geomorphological beautiful valleys and deep gorges. processes that took place in the crust. ● The Southern part of the country consists of ● According to Plate Tectonic theory folding, stable table land with highly dissected faulting and volcanic activity are the major plateaus, denuded rocks and developed series processes involved in the creation of physical of scarps. features of Indian landscape. For example, ● The Great Northern Plains lies between these the formation of the Himalayas in the north two landscapes.

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● The physical features of India can be grouped ● Important Lakes: Dal and Wular are under the following Physiographic Divisions: freshwater lakes, whereas Pangong Tso and 1. The Himalayas Tso Moriri are saltwater lakes. 2. The Northern Plains ● The Southernmost part of this region consists 3. The Peninsular Plateau of longitudinal valleys known as Duns. Eg: Jammu dun, Pathankot dun, etc., 4. The Indian desert Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas 5. The Coastal Plains ● Important Ranges: Great Himalayas, 6. The Islands Dhaoladhar, Shiwaliks, Nagtibha, etc., The Himalayas ● Important River System: Indus and Ganga ● The longest range of this system is Pir Panjal ● Important Hill Stations: Dharamshala, Range. Mussoorie, Shimla, kausani, etc., ● This range consists of famous valley of ● Important Pass: Shipki la, Lipu Lekh, Mana Kashmir, the Kangra and the Kullu Valley. pass, etc., ● The Outer most range of the Himalayas is ● Important Glaciers: Gangotri, Yamunotri, called the Shiwaliks. They composed of Pindari, etc., unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan range ● Important Peaks: Nanda Devi, Dhaulagiri, located farther north. etc., ● The Longitudinal valley lying between lesser ● Important Duns: Dehradun (largest), Harike Himalayas and Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dun, Kota Dun, Nalagarh Dun, Chandigarh- Example: Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun. Kalka Dun, etc., ● The highest peak of Himalayas is: Everest, ● This region is known for five Prayags (River Nepal (8848 m); Kanchenjunga, India (8598 Confluences). Valley of flowers is also m); Makalu, Nepal (8481 m) situated in this region. The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas ● On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological features the ● This lies between Nepal Himalayas in the Himalayas can be subdivided into following west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. ○ North-western or Kashmir Himalayas ● It is the region of fast flowing rivers and high mountain peaks. ○ Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas ● Important Peaks: Kanchenjunga ○ Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas ● Duar formations replace the Shiwaliks (absent) in this region which enhanced the ○ Arunachal Himalayas development of Tea gardens. ○ Eastern Hills and Mountains ● Important Glaciers: Zemu Glacier North-Western or Kashmir Himalayas ● Important Peaks: Nathu La and Jelep La ● Important Ranges: Karakoram, Ladakh, The Arunachal Himalayas Zaskar and Pir Panjal ● This lies between Bhutan Himalayas and ● Important Glaciers: Siachen, Baltoro, Remo, Pass in the east etc., ● Important Peaks: Namcha Barwa and Kangto ● Important Pass: Zoji la, Bara Lacha la, Banihal, rohtang, etc., ● Important Rivers: Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit ● Important Peaks: Nanga Parbat, K2, etc., ● Important Ranges: Mishmi, Abor, Dafla, ● Kashmir valley: lies between Greater Mihir, etc., Himalayas and Pir Panjal Range. ● Important pass: Diphu pass ● Cold Desert: between Greater Himalayas and The Eastern Hills and Mountains Karakoram Range. www.gradeup.co

● These are the part of Himalayan Mountain ● Bhangar is the region south of Terai region. system having their general alignment from This region is formed by older alluvium. The the north to south direction. soil in this region contains calcareous ● The Himalaya in the eastern boundary of the deposits locally known as kankar. country is called Purvanchal. These are ● The region with new alluvium deposits is mainly composed of sandstones (sedimentary known as Khadar. They are renewed almost rocks). every year and are so fertile, thus ideal for ● Important Hills: Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, intensive cultivation. Manipur Hills, Mizo hills, etc. ● Riverine Islands – these are the islands which THE NORTHERN PLAINS are formed due to depositional work of rivers ● The northern plain has been formed by the especially in the lower course due to the interplay of the three major river systems – gentle slope and resultant decrease in the the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. velocity of rivers. – in the ● Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8- Brahmaputra is the largest inhabited riverine 10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the island in the world break-up of the slope. The river after ● Distributaries – the rivers in the lower course descending from the mountains deposit split into numerous channels sue to pebbles in a narrow belt. All the streams deposition of silt are called distributaries. disappear in this belt. ● Doab – the area which lies behind the confluence of two rivers.

Major Mountain Description Peaks in India

Godwin Austen (K2) Highest peak of Karakoram range in POK

Nanga Parbat Jammu and Kashmir

Nanda Devi Uttarakhand, Second highest mountain in India and the highest entirely within the country

Kanchenjunga Nepal and Sikkim (B/w Teesta river in east & in the west), the Highest mountain in India & 3rd highest mountain in the world

Nokrek Highest point of the Garo Hills (Meghalaya)

Gurushikhar Mt. Abu, Rajasthan, highest point of the Aravalli Range

Kundremukh Karnataka

Doddabetta Highest point in Tamil Nadu, near Udhagamandalam (Nilgiri Hills) Second highest peak in the only next to

Anaimudi Located in Kerala, It is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and in South India

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Agasthyamalai Lie at the extreme southern end of Western Ghats, straddle both sides in Kerala and in Tamil Nadu

Saddle Peak Highest point of the archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, located in North Andaman

Mount Hariet Third highest peak in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago only next to, Saddle peak (Highest of Andaman) and Mount Thullier (Highest of Nicobar)

Mahendragiri Orissa, the Highest peak of Eastern Ghats (According to NCERT)

Arma Konda Andhra Pradesh Important Passes in India State Pass name Comment

Jammu and Banihal Jammu to Srinagar Kashmir Pass

Jammu and Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet Kashmir

Jammu and Pir-Panjal Between Jammu and Kashmir Valley Kashmir pass

Jammu and Zoji La important road link between Srinagar on one side and Kashmir Kargil and Leh on the other side

Himachal Bara Connecting Mandi in Himachal Pradesh with Leh in Pradesh Lacha La Jammu and Kashmir

Himachal Rohtang road link between Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti Valleys Pradesh Pass

Himachal Shipki La Himachal Pradesh and Tibet Pradesh

Uttarakhand Lipu Lekh trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet (China) and Nepal borders

Uttarakhand Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet

Sikkim Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet

Sikkim Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border

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Arunachal Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh with Bhutan Pradesh

Arunachal Dihang Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar. Pradesh Pass

The Peninsular Plateau The ● It is an irregular triangle in structure extends ● The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass as Delhi ridge in the north-west, Rajmahal that lies to the south of R. Narmada. hills in the east, Gir range in the west and ● It is bordered by the Western Ghats in the in the south. west, the Eastern Ghats in the east and the ● The important physiographic features of this Satpura, Maikal and Mahadeo range in the are - block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare north and north-eastern part. rocky structures, series of hummocky hills ● An extension of the peninsular plateau is also and wall like quartzite dykes offering natural visible in the north-east known as Karbi- sites for water storage. Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills. ● On the basis of relief features, the peninsular ● The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and plateau is divided into three broad groups – slopes gently eastwards. ● The Deccan Plateau ● Western and Eastern Ghats are prominent ● The Central Highlands features of the Deccan plateau, the ● The North-eastern Plateau comparison between these two ranges are mentioned in the following table S. WESTERN GHATS EASTERN GHATS NO.

1. They are continuous and can be crossed They are discontinuous and irregular only through passes.

2. Average Elevation – (900 – 1600)m Average Elevation – 600 m

3. The altitude increases from north to south The altitude has no general pattern

4. Important Hills – Nilgiri, Anaimalai, Important Hills – Javadi, Palkonda, Cardamom, Babubudan, etc., Nallamala, Mahendragiri, etc.,

5. Important Peaks – Anaimudi (highest), Important Peaks – Mahendragiri (highest) etc. Doda Betta (Ooty), Kodaikanal etc.

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6. Most of the peninsular rivers originate They are dissected by major rivers like here and acts as a water divide between , Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, etc., west-flowing and east-flowing rivers. which are draining into the Bay of Bengal

The Central Highlands geographical coast of the country (including ● The Central Highlands is a part of Peninsular Islands). Plateau lying north of R. Narmada covering a ● On the basis of the location and active major area of Malwa plateau, Vindhyan geomorphological processes, it can be Range covers the southern extent and broadly divided into two: the Western Aravalis in the north-west. Coastal Plains and the Eastern Coastal Plains. ● The plateaus like Bundelkhand, Bagelkhand, The Islands Chotanagpur makes the eastern extension of ● Besides the vast physical features in the the central highlands. mainland of the country, there are two major ● This region has undergone metamorphic island groups located in both sides of the processes in its geologic history, which can peninsular plateau. be corroborated by the presence of ● The island groups provide the site for Fishing metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, and Port activities. gneiss, etc. ● Though more than 4000 islands present in The North-Eastern Plateau Indian territory Andaman and Nicobar and ● This region consists of many plateaus like Lakshadweep are the two major island Meghalaya Plateau, Karbi Anglong Plateau, groups. etc., ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS ● Important Hills – Khasi, Garo, Jaintia, etc., ● Duncan passage lies between south Andaman The Indian Desert and Little Andaman. ● The Great Indian Desert lies in the north- ● Important Peaks: Saddle Peak, North western region of the country. Andaman (738 m); Mount Diavolo, middle ● The prominent desert features are – Andaman (515 m); Mount Koyob, South Mushroom Rocks, Shifting Dunes and Oasis. Andaman (460 m); Mount Thuiller, Great ● It is a land of undulating topography dotted Nicobar (642 m). with longitudinal dunes and Barchans. Note ● Most of the rivers in this region are ● Ten Degree Channel- Between Little ephemeral. Example: R. Luni Andaman and Car Nicobar ● Low precipitation and evaporation make it a ● Duncan Passage- Between great Andaman water deficit region. and Little Andaman THE LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS ● The desert can be divided into two regions: Northern part sloping towards Sindh and the ● Kavaratti Island is the administrative Southern part towards the Rann of Kachchh. headquarters of Lakshadweep islands. The Coastal Plains ● Minicoy is the largest island in this group. ● The Peninsular plateau is covered by marine ● This island group consists of storm beaches water in 3 sides: the Indian Ocean in the consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, South; the Bay of Bengal in the east and the shingles, cobbles and boulders. Arabian Sea in the West. Note ● The extent of coastline in the country is 6100 ● Nine Degree Channel- Minicoy is separated km in the mainland and 7517 km in the entire from rest of the Lakshadweep

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● Eight Degree Channel- Lakshadweep ● Newmoore Island- located in the Bay of Group separated from the Maldives Bengal on the mouth of Ganga. Other Islands ● Pamban Island- located in the Gulf of Manner between Sri Lanka and India. INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM Comparison between Himalayan and the Peninsular Rivers of India S. Aspect Himalayan River Peninsular River No.

1. Place of origin Himalayan mountain covered Peninsular plateau and central with highland glaciers

2. Nature of flow Perennial; receive water from Seasonal; dependent on monsoon the glacier rainfall and rainfall

3. Type of drainage Antecedent and consequent Superimposed, rejuvenated leading to resulting the dendritic pattern in plains in trellis, radial and rectangular patterns

4. Nature of river Long course, flowing through Smaller, the fixed course with the well-adjusted rugged mountains experiencing valleys headward erosion and river capturing; In plains meandering and shifting of course

5. Catchment area Very large basins Relatively smaller basin

6. Age of the river Young and youthful, active and Old rivers with the graded profile, deepening in the valleys and have almost reached their base levels

the Western Ghats are forming a ' water divide, ' Important Rivers of India these rivers either flow eastward into Bengal Bay or Himalayan rivers come from the Himalayas and flow westward into the Arab Sea. Peninsular rivers are through the Northern Plains. rivers that are essentially rain-fed. The major rivers in the Himalayan System are: The major rivers in the Peninsular system are: • The Indus River System • Mahanadi • The Ganga River System • Godavari • The Yamuna River System • Krishna • The System • Cauvery The main source of Peninsular River System or Drain into the Bay of Bengal as they flow on the Peninsular Drainage is the Western Ghats. Because plateau eastward and create' delta' at their mouths;

www.gradeup.co while the Narmada Tapti-the west-flowing rivers fall Bengal Indian countries. It lastly reaches the Bay of into the Arab Sea and create' estuaries.' Bengal. Not from glaciers, but from rain-fed rivers. During Yamuna River System summer, these rivers significantly decrease or dry up. The Yamuna is Northern India's main river system. THE HIMALAYAN RIVERS The river flows through Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh Indus River System and Haryana from Yamnotri. It crosses Delhi, In the early Hindu mythological texts, the mention of Mathura, Agra and meets the Chambal, Betwa and Indus River or Sindhu River is witnessed. The river Ken rivers to lastly join the Allahabad Ganga. Tons, comes from Tibet near Lake Mansarovar. In Jammu Chambal, Hindon, Betwa and Ken are Yamuna's and Kashmir, it flows westward into India, flows major tributaries. further through Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Brahmaputra River System reaches Pakistan. The Brahmaputra, one of India's main rivers, It enters the Arab Sea near Karachi, flowing further originates in Tibet's Himalayan Angsi glacier. It's west. Indus is Pakistan's biggest river and the called the Tsangpo River there. In Arunachal national river of the country. Its Indian tributaries are Pradesh, it enters India and is known as Dihang Zanskar, Nubra, Shyok, and Pakistan's Hunza. Sutlej, River. Ravi, Beas, Chenab and Jhelum are their other Dibang, the Lohit, the Kenula are tributaries which tributaries named after the state of Punjab. form the primary Brahmaputra River and flow through Assam, its longest course, enter Bangladesh and lastly falls into the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra has the largest water quantity of all India's rivers.

THE PENINSULAR RIVERS Mahanadi The Mahanadi in East-central India is a significant river. It originates in Chhattisgarh's Sihava hills and flows through the state of Orissa (Odisha) through its main course. This river deposits more silt on the Ganga River System Indian subcontinent than any other river. Mahanadi The Ganga river system (Ganges) is India's largest runs through Sambalpur, Cuttack and Banki cities. river system. It originates in the glaciers of Gangotri. Godavari The upstream Bhagirathi joins the other stream at The , after the Ganga, covers India's Devprayag called Alaknanda to form the Ganga second-longest course. The river originates from River. Ganga has tributaries on both banks; the Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra and flows along Yamuna and Son are its right-bank tributaries. with its tributaries (Pravara, Indravati, Maner Sabri Some of the left bank tributaries are Gomti, etc.) through the countries of Maharashtra, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi. The Ganges flows through Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa (Odisha), the Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and

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Puducherry to lastly flow into the Bay of Bengal. The rivers discharge their waters into the Bay of Bengal; river is defined as Dakshina Ganga because of its nevertheless, there are a number of rivers whose lengthy course. itineraries take them across the west end of India and into the Arab Sea in the east direction. The Krishna is India's third-longest river, about 1300 Northern parts of the Aravalli range, Ladakh parts, km long. It originates from the and the barren Thar Desert regions have Inland region of Maharashtra and flows through Karnataka, Drainage. Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh to lastly pour into Bengal Bay. Kaveri River The Kaveri (Cauvery) is a significant river in southern India and originates in Kogadu, Karnataka. As many tributaries like Hemavati, Moyari, Shimsha, Arkavati, Honnuhole, Kabini, Bhavani, Noyill and Amaravati join it, Kaveri River expands. Narmada and Tapti The Narmada & is the only major flowing rivers into the Arab Sea. Narmada's complete length flowing through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat countries is equal to 1312 km. Amarkantak is Narmada's location of origin in Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh. From east to west, Narmada flows primarily through Central India and flows into the Arabian Sea. The Tapti river follows a parallel course to the south of Narmada, flowing through the Maharashtra and Gujarat states on their way into the Gulf of Khambat. Purna, Girna and Panjhra are its three main tributaries. Like most ancient religions, rivers are considered sacred by the Hindu faith and its mythology. The Ganges, Yamuna (a Ganges tributary), Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Narmada, Godavari, Tapi, Krishna, and Kaveri are nine major Indian rivers. Indian soil also flows through parts of the Indus River. The Indian river system comprises eight important rivers together with their various tributaries. Most River Systems of India Length of Name Originates From Area Covered Ends in River 3180/ 1114 Tibet in northern slopes of Indus India and Pakistan Arabian sea in India Mount Kailash Uttar Pradesh, Bay of Ganga (Bhagirathi) 2525 Gangotri in Uttrakhand Uttrakhand, Bihar, Bengal West Bengal Delhi, Haryana and Bay of Yamuna (Jamuna) 1376 Yamunotri in Garhwal UP Bengal

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916 - in Assam, Arunachal Bay of Brahmaputra Angsi Glacier India Pradesh Bengal hills in Karnataka and Tamil Bay of Kaveri 765 Kogadu, Karnataka Nadu Bengal Godavari (Dakshin Bharat ki Triambakeshwar in South-eastern part of Bay of 1465 Ganga) Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Bengal Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra & Bay of Krishna 1400 Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Bengal Amarkantak in Madhya Madhya Pradesh and Narmada 1312 Arabian Sea Pradesh Maharashtra Betul, Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh and Tapti 724 district in the Satpura Arabian Sea Maharashtra region Sihava mountains of Jharkhand, Bay of Mahanadi 858 Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh, Orissa Bengal Madurai in Tamil Bay of Vaigai 258 Varusanadu Hills Nadu Bengal Sivagiri peaks of Tamil Nadu and Bay of Periyar 244 Sundaramala, Tamil Kerala Bengal Nadu. Important dams in India Some Facts about dams ● Tallest dam in the world- Nurek dam (Tajikistan) ● Longest dam in the world- Hirakund dam (Orissa) ● Longest dam in India- Hirakund dam (Orissa) ● Highest dam in India- Tehri dam (Uttarakhand) ● Highest straight gravity Dam in India- Bhakra dam ● First dam of India-Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) on river Kaveri (Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu) Important Dams in India State Dam River

Andhra Pradesh Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Krishna

Srisailam Dam Krishna

Polavaram Project Godavari

Arunachal Pradesh Ranganadi Dam Ranganadi River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River

Chhattisgarh Minimata (Hasdeo) Bango Hasdeo Dam

Dudhawa Dam Mahanadi

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Gujarat Ukai Dam Tapti

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada

Himachal Pradesh Pong Dam Beas

Bhakra Dam Satluj

Jammu and Kashmir Baglihar Dam Chenab

Uri Dam Jhelum

Kishenganga Dam KISHANGANGA

Jharkhand Panchet Dam Damodar

North Koel North Koel

Karnataka Krishnarajasagar Dam Cauvery

Tungabhadra Dam Tungabhadra

Kerala Cheruthoni Dam Cheruthoni

Idukki Dam Periyar

Madhya Pradesh Ban Sagar Dam Son

Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal

Indira Sagar Dam Narmada

Omkareshwar Dam Narmada

Maharashtra Bhatsa Dam Bhatsa and chorna

Koyna Dam Koyna

Odisha Hirakud Dam Mahanadi

Indravati Dam Indravati

Punjab Ranjit Sagar Dam Ravi

Rajasthan Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal

Rana Pratap Sagar Dam Chambal

Tamil nadu Mettur Dam Kaveri

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Telangana Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Krishna (Some Part of Dam also in Telangana)

Srisailam Dam Krishna (Some Part of Dam also in Telangana)

Uttarakhand Tehri Dam Bhagirathi

Ramganga Dam Ramganga

Uttar Pradesh Rihand Dam Rihand

Important Lakes in India (State Wise) ● Largest freshwater lake in India – Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir ● Largest Saline water lake in India – Chilka Lake, Orissa ● Highest lake in India (Altitude) – Cholamu lake, Sikkim ● Longest Lake in India – Vembanad lake, Kerala ● Largest Artificial Lake in India – Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam) Lakes in India S.No. Name State District Type of Facts/Descriptio Lakes n

1 Pulicat Lake Andhra Nellore Brackish It encompasses Pradesh Water Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary; Satish Dhawan Space Centre located here

2 Kolleru Lake Andhra West Freshwater Home to Pradesh Godavari migratory birds

3 Nagarjuna Telangana Nalgonda Freshwater Artificially Sagar constructed; Krishna river

4 MaharanaPra Himachal Kangra Freshwater Ramsar site tapSagar Pradesh

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5 Pangong Tso J &K Ladakh Endorheic Indo-China Lake (saline Border water)

6 Wular lake J &K Bandipora Tectonic Largest lake (fresh freshwater lake in water) India

7 TsoMoriri J &K Ladakh Saltwater High altitude lake

8 Ashtamudi Kerala Kollam Brackish Ramsar wetland Kayal water site

9 Lonar lake Maharashtra Buldhana Crater lake National Geo- Heritage monument

10 Loktak lake Manipur - Lenticular Ramsar wetland; freshwater Phumdis (Floating Islands); Multipurpose project

11 Chilika lake Orissa Puri Brackish India's largest water brackish water lake; lagoon

12 Sambhar Rajasthan Sambhar Saltwater Ramsar wetland; lake Lake-town largest inland saltwater lake in India

13 Hussain Telangana Hyderabad Artificial Artificial Sagar lake Gibraltar rock island

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14 Govind Uttar Sonbhadra Man-made Rihand dam Ballabh Pant Pradesh lake Sagar

Soil and Agriculture in India 2. Regur or Black soil Soil Profile and Horizon of soil ● The regur or black soils have developed ● O - Horizon containing a high percentage of extensively upon the Plateaus of soil organic matter. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh ● A - Horizon darkened by the accumulation of mainly Malwa and are formed due to organic matter. volcanic activities. ● E - Horizon formed through the removal ● These soils are very fertile and contain a high (eluviation) of clays, organic matter, iron, or percentage of lime, iron and a moderate aluminium. Usually lightened in colour due amount of potash. to these removals. ● The type of soil is especially suited for the ● B - Broad class used for subsurface horizons cultivation of cotton and hence sometimes that have been transformed substantially by a called ‘black cotton soil.’ soil formation process such as colour and Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, structure development; the deposition Linseed, Gram, Fruit and Vegetable. (illuviation) of materials such as clays, ● The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. organic matter, iron, aluminium, carbonates, 3. Red Soil or gypsum; carbonate or gypsum loss; ● Red soils develop on granite and geneses brittleness and high density; or intense rocks under low rainfall condition i.e. due to weathering leading to the accumulation of weathering of the metamorphic rocks. weathering-resistant minerals. ● These soils are red in colour due to the high ● C - A horizon minimally affected or concentration of Iron Oxide. unaffected by the soil formation processes. ● These soils are friable and medium fertile and ● R - Bedrock. found mainly in almost whole of Tamil Nadu, Types of Indian Soil: South-eastern Karnataka, North-eastern and 1. Alluvial Soil South-eastern Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand ● This type of soil mainly found in the Indo- the major parts of Orissa, and the Hills and Ganga and Brahmaputra plain i.e. the whole Plateaus of North-east India. northern plain and in some parts of the river ● These soils are deficient in Phosphoric acid, basin in the south and some plateau region. organic matter and nitrogenous material. ● This soil is also found in the deltas of the ● Crops Grown: Wheat, Rice, Millet's, Pulses. Mahanadi, Godavari, Cauvery and Krishna. 4. Laterite Soil ● Alluvial soil can be broadly categorised in ● Laterite is a kind of clayey rock or soil two types i.e. New alluvial soil (Khadar) and formed under high temperature and high old alluvial soil (Bhangar). Both the Khadar rainfall and with alternate dry and wet period. and Bhangar soils contain calcareous ● Laterite and lateritic soils are found in South concretions (Kankars). Maharashtra, the Western Ghats in Kerala ● Crops Grown: the Alluvial soil is suitable for and Karnataka, at places in Odisha, small the Rabi and Kharif crop like cereals, cotton, parts of Chottanagpur and in some parts of oilseeds and sugarcane. Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and in ● They are generally rich in potash but poor in western West Bengal (particularly in phosphorous. Birbhum district).

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● Crops Grown: Coffee, Cashew etc. ● The soil has the right water holding capacity ● This type of soil is unsuitable for agriculture and is well aerated. due to the high content of acidity and inability ● It is considered the best soil for the growth of to retain moisture. plants. 5. Desert soil Types of Agriculture in India This type of soils found in Rajasthan, Haryana and There are different types of farming activities the South Punjab, and are sandy. performed in India which are as follows: ● In the absence of sufficient wash by Subsistence Farming rainwater, soils have become saline and ● Subsistence farming is a type of farming in rather unfit for cultivation. which nearly all the crops or livestock raised ● In spite of that cultivation can be carried on are used to maintain the farmer and farmer’s with the help of modern irrigation. family leaving little. ● Wheat, bajra, groundnut, etc. can be grown in ● Subsistence farms usually consist of no more this soil. than a few acres, and farm technology tends ● This type of soil is rich in Phosphates and to be primitive and of low yield. Calcium but deficient in Nitrogen and humus. Mixed farming 6. Mountain Soil ● Mixed farming is an agricultural system in ● Soil found in higher altitude on the mountain which a farmer conducts different is called as Mountain soil. agricultural practice together, such as cash crops and livestock ● The characteristics of this type of soil are changed according to the altitudes. ● The aim is to increase income through different sources and to complement land and ● This type of soil is suitable for the cultivation labour demands across the year. of potatoes, fruits, tea coffee and spices and Shifting cultivation wheat. Type of Soils based on the size of particles ● Shifting cultivation means migratory shifting 1. Sandy Soil agriculture. ● Particles are larger in size. ● Under this system, a plot of land is cultivated for a few years and then, when the crop yield ● The particles cannot fit close together and declines because of soil exhaustion and the hence there is enough space among them. effects of pests and weeds, is deserted for ● It is not fit for vegetation as it does not retain another area. water. ● Here the ground is again cleared by slash- ● However, millets can be grown on sandy soil. and-burn methods, and the procedure is 2. Clayey Soil repeated. ● Particles are very small in size. Other Names of Shifting Cultivation ● Very little space among the particles. Shifting Country ● Water does not drain quickly through clayey Cultivation Name soil because of less space among particles. ● So, clayey soil is not well aerated and retains Chena Sri Lanka more water. 3. Loamy Soil Ladang Java and Indonesia ● Particles are smaller than sand and larger than clay. Jhum North-eastern India ● Loamy soil is the mixture of sandy soil, Podu Andhra Pradesh clayey soil and silt. ● Silt is the deposit in river beds.

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Cropping Season in India Milya Mexico and Central Rabi America Kharif crops Zaid crops crops Konuko Venezuela Also known as These are winter Roka Brazil summer crops. The season y are Milpa Yucatan and Kharif crop also crops. cultivated Guatemala known as the These during the autumn crop or crops are Extensive Farming period monsoon crop are grown typically ● This is a system of farming in which the Time the plants which are between extending farmer uses the limited amount of labour and cultivated in the April and between capital on a relatively large area. monsoon season September Septembe which extends from or between ● This type of agriculture is practised in r to April. June to September. Rabi countries where population size is small and These season and land is enough. plants are Kharif cultivated ● Per acre yield is low but the overall season production is in surplus due to less in spring population. seasons. Require ● Here machines and technology are used in Mostly cold and farming. sown Conditio Require wet and hot relatively in Gangeti Intensive Farming conditions to grow dry n c belts of ● This is a system of farming in which the conditions the region. cultivator uses a larger amount of labour and to grow capital on a relatively small area. Wheat, ● This type of farming is performed in Chickpea, mustard, countries where the population to land ratio is Rice(Paddy), Maize, Cucumber, linseed, high i.e. the population is big and the land is Groundnut, cotton, watermelo barley, small. Soybean, Pigeon n, bitter Sesame, Pea(arhar), Mung gourd, ● Annually two or three types of crops are Example Sunflower bean, Red chilies, Muskmelo grown over the land. , s Sugarcane, n, ● Manual labour is used. Coriander, Turmeric, Millets pumpkin, Plantation Agriculture Peas, like Ragi, Jowar, Ba ridged Onion, ● In this type of agriculture, cash crops are jra gourd mainly cultivated. Potato, Tomato ● A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, etc tea is grown. Major Food Crops ● These crops are major items of export. Rice Major Crops & Cropping Patterns in India • Soil Type: Deep clayey and loamy soil. Major crops are generally classified as: • Temperature: Between 22-32°C with high Food Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize, and Pulses. humidity. Crops • Rainfall: Around 150-300 cm. Cash Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Horticulture crops, • Top Rice Producing States are West Crops Tea, Coffee, Cotton, Rubber, and Jute. Bengal > Punjab > Uttar Pradesh > Andhra Pradesh > Bihar.

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• In Odisha, three varieties of paddy crops are • Top Producing States: Madhya Pradesh > grown in a year which is Aus, Aman, and Rajasthan > Maharashtra Boro. • India is the largest producer as well as the • China is the top rice-producing country in largest consumer of pulses in the world. the world. India comes 2nd. • Major pulses grown in India are urad, tur Wheat (arhar), moong, masur, peas and gram. • Soil Type: Well-drained fertile loamy soil • Pulses are leguminous crops. They help in • Temperature: Between 10-15°C (Sowing restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen time) & 21-26°C (Ripening & Harvesting) from the air (Except Arhar). This is why with bright sunlight. these crops are grown in rotation with other • Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm. crops. • Top Wheat Producing States in India: Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh > Punjab > Madhya • Soil Type: Deep rich loamy soil. Pradesh • Temperature: Between 21-27°C with a hot • India is the 2nd largest producer & humid climate. after China. • Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm. Millets • Top Producing States: Uttar Pradesh > Soil Type: It Can be grown in an inferior alluvial or Maharashtra > Karnataka loamy soil • India is the 2nd largest producer of • Jowar- Rainfed crop is grown in moist areas sugarcane after Brazil. with less or no irrigation. • It is the main source of sugar, khandsari, • Bajra- Sandy soils & shallow black soil. gur (jaggery), and molasses. • Ragi- Red, black, sandy, loamy & shallow Oilseeds black soils. (dry regions) • Soil Type: Loam to clayey loam & well- Temperature: Between 27-32°C drained sandy loams. Rainfall: Around 50-100 cm. • Temperature: Between 15-30°C Top Millets Producing States in India: Rajasthan • Rainfall: Around 30-75 cm. > Karnataka > Maharashtra • Top Producing States: Madhya Pradesh > • Jowar: Maharashtra > Karnataka > Madhya Rajasthan > Gujarat Pradesh • The main oilseeds produced in India • Bajra:Rajasthan > Uttar Pradesh > Gujarat are groundnut, coconut, mustard, • Ragi: Karnataka > Tamil Nadu > sesamum (til), soyabean, cotton seeds, Uttarakhand castor seeds, linseed & sunflower. These are also known as coarse grains. They have a • Groundnut is a Kharif crop& accounts for high nutritional value. E.g., Ragi is very rich in about half of the major oilseeds calcium, iron, other produced in the country. micronutrients and roughage. • Sesamum is a Kharif crop in north & rabi Maize crop in south India. • Soil Type: Old alluvial soil. • Linseed and mustard are rabi crops. • Temperature: Between 21-27°C • Castor seed is grown in both seasons i.e. • Rainfall: High rainfall. rabi & Kharif. • Top Producing States: Karnataka > Tea Maharashtra > Madhya Pradesh • Soil Type: Deep & fertile well-drained soil, • India is the seventh-largest producer rich in humus and organic matter. Pulses • Temperature: Between 20-30°C • Soil Type: Sandy-loamy soil. • Rainfall: Around 150-300 cm. • Temperature: Between 20-27°C • Top Producing States: Assam > West • Rainfall: Around 25-60 cm. Bengal > Tamil Nadu. • India- 2nd largest producer of tea plants. www.gradeup.co

• Slopes of eastern hills have humid climate • Top Producing States: West Bengal > & evenly distributed rainfall without Bihar > Assam waterlogging which are optimal conditions • Jute is mainly concentrated in eastern for terrace farming of tea plants. India because of the rich alluvial soil of • Tea is a labor-intensive industry. Tea Ganga-Brahmaputra delta. requires abundant, cheap, and skilled labor. It • It is known as the golden fiber. is processed within the tea garden to retain its India is the largest producer of jute. freshness. Natural Vegetation, Different Types of Forests of Coffee India • Soil Type: Well-drained and deep friable Tropical Deciduous Forests loamy soil. ● These are the most widespread and the most • Temperature: Between 15-28°C extensive forests of India. • Rainfall: Around 150-250 cm. ● They are also known as monsoon forests. • Top Producing States: Karnataka > ● These are connected with those parts of India Kerala > Tamil Nadu which receive annual rainfall between 200 • India is the seventh-largest producer. cm and 70 cm. • Hills that have well-defined shade canopy, comprising evergreen leguminous trees ● Here rainfall is seasonal in nature. give the optimal condition for coffee ● In this forest type, trees shed their leaves for cultivation which is why it is mainly about six to eight weeks in dry summer. concentrated in the hilly regions. ● The animals found in these are: lion, tiger, • ‘Arabica’ is the Indian variety of coffee pig, deer, elephant, a variety of birds, lizards, which is famous worldwide. snakes, tortoise, etc. Rubber (i) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests • Soil Type: Rich well-drained alluvial soil. ● Annual rainfall between 200 & 100 cm. • Temperature: Above 25°C with a moist & ● Found in: (a) an eastern part of India- humid climate. northeastern states, along with the foothills of • Rainfall: More than 200 cm. Himalayas, (b) Jharkhand, West Orissa and • Top Producing States: Kerala > Tamil Chhattisgarh, (c) on the eastern slopes of the Nadu > Karnataka. Western Ghats. • It is an equatorial crop. But under special conditions, it can also be grown in tropical ● Examples: teak, bamboos, sal, shisham, and sub-tropical. sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mulberry, Cotton etc. (ii) Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests • Soil Type: Cotton requires Well-drained black cotton soil of Deccan Plateau. ● Annual rainfall between 100 & 70 cm. • Temperature: Between 21-30°C ● Found in: (a) the rainier parts of the • Rainfall:Around 50-100cm. peninsular plateau and (b) the plains of Uttar • Top Cotton Producing States: Gujarat > Pradesh and Bihar. Maharashtra > Telangana ● Examples: teak, sal, peepal, neem etc. • Cotton needs 210 frost-free days & bright Tropical Thorn Forests sun-shine for its growth. ● These are connected with those parts which • Cotton is a Kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 receive rainfall less than 70 cm. months to mature. ● Here, rainfall is erratic, irregular and Jute inconsistent. • Soil Type: Well-drained alluvial soil Xerophytes dominate regions covered with • Temperature: Between 25-35°C ● the tropical thorn. • Rainfall: Around 150-250 cm

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● Found in the north-western part including Vegetation types are controlled by sunlight, semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, temperature and rainfall which is described Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar above. Pradesh and Haryana. ● Southern Montane Forests: These are ● Main plant species here are acacias (babool), connected with hills of Nilgiris, Anaimalai palms, euphorbias, Cactus, khair, , keekar and Cardamom. These are wet temperate etc. forests which have great endemic ● In this vegetation type, stem, leaves and roots biodiversity and these are described as Shola of plants are adapted to conserve water. forests. Mangrove Forests ● Stem is succulent and leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation. ● Mangrove forests are connected with deltaic regions of tropical and sub-tropical zones. ● Common animals here are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses, camels, ● These are also known as tidal forests and etc. littoral forests as these are connected with the Tropical Montane Forests inter-tidal region. ● The decrease in temperature with the rise in ● Their biodiversity and forest density are altitude is responsible for the corresponding comparable with equatorial rainforest and change in natural vegetation. tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. ● There exists the same hierarchy from foothills of the mountain to the top of it as is ● Mangroves are salt tolerant plants with roots observed from tropical to tundra region. being adapted to become pneumatophores (these roots emerged from the ground and ● Mostly found in the southern slopes of grow in upward direction). Himalayas, places having high altitude in Southern and Northeastern India. ● Mangrove ecosystem is a unique ecosystem as it has tolerance for periodic flooding and ● Upto 1500 n of height, tropical moist dryness; and mild salinity as well. deciduous forests exist with shesham as the main tree. ● India has the largest cover of Mangrove forest in the world. ● Between 1000-2000m of height, wet temperate type of climate persist wherein ● Sunderban, Mahanadi, Godaveri-Krishna and evergreen broad-leaf trees like oaks and Kaveri delta are most importantly covered chestnut with these forests. ● Between 1500-3000 m of height, temperate ● Sunderban is the largest mangrove in the forests covering coniferous trees like Chir, world. It is famous for Sundari tree which pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, cedar, etc. provides durable hard timber. ● At higher altitudes above 3500m wet ● Some other example are Rhizophora, temperate grasslands are common like Merg Avicennia etc. (Kashmir), bugyals (Uttarakhand), etc. ● Palm, coconut, keora, agar, etc. also grow in ● Common animals that are found in these some parts of the delta. forests are Kashmir stag, spotted deer, wild ● Royal Bengal Tiger is a famous animal in sheep, jackals, yak, snow leopard, rare red these forests. panda, sheep and goats with thich fur, etc. ● Turtles, crocodiles, gharials, snakes, are also ● In India, there are studied under two groups: found in these forests. Northern Montane Forests and Southern ● Bhitarkanika mangrove of Mahanadi delta is Montane Forests. also famous for its rich biodiversity. ● Northern Montane Forests: These are Solar System connected with Himalayan mountain ranges. Facts about Sun and Planets Sun www.gradeup.co

● The only star in our solar system and ● Known as “Red Planet” because of Iron-rich powerhouse of the solar system. red soil. ● Composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium ● Second smallest planet in the solar system (25%) gases and other metals. Sun carries after Mercury. almost 99% of the mass of our solar system. ● Has two natural moons “Phobos” and ● Approximately 15 crore Kilometres further “Deimos”. away from Earth. It takes around 8 minutes ● Has a thin atmosphere and surface with 30 seconds for light at the speed of 3 lakh valleys, craters, deserts and ice caps etc. Km/sec to reach the earth. ● “Olympus Mons” – Largest volcano and the ● Temperature at surface= 5800 K or 5600 tallest mountain in solar system lies on Mars. degree Celsius. 5. Jupiter ● The temperature at the centre= 15.7 million ● Largest planet of the solar system with the K shortest rotation Planets ● Has atmosphere filled with Hydrogen, 1. Mercury Helium and other gases ● The closest planet to the Sun and a very hot ● The third brightest object in the night sky planet. after the Moon and Venus. ● Smallest planet in the solar system with a ● Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar diameter of 4900 Km. system exists on this planet. ● Fastest Planet with speed of 172500 Km per ● Has at least 69 moons, including 4 large hour to complete revolution around Sun in 88 Galilean Moons “Io, Europa, Ganymede, and days. Callisto” which were discovered by Galileo. ● The planet with no water and gases like “Ganymede” is the largest among them. Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon ● It has an unclear ring around it. Dioxide. 6. Saturn 2. Venus ● Second largest planet in the solar system and ● Hottest planet in the solar system with the a gas giant. surface temperature of 478 degree Celsius. ● Has bright and concentric rings around it ● Also known as “Earth’s Twin”. It is because which are made up of tiny rocks and pieces of of similarity in size and mass between Venus Ice. and Earth. ● Saturn can float on water because it has less ● One of the two planets in the solar system density than water. which rotate around the axis in a Clockwise ● Has at least 62 moons and Titan is the largest direction. among them. ● Brightest Star in the Solar system. It can be 7. Uranus seen in the morning and evening with open ● Has the third- largest planetary radius and eyes. So known as “Evening Star” and fourth largest planetary mass in the Solar “Morning Star”. system. 3. Earth ● Greenish in colour. ● The only Planet to give support to life with a pleasant atmosphere. ● Discovered by William Herschel in 1781. ● Also known as “Blue Planet” because of the ● Known as “Ice Giant”. The atmosphere of presence of water on it. Uranus is composed of Hydrogen and Helium primarily, but it also contains more water, ● It has one natural satellite named “Moon”. ammonia etc. 4. Mars ● Has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system. www.gradeup.co

● Rotates clockwise on its axis like Venus but ● Asthenosphere: The upper portion of the unlike other planets mantle which extends up to around 400 km ● Has at least 25 moons. Famous moons- and the main source of Magma. Miranda, Ariel and Umbriel ● The density of mantle is 3.4 g/cm3 8. Neptune ● The lower mantle is in solid state which ● Farthest planet from the Sun. extends up to the Core-Mantle boundary. ● It is also “Ice Giant”. Atmosphere primarily This layer is called as the D″ (pronounced composed of Hydrogen and Helium. dee-double-prime) layer. ● Bluish in colour because of Methane. Note: ● The fourth largest planet and the third most- ● The Crust and Upper part of Mantle massive planet in the solar system combined called as Lithosphere. Core ● Discovered by Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846. The only planet in the solar ● The Core extends to 2870 – 6370 km. system found by Mathematical Predictions. ● It is divided into ● Has known 14 satellites. Famous moon – 1. Liquid Outer Core Triton 2. Solid Inner Core: Made of NIFE – Other Nickel and Ferrous. Pluto Note: Inner core rotates slightly faster than the ● As per the new definition of Planets rest of the planet. determined by International Astronomical ● The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3 Union (IAU), Pluto has been omitted from which increase to 13 g/cm3 in the inner core. the list of planets in 2006. Note: ● Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet (size Dynamo theory: It suggests that convection in between planets and asteroids) now and it is the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, a member of Kuiper Belt. gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. Kuiper Belt Schematic sections through the Earth: ● It is a spherical boundary outside the orbit of ● Continental crust Neptune containing a number of asteroids, ● Oceanic crust rocks, and comets. ● Upper mantle Interior Structure of the Earth ● Lower mantle Structure of the Earth ● Outer core Crust ● Inner core ● The crust is the outermost brittle solid part of Boundaries in the Earth’s interior Earth ranging from 5 – 70 km. Conrad Discontinuity: Between Upper and lower ● The Crust can be divided into: Continental Crust. 1. Continental Crust: Mean thickness is around Mohorovičić discontinuity, “Moho”: Crust-Mantle 30 km, made of SIAL (Silica and boundary Aluminium) and is thicker than Oceanic Gutenberg discontinuity: Core-Mantle boundary crust. Its density is around at 2.7 g/cm3 Lehmann discontinuity: Boundary between Outer 2. Oceanic Crust: Mean thickness is around 5 and Inner Core km made of SIMA (Silica and Magnesium). Oceanic crust is basaltic in origin and Important Facts relatively of younger age than the continental ● Earth’s radius: 6370 km. 3 crust. The basaltic crust is denser at 3.0 g/cm ● Earth diameter: about 12756 km at equator & Mantle about 12715 km at the poles. ● They extend up to 2890 km.

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● Crust: 0.5 % of the volume of the Earth Surface waves vibrate perpendicular to the Mantle: 83 % of the volume of the Earth wave direction. Core: 16 % of the volume of the Earth The velocity of the waves is directly proportional to ● Temperature, Pressure and Density increases the density of the material through which they travel. with the increasing distance from the surface Differing density leads to reflection or refraction of to the interior in deeper depths the seismic waves. Shadow Zone ● Gravitation force is greater near the poles and Shadow zones are those specific areas where seismic lesser near the equator waves are not reported. These zones are distinct for ● Gravity anomaly is the difference in gravity P and S-waves. value according to the mass of the material ● Within the distance, up to 105° from Earthquake epicentre has recorded the arrival of both ● It is a shaking of the Earth which is caused waves. due to the release of energy along a fault line. ● The zone between 105° - 145° from epicentre ● Hypocentre or Focus: The point where the is identified as a shadow zone for both types energy of an earthquake is released of waves (P & S). ● Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, ● Beyond 105° Zone does not receive S-waves. directly above the focus, the first one to Thus the shadow zone of S-wave is much experience the waves. larger than P-wave. Earthquake waves are divided into ● P-wave appears after 145° from the epicentre. ● Body waves: created due to the release of Types of Earthquake energy at the Hypocentre (focus). These ● Tectonic: They are caused due to the sliding waves travel in all directions through the of rocks along a fault plane. body of the earth. It can be divided into: ● Volcanic: they are confined to areas of active volcanoes. They are caused due to the 1. P-waves: They are called Primary explosion of volcanos and the corresponding waves. They move faster and are first tectonic disturbances. to arrive at the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel ● Collapse: they are caused in areas of intense through Solid, Liquid and Gaseous mining activities where the roofs of materials. P waves vibrate parallel to underground mines collapse causing minor the direction of the wave which tremors causes stretching and squeezing of the ● Explosion: they are caused due to the material explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. 2. S-waves: They are called Secondary Important facts waves which arrive at a time lag with ● A seismograph is an instrument that records Primary waves. They can travel only the waves reaching the surface. through Solid materials. S-waves ● Richter Scale: it is known as Magnitude scale vibrate in perpendicular to the wave as it measures the energy released during the direction which creates crests and quake. It is expressed in absolute numbers 0- troughs. 10. ● Surface waves: the body waves interact with ● Mercalli Scale: it is called an Intensity scale the surface rocks and generate surface waves as it measures the visible damage caused by which move along the surface rocks. They are the earthquake. The range is from 1 – 12. the last to report on the Seismograph and are Tsunami the most destructive They cause ● These are long-wavelength, long-period sea displacement of rocks and structural collapse. waves or tidal waves produced by the sudden or abrupt displacement of large volumes of

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water (including when an earthquake occurs at sea.) ● The effect of Tsunami would occur only if the epicentre of the tremor is below oceanic waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high.

WORLD GEOGRAPHY

1. Important Mountain Ranges and Peaks of the Worlds Sr. Mountain Important/Highest Location Description Range Peaks

1. Rocky Mt. Elbert (highest North America It is one of the longest Mountains peak in the Rockies) fold mountains in the world and extends from Canada to Western US (New Mexico State)

2. Appalachian Mt. Mitchell, North North America It is a fold mountain with Mountains Carolina, US (highest rich in mineral resources peak of Appalachian Mountains)

3. Alps Mont Blanc (French – Europe It is a folded mountain Italian border) and source for rivers like Danube, Rhine, etc.

4. Sierra Nevada Mt. Whitney California, Habitat for many Red USA Indian tribes

5. Alaska Range Mt. McKinley North America Mt. McKinley highest peak in North America

6. Altai Belukha mountain Central Asia Young folded mountain Mountains which extends from Kazakhstan to northern China.

7. Andes Mt. Aconcagua South America Longest mountain chain Mountains in the world

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8. Atlas Mt. Toubkal Northwestern Young fold mountain Mountains Africa spreading over Morocco and Tunisia.

9. Drakensberg Mt. Lesotho South Africa Young folded mountain Mountains

10. Caucasus Mt. Elbrus Europe Located between the Mountain Black Sea and the Caspian Sea

11. Ural Mt. Narodnaya Russia This mountain range act Mountains as a boundary between Europe and Asia.

12. Hindukush Mt. Trich Mir Pakistan and Folded mountain with Mountains Afghanistan rugged topography which makes it difficult for transportation.

13. Himalayas Mt. Everest Asia Young fold mountains in Asia which separates Indian sub-continent from Asian plains

14. Arakan Yoma Mt. Kennedy peak Myanmar It extends from north to south direction. Shifting cultivation is practised.

15. Kunlun Mt. Muztag North of It is one of the young Mountains Tibetan plateau folded mountains. and western China

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16. Vosges Mt. Grand Ballon Eastern France, Famous for the Europe cultivation of grapes and manufacture of wines.

17. Great Mt. Kosciuszko Australia This range is the source Dividing for the rivers Darling and Range Murray.

2. List of Important Rivers of the World Sr. No. RIVER LOCATION DESCRIPTION

1. River Amazon South It is the second longest river which America flows through Peru, Columbia, Brazil and drains into the Atlantic Ocean.

2. River North It forms a bird-foot like a delta at the Mississippi America Gulf of Mexico, River Missouri is an important tributary of it.

3. River St. North It drains into Gulf of St. Lawrence Lawrence America which is an important transport corridor of North America.

4. River Orange South Africa Longest river of South Africa and contains diamond beds along its mouth.

5. River Congo Africa This river crosses the equator twice and drains into the south Atlantic Ocean.

6. River Nile Africa It is the longest river in the world, originates near Lake Victoria and drains in the Mediterranean Sea.

7. River Rhine Western It flows through Germany and Europe Netherlands. It is one of the busiest waterways of Europe.

8. River Danube Europe It passes through Germany, Hungary, Austria, Slovakia, Serbia,

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Romania and drains into the Black Sea.

9. River Volga Europe, It is the longest river in Europe, it Russia drains into the Caspian Sea.

10. River Tigris Turkey, Iraq Cities like Mosul, Baghdad, Basra were located along its banks and it drains into the Gulf of Persia.

11. River Turkey, Syria, Main source of water for Syria. It Euphrates Iraq drains into the Persian Gulf.

12. River Myanmar Drains into Gulf of Martaban Irrawaddy

13. River Mekong China, Laos, It is also called ‘Danube of the east’, Cambodia, and it merges with south china sea. Vietnam

14. River Yangtze China It originates from the Tibetan plateau and ends in east china sea. It is the longest river in China. 3. Important Lakes of The World Sr. NAME LOCATION FACTS No.

1. Titicaca lake South America It is the highest navigable lake in the world located in the Andes mountains.

2. Great bear Canada, North It is a big glaciated lake of Canada. lake America The Eskimos of Canada camp here during the summer season.

3. Great lakes North America This comprise of five large lakes of North America such as Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario. Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world.

4. Lake Malawi Central Africa It is the third largest lake of Africa and borders Tanzania, Mozambique.

5. Lake East Africa It is deepest and second largest lake of Tanganyika Africa.

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6. Lake Victoria Africa Largest river of Africa and passes through the equator.

7. Lake Kainji Africa Largest manmade lake of Africa, used for irrigation purposes.

8. Dead sea West Asia It is bordered by Jordan in the east and Palestine, Israel in the west. It is known for high salinity.

9. Aral Sea Central Asia Located between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. It is shrinking rapidly in recent years.

10. Lake Baikal Russia It is the largest freshwater lake in Asia and deepest in the world.

11. Caspian Sea Eurasia It is the largest lake in the world and is surrounded by Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran and Azerbaijan.

Important Ocean Currents: Major Ocean Currents of the Atlantic Ocean Warm currents of the Atlantic Ocean Cold Current of the Atlantic Ocean 1. Labrador Current - Originates in the Baffin Bay drifts 1. North Equatorial Current which bifurcates south eastwards Baffin and Greenland and merges with into Antilles Current and Caribbean Current. Gulf stream off New Foundland. 2. South Equatorial Current bifurcates at the 2. The Irminger Current of Greenland Current Flows Current protruding landmass of northeast Brazil between Greenland and Iceland and merges with North into northern Cayenne Current and the southern Atlantic Drift. Brazilian Current (South Atlantic Ocean). 3. Gulf stream - One of the strongest ocean system which originates in the Gulf of Mexico. It consists of (i) Florida Current - From the Strait of Florida to 3. Canaries Current - Continuation of North Atlantic Drift Cape Hatteras (USA) along the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and North (ii) Gulf Stream (cold wall) - From Cape Hatters Africa in the southern direction. to the Grand Bank (Northeast USA) (iii) North Atlantic Drift - From the Grand Bank, near New Foundland to western Europe. 4. Counter Equatorial Current - Flows from west 4. Falkland Current - Flows northwards along the eastern to east in between the North and South Equatorial coast of South America up to Argentina. Current. 5. South Atlantic Drift - Under the influence of westerlies at about 400S latitude, Brazilian Current continues as the South Atlantic Current.

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6. Benguela Current - Flows northwards along the western

coast of South Africa.

Major Ocean Currents of the Pacific Ocean WARM CURRENTS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN COLD CURRENTS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 1. Oyashio (Kurile) Current - Bering Current or 1. North Equatorial Current - Flows westwards from Alaskan Current and Okhotsk Current meet to form the western coast of Mexico to the Philippines. Oyashio Current. 2. South Equatorial Current - Flows westwards in the 2. California Current - Flows along with the west- southern Pacific Ocean and bifurcates into northern and tern cost of USA and finally merges with North southern branches near new Guinea. Equatorial Current (Warm) to complete the circulation. 3. West Wind Drift - Flows from west to east in the 3. Counter Equatorial Current - Flows between north zone of 400-500S latitude under the influence of and south Equatorial Current in the opposite direction. Westerlies. 4. Peruvian (Humboldt) Current - Flows northwards 4. Kuroshio or Japan Current - Flows from Taiwan to along the western coast of South America is actually Bering Strait. the continuation of West Wind Drift.

Major Ocean Currents of the Indian Ocean WARM CURRENTS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN 1. Indian Equatorial Current: Flows westwards in the south Indian Ocean, bifurcates at Madagascar and flows are Mozambique and Aughulas Current in the southern direction. 2. South West Monsoon Current: Flows along the coasts of India in an easterly direction. 3. North-West Monsoon Current: Flows along the eastern coasts of India during winter. Major Ocean Routes of the World

List of temperate Grasslands and their location:

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Distribution • They lie in interiors of continents, bordering deserts and away from the Mediterranean region. • Placed under the Westerly wind belt. • In the northern hemisphere, grasslands are entirely continental and extensive. • In Eurasia, they are called Steppes stretched from shores of Black sea eastwards to foothills of Altai Mountains. • Grasslands are known by different names as given below: Region Grassland Hungary and plains of Manchuria Pustaz North America Prairies Argentina and Uruguay Pampas Northern South Africa Bush-Veld (more tropical) Southern South Africa High Veld (more Temperate) Murray-Darling basin of Australia Downs New Zealand Canterbury Hot and Cold Local winds and their locations: • Local Winds are caused by the local difference in temperature and pressure. • Local Winds are of four types including hot, cold, conventional, and slope. • These Winds effects only the smaller areas. • Local Winds blow during a particular period of the day or year in a smaller area.

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• These winds are found in the lowest levels of the troposphere.

• There are many such winds that blow all over the world, some of them are cool, some are warm, some • wet and some dry. Eastern shore: Saudi Arabia. Yemen. • Cold Winds includes Bore, Mistral, Gregale, Western shore: Egypt. Sudan. Eritrea. Chinook, Purga, etc. Djibouti. • Warm Winds include Zonda, Sirocco, 4. Countries surrounding the Adriatic Sea Chinook, Loo, etc. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, • Moist wind includes Elephanta. Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia • Dry wind includes Calima. 5. Countries surrounding Mediterranean Countries around important water bodies: Sea 1. Countries surrounding Caspian Sea Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Turkmenistan Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, 2. Countries surrounding Black Sea Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain, Ukraine , Russia, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey Romania 3. Countries surrounding Red Sea Landforms: Fluvial, Glacial, Karst, Coastal & Arid Process Upper or Youth Middle or Mature Stage Lower or Senile Stage Stage

Erosion Vertical Erosion Vertical and lateral erosion Later deposition

Gradient Steep valley sides U-Shaped valley Almost base level – V-Shaped valley

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Deposition Active erosion Erosion equals deposition Lot of deposition. with very little Formation of Deltas deposition near river mouth

Landforms Rapids and Meanders formation, ox- Floodplains, deltas, waterfalls, V- bow lakes, interlocking estuary, meanders and shaped valleys, spurs, river cliffs and slip- oxbow lakes gorges, river off slopes capture

Glacial Landforms 7. Moraines: Pieces of rock fragments which becomes stationary after the glacier melts. They may be lateral moraine, median moraine, terminal moraine etc. Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands 1. Roche moutonnee: a resistant residual rock hummock. 2. Crag and Tail: a mass of rock with precipitous slope on the upstream side and softer leeward slope. 3. Boulder clay or Glacial till: an unsorted glacial deposit comprising a range of eroded materials forming a monotonous and featureless landform. 4. Erratics: Boulders of varying size transported by the ice and composed of materials entirely different from those of the region. 5. Drumlins: Oval, elongated whale-back hummocks. It is known as the Basket of Eggs topography. 6. Eskers: they are long, narrow, sinuous ridges

Landforms of Highland Glaciation composed of sand and gravel which mark the former sites of sub-glacial meltwater stream. 1. Corrie, Cirque or Cwm: A steep horseshoe- shaped basin. 7. Terminal moraines: Coarse debris deposited at the edge of the ice sheet. 2. Aretes or Pyramidal Peaks: When two corries cut back on opposite sides of a mountain, 8. Outwash plains: fluvioglacial deposits knife-edged ridges are formed called Aretes. washed out from the terminal moraines. They are called Knob and kettle topography. 3. Bergschrund: a deep crack at the head of the glacier. 4. U-Shaped glacial troughs: Valley formed due to the downward movement of glaciers. 5. Hanging valleys: A tributary valley ‘hangs’ above the main valley so that its stream plunges down as a waterfall. 6. Rock basins and rock steps: Excavation of bedrock due to the glacial erosion process www.gradeup.co

Arid or Desert Landforms Desert Landscape 1. Hamada or Rocky desert 2. Reg or stony desert 3. Erg or sandy desert 4. Badlands: Hills are eroded into gullies and ravines. 5. Mountain deserts: Dissected desert highlands due to erosion. Erosional Landforms 1. Deflation hollows: Winds lower the ground by blowing away the unconsolidated materials. 2. Mushroom rocks: A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal, or a pedestal rock, is a naturally occurring rock whose shape, as its name implies, resembles a mushroom. 3. Inselbergs: isolated residual hills rising abruptly from the level ground. 4. Demoiselles: These are rock pillars which Depositional landforms stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a 1. Dunes: Dunes are hills of sand formed by the result of differential erosion of hard and soft accumulation of sand and shaped by the rocks movement of winds. 5. Zeugens: A table-shaped area of rock found 1. Barchans: Crescent-shaped dunes in arid and semi-arid areas formed when occurring transversely to the wind more resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate direction. than softer rocks around it under the effects 2. Seifs: Longitudinal dunes, which are of wind erosion long, narrow ridges of sand, often 6. Yardangs: Yardang, a large area of soft, over a hundred miles long lying poorly consolidated rock and bedrock parallel to the direction of prevailing surfaces that have been extensively grooved, winds. fluted, and pitted by wind erosion. The rock 2. Loess: the fine dust blown beyond the desert is eroded into alternating ridges and furrows limits is deposited on neighbouring lands as essentially parallel to the dominant wind loess. direction. 3. Bolsons: It is a semiarid, flat-floored desert 7. Ventifacts or dreikanter: these are pebbles valley or depression, usually centred on a faceted by sand-blasting. playa or salt pan and entirely surrounded by hills or mountains. It is a type of basin characteristic of basin-and-range terrain 4. Playas: an alkali flat or sabkha, a desert basin with no outlet which periodically fills with water to form a temporary lake. 5. Pediments: a broad, gently sloping expanse of rock debris extending outwards from the foot of a mountain slope, especially in a desert.

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6. Bajadas: A bajada consists of a series of coalescing alluvial fans along a mountain front. These fan-shaped deposits form from the deposition of sediment within a stream onto flat land at the base of a mountain Karst Topography ● Grykes/Clints: Clints are the blocks of limestone that constitute the paving, their area and shape are directly dependent upon the frequency and pattern of grykes. Grykes, or scailps, are the fissures that isolate the individual clints ● Swallow holes/Sink Holes (Dolines or Uvalas): A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. ● Stalactites/Stalagmites: A stalactite is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs from the ceiling of a cave, and is produced by the precipitation of minerals from water dripping through the cave ceiling. A stalagmite is an upward-growing mound of mineral deposits that have precipitated from water dripping Erosional Features onto the floor of a cave. 1. Capes and Bays: On exposed coasts, softer ● Caverns: Large-scale features where caves rocks are worn back into inlets, coves or bays are formed due to the dissolution of due to erosion while the harder rocks persist limestones. May include Poljies. as headlands, promontories or capes.

2. Cliffs and wave-cut platforms: 3. Cave, arch, stack and slump 4. Geos and gloups: Where a cave roof collapses, a narrow inlet or geo is formed.

Coastal Landforms

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1. Ria coasts: Formed in upland coastal regions where the mountains run in right angles to the sea where the lower valley is submerged due to deglaciation. 2. Fiord coasts: Submerged U-shaped glacial troughs. 3. Dalmatian coasts: Longitudinal coasts where mountains run parallel to the coast. 4. Estuarine coasts: In submerged Depositional Features lowlands, the mouths of rivers are 1. Beaches: Sands and gravels loosened from drowned so those funnel-shaped the land are moved by waves to be deposited estuaries are formed. along the shore as beaches. ● Coastline of Emergence 2. Spits and bars: Deposition of material piling 1. Uplifted lowland coast: Smooth, up into a ridge forming a spit with one end gently sloping coastal lowland is attached to the land and the other end formed with shallow lagoons, salt- projecting into the sea. When the ridge of marshes and mudflats. shingle is formed across the mouth of a river, 2. Emergent upland coast: Faulting or it is called a bar. earth movement thrust up coastal 3. Marine dunes and dune belts: Due to on-shore plateau so that whole region is raised, wind’s force, a large amount of coastal sand is driven with consequent emergent features landwards forming marine dunes. such as a steep cliff, deep off-shore ● Coastline of Submergence waters etc.

Top Mineral Producer in India (State-wise) and other Countries Mineral Type Mines Top Producers Top Producers Top Reserves (States) (Countries) (States)

IRON ORE Metallic Barabil – Koira 1. Orissa 1. Australia 1. Orissa Valley(Orissa) 2. Chattisgarh 2. Brazil 2. Jharkhand Bailadila Mine 3. Karnataka 3. China 3. Chattisgarh (Chattisgarh) 4. India Dalli-Rajhara(CH) – the largest mine in India MANGANESE Metallic Nagpur-Bhandara 1. Madhya 1. China 1. Orissa Region (Maharashtra) Pradesh 2. Gabon 2. Karnataka Gondite Mines, 2. Maharashtra 3. South Africa 3. Madhya Khondolite deposits 5. India Pradesh (Orissa) CHROMITE Metallic Sukinda Valley (Orissa) 1. Orissa 1.South Africa 1. Sukinda Hasan Region 2. Karnataka 2.India Valley (OR) (Karnataka) 3. Andhra 3.Russia 2. Guntur Pradesh Region (AP) NICKEL Metallic Sukinda Valley (Orissa) 1. Orissa 1. Phillippines 1. Orissa Singhbhum Region 2. Jharkhand 2. Russia 2. Jharkhand (Jharkhand) 3. Canada 3. Karnataka www.gradeup.co

COBALT Metallic Singhbhum 1. Jharkhand 1.Democratic Region(Jharkhand) 2. Orissa Republic of Kendujhar (Orissa) 3. Nagaland Congo Tuensang (Nagaland) 2. China 3. Canada BAUXITE Metallic Balangir(Orissa) 1. Orissa 1. Australia 1. Junagarh Koraput (Orissa) 2. Gujarat 2. China, (GJ) Gumla(Jharkhand) 3. Brazil 2. Durg (CH) Shahdol (Madhya Pradesh) COPPER Metallic Malanjkhand Belt (MP) 1. Madhya 1. Chile 1. Rajasthan Khetri Belt(Rajasthan) Pradesh 2. China 2. MP Kho-Dariba(Rajasthan) 2. Rajasthan 3. Peru 3. Jharkhand 3. Jharkhand GOLD Metallic Kolar Gold Field 1. Karnataka 1. China 1. Bihar (Karnataka) 2. Andhra 2. USA 2. Rajasthan Hutti Gold Field Pradesh 3. South Africa 3. Karnataka (Karnataka) Ramagiri Mines (Andhra Pradesh) Sunarnarekha Sands (Jharkhand) SILVER Metallic Zawar Mines 1. Rajasthan 1. Mexico 1. Rajasthan (Rajasthan) 2. Karnataka 2. Peru 2. Jharkhand Tundoo Mines 3. China (Jharkhand) Kolar Gold Fields (Karnataka) LEAD Metallic Rampura Aghucha 1. Rajasthan 1. China 1. Rajasthan (Rajasthan) 2. Andhra 2. Australia 2. Madhya Sindesar Mines Pradesh 3. USA Pradesh (Rajasthan) 3. MP TIN Metallic Dantewada Chhattisgarh 1. China Chhattisgarh (Chhattisgarh) (only state in 2. Indonesia India) 3. Peru MAGNESIUM Metallic Chalk Hills (Tamilnadu) 1. Tamil Nadu 1. China 1. Tamil Nadu Almora (Uttarakhand) 2. Uttarakhand 2. Russia 2. Karnataka 3. Karnataka 3. Turkey LIMESTONE Non- Jabalpur (Madhya 1. Rajasthan 1. China 1. Andhra Metallic Pradesh) 2. Madhya 2. India Pradesh Satna (Madhya Pradesh) Pradesh 2. Rajasthan Cuddapah (AP) 3. Gujarat MICA Non- Gudur Mines (Aandhra 1. Andhra 1. India Metallic Pradesh) Pradesh 2. Russia Aravalis (RaJasthan) 2. Rajasthan Koderma (Jharkhand) 3. Orissa DOLOMITE Non- Bastar, Raigarh 1. Chhattisgarh 1. India 1. Chhattisgarh Metallic (Chhattisgarh) 2. Andhra 2. Orissa Birmitrapur (Orissa) Pradesh

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Khammam Region (Aandhra Pradesh) ASBESTOS Non- Pali (Rajasthan) – 1. Rajasthan 1. Russia 1. Rajasthan Metallic largest mine 2. Andhra 2. China 2. Andhra Cuddapah (Andhra Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh) 3. karnataka GYPSUM Non- Jodhpur, Bikaner, 1. Rajasthan 1. China 1. Rajasthan Metallic Jaisalmer-Rajasthan 2. Tamil Nadu 2. USA 2.Tamil Nadu 3. Gujarat 3. Iran 3. J & K DIAMOND Non- Majhgawan Panna 1. MP – only 1. Russia Metallic Mines (MP) – only diamond 2. Bostwana active diamond mine in producing state 3. Democratic India Republic of Congo COAL Non- Korba Coalfield, 1. Chhattisgarh 1. China 1. Jharkhand Metallic Birampur-Chhattisgarh 2. Jharkhand 2. USA 2. Orissa Jharia Coalfield, Bokaro 3. Orissa 3. India 3. Chhattisgarh Coalfield, Girdih – (Jharkhand) Talcher field – (Orissa) Singaruli coalfields (Chhattisgarh) - Largest PETROLEUM Non- Lunej, Ankleshwar, 1. Maharastra 1. Russia 1. Gujarat Metallic Kalol–Gujarat 2. Gujarat 2. Saudi Arabia 2. Maharastra Mumbai high 3. USA Maharashtra – largest oil field Digboi–Assam–Oldest oil filed in India URANIUM Atomic Jaduguda mine 1. Andhra 1. Kazakhstan 1. Jharkhand (Jharkhand) Pradesh 2. Canada 2. Andhra Tummalapalle mine 2. Jharkhand 3. Australia Pradesh (Andhra Pradesh) – 3. Karnataka 3. Karnataka largest mine Domiasiat Mine (Meghalaya) THORIUM Atomic 1. Kerala 1. Australia 1. Andhra 2. Jharkhand 2. USA Pradesh 3. Bihar 3. India 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Kerala List of Major Straits of the World Sr. No. Strait Name Remarks

1 PALK STRAIT It connects the Bay of Bengal with the Gulf of Mannar.

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2 STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR It connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in the north from Morocco in the south.

3 DUNCAN PASSAGE It is a strait separating Rutland to the North and Little Andaman to the south.

4 NINE DEGREE CHANNEL This Channel connects Laccadive Islands of Kalapeni, Suheli Par & Maliku Atoll.

5 TEN DEGREE CHANNEL It separates the Andaman Islands from the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

6 STRAIT OF HORMUZ It lies between UAE and Oman on the south-west and Iran on the north-east. It connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman. It is strategically very important as it controls the oil trade from the Gulf countries.

7 STRAIT OF BAB-EL- It connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and MANDAB separates Asia from Africa.

8 MALACCA STRAIT It separates Peninsular Malaysia from Sumatra island of Indonesia. It connects the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean. It provides a shorter route from the Andaman Sea to the South China Sea and therefore is the busiest waterway of the world.

9 SUNDA STRAIT It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean and separates Java island of Indonesia from its Sumatra island.

10 BERING STRAIT It separates Russia and Alaska and connects the East Siberian Sea in the Arctic Ocean with the Bering Sea in the Pacific Ocean.

11 ORANTO STRAIT Connect the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea and separates Italy from Albania.

12 BOSPHORUS STRAIT Connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is the world’s narrowest navigable strait.

13 DARDANELLES STRAIT It lies between the Asian Turkey and European Turkey and connects the Aegean Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is a vital link of transportation between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

14 LA PAROUSES STRAIT It lies between the Sakhalin island and Hokkaido island of Japan and connects the Sea of Okhotsk with the Sea of Japan.

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15 STRAIT OF It separates Russian Island Sakhalin from Mainland TARTARY/TARTAR Asia. It connects the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the Sea of Japan in the south.

16 TSUGARU STRAIT It lies between Hokkaido and Honshu in northern Japan and connects the Sea of Japan to the Pacific Ocean.

17 TAIWAN STRAIT OR It lies between Taiwan (Republic of China) and Mailand FORMOSA STRAIT China (People’s Republic of China). It connects South China Sea with the East China Sea.

18 MOZAMBIQUE STRAIT It lies in the Indian Ocean between Mozambique from Madagascar.

19 YUCATAN STRAIT It lies between Mexico and Cuba and connects the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean Sea.

20 FLORIDA STRAIT It lies between the Florida state of the USA and Cuba.

21 HUDSON STRAIT It connects the Hudson Bay (Canada) with the Labrador Sea.

22 DAVIS STRAIT It connects the Baffin Bay with the Atlantic Ocean.

23 COOK STRAIT It lies between the North and the South islands of New Zealand and connects the Tasman Sea with the South Pacific Ocean.

24 BASS STRAIT It separates Tasmania from the Australian mainland.

25 TORRES STRAIT It lies in the Pacific Ocean, between Cape York Peninsula of Australia and Papua New Guinea

26 MAGELLAN STRAIT It separates Mainland South America from Tierra Del Fuego (an archipelago off the southern-most tip of the South American Mainland)

27 DOVER STRAIT It lies in the narrowest part of the English Channel, connecting it with the North Sea. It separates Britain from Continental Europe.

28 NORTH CHANNEL It separates Ireland from Scotland and connects the Irish Sea with the Atlantic Ocean.

Climatology: Classification of Clouds Various kinds of clouds exist. They vary in size, Types of Clouds shape, or colour from each other. They are basically classified into 2 types: www.gradeup.co

1. Based on their shape ● Low clouds are also known as Stratus Clouds. 2. Based on their altitude ● They appear dense, dark, and rainy (or Clouds on the basis of there shapes: snowy) and can also be cottony white clumps interspersed with blue sky. 1. Cirrus Middle Clouds 2. Cumulus ● They develop between 6,500 feet and cirrus 3. Stratus level or from 2000 to 6000 metres. Cirrus Clouds: ● They are known as “Alto” clouds. ● Cirrus is an atmospheric cloud generally ● They frequently indicate an approaching characterized by thin, wispy strands. It storm. derives its name from the Latin word cirrus, ● They may sometimes produce Virga, which which means a ringlet or curling lock of hair. is a type of rain or snow that does not reach Cumulus Clouds: the ground. ● Cumulus clouds have flat bases and are as High Clouds "puffy", "cotton-like" or "fluffy" in ● They are situated above 6000 metres or appearance. 20,000 feet. ● Their name derives from the Latin cumulo-, ● They are widely known as Cirrus Clouds. meaning heap or pile. ● They usually have a thin structure and are Stratus Clouds: made up of ice. ● Stratus clouds have a uniform foundation of ● They do not produce rain and hence indicate horizontal layers. The word "stratus" is fair weather. derived from the Latin prefix "strato-", Climate and its Factors meaning "layer". The Atmosphere ● The term stratus represents flat, hazy, ● Gases and vapours form the atmosphere. featureless clouds of low altitude varying in When they receive solar energy, it gives rise colour from dark grey to white. to ‘Climate’. Thus, the climate is defined as Clouds on the basis of their altitude: the average atmospheric conditions of an 1. Low Clouds area over a considerable period of time. 2. Middle Clouds When this consideration of atmospheric 3. High Clouds condition is about certain place at certain Low Clouds time then it is called weather. ● They are situated below 6,500 feet or 2,000 ● There are five layers of the atmosphere. meters. Those are:

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Elements of climate decrease in temperature with increasing 1. Temperature altitude is called as ‘Lapse rate’. This rate is 2. Precipitation not constant. The lapse rate is greater by day than at night, greater on elevated highlands 3. Rainfall than on level plains. 4. Pressure and planetary winds 3. Continentality – Land surface gets heated 5. Land and sea breezes more quickly than water surface because of 6. Cyclonic activity the higher specific heat of the water. (Specific Temperature heat is energy required to raise the Temperature decides the following factors- temperature of giving volume by 1 degree ● Amount of water vapour, the moisture- Fahrenheit) carrying capacity of the air. 4. Ocean currents and winds – Both transport ● Rate of evaporation and condensation, their heat or coldness into adjacent regions. governing degree of stability of the On-shore winds carry ocean currents atmosphere. landwards thereby affecting the temperature ● Relative humidity affecting nature and types of an area. Local winds also change of cloud formation and precipitation. temperature according to their own Factors that affect temperature: temperature. 1. Latitude – Temperature diminishes from 5. Slope, shelter and aspect – Steep slope show equatorial regions to poles because of the a rapid change in temperature than a gentle earth’s inclination. Direct rays travel a slope. Sheltered slope (north facing) has less shorter distance and heat up smaller surface temperature than sunny slope (south-facing). whereas oblique rays travel a longer distance 6. Natural vegetation and soil – Thick and heat up large area. vegetation has less temperature than open 2. Altitude – Temperature of air decreases with spaces. Colour of soil (light or dark) give rise increasing height above sea level. This rate of to slight variation in temperature. www.gradeup.co

Precipitation on the upwind side. Leeward side acts as a ● When condensation occurs at ground level, rain shadow area where usually low haze, mist or fog are formed. precipitation occurs. ● When condensation of water vapour takes ● Cyclonic or frontal rain: When air masses place in the atmosphere at a temperature with different temperatures and different below freezing point, snowfall occurs. physical properties meet, warmer air rises ● When moist air ascends rapidly cooler layers over cooler air. In ascent, air expands and of the atmosphere, water droplets freeze and cools. Condensation takes place in the form fall to the earth as hail or hailstone. of frontal rainfall. Pressure and planetary winds ● Frozen raindrops melt and refreeze forming World pressure belts: Circulation of air over the sleet. surface of the earth caused by the difference in Rainfall pressure forms pressure belts. Those are: ● Convectional rain: When earth surface gets ● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt- Between 5 heated by conduction, it comes into contact degrees north and south, also called as with air. This heated air contains the capacity Doldrums. It is the zone of wind to hold moisture. This air rises up and cools convergence. down. When saturation point is reached, rainfall occurs. In regions with high relative ● Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt- Between humidity, this moisture carrying capacity is 30 degrees north and south, also referred to as huge, resulting in torrential downpours. Horse Latitudes. It is the zone of wind Convection current goes through the process divergence, with cyclonic activity. of expansion, cooling, saturation and finally ● Temperate Low-Pressure Belt- Between 60 condensation. degrees north and south, also called as sub- ● Orographic rain: When moist air ascends the polar low-pressure areas. It is the zone of windward side of a mountain barrier, it cools wind convergence, with anticyclonic activity. down until complete saturation and ● Polar High-Pressure Belt- At 90 degrees orographic clouds form. Precipitation occurs north and south. Here the temperature is permanently low.

Planetary winds www.gradeup.co

Within the pattern of permanent pressure belts, winds ● Houselisting & Housing Census blow from high pressure to low-pressure belts, as (April to September 2010) planetary winds. Trade winds, westerlies and polar ● Population Enumeration easterlies flow under the effect of Coriolis force. (9th to 28th February 2011) Land and sea breezes ● Number of Administrative Units in Census ● Differential heating of land and sea is basic 2011 factor responsible for monsoon. Land breeze States/UTs 35 forms a diurnal rhythm and sea breeze form a Districts 640 seasonal rhythm. Sub-districts 5,924 Cyclonic activity Towns 7,936 ● Tropical cyclones (as named in the Indian Villages 6.41 lakh ocean), typhoons in China sea (tropical Facts about districts latitudes), hurricanes in West Indian island in ● Thane district of Maharashtra is the most Caribbean and tornadoes in Guinea lands of populated district of India. West Africa and southern USA and willy- ● Dibang Valley of Arunachal Pradesh is the willies in north-western Australia occurs. least populated. Important facts of Census 2011 Census 2011 ● Kurung Kumey of Arunachal Pradesh registered highest population growth rate of ● Census is a process of collecting, compiling, 111.01 Percent. analyzing, evaluating, publishing and disseminating statistical data regarding the ● Longleng district of Nagaland registered population of a country. negative population growth rate of (-)58.39. ● It covers demographic, social and economic ● Mahe district of Puducherry has the highest data. sex ratio of 1176 females per 1000 males. ● It is conducted every 10 years. ● Daman district has the lowest sex ratio of 533 females per 1000 males. ● It started in 1871. ● Serchhip district of Mizoram has the highest ● Census 2011 data was released on 31st March literacy rate of 98.76 Percent. 2011 by Union Home Secretary and RGCCI (Registrar General and Census ● Alirajpur of MP is the least literate district of Commissioner of India) of India. India with the figure of 37.22 Percent only. ● Census 2011 was the 15th census of India & ● North East Delhi has the highest density with 7th census after Independence. the figure of 37346 people per square kilometre. ● The motto of census 2011 was “Our Census, Our future”. ● Dibang Valley has the least density of 1 person per sq. km ● Registrar General & Census Commissioner Facts about cities under whom census 2011 was conducted – C.Chandra Mouli ● Mumbai city of Maharashtra is the most populated city in India. ● Present Registrar General & Census Commissioner – Shri Sailesh, ● Kapurthala city of Punjab is the least populated. ● Total Population – 1,210,569,573 (1.21 Billion) ● Kozhikode of Kerala has the highest sex ratio of 1093 females per 1000 males. ● India in 2nd rank in the population with 17.64%. decadal growth. ● Bhiwandi city of Maharashtra has the lowest sex ratio of 709 females per 1000 males. ● Increase in population during 2001 – 2011 is 181 Million ● Aizawl city of Mizoram has the highest literacy rate of 98.76 Percent. ● Census 2011 was held in two phases:

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● Sambhal of UP is the least literate city in ● North East Delhi has the highest density with India with the figure of 48 Percent only. the figure of 37346 people per square kilometre.

FEATURE INDIA TOP 3 STATES BOTTOM 3 OTHER FACT STATE Average 1.64 % 1. Meghalaya (2.49 1. Goa (.79%) During 2001-2011, as many as annual %) 2. Andhra Pradesh 25 States/UTs with a share of growth rate 2. Arunachal (1.07%) about 85% of the country’s Pradesh (2.3 %) 3. Sikkim (1.17%) population registered an 3. Bihar (2.26 %) annual growth rate of Less than 2%. Decadal 17.60% 1. Meghalaya (27.8 1. Nagaland ( -0.5 ● Nagaland is only the growth rate %) %) state that has negative 2. Arunachal 2. Kerala (4.9 %) growth rate. Pradesh (25.9 %) 3. Goa (8.2 %) ● Districts with highest 3. Bihar (25.1 %) and lowest decadal growth rate were Kurung Kumey and Longleng respectively. Population 382 1. Bihar (1,106 per 1. Arunachal ● Top 2 Districts: North Density sq km) Pradesh (17 per sq East (NCT of Delhi) 2. West Bengal km) and Chennai (1030 per sq km) 2. Mizoram (52 per ● Bottom 2 district: 3. Kerala (859 per sq km) Dibang Valley and sq km) 3. J&K (56 per sq Samba. km) Population Total - Total Total ● Top Metros 1. (in terms of 1210.19 1. Uttar Pradesh 1. Sikkim (6.07 Mumbai (18,394,912) numbers) million (19.9 million, lakh - 0.05%) 2. Delhi 3. Chennai Males – 623.7 16.5%) 2. Mizoram (10.9 ● The population of million 2. Maharashtra (11 lakh - 0.09 %) India is almost equal to (51.54%) million - 9.28%) 3. Arunachal the combined Females – 3. Bihar (10 million Pradesh (13.8 lakh - population of U.S.A., 586.46 million - 8.6%) 0.11%) Indonesia, Brazil, (48.46%) Pakistan, Bangladesh Rural and Japan put together population– (1214.3 million)! 833 million ● Top 2 Districts: Urban Thane(Maharashtra) population - and North Twenty 377 million Four Parganas (West Bengal) ● Bottom 2 Districts: Dibang Valley and Anjaw (Arunachal Pradesh). www.gradeup.co

Sex ratio 940 1. Kerala (1084) 1. Haryana (879) ● Top 2 Districts: Mahe 2. Tamil Nadu (996) 2. Jammu and and Almora 3. Andhra Pradesh Kashmir (889) ● Bottom 2 Districts: (993) 3. Sikkim (890) Daman and Leh

Fertility rate 2.3 1. Bihar (3.4) 1. Sikkim (1.45) (2013) 2. U.P. (3.17) 2. West Bengal 3. Meghalaya (3.1) (1.64) 3. Tamil Nadu (1.7)

Literacy Rate Overall -74% Overall Overall ● Highest literacy rate Male – 82.14% 1. Kerala (93.9%) 1. Bihar (63.80%) according to Religion Female -65.46 2. Mizoram (91.6%) 2. Arunachal – Jain (94 %) > 3. Tripura (87.8%) Pradesh (67%) Christian (80%) > 3. Rajasthan Buddhist (74%) (67.11%) ● Top 2 Districts: Serchhip and Aizwal ● Bottom 2 Districts Alirajpur and Bijapur

Work Overall (39 %) 1. Mizoram 1. Kerala participation ● Male (45 %) 2. Goa rate ● Female (14 %)

Tribe 550 tribes Population wise Population wise ● 8.2% of the 1. MP (1.5 million) 1. Punjab (zero) total 2. Maharashtra (1.0 2. Haryana (zero) Population of million) 3. Goa (32,000) India 3. Gujrat (.89 ● 10 million million) Tribal density wise population Tribal density wise 1. Punjab (zero) 1. Mizoram 2. Haryana (zero) 2. Nagaland 3. Meghalaya State (Area) 32.87 Lakh 1. Rajasthan (3.42 1. Goa (3702 km2) km2 Lakh km2) 2. Sikkim (7096 2. M.P. (3.08 Lakh km2) km2) 3. Tripura (10,486 3. Maharashtra km2) (3.07 Lakh km2)

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Urbanization 1. Goa (62%) 1. Himachal Maharashtra has highest no. of 2. Mizoram (52%) Pradesh (10%) cities – 18 in numbers 3. Tamil Nadu 2. Bihar (10.29%) (48%) 3. Assam (14%)

Child sex 914 1. Mizoram (971) 1. Haryana (830) The Child Sex Ratio at India ratio 2. Meghalaya (970) 2. Punjab (846) level (914) is lowest since 3. Chhattisgarh 3. J&K (859) Independence (964)

Per Capita 60972 Rs. 1. Goa (1,92,000 1. Bihar (24,000 Net State Rs) Rs) Domestic 2. Haryana 2. U.P. (29,000 Rs) Product at (1,09,000 Rs) 3. Jharkhand Current 3. Tamil Nadu (32,000 Rs) Prices (2011- (84,000 Rs) 12) Age structure Adolescent (36.5 %) Adult (56.7%) Old (6.8 %)

Major language Hindi (40%) Bengali (8%) Telugu (7.8%)

Language family 1. Indo – European (Aryan – 73%) 2. Dravidian (20%) 3. Austric (Nishad - 1.3%)

Religion- Hindu 96.63 crore (79.8 %) Muslim 17.22 Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Sikhs are in Percentage of crore (14.2%) Christian 2.78 crore (2.3%) majority in 28,4,2,1 state respectively. population Sikh 2.08 crore (1.7%) Buddhist 0.84 crore (0.7%) Jain 0.45 crore (0.4%)

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ENVIRONMENT Basic Terminology of Environment and Ecology intraspecies variations of biotic components 1. Abiotic components: Non-living and of an ecosystem. inorganic components of an ecosystem 9. Bio-Geochemical cycles: The circular constitute the abiotic components like soil, pathways from which the essential elements water, air, sunlight, etc. like nitrogen, carbon etc. circulate from 2. Amensalism: It is a type of interaction organisms to the environment and vice versa between the two species where one is harmed are called biogeochemical cycles. and others remain unaffected. For example, 10. Biome: Natural forests and grasslands penicillin and bacteria. which are connected with climatic regimes or 3. Atmosphere: Atmosphere is a physical with the distribution of sunshine, temperature mixture of atmospheric gases, water vapour and rainfall are known as biomes. and suspended particulates which is 11. Biomass: Amount of living matter surrounding the earth from all the sides. It is present in an organism at a given point of bounded to the surface by the gravity of earth. time is known as the biomass of that 4. Autotrophs: The organisms which produce organism. their own food from inorganic substances like 12. Biosphere: It is the greatest CO2 and water are called autotrophs. They ecosystem on the surface of the earth and its are also known as primary producers. presence indicates a continuous interaction 5. Auto ecology: Ecological study of a and interdependence between all three particular individual or species with respect spheres of earth- atmosphere, hydrosphere to the environment is regarded as auto and lithosphere. ecology. 13. Biotic component: Living 6. Benthic animals: The animals which live at components of an ecosystem form part of the bottom of the water body are benthic biotic components of the ecosystem. animals. 14. Brood parasitism: A unique form of 7. Bioaccumulation: It is the process of increase parasitism in birds where a parasitic bird lays in the concentration of toxic elements within its eggs in the nest of host and let the host the body of a particular organism (i.e. it refers incubate them. to how an element first made an entry into the 15. Carnivores: Animals depending upon food chain) and in general the concentration herbivores or primary consumers for food of such pollutants become higher in the body and energy are known as carnivores. of the organism compared to the external 16. Climate change: Shifting pattern of environment like air, water etc. weather and climate parameters making it Biomagnification is also known as bio uncertain, unpredictable and fluctuating. This amplification; in this, the concentration of the is climate change. toxicants increases at the successive trophic 17. Climax: It is the last stage of the levels. It is due to the reason that toxic process of succession. The species at which elements cannot be absorbed and the process concludes is known as a climax simultaneously they get transferred to the community. successive higher trophic levels resulting in 18. Co-extinctions: It is a situation When more concentration of toxicants at the higher a species becomes extinct, the plant and trophic level. animal species associated with it also become 8. Biodiversity: The Sum total of all plants, extinct. animals and microorganisms represent the 19. Composting: Decomposition of biodiversity of an ecosystem. It is also organic solid wastes under aerobic conditions represented in terms of interspecies and

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(in presence of oxygen) is known as and services offered by ecosystem are composting. referred to as ecosystem services. 20. Commensalism: Type of interaction 33. Ecotone: Zone of the junction between the two species When one of the between two or more diverse ecosystems. For organisms is benefited and others remain example, estuary, grasslands, etc. neutral in an association. For example, 34. Ecotype: A plant or animal species epiphyte and mango; barnacles growing on that occupy a particular habitat which is the back of a whale. adapted to local environmental conditions. 21. Competition: Type of interaction 35. Ecocline: Gradual and continuous between the two species where both are change in the composition of the species from negatively impacted (harmed). Example- one ecosystem to another along an plants and herbivores. environmental gradient with no clear-cut 22. Conservation: Judicious use of differences between the two. It is a physical natural resources (both living and non-living) transition zone. so as to prevent them from being lost, wasted 36. Ecological niche: Functional and or extinct. ecological role played by the organism of an 23. Cryosphere: Area covered by the ecosystem. It is the sum total of all surface of the earth by ice and glaciers is relationships of an organism with biotic as known as cryosphere. well as abiotic elements of its environment. 24. Detrivores: The microorganisms 37. Ecological succession: It is the which decompose the detritus are detrivores. gradual and fairly predictable change in the 25. Decomposer: Organisms like composition of the species of a given area. bacteria, fungi etc. which are involved in bio 38. Ecophene: Population which is decomposition of dead plants and animals are characterized by the same genotype but known as decomposers. different phenotype in a particular habitat is 26. Deciduous: Trees which shed all their regarded as ecophene. leaves for a certain period of time. 39. Ecological efficiency/10% law: Rate 27. Demography: Statistical study of the of transfer of mass and energy from one population size of humans. trophic level to other is just 10% of the 28. DDT: Organochlorine chemical used previous level. This is 10% energy law which as an insecticide/pesticide in agricultural indicates the ecological efficiency of an uses. Now, its use has caused havoc due to ecosystem. bioaccumulation. 40. Ecological footprint: It represents the 29. Ecology: Scientific study of the use and exploitation of natural and relationship of living organisms with each environmental resources with respect to the other as well as with their environment. A.G. carrying capacity of the environment or the Tansley introduced the concept of ecology. ability of the environment to regenerate. 30. Environment: Anything that affects 41. Endemic biodiversity: Biodiversity of the existence of an organism throughout his a region which is connected with a particular lifetime directly or indirectly constitutes the and specific geographical condition having environment. limited distribution on the surface of the earth is called endemic biodiversity. 31. Ecosystem: Ecosystem represents interaction and interdependence between 42. Eutrophication: Overfertilization of biotic and abiotic components of an area that water bodies due to excessive concentration ensure the flow of mass and energy. of nitrates and phosphates leading to algal bloom is Eutrophication. 32. Ecosystem services: A wide range of economic, environmental and aesthetic goods www.gradeup.co

43. Euryphagic organisms: The plants 57. Gross primary productivity: Entire and animals that have a wide range of biomass and energy produced by plants of an tolerance for food are euryphagic. ecosystem in a duration of time are described 44. Eurythermal organisms: The plants as Gross primary productivity. and animals that have a wide range of 58. Habitat: The place where an organism tolerance for temperature are eurythermal. lives. It specifies a particular set of 45. Euryhydric organisms: The plants and environmental conditions. animals that have a wide range of tolerance 59. Herbivores: Animals directly for water are euryhydric. dependent on plants for their food and energy 46. EIA: Analysis of the effects caused by are known as herbivores. the development projects on the environment 60. Heterotrophs: The organism which is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). cannot synthesise their own food and; 47. Ex-situ conservation: When a species depends on plants directly and indirectly for is conserved outside the array of its natural food and energy are called heterotrophs. habitat, it is known as ex-situ conservation. 61. Heredity: Traits and qualities which For example- conservation in the zoo, are inherited from one generation to another. botanical gardens, etc. 62. Homeostasis: It is the state of stability 48. Flora: Plant community of a region is with dynamic equilibrium which is the flora of that area. maintained by living things. It is responsible 49. Fauna: Animal community of a for the optimum functioning of all the region is the fauna of that area. systems. 50. Food chain: Linear and sequential 63. Humus: It is the dark organic matter flow of mass and energy in an ecosystem. on the top of soil that is formed due to partial 51. Food web: A complicated series of degradation of dead leaves and other interdependent and interconnected food plants/animal matter by microorganisms. chains. It is also known as a consumer- 64. Hydrarch succession: The succession resource system. of plants that take place in wetter areas and 52. Food pyramid: Vertical arrangement the successional series progress from hydric of trophic levels of an ecosystem is described to the mesic conditions. as a food pyramid. 65. In situ conservation: Conservation of 53. Gasohol: Gasoline+ alcohol is plants and animals in their natural habitat. gasoline. It is used as a fuel for vehicles. 66. Insecticides: These are the chemicals 54. Global warming: Low, gradual and used to kill the insects/pests that harm irreversible rise in annual temperature of agricultural produce. earth due to the rise in the concentration of 67. Lotic ecosystem: Freshwater GHGs is known as Global warming. ecosystem with moving water. 55. Greenhouse effect: Due to the 68. Lentic ecosystem: Freshwater absorption of longwave terrestrial radiations ecosystem with still or stagnant water. inside a glasshouse, temperature inside it 69. Lithosphere: It is the outermost layer becomes more than outside. This is due to the of earth which comprises of crust and upper greenhouse effect. mantle. 56. Greenhouse gases: The gases like 70. Mutualism: It is a symbiotic CO2, CH4, CFCs, etc. which are transparent relationship between the organisms where for incoming insolation but opaque for both are benefitted. For example, lichens. longwave terrestrial radiations cause 71. Nitrogen fixation: It is the process of greenhouse effect in the atmosphere. These changing atmospheric nitrogen into that form are known as GHGs. www.gradeup.co

which is absorbable by the soil like ammonia, 84. Sere(s): Sequence of communities with the help of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. that successively change in a given area are 72. Net primary productivity (NPP): NPP called sere(s). of autotrophs is available to animals for their 85. Saprotrophs: Saprotrophs are those food and energy. It is calculated by deducting organisms which meet their food and energy the energy consumed by plants in respiration needs by degrading dead organic matter or from gross primary productivity. the detritus. NPP=GPP-energy consumed 86. Sea level rise: Slow, gradual and 73. Omnivores: Animals using a wide irreversible rise of mean sea level, range of food and energy resources (both permanently submerging coasts and islands is plants and other animals) are classified as described as sea level rise. omnivores. They are tertiary consumers. 87. Smog: Smog is a condition of fog that 74. PAN (Peroxyacyl Nitrate): It is a has smoke or soot int it. Smog=smoke+fog. secondary pollutant formed in photochemical 88. Species: Group of organisms which smog. can interbreed over time and space. 75. Pandemic biodiversity: The species 89. Standing crop: Living mass of a and subspecies of plants and animals which particular tropic level in a food pyramid. are distributed over a large area and in diverse 90. Standing state: The amount of geographical regions constitute pandemic nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. biodiversity. present in the soil at a given point of time, is 76. Particulate matter: Suspended referred to as the standing state. particles in air (may be solid or liquid). 91. Steady-state dynamic equilibrium: It 77. Parasitism: A type of association is another name for ecological stability with where one of the two is harmed and the other balance or state of homeostasis. is benefitted. Example- human liver fluke is a 92. Stenophagic: The plants and animals trematode parasite. that have a narrow range of tolerance for food 78. Phytoplankton: Primary producers of are stenophagic. marine ecosystem which float on the surface 93. Stenohydric: The plants and animals of the water are phytoplankton. They are that have a narrow range of tolerance for highly sensitive to UV exposure. water are stenohydric. 79. Pioneer species: The species which 94. Stenothermic: The plants and animals invade the bare area or the virgin land. that have a narrow range of tolerance for 80. Polar vortex: Clouds in the temperature are stenothermic. stratosphere 95. Stratosphere: It is an atmospheric 81. Process of succession: A sequential, layer extending from 20Km to 50Km. It is orderly and directional change in plant characterized by the presence of the ozone communities in an ecosystem in a duration of layer in it (which protects the earth from time is known as the process of succession. harmful UV radiations). Here, one set of producers get replaced by 96. Troposphere: It is the lowermost layer another set of producers. of the atmosphere extending upto 20Km from 82. Primary pollutants: The pollutants the surface of the earth. It is a zone of mixing which are directly formed or released in the of air responsible for all weather and climatic atmosphere like NO2, SO2 conditions. 83. Secondary pollutants: The pollutants 97. Vegetation climax: The end product which are formed from primary pollutants are of the orderly and directional process of secondary pollutants like PAN, nitric acid, succession is known as vegetation climax etc. which is the ultimate expression of an www.gradeup.co

ecosystem dominated by large trees in the ● Indo-Burma and [Purvanchal Hills, Arakan form of forests. Yoma, Eastern Bangladesh] 98. Xerarch succession: Succession of ● The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka plants in dry areas where successional series ● Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of progress from xeric to mesic conditions. Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, 99. Xerophytes: The plants connected Brunei, Philippines). with dry and semi-dry regions. Here, leaves Tiger Reserves in India are transformed into thorns to conserve and Tiger Reserves preserve water. ● Tiger reserves are administered by the 100. Zooplanktons: Primary consumers in National Tiger Conservation Authority the marine ecosystem. (NTCA). Ecological/Biodiversity Hotspots and India ● Initially, only 9 tiger reserves were covered The term ‘hot spot’ was introduced by N. Myers in under the project. 1988 for those geographical regions particularly rich ● But today, this number has increased to 50 in ‘endemic’, ‘rare’ and ‘threatened’ species found in (list is given at the end of the article). relatively small areas but facing significant threats to Important Facts habitat loss. Presently, there are 36 areas across the globe that ● Largest Tiger Reserve in India- qualify as hotspots. They represent 2.4% of the Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve Earth’s land surface but support more than half of the (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana) world’s plant species as endemics — and nearly 43% ● Smallest Tiger Reserve in India- Bor Tiger of bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species as Reserve (Maharashtra) endemics. STRUCTURE: For any area to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, the ● A tiger reserve is demarcated on the basis of following two criteria’s must be met: ‘core-buffer strategy’ which includes: ● The area must contain at least 1,500 species (i) Core zone of endemic vascular plants. (ii) Buffer zone ● The area must have lost at least 70 per cent of PROJECT TIGER its primary native vegetation. ● It was launched in the country in the year Biodiversity Hotspots Across the World 1973 in Palamau Tiger Reserve. The eight hottest hot spots in terms of the above The first time project tiger was launched in factors are: 1973, at Jim Corbett National Park, 1. Madagascar Uttrakhand. (in some sources) 2. Philippines ● It was done with the help of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) on the basis of the 3. Sundaland [South East Asia] recommendation of a special task-force of the 4. Brazil’s Atlantic Forest Indian Board for Wildlife. 5. Caribbean NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION 6. Indo-Burma AUTHORITY (NTCA) 7. The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka ● It is a statutory body constituted under the 8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, Tanzania/Kenya 2006. There are 4 biodiversity hot spots present in India. ● It was recommended by Tiger Task Force. They are: ● It is responsible for all the measures and ● The Eastern Himalayas [Arunachal Pradesh, actions taken under the project tiger for the Bhutan, Eastern Nepal] conservation of the tiger.

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● Minister for Environment and Forests is its co-predators, prey and habitat once in every chairperson and Minister of State for four years. It is done using the refined Environment and Forests is the vice- methodology, as approved by the Tiger Task chairperson. Force. ● The NTCA / Project Tiger also conducts the country level assessment of the status of tiger, List of Tiger Reserves in India State-wise Here is a complete list of Tiger Reserves in India as notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and amended in 2006. Sr. No. Name of Tiger Reserve (Year of creation) State

1 Bandipur (1973-74) Karnataka

2 Corbett (1973-74) Uttarakhand

Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) Uttar Pradesh

3 Kanha (1973-74) Madhya Pradesh

4 Manas (1973-74) Assam

5 Melghat (1973-74) Maharashtra

6 Palamau (1973-74) Jharkhand

7 Ranthambore (1973-74) Rajasthan

8 Similipal (1973-74) Odisha

9 Sunderbans (1973-74) West Bengal

10 Periyar (1978-79) Kerala

11 Sariska (1978-79) Rajasthan

12 Buxa (1982-83) West Bengal

13 Indravati (1982-83) Chhattisgarh

14 Namdapha (1982-83) Arunachal Pradesh

15 Dudhwa (1987-88) Uttar Pradesh

16 Kalakad-Mundanthurai (1988-89) Tamil Nadu

17 Valmiki (1989-90) Bihar www.gradeup.co

18 Pench (1992-93) Madhya Pradesh

19 Tadoba-Andhari (1993-94) Maharashtra

20 Bandhavgarh (1993-94) Madhya Pradesh

21 Panna (1994-95) Madhya Pradesh

22 Dampa (1994-95) Mizoram

23 Bhadra (1998-99) Karnataka

24 Pench (1998-99) Maharashtra

25 Pakke (1999-2000) Arunachal Pradesh

26 Nameri (1999-2000) Assam

27 Satpura (1999-2000) Madhya Pradesh

28 Anamalai (2008-09) Tamil Nadu

29 Udanti-Sitanadi (2008-09) Chattisgarh

30 Satkosia (2008-09) Odisha

31 Kaziranga (2008-09) Assam

32 Achanakmar (2008-09) Chattisgarh

33 Dandeli-Anshi (Kali) (2008-09) Karnataka

34 Sanjay-Dubri (2008-09) Madhya Pradesh

35 Mudumalai (2008-09) Tamil Nadu

36 Nagarahole (2008-09) Karnataka

37 Parambikulam (2008-09) Kerala

38 Sahyadri (2009-10) Maharashtra

39 Biligiri Ranganatha Temple (2010-11) Karnataka

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40 Kawal (2012-13) Telangana

41 Sathyamangalam (2013-14) Tamil Nadu

42 Mukandra Hills (2013-14) Rajasthan

43 Nawegaon-Nagzira (2013-14) Maharashtra

44 Nagarjunsagar Srisailam (1982-83) Andhra Pradesh

45 Amrabad (2014) Telangana

46 Pilibhit (2014) Uttar Pradesh

47 Bor (2014) Maharashtra

48 Rajaji (2015) Uttarakhand

49 Orang (2016) Assam

50 Kamlang (2016) Arunachal Pradesh

Biosphere reserves in India ● This lies in Uttarakhand state. What is the Biosphere Reserve? 3. Nokrek ● ‘Biosphere Reserves’ are designated natural ● This biosphere lies in the Garo hills of sites, comprising terrestrial or marine or Meghalaya state. coastal or combined ecosystems, which 4. Great Nicobar promote the conservation of biodiversity and minimizes the conflict between the ● This is the only biosphere reserve in India development and nature conservation. that entirely lies in the Union territory i.e. Andaman and Nicobar ● ‘Biosphere Reserve’ is originally an international concept. It was introduced by 5. Gulf of Mannar International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of ● It lies in the Indian part of Gulf of Mannar UNESCO in Nov.1971 for the first time. between India and Sri Lanka i.e. in Tamil List of Biospheres in India Nadu state. ● Currently, there are 18 notified biosphere 6. Manas reserves in India. ● It spreads over part of Kokrajhar, , ● The list of Biosphere Reserves in India Nalbari districts of Assam. notified chronologically, is given below. 7. Sundarban 1. Nilgiri Biosphere ● It lies in part of delta system of Ganges and ● This is the first Biosphere of India notified in Brahmaputra rivers in West Bengal state. 1986. 8. Simplipal ● This spreads over three states Tamil Nadu, ● It lies in part of Mayurbhanj district of Orissa Karnataka and Kerala. state. 2. Nanda Devi 9. Dibru-Saikhowa

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● It spreads over and Tinsukhia ● Biosphere Reserves are nominated by the districts of Assam. national government for inclusion in the 10. Dehang- Dibang world network of biospheres. ● It spreads over part of Siang and Dibang ● Then the committee of MAB programme Valley in Arunachal Pradesh state. recognises the BRs after fulfilling the criteria. 11. Pachmarhi ● There are currently 669 sites in 120 countries ● It lies in central India in the state of Madhya in World Network of Biosphere Reserves Pradesh. (WNBR) of the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme. 12. Khangchendzonga ● Out of these, 10 BRs are from India. ● It is part of Sikkim state and it is the only List of Biosphere reserves in MAB Programme mixed heritage site in UNESCO’s world heritage sites list. 1. Nilgiri Biosphere- Oldest entry from India in the list in 2000 13. Agasthyamalai 2. Gulf of Mannar ● It spreads over eastern part of Kerala state. 3. Sundarban ● Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney wildlife sanctuaries are part of this biosphere. 4. Nanda Devi 14. Achanakamar- Amarkantak 5. Nokrek ● It spreads over Dindori, Anupur districts of 6. Simplipal Madhya Pradesh and Bilaspur districts of 7. Pachmarhi Chhattisgarh state. 8. Achanakamar- Amarkantak 15. Kachchh 9. Great Nicobar ● It lies in the desert area of Gujarat state. 10. Agasthyamalai- Latest entry from 16. Cold Desert India in the list in 2016 ● It spreads over Himachal Pradesh state. Pin 11. Khangchendzonga- Added in 2018 Valley National Park and surroundings, List of National Parks in India Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber wildlife Protected areas of India sanctuaries are part of this biosphere. ● These are defined according to the guidelines 17. Seshachalam Hills prescribed by IUCN (The International ● It lies in the Andhra Pradesh district. Union for Conservation of Nature). 18. Panna ● There are mainly four types of protected areas which are- ● It is the latest added biosphere in 2011. (a) National Park ● It lies in Madhya Pradesh state. (b) Wildlife Sanctuaries Out of these 18 biosphere reserves from India, there (c) Conservation reserves are 11 biosphere reserves which are internationally (d) Community reserves recognised under World Network of Biosphere (a) National Park Reserves (WNBR) of the Man and Biosphere (MAB) ● Classified as IUCN category II programme of UNESCO. Man And Biosphere (MAB) Programme ● Any area notified by state govt to be constituted as a National Park ● MAB programme was launched in 1971. ● There are 104 national parks in India. ● It is an intergovernmental scientific programme that aims to establish a scientific ● First national park in India- Jim Corbett basis for the improvement of relationships National Park (previously known as Hailey between nature and human. National Park)

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● No human activity/ rights allowed except for (d) Community reserves the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife ● These categories added in Wildlife Warden of the state. (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002. ● It covered 1.23 Percent geographical area of ● Buffer zones between established national India parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and ● Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of protected forests of India. National Park i.e. 10 ● Used for subsistence by communities and ● Largest National Park in India- Hemi community areas because part of the land is National Park (J&K) privately owned. ● Latest entry: Kuno National Park (MP)- Dec ● It covered 0.002 Percent geographical area of 2018 India (b) Wildlife Sanctuaries Act related to wildlife ● Classified as IUCN category II ● Wildlife Protection Act 1972 ● Any area notified by state govt to be ● It is applicable to whole India except Jammu constituted as a wildlife sanctuary. and Kashmir which have their own law for ● Certain rights are available to the people. wildlife protection. Example- grazing etc. Project related to wildlife ● There are 543 wildlife sanctuaries in India. ● Project Tiger 1973 ● It covered 3.62 Percent geographical area of ● Operation Crocodile 1975 India ● Project Rhinoceros 1987 (c) Conservation reserves ● Project Elephant 1988 ● These categories added in Wildlife ● Project Snow Leopard 2009 (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002. ● Buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India. ● Uninhabited and completely owned by the Government. ● It covered 0.08 Percent geographical area of India List of National Park in India States National park

Andhra Pradesh Papikonda National Park

Sri Venkateswara National Park

Arunachal Pradesh Mouling National Park

Namdapha National Park

Assam Kaziranga National Park

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Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

Manas National Park

Nameri National Park

Orang National Park

Bihar Valmiki National Park

Chhattisgarh Indravati National Park

Kanger Valley National Park

Guru Ghasi Das (Sanjay) National Park

Goa Mollem National Park

Gujarat Gir Forest National Park

Blackbuck National Park

Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch

Vansda National Park

Haryana Kalesar National Park

Sultanpur National Park

Himachal Pradesh Pin Valley National Park

Great Himalayan National Park

Inderkilla National Park

Khirganga National Park

Simbalbara National Park

Jammu & Kashmir Dachigam National Park

Hemis National Park

Kishtwar National Park

Salim Ali National Park

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Jharkhand Betla National Park

Karnataka Dandeli National Park

Nagarhole National Park (Rajiv Gandhi National Park)

Bandipur National Park

Bannerghatta National Park

Kudremukh National Park

Anshi national park

Kerala Pambadum Shola National Park

Eravikulam National Park

Mathikettan Shola National Park

Silent Valley National Park

Anamudi Shola National Park

Periyar National Park

Madhya Pradesh Bandhavgarh National Park

Pench National Park

Kanha National Park

Panna National Park

Madhav National Park

Mandla Plant Fossils National Park

Pench National Park

Sanjay National Park

Satpura National Park

Van Vihar national park

Kuno Nationla Park

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Maharastra Sanjay Gandhi National Park

Chandoli National Park

Navegaon National Park

Tadoba National Park

Gugamal national park

Manipur Keibul Lamjao National Park

Sirohi National Park

Meghalaya Balphakram National Park

Nokrek National Park

Mizoram Murlen National Park

Phawngpui Blue National Park

Nagaland Ntangki National Park

Odisha Simlipal National Park

Bhitarkanika National Park

Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park

Sariska National Park

Ranthambore National Park

Mukundra Hills (Darrah) National Park

Desert National Park

Sikkim Khangchendzonga National Park

Tamil Nadu

Mukurthi National Park

Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Park

Guindy National Park

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Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park

Telangana Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park

Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park

Mrugavani National Park

Tripura Bison(Rajbari) National Park

Clouded Leopard National Park

Uttarakhand Rajaji National Park

Jim Corbett National Park

Gangotri National Park

Valley of Flowers National Park

Govind Pashu Vihar

Nanda Devi National Park

Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa National Park

West Bengal Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary

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Jaldapara National Park

Buxa National Park

Neora Valley National Park

Singalila National Park

Gorumara National Park

Andaman and Nicobar Mahatma Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) National Park

Middle Button Island National Park

Mount Harriet National Park

North Button Island National Park

Rani Jhansi Marine National Park

Saddle Peak National Park

South Button Island National Park

Campbell Bay National Park

Galathea Bay National Park

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RAMSAR Sites in India ● Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Ramsar Convention stretch) ● Ramsar Convention is an only ● Nawabganj intergovernmental treaty which gives a solid ● Parvati Agra framework to the nations for the conservation ● Saman and use of wetlands and their resources and helps to protect such unique ecosystems. ● Samaspur ● It is also known as the “Convention on ● Sandi Wetlands”. It was adopted in the Iranian city ● Sarsai Nawar of Ramsar on 2nd February 1971 and came 6. Madhya Pradesh into force on 21 December 1975. ● Bhoj Wetland ● So, 2nd February is celebrated as “World 7. Gujarat Wetlands Day” every year. ● Nal Sarovar (2012) ● Currently, 169 countries are a party to this 8. Andhra Pradesh convention. There are 2289 wetland sites, covering an area around 225399512 hectors, ● Kolleru Lake designated under this convention. 9. Kerala ● The secretariat of Ramsar convention is ● Ashtamudi Wetland located in Gland, Switzerland. ● Sasthamkotta Lake List of RAMSAR Sites in India ● Vembanad- Kol Wetland ● Currently, there are 38 sites in 16 states 10. Tamil Nadu designated under the Ramsar List. India has ● Point Calimere Sanctuary highest number of Ramsar sites in south Asia. 11. Odisha These are given below ● Chilika Lake (1/10/1981) - Oldest entry in the 1. Jammu and Kashmir list. ● Hokera Wetland ● Bhitarkanika Mangroves ● Surinsar- Mansar lakes 12. West Bengal ● Tsomoriri ● East Calcutta Wetlands ● Wular Lake ● Indian Sunderban 2. Himachal Pradesh 13. Assam ● Chandertal Wetland. ● Deepor Beel ● Pong Dam Lake 14. Tripura ● Renuka Wetland ● Rudrasagar Lake 3. Punjab 15. Manipur ● Harike Wetland ● Loktak Lake ● Kanjli Wetland 16. Maharashtra ● Ropar ● Nandur (state’s first) ● Keshopur-Miani 17. Uttarakhand ● Beas Conservation Reserve ● Asan Conservation Area (state’s first) ● Nangal Other Ramsar Sites in India 4. Rajasthan ● Nandur Madhameshwar bird sanctuary. ● Keoladeo National Park (1/10/1981)-Oldest ○ It lies in Nashik district of entry in the list. Maharashtra. ● Sambhar Lake ○ It is known by the name of Bharatpur 5. Uttar Pradesh of Maharashtra due to the reason that www.gradeup.co

it receives a large number of migrated ○ Many national along with the birds like that of Bharatpur in migratory birds can be seen in this Rajasthan. sanctuary. ○ It is one and only Ramsar site in ○ Some of them are Garganey Teal, Maharashtra. Mallard, Little Grebe, Wigon, etc. ● Keshopur-Miani community reserve. ● Parvati Aranga bird sanctuary. ○ It is situated in Gurdaspur district of ○ Parwati and Aranga are the two lakes Punjab. which are connected and are apart by ○ It lies in the middle of Ravi and the 1.5 Km. Beas river. ○ It is considered as a potential ○ It is the first community reserve of ecotourism site in the sense that it can India which got notified. provide facilities of bird conservation ○ The management is done by both the awareness. locals along with the Forest ● Saman bird sanctuary. Department which eventually, ○ It is situated in Bhogav region of resulted in better conservation. Manipuri district, Uttar Pradesh. ○ The migratory birds can be seen over ○ It was in 1990 when it was notified so here. as to protect the population of cranes ● Beas Conservation Reserve. in the area. ○ It also lies in Punjab. ○ It also includes Storks. ○ It stretches from Harike to Talwara ● Samaspur Bird sanctuary. Conservation Reserve and is 185 kms ○ It is situated in Raibarelli district of in length. U.P. ○ It is renowned due to the fact that it is ○ It is famous for the preservation of successful in the reintroduction of bird species along with the migratory Gharials. birds. ○ As the banks of a river are very fertile ○ More than 250 species of birds can be in nature, and hence, proves to be seen over here. fertile grounds for the ecosystem. ○ It includes Vultures, Kingfishers, ● Nangal wildlife sanctuary. Teel, etc. which are also the ○ It is located in the Roopnagar district permanent residents of this sanctuary. near the Sutlej river. ● Sandi bird sanctuary. ○ Different variety of species of both ○ It is located in the Hardoi district of the migratory birds along with the U.P. residents can be seen over here. ○ It is also listed as an important bird ○ Many of the threatened species area by the Bombay natural society. including the Indian Pangolin can be ● Sarsai Nawar Lake. seen. ○ It is situated in Etawah, U.P. ● Nawabganj bird sanctuary. ○ It consists of two lakes which attract ○ It is located in the Unnao district of White Ibis, Sarus cranes, along with U.P. the other birds in large numbers. ○ It is also known by the name of ○ A large population of threatened Chandrashekhar Azad Bird species of Sarus Cranes, the world’s Sanctuary. tallest flying birds can be seen over here.

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○ It is also considered as small ● Montreux Record is a register of wetlands unprotected Wetland. sites on the List of Wetlands of International Montreux Record Importance where changes in ecological ● Out of these 27 sites, currently, 2 sites in character have occurred, are occurring, or India are included in the Montreux Record. likely to occur. 1. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan (1990) – ● Ecological character of a Ramsar site may first site to be included in this list degrade because of technological 2. Loktak Lake, Manipur (1993) developments, pollution or other human interference. ● Chilika lake, Odisha was included in the list in 1993 but was removed in 2002. Environmental Conventions and Protocols Notes Convention Year Purpose Remarks

Ramsar 1971 for the · Known as Waterfowl Convention conservation and convention. sustainable · India is part of it. utilization of · There are currently 27 Ramsar wetlands sites · in India

Stockholm 1972 International · UNEP was the result of it. Declaration protection of the environment

Convention on 1973 Control or · Known as Washington International prevent Convention Trade in international · Legally binding Endangered commercial trade species of Wild in endangered flora species or and fauna products derived (CITES) from them.

Convention on 1979 Convention on · Also known as the Bonn Migratory the Conservation Convention Species (CMS) of Migratory · It is under the aegis of United Species of Wild Nations Environment Programme Animals (UNEP)

Nairobi 1982 for achieving · 10th anniversary of Stockholm) Declaration sustainable developments

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Vienna 1985 for the protection · It does not include legally convention of the ozone layer binding reduction goals

Montreal 1987 To control · It is a protocol to the Vienna Protocol Ozone-depleting Convention for the Protection of Ozone Substances Layer · Universal treaty (Ratified by all UN countries) · Legally binding · Target only ozone depleting substances (Not GHG i.e. Hydro Fluorocarbons)

Brundtland 1987 Sustainable · gave the concept of "sustainable Report Development development"

Earth Summit/ 1992 Environment · It had 27 principles United Nations conservation & · Three legally binding Conference on Development agreements were opened for Environment and signature: Development (i) CBD (UNCED)/ Rio (ii) UNFCC Declaration (iii) UNCCD

Agenda 21 1992 Sustainable · It is a product of Earth Summit, Development 1992 · Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century. · Non-binding

UNFCCC 1992 Reducing · Environmental treaty produced greenhouse gas at the Earth Summit, 1992. emissions to · Secretariat: Bonn, Germany combat global · legally non-binding warming. · Kyoto Protocol was negotiated under this framework.

Convention on 1992 Three main · Legally binding Biological goals: · USA has signed but not ratified Diversity (CBD) 1. Conservation · The two protocols to CBD are: of biological (a) Cartagena Protocol on diversity (or Biosafety, 2000 biodiversity); (b) Nagoya Protocol (Biodiversity Accord), 2010

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2. Sustainable use of its components; 3. Sharing the benefits of genetic resources fairly and equitably

UNCCD 1994 Convention to · Headquarter: Bonn, Germany Combat · Only convention that came out Desertification from direct recommendations of Rio Agenda 21 · Legally Binding · Canada withdrew

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Kyoto Protocol 1997 to fight global · Negotiated under UNFCC (COP 3) warming by · Came into force in 2005 reducing · Binding targets to Annex I greenhouse countries gas concentrations · Mechanisms under protocol: (a) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (b) Emission Trading (c) Joint Implementation (JI) · This protocol applies to follow GHGs (Annex A): (a) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (b) Methane (CH4) (c) Nitrous Oxide (NO2) (d) Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) (e) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (f) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) · The Protocol is based on the principle of shared (Common) but differentiated responsibilities. · It places the obligation on developed countries to reduce current emissions on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. · Annex I countries: industrialized countries and economies in transition · Annex II countries: developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries · Non-Annex I countries: Developing countries · India is Non-Annex party to UNFCC. · There are two commitment periods (i) 2008 – 2012 (ii) 2013 – 2020 Note: The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol.

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Rotterdam 1998 Prior Informed · UN Treaty Convention Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade

Cartagena 2000 Biosafety · Protecting biological diversity Protocol from potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.

Stockholm 2001 Eliminate or · UN Treaty Convention restrict the · US is not a party to this treaty production and · Intergovernmental Forum on use of persistent Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the organic International Programme for Chemical pollutants Safety (IPCS) prepared a list, known as the Dirty Dozen.

REDD & 2005 Reducing · Negotiated under UNFCC since REDD+ emissions from 2005. deforestation and · UN-REDD was launched in forest 2008. India did not participate in it. degradation in · REDDD+ (Defined in Bali developing Action Plan, 2007, CoP13) countries · REDD+ extends to (a) Sustainable Forest Management (b) Conservation of Forests (c) Enhancement of carbon sinks

Nagoya Protocol 2010 Access to genetic · It is a supplementary agreement resources and a to the CBD. fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use of the Convention on Biological Diversity

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Rio+20 2012 Conference on · 20th Anniversary of Rio Earth Sustainable Summit 1992. Development

Paris Agreement 2015 Climate Change · It will come into force by 2020. (COP 21) · Not legally binding. Aims ● This century, global temperature rises well below 2 degrees Celsius above circa- industrial level. ● Pursue efforts to limit the temperature upsurge even further to 5 degrees Celsius. Indian NDCs · Greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP- by 33 to 35 per cent below 2005 levels by the year 2030. · By 2030, 40 percent of its energy would be generated from non-fossil fuels. · Increase its forest cover to create an additional carbon sink equivalent to 2.5 to 3 billion tons of carbon dioxide by 2030. Note: Recently the US has withdrawn from it.

Kigali 2016 Reduce Ozone · It amends the 1987 Montreal Amendment Layer Depletion Protocol. · Its aims to reduce Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85 Percent by late 2045. · It will be binding on member countries from 2019.

Coral Reefs in India: Introduction, Types, cementation and solidification of the skeleton of Formation, Locations coral polyps. Coral Reef Coral Polyps are marine animals of tropical and Coral Reefs are elementary sedimentary rocks which subtropical seas and oceans (tiny fleshy sea are located above the sea and oceanic bed of anemones polyps) living in shallow water by continental shelf and mid-oceanic ridges. These maintaining a symbiotic relationship with the organic sedimentary rocks are formed on the microscopic plant (algae)- Zooxanthellae. platform of shelf and ridges through a combined Zooxanthellae have photosynthetic capabilities, they process which includes sedimentation, compaction, www.gradeup.co provide food to corals and in return, the polyps ○ To advise the central government on provide protection to the zooxanthellae. the amendment of the cruelty of Types of Coral Reefs and their distribution animals. 1. Fringing Reef: These reefs evolve and ○ To advise the central government of develop on the continental shelf and are any local authority on improvements connected to the coastline. in the design of the vehicle to reduce Location: Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutchchh, the burden on animals. the coastline of Andaman and Nicobar ○ Provide all types of measures like Islands are covered with fringing reefs. sheds, food, water and veterinary 2. Barrier Reef: Barrier reefs are located assistance, offshore on the continental shelf. They are ○ To maintain slaughterhouse to reduce away and parallel to the coastline. A lagoon the pain of animals and take all steps is located between the coastline and the to ensure that unwanted animals are barrier reef. destroyed by the local authority using Location: Great Barrier reef along the North a less painful method. Eastern coast of Australia is an example. ○ To encourage financial assistance and 3. Atoll Reef: Atolls are located on mid-oceanic grant for making facilities like shelter ridges. These are circular or elliptical reefs home, hospital and medicals and give surrounded by sea from all sides with a financial assistance to any local shallow lagoon in the centre. animal organisations. Location: Maldives, Lakshadweep represent ○ Give education relating to human Atolls nature of animal and promote animal Coral Bleaching welfare. When corals are in stress, they expel zooxanthellae National Biodiversity authority: and that why to appear white. Ultimately, due to lack of food, corals also die. ● It was created in 2003 under the Biodiversity Discolouration of Coral Reefs due to the disturbed act 2002. symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and ● It is an autonomous and statutory body for algae and adverse changes in the marine ecosystem advisory and regulatory functions under and ecology due to human interferences is known as government for conservation, sustainable use coral bleaching. of resources and sharing of resources. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ● Some of the objectives are: ORGANISATION ○ Prior approval for intellectual Animal Welfare Board of India: property rights in research in ● It is an advisory and statutory body on laws biological resources or knowledge of animal welfare and to promote it. obtained from India. ● It was set up in 1962, according to section 4 ○ Protection of knowledge of local of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, people through registration of 1960. knowledge. ● It is first of its kind in the world, ○ It advises the central government headquartered in Ballabhgarh (Faridabad, relating to conservation and Haryana) and pioneered or guided by Mrs sustainable and equitable use of Rukmini Devi Arundale. benefits. ● The board consist of 28 members, for a period ○ Advises to the state government on of 3 years. selecting areas as heritage sites which ● Some of its functions are: are important biologically. ○ Without permission, no one can transfer the knowledge and/or grant in www.gradeup.co

biological resources. NBA gives ● Functions through local communities and approval for transfer. government on a range of projects for Note: State biodiversity board work as local level preventions and rehabilitation of wildlife. biodiversity management committee. It gives advises National Ganga River Basin Authority: on biological management and right use of benefits ● Constituted in 2009 under the Environment from the environment and promotes conservation. (Protection) Act, 1986. It is a body for Wildlife Crime Control Bureau: planning, coordinating and financing for both ● It is a statutory body which is constituted centre and state. under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 to ● The main functions include: prevent illegal activities like smuggling and ○ Conservation and reduction of poaching. pollution in the Ganga River and ● Some of the functions are: using comprehensive planning and ○ Collection of intelligence and management. establishment of centralized wildlife ○ Development of the river basin is the crime data bank. core approach for management. All ○ Implementation of provisions of act the activities and measure are aimed and obligations under various at reducing pollution and relevant to protocols and conventions. river ecology. ○ Assistance to different authority in ○ Management of minimum ecology foreign countries under international flow. Infrastructures like sewerage, organisations. catchment area and protection against ○ Developing infrastructure and flood. building scientific and professional ○ Investigation and research project for investigations. improving the quality of water and Central Zoo Authority: creating public awareness to use ● Constituted under amendment of Wildlife water conservation practices. Protection Act in 1991 by adding a new ○ Monitor and review of all the section for Zoos and constituted authority by programmes and activities. the central government. Central Pollution Control Board: ● Following are the functions of authority in ● It is a statutory body established under the the act: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) ○ Decide minimum standards for zoos Act 1974. and ensure all services to take care of ● It provides technical services to the Ministry animals. of Environment and Forests under the ○ Identify endangered species for better provisions of the Environment (Protection) protection of it. Exchange and loaning Act, 1986. of animals for breeding purposes. ● It Co-ordinates the activities of the State ○ Organise training of zoo personnel Pollution Control Boards by providing and coordinate research and technical assistance and guidance and also educational programs and maintain resolves disputes among them. all the data about different species. ● Some of the functions are: Wildlife Trust of India: ● Advises the central government on any ● It is a non-profit government organisation to matter related to pollution in water and air conserve nature especially critically pollution, and plan and execute a nationwide endangered species and threatened habitats program to prevent it. with the help of different communities.

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● Plan and organise training programs for technologies like remote sensing and personnel related to the prevention of water GIS etc. and air pollution. ○ To support the state forestry ● Collect technical and statistical data for better department in survey mapping and implementation of programs. Prepare inventory. manuals and guidelines and create public National Board of Wildlife: awareness. ● Constituted under the Wildlife Protection National Tiger Conservation Authority: Act. Prime minister Chairman of the board ● On the recommendation of the Tiger Task and vice chairman is union minister of Force by the Prime Minister of India Project environment and forest. Tiger and many Tiger reserves in India. ● Some of the functions are: ● Helping the state and the central government ○ Deal with Environment impact in the management of tiger reserves. assessment projects. ● Some of the key functions are: ○ Recommendation on the setting of ○ To approve a conservation plan areas like a national park and wildlife prepared by the state government. sanctuaries and decide all the Provide management guidelines and activities under protected areas. measures addressing man and animal ○ Frame policies for the protection of conflict. wildlife and prevent illegal trade and ○ Provide information related to the poaching. For altering the tiger estimation of population of tiger, reserves state needs approval from natural prey, habitat status, and this body. disease outbreak and mortality ○ Publish a report on the state of survey. wildlife in India. ○ Program for skill development for National Green Tribunals: forest personnel. ● Created under the National Green Tribunal Forest Survey of India: Act, 2010 for handling all the cases related to ● Established in 1981 under the union ministry environmental issues. of Environment, forest and Climate Change. ● It can have 20 members each from the ● Monitoring of changing the situation of land judicial background and expert members. and forest resources and use it for national ● It has the power of the civil court and guided planning, conservation, management and by the principle of natural justice. preservation of forest resources. ● Appeals against the order of NGT have to be ● Key functions are: made to Supreme Court within 90 days and ○ Prepare state of Forest Report the cases under NGT have to be disposed biennially for assessment of the within 6 months. country’s forest cover. Develop a Genetic Engineering Advisory Committee: database for forest and non-forest ● Established according to the Rules for areas. Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and ○ To prepare thematic maps using aerial Storage of Hazardous photographs. Act and functions as a Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered nodal agency collection, compilation Organisms or Cells 1989’ in accordance with and storage of spatial database on the Environment Protection Act, 1986 and forest resources. works under Dept of Biotechnology, Ministry ○ Strengthen research and development of Environment, Forests and Climate change infrastructure and training of forest personnel in the application of www.gradeup.co

● Approves filed trails for genetically modifies ● Ozone molecules in the atmosphere are crops and can take punitive action for non- produced over tropics and then spread compliance. enveloping the earth’s atmosphere. ● Appraise the activities including large scale ● But due to prevailing stratospheric winds, it use of catastrophic micro-organisms and is transferred towards the poles. When the industrial production from an environmental concentration of ozone is reduced at a perspective. particular place, it is considered as an Ozone About Acid Rain hole. ● In other words, one can say that the damaged ● The acid rain is a form of precipitation which area of the Ozone layer is known as the may be fog or snow in which excessive acid Ozone hole. Its concentration is measured in like sulphuric or nitric acids are present. Dobson units. The largest ozone hole is above ● The rainwater with a PH of less than 5.5 is Antarctica. called acid rain. Ozone layer’s thickness varies geographically, it is ● It can be harmful to plants, aquatic animals thinner at the equator and thicker near the poles. and human beings. Wherever, the layer thins, the harmful radiations – ● The two gases which are mainly responsible UV rays pass through it and reach the earth’s surface. for causing acid rain are – Oxides of Sulphur Based on the wavelength absorbed, the UV (SO2) and Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2). radiations are of three types: ● When SO2 and NO2 present in access 1. UV-C (280-100nm) is entirely screened out amount in the atmosphere mixes or reacts by a combination of dioxygen and ozone). with rainwater, they form sulphuric acid and 2. UV-B (315-280nm) majorly screened out by nitric acid, respectively. These acids decrease ozone. But the part of it passes which helps the PH value of rain to less than 5.5 and make form Vitamin D. it acidic. 3. UV-A (400-315 nm) is transparent to all. It Sources of Acid Rain reaches the earth’s surface completely. (a) Sulphur The UV radiation is also harmful not only to humans Natural sources: but also to the plants and animals. ● Seas and oceans, How is the Ozone (O3) formed? ● Volcanic eruptions, ● Ozone is produced naturally in the ● Biological processes in the soil stratosphere when highly energetic solar Man-made sources: radiation strikes molecules of oxygen, O2, ● Burning of coal and cause the two oxygen atoms to split apart in a process called photolysis. Ozone (O3) is ● Petroleum products made up of three layers of oxygen. ● Smelting of metal sulfide ores ● The layer formed by Ozone is known as the ● Industrial production of Sulfuric acid Ozone layer. If a freed atom collides with (b) Nitrogen another O2, it joins up, forming ozone O3. Natural sources: ● The concentration of the ozone layer is nearly ● Lightening, 10 ppm and in the Earth’s atmosphere, it is ● Volcanic Eruption and present in about 0.3 ppm.

● Biological Activity ● Ozone is produced naturally in the Anthropogenic sources: stratosphere when highly energetic solar radiation strikes molecules of oxygen, O2, ● Forest fires and cause the two oxygen atoms to split apart ● Combustion of oil, coal, and gas in a process called photolysis. If a freed atom (c) Formic Acid collides with another O2, it joins up, forming (d) Other Acid ozone O3. What is the Ozone hole? www.gradeup.co

● The concentration of the ozone layer is nearly ● Legally binding 10 ppm and in the Earth’s atmosphere, it is Kigali Agreement present in about 0.3 ppm. ● It was signed in 2016 to Reduce Ozone Layer Some of the important international programmes Depletion 1. Vienna Conference ● It amends the 1987 Montreal Protocol. ● It took place in Vienna, Austria in 1985. ● Its objective is to decrease ● The ozone hole was first discovered during hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by this time. approximately 80-85 per cent by the end of ● It was signed for the protection of the ozone 2045. layer. ● It is a legally binding agreement between the ● It does not include legally binding reduction signatory parties with non-compliance goals. measures. 1. Saving the Ozone layer Conference ● The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal ● This happened in London, 1985. Protocol is legally binding and came into ● It dealt with the withdrawal of all the ozone- force from January 1, 2019. depleting substances. ● India has ratified this agreement. 1. Helsinki Conference Environment Pollution: Introduction, Causes & Types ● It took place in May 1989. What is Environmental Pollution? ● To revise the Montreal Protocol, the Helsinki ● Environment Pollution is the addition of Conference happened. contaminants into the natural environment ● There was an agreement to eliminate CFCs that causes detrimental effects to nature, Montreal Protocol natural resources and mankind. ● It took place in 1987. ● Any unnatural and negative changes in all the ● It is a protocol to the Ozone Layer Vienna dimensions like chemical, physical and Convention. biological characteristics of any component ● This was signed by 197 countries so as to of the ecosystem i.e. air, water or soil which minimize the use of ozone-depleting can cause harmful effects on various forms of substances. life and property is called environmental ● Targets only ozone-depleting substances pollution. (Not GHG i.e. Hydro Fluorocarbons) Types of Environment Pollution: ● All the developed countries decided to reduce AIR POLLUTION: the use of CFC’s. Regarded as the Universal ● Air pollution is the presence of one or more treaty (Ratified by all UN countries) disadvantageous content in such quantity and ● Montreal Protocol is considered as the first for such duration, as it is catastrophic, or tend treaty in the history of the United Nations to be catastrophic, to human health and which achieved universal ratification. welfare, animal or plant life. ● It has helped in pausing the depletion of the ● It is the contaminants of air by the discharge Ozone layer. of detrimental substances. Some of the air pollutants, their sources, and effects: Name of the pollutants Sources Health effects

Nitrogen oxides Industries, vehicles Problems in the lungs, respiratory and power plants systems and causes asthma and bronchitis.

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Carbon monoxide Emission and Severe headache, irritation to mucous burning of fossil membrane, unconsciousness and death. fuels

Carbon dioxide Burning of fossil Vision problem, severe headache and fuels heart strain.

Suspended particulate matter Vehicular emission Lung irritation reduces development of and burning of fossil RBC and pulmonary malfunctioning. fuels.

Sulphur oxide Industries and power Irritation in eyes and throat, allergies, plant cough etc.

Smog Industries and Respiratory and eye problems vehicular pollution

Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil Kidney problems, irritation in eyes, nose fuels and throat, asthma, hypertension and carcinogenic effects on lungs.

Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, Depletion of ozone layer, global emission from jets warming

WATER POLLUTION ● Marine pollution: river discharge, manmade ● Addition of certain substances such as pollution and oil spills etc. organic, inorganic, biological and SOIL POLLUTION radiological to the water, which degrades the ● Addition of unwanted substances to the soil water quality and makes it unhealthy for use. which negatively affects physical, chemical ● Water pollution is not only confined to and biological properties of soil and reduces surface water but also spread to groundwater, its productivity is called soil pollution. sea, and ocean. ● The factors which disturb the biological Sources balance of the soil and deteriorate the quality, Point sources: These are directly pointed towards the texture, and mineral content are called soil water bodies from the source of origin of pollution pollutants. and are thus easy to regulate. ● Use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, Non-point sources: These sources are related to dumping of solid waste, deforestation, and many diffuse sources and are thus difficult to pollution due to urbanization and other regulate. anthropogenic substances causes soil Some of the sources are: pollution. ● Industrial and community wastewater: Sources Industries like mining, iron and steel, ● Industrial waste: lead, cadmium, mercury, pharmaceuticals, food processing, soap and alkalies, organic substances, and chemicals. detergent and paper and pulp. ● Agricultural waste: fertilizers, pesticides, ● Agricultural sources, thermal pollution insecticides, and manures. (discharge of hot water by thermal power ● Discarded materials and radioactive elements plants cause deficiency of dissolved oxygen and plastic bags. in water) and underground water pollution. www.gradeup.co

Biogeochemical cycles The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle where Importance of biogeochemical cycle: the carbon and its compounds are continuously 1. It allows the transfer of molecules from one exchanged between the three spheres of earth, i.e. locality to another. hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere 2. It enables the transformation of matter from (collectively called as biosphere). one form to another. Major carbon sinks of our Earth 3. It facilitates the storage of elements. ● In the form of organic molecules in living and Elements stored in their natural reservoir and dead organisms in the biosphere. released to organisms in small consumable ● As the gaseous carbon dioxide in the amounts. atmosphere. 4. In case of any imbalance, it helps the ● As organic matter in soils. ecosystem to restore it. It may take a few days ● As fossil fuels and sedimentary deposits like or a few years. limestone, dolomite and chalk etc. 5. It links biotic and abiotic elements of ● As dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide in ecosystems. the oceans and as calcium carbonate shells in Biogeochemical cycles are sometimes called nutrient marine organisms. cycles because they involve the transfer of Processes involved in the Carbon Cycle compounds that provide support to living organisms. ● Photosynthesis: Ecosystem gains most of Two important components of the cycle are: their carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 1. Reservoir pool- atmosphere or rocks storing Most of the autotrophs have a mechanism a large number of nutrients. that allows for absorption of this gas into their 2. Cycling pool- short storage of carbon in the cells. With the help of water and energy from form of plants and animals. solar radiation, these organisms use Elements transported by biogeochemical cycle have photosynthesis to chemically convert the been categorised as: carbon dioxide to sugar molecules. 1. Microelements- The elements which are ● Respiration: Carbon released from the required in smaller quantities are referred to ecosystem as carbon dioxide gas by the as microelements. For example, boron (used process of respiration. It involves the mainly by green plants), copper (used by breakdown of the carbon-based organic some enzymes) and molybdenum (used by molecule into carbon dioxide and some other nitrogen-fixing bacteria). by-product in both plants and animals. 2. Macroelements- The elements which are ● Detritus food chain contains a number of required in larger amounts are referred to as organisms whose primary role is to macronutrients. For example, carbon, decompose organic matter. Partially hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, decomposed organic matter becomes part of sulphur. the soil carbon storage pool. Types of Biogeochemical Cycles: ● Ultimately organic material in the soil 1. Gaseous cycles: Gaseous cycles include becomes part of soil constituents, water and transportation of matter through the carbon dioxide which return to the atmosphere. Gaseous cycles are: Carbon atmosphere. This flow accounts for most of cycle, Nitrogen cycle and Water Cycle the carbon from the atmosphere but not all. 2. Sedimentary cycles: Sedimentary cycles ● Diffusion: Carbon dioxide enters into the include transportation of matter through the water by this method. Once it is dissolved in ground to water means lithosphere to the water it can remain as it is or can convert into hydrosphere. Sedimentary cycles are carbonate or bicarbonate. When carbon Phosphorus cycle and the sulphur cycle. dioxide enters the ocean, carbonic acid is Carbon cycle formed.

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● Certain organisms fix bicarbonate with ○ Runoff: Water discharged from the calcium to form calcium carbonate. This is surface is known as runoff. If it is used to make hardbodies such as shells and discharged through rivers, it is known corals. When such organisms die their as river runoff. remains accumulate as carbonate-rich The ocean supplies most of the evaporated water. On deposits to the ocean floor. average 84% of water loss from the oceans through Hydrological cycle (Water cycle) evaporations while 77% gained by precipitation. The water cycle is defined as continuous circulation Water from runoff, streams and river covers the 7% of water from the earth to atmosphere and vice versa to balance evaporation deficit of oceans. On land, which is powered by the energy of the sun. It shows evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%. storage and movement of water between biosphere, Nitrogen Cycle lithosphere and hydrosphere. The main processes involved in the nitrogen cycle- Major Water Sinks Nitrogen fixation Water can be stored in any of the reservoirs like It involves the conversion of gaseous nitrogen into atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, ammonia, which can be used by plants. It can be done snowfields and groundwater. by following methods- Processes involved ● Atmospheric fixation- This is done by ● The processes involved in the movement of lightening, combustion and volcanic activity. water from one reservoir to another are- ● Industrial fixation- This is done in industries ○ Evaporation, condensation, at high temperature and high-pressure where precipitation, deposition, runoff, nitrogen molecule is broken into atomic infiltration, sublimation, nitrogen and combines with hydrogen to form transpiration, melting and ammonia. This is also known as Haber's groundwater flow. Process. ● The driving source of energy for the water ● Bacterial fixation- Symbiotic and free-living cycle is solar radiation or solar energy. bacterias can combine atmospheric or ● Evaporation and precipitation are the main dissolved nitrogen to form ammonia. processes involved in the water cycle. Rhizobium in roots of the leguminous plant is ● Some of the processes are discussed below: a symbiotic bacterium and nostac, acetobacter is an example of free-living ○ Evaporation- Water from ocean, bacteria. lakes, ponds, rivers and streams Note: Symbiotic relationships are those relationships evaporates by sun’s heat and energy. where both the organisms are benefitted from each Water remains in vapour state in air other. The classic example of symbiotic relationship and forms cloud. can be seen as Lichen which shows mutualism ○ Transpiration- Evaporation through between algae and fungi. the plant surface due to solar energy Nitrification is known as transpiration. Plants also The process in which ammonia is converted into transfer a huge amount of water in the nitrates and nitrites by Nitrosomonas and atmosphere through transpiration. Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Nitrobacter can ○ Precipitation- Cloud meets with the convert nitrate into nitrites. cold air in the mountains and above Assimilation forest regions and condenses to form Nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic rain precipitates. molecules such as DNA, RNA etc. which forms plant ○ Condensation- It is the process by and animal tissues. which water vapours in the Ammonification atmosphere gets converted into liquid ● Nitrogenous waste products such as urea and droplets. uric acid produced by living organisms,

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waste products and dead remains of ● When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere organisms are converted back into inorganic it reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur ammonia by the bacteria. trioxide or with other chemicals to make ● Ammonifying bacterias like Clostridium, sulphur salts. Sulphur dioxide also reacts Pseudomonas, Streptomyces etc. help in this with water to produce sulphuric acid. All process. these particles react with rain and fall back Denitrification onto Earth as acid deposition. ● The conversion of nitrates back into gaseous ● The particles then are absorbed by plants nitrogen is called denitrification. This process again and are released back into the is the reverse of nitrogen fixation. atmosphere and then sulphur cycle will start ● This can even lower the fertility of soil over again. because nitrogen, which is essential for the The entire Earth biosphere is a closed system so that growth of plants, is removed from the soil and nutrients are neither imported nor exported from the is lost to the atmosphere. biosphere. The biogeochemical cycle also referred to Phosphorous cycle as the cycle of nature because they link together all The transport and chemical transformation of organisms and abiotic component. phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere and Sulphur cycle biosphere are called phosphorus cycle. Sulphur is used in the process of proteins and The atmosphere does not play a significant role in the vitamins production. Proteins consist of amino acids movement of phosphorus because phosphorus or that contain sulphur atoms like thiophene. When phosphorus-based compounds are solids available in sulphur is dissolved in water, plants absorb them. normal ranges of temperature and pressure of the Animal consume these plants so that they take up earth. Most of the phosphorus remains within rocks, enough sulphur to maintain their health. sediments, sand and the ocean floor with a fraction in ● Most of the earth’s sulphur tied up in the living biomass. Phosphorus moves along trophic rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in levels in an ecosystem by plant growth, herbivores oceanic sediments. and carnivores. ● Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. Sulphur cycle It enters the atmosphere by both natural and Sulphur is used in the process of proteins and human sources. vitamins production. Proteins consist of amino acids ● Natural sources can be volcanic eruptions, that contain sulphur atoms like thiophene. When bacterial processes and evaporation from sulphur is dissolved in water, plants absorb them. water or decaying organisms. Animal consume these plants so that they take up ● Human activities mainly from industrial enough sulphur to maintain their health. purposes where sulphur dioxide and ● Most of the earth’s sulphur tied up in the hydrogen sulphide gases are emitted on a rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in wide scale. oceanic sediments. ● When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere ● Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. it reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur It enters the atmosphere by both natural and trioxide or with other chemicals to make human sources. sulphur salts. Sulphur dioxide also reacts ● Natural sources can be volcanic eruptions, with water to produce sulphuric acid. All bacterial processes and evaporation from these particles react with rain and fall back water or decaying organisms. onto Earth as acid deposition. ● Human activities mainly from industrial ● The particles then are absorbed by plants purposes where sulphur dioxide and again and are released back into the hydrogen sulphide gases are emitted on a atmosphere and then sulphur cycle will start wide scale. over again.

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The entire Earth biosphere is a closed system so that nutrients are neither imported nor exported from the biosphere. The biogeochemical cycle also referred to as the cycle of nature because they link together all organisms and abiotic component. Phosphorous cycle The transport and chemical transformation of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere are called phosphorus cycle. The atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus because phosphorus or phosphorus-based compounds are solids available in normal ranges of temperature and pressure of the earth. Most of the phosphorus remains within rocks, sediments, sand and the ocean floor with a fraction in living biomass. Phosphorus moves along trophic levels in an ecosystem by plant growth, herbivores and carnivores.

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INDIAN POLITY (2) Introduced and open system of competition for Indians into Civil Services. Macaulay committee was Historical Evolution of Indian Constitution formed (1854) for this purpose. Satyendra Nath The Company Administration Tagore became the first Indian to qualify that service Regulating Act - 1773 in 1863. (1) The post of 'GOVERNOR' was now made 'GOVERNOR-GENERAL' and Bengal was the first The Crown Administration province to have Warren Hastings as the first Government of India Act of 1858 Governor-General. He was assisted by an executive (1) Also known as Act for Good Government of council of four members. India. (2) The Supreme Court at Calcutta was established (2) Abolished the British East India Company. with one chief justice and three other judges. Sir Abolished the Mughal administration as well. Elijah Impey was the Chief Justice. (3) Abolished the Governor General’s post and created a new post Viceroy. Lord Canning became Pitt’s India Act – 1784 the first Viceroy of India. (1) Created another body- ‘BOARD OF CONTROL’ (4) Also created a new office – Secretary-of-State for to manage political affairs in India. COURT OF India and a 15-member council to assist him. He was DIRECTORS kept on managing commercial affairs a member of British parliament. though. Indian Councils Act 1861 (2) Thus, companies’ possessions were for the first (1) Expanded the viceroy’s executive council. Made time called ‘British possessions in India’ and the provisions for him to nominate some Indians as non- commercial wing was headed by the court of official members. Lord Canning nominated the Raja directors and political wing headed by the board of of Benaras, the Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar control. Rao. (3) The Act was introduced by the then British Prime (2) New Legislative councils for Bengal (1862), Minister William Pitt. North Western Frontier Province (1866) and Punjab (1897) were established. Charter Act – 1813: (1) Ended the monopoly of the trading rights of Indian Councils Act 1892 British East India Company and allowed other (1) Power of discussing the budget was given to the companies to participate in trading activities with legislative council in the then India. India. (2) Expanded the councils and some members could be nominated to both Central as well as Provincial Charter Act – 1833 Legislative Councils. (1) Created the post of ‘GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INDIA’ in place of Governor-General of Bengal. Indian Councils Act 1909 The presidencies of Madras and Bombay were taken (1) Also known as Morley-Minto reforms. away with their respective legislative powers and (2) The number of members in the Central were made subordinate to the Presidency of Calcutta. Legislative council was increased from 16 to 60. William Bentick was the first Governor-General of (3) Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to India. be nominated as a law member to the Viceroy’s (2) This act completely ended the commercial Executive Council. activities of the company. The company existed but (4) The communal electorate was introduced. it became a purely administrative and a political Muslims were given separate representation to elect organization. their representatives. Hence, Minto is also referred to as ‘Father of Communal Electorate’. Charter Act – 1853 (1) Established a separate Governor General’s Government of India Act 1919 Legislative council. www.gradeup.co

(1) Also called as Montague-Chelmsford reforms 4. The elections to form the assembly took place and it came into effect in 1921. in July-August 1946 and the process was (2) Central and provincial subjects or lists were completed by November 1946. The first introduced where they could frame laws in their meeting of the assembly took place on 9th respective lists. Provincial subjects were further December 1946 and was attended by 211 divided into transferred and reserved. Thus, this act members. introduced diarchy. 5. Dr. Sachhidanand Sinha became the (3) Introduced Bicameralism and direct elections. temporary President of the assembly following the French practice. Government of India Act 1935 6. On 11th December 1946, Dr. Rajendra (1) Provided for the establishment of an All-India Prasad and H.C Mukherji were elected as Federation with provinces and princely states as President and Vice-President respectively. units. The Federation never came into being as 7. Sir B.N Rau was appointed as the princely states did not join it. constitutional advisor to the assembly. (2) Abolished diarchy in the provinces and 8. On 13th December 1946, Pt. Nehru moved introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ in its place. But in the Objectives resolution which later went on centre, it introduced diarchy; however that never to become the Preamble of the constitution in came into being. slightly modified form. The resolution was (3) Introduced bicameralism in provinces as well unanimously adopted on 22nd January 1947. extended separate electorates to depressed classes as 9. The Constituent Assembly ratified India’s well. membership of the commonwealth in May (4) Established RBI and a federal court at the centre. 1949. Also, it adopted the National Song and National Anthem on 24th January 1950. Indian Independence Act 1947 Adopted the National Flag on 22nd July (1) Partition Plan or the Mountbatten Plan (3rd June 1947. 1947) was to give effect to partition of the country 10. The assembly met for 11 sessions, took 2 and Atlee’s declaration (20th February 1947) to years, 11 months and 18 days to frame up the provide independence to the Nation. final draft, sat for 141 days in total and the (2) Created two independent dominions of India and draft constitution was considered for 114 Pakistan, ended British rule and authorised the two days. Total amount incurred was around independent Nations’ constituent assemblies to rupees 64 lakhs. frame their respective constitutions. 11. Some important committees of the (3) The Indian independence bill got the royal assent constituent assembly along with their on 18th July 1947. respective chairpersons are as follows: Making of the Indian Constitution • Union Powers Committee - Jawahar Lal Nehru 1. It was M.N Roy who proposed the idea of an • Union Constitution Committee - Jawahar independent constituent assembly for India in Lal Nehru 1934. • Provincial Constitution Committee - 2. The constituent assembly was formed as per Sardar Patel the guidelines suggested by the Cabinet • Drafting Committee - B.R Ambedkar Mission Plan, 1946. The mission was headed • Rules of Procedure Committee - Dr. by Pethick Lawrence and included two other Rajendra Prasad members apart from him – Stafford Cripps • Steering Committee - Dr. Rajendra Prasad and A.V Alexander. • Flag Committee - J.B. Kripalani

3. The total strength of the assembly was 389. 12. The following were the members of the However, after partition only 299 remained. Drafting Committee- It was partly elected and partly nominated. • Dr. B.R Ambedkar (Chairman) • Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar www.gradeup.co

• Dr. K.M Munshi THE PREAMBLE • N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar • Syed Mohammad Saadullah WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly N Madhava Rau resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN • TT Krishnamachari SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC 13. The final draft of the constitution was REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens adopted on 26th November 1949 and it JUSTICE, social, economic and political; contained 8 schedules, 22 parts, and 395 LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and articles. worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; VARIOUS SOURCES OF THE INDIAN and to promote among them all FRATERNITY CONSTITUTION assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity 1. Government of India Act of 1935- Federal and integrity of the Nation; Scheme, Office of the governor, Judiciary, Public IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th Service Commissions, Emergency provisions and day of November 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, administrative details. ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS 2. British Constitution- Parliamentary government, CONSTITUTION. Rule of Law, legislative procedure, single citizenship, cabinet system, prerogative writs, 1. The term ‘preamble’ refers to the introduction or parliamentary privileges, and bicameralism. preface to the Constitution. It’s a kind of summary or 3. US Constitution- Fundamental rights, essence of the Constitution. independence of the judiciary, judicial review, 2. The American Constitution was the first, to begin impeachment of the president, removal of Supreme with, a preamble. Court and high court judges and post of vice- 3. N.A Palkiwala has termed preamble as ‘the president. identity card of the constitution’. 4. Irish Constitution - Directive Principles of State 4. The Preamble is somewhat based on the Policy, the nomination of members to Rajya Sabha ‘Objectives Resolution’ moved by Nehru in the and method of election of the president. Constituent Assembly. 5. Canadian Constitution - Federation with a strong 5. The Preamble has been amended only once so far, Centre, vesting of residuary powers in the Centre, the that is by 42nd Amendment Act of 1976. Three appointment of state governors by the Centre, and words were added by that amendment – advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. SOCIALIST, SECULAR, INTEGRITY. 6. Australian Constitution - Concurrent List, 6. The Preamble reveals four ingredients or freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse, and the components: joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament. 7. Source of the authority of the Constitution: The 7. Weimar Constitution of Germany - Suspension Preamble states that the Constitution derives its of Fundamental Rights during Emergency. authority from the people of India. 8. Soviet Constitution (USSR, now Russia) - 8. Nature of Indian State: It declares India as a Fundamental duties and the idea of justice (social, sovereign, socialist, secular democratic and economic and political) in the Preamble. republican polity. 9. French Constitution - Republic and the ideals of 9. Objectives of the Constitution: To provide justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity in the Preamble. liberty, equality and fraternity to the citizens of India. 10. South African Constitution - Procedure for 10. Date of adoption of the Constitution: 26th amendment of the Constitution and election of November 1949. members of Rajya Sabha. 11. In Berubari Union case (1960) - the Supreme 11. Japanese Constitution - Procedure established Court said that the Preamble isn’t a part of the by Law. Constitution.

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12. In Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) - the termination of citizenship and all other matters Supreme Court rejected the earlier opinion and held relating to citizenship (Article 11). that Preamble is a part of the Constitution. 6. The five modes of acquisition of citizenship as per 13. The Preamble is neither a source of power to the citizenship act are (a) By Birth (b) By Descent (c) legislature nor a prohibition upon the powers of the By Registration (d) By Naturalization (e) By legislature. Provisions in the preamble are non- acquisition of any other territory into the Indian enforceable in the court of law, that is, it’s non- Union. justiciable. • The Government of India provides citizenship to the people residing in the area that is acquired by a notification. Person THE UNION & ITS TERRITORY occupying such area do not automatically 1. Article 1 declares India, that is, Bharat as a ‘Union become citizen of Indian on an acquisition of of States’. territory. 2. Article 2 empowers the Parliament to ‘admit into 7. Loss of Citizenship is by – Termination, the Union of India, or establish, new states on such Renunciation and Deprivation. terms and conditions as it thinks fit’. Thus, Article 2 8. India provides for single citizenship. grants two powers to the Parliament: (a) the power to 9. PIO- A person registered as PIO card holder under admit into the Union of India new states; and (b) the the Ministry of Home Affairs’ scheme dated 19-08- power to establish new states. 2002. 3. Article 3 relates to the formation of or changes in 10. OCI- A person registered as Overseas Citizen of the existing states of the Union of India. In other India (OCI) under the Citizenship Act, 1955. The words, Article 3 deals with the internal re-adjustment OCI scheme is operational from 02-12-2005. inter se of the territories of the constituent states of the Union of India. Fundamental Rights

CITIZENSHIP ● Fundamental Rights have been described as the 1. The Constitution confers the following rights and Magna Carta of India. privileges on the citizens of India (and denies the ● The concept has been taken from the US’ bill of same to aliens): rights. Earliest known evidence of rights was also ● Rights conferred under Articles 15, 16, 19, 29 & present in ancient India, Iran etc. 30. ● Following are the articles related to the ● Right to vote in elections to the Lok Sabha and fundamental rights- state legislative assembly. ✓ Article 12- Definition of the State ● Right to contest for the membership of the ✓ Article 13- Laws inconsistent with part-3 Parliament and the state legislature. or Fundamental Rights ● Eligibility to hold certain public offices, that is, President of India, Vice-President of India, judges of Right to Equality (Article 14- Article 18) the Supreme Court and the high courts, governor of states, attorney general of India and advocate general ✓ Article 14-Equality before the law of states. ✓ Article 15-Prohibition of discrimination on 3. No person shall be a citizen of India or be deemed the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex. Or to be a citizen of India if he has voluntarily acquired place of birth the citizenship of any foreign state (Article 9). ✓ Article 16- Equality of opportunity in matters 4. Every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen of public employment. of India shall continue to be such citizen, subject to ✓ Article 17- Abolition of the untouchability the provisions of any law made by Parliament ✓ Article 18- Abolition of titles (Article 10). 5. Parliament shall have the power to make any Right to Freedom (Article 19- Article 22) provision with respect to the acquisition and www.gradeup.co

✓ Article 19- Guarantees to all the citizens of India Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article • Right to freedom of speech and expression 32) • Right to assemble peacefully and without ✓ Article 32- Right to move the Supreme Court arms for the enforcement of fundamental rights • Right to form associations or unions including the writs of (i) habeas corpus, (ii) • Right to move freely throughout the territory mandamus, (iii) prohibition, (iv) certiorari, of India and (v) quo warranto. • Right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India ❖ Habeas Corpus: It means “to have the body • Right to practice any profession or to carry on of”. This writ is used to enforce the any occupation, trade, and business fundamental right of individual liberty ✓ Article 20- Protection in respect of against unlawful detention against both conviction for offences private and public authorities. ✓ Article 21- Protection of life & personal liberty ❖ Mandamus: It means “We command”. This ✓ Article 21A- Right to Education writ is used by the court to order the public ✓ Article 22- Protection against arrest and official who has failed to perform his duty or detention in certain cases refused to do his duty, to resume his work. This writ is not available against the private Right Against Exploitation (Article 23- individuals. Article 24)

✓ Article 23- Prohibition of traffic in human ❖ Prohibition: It means “We Forbid”. A court beings and forced labour that is higher in position issues a Prohibition ✓ Article 24- Prohibition of employment of writ against a court that is lower in position children in factories and mines for under the to prevent the latter from exceeding its age of 14 jurisdiction. This writ is available only against judicial and quasi-judicial bodies. Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25- Article 28) ❖ Certiorari: It means “To be Certified”. This ✓ Article 25- Freedom of conscience and free writ is issued by a court higher in authority to profession, practice and propagation of a lower court or tribunal ordering them either religion to transfer a case pending with them to itself ✓ Article 26- Freedom to manage religious or squash their order in a case. It is used as affairs both cure and prevention. ✓ Article 27- Freedom as to pay taxes for promotion of any particular religion ✓ Article 28- Freedom from attending religious ❖ Quo Warranto: It means “By what instruction Authority”. Supreme Court or High Court issue this writ to prevent illegal usurpation of Cultural & Educational Rights (Article 29- a public office by a person. Article 30) ● Article 33 deals with the power of Parliament to modify the fundamental rights. ✓ Article 29- Protection of interest of ● Article 34 deals with Martial Law minorities ● Article 35 deals with legislation required to deal ✓ Article 30- The right of minorities to with fundamental rights establish and administer educational ● Fundamental Rights which are available only to institutions citizens - 15, 16, 19, 29 and 30. www.gradeup.co

● Fundamental Rights those are available to both citizens as well as non-citizens – 14, 20, 21, 21A, 22, j. To prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves and other 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28. milch and draught cattle and to improve their breeds (Article 48). Directive Principles of the State Policy k. To secure for all citizens a uniform civil code Some Important Articles in DPSPs are: throughout the country (Article 44). a. To promote the welfare of the people by securing l. To provide early childhood care and education for a social order permeated by justice— social, all children until they complete the age of six years economic and political—and to minimise (Article 45). Also, amended by the 86th inequalities in income, status, facilities and constitutional amendment act, 2002. opportunities (Article 38). m. To separate the judiciary from the executive in the b. To secure (a) the right to adequate means of public services of the State (Article 50). livelihood for all citizens; (b) the equitable distribution of material resources of the community n. To promote international peace and security and for the common good; (c) prevention of maintain just and honourable relations between concentration of wealth and means of production; (d) nations; to foster respect for international law and equal pay for equal work for men and women; (e) treaty obligations, and to encourage settlement of preservation of the health and strength of workers international disputes by arbitration (Article 51). and children against forcible abuse; and (f) opportunities for healthy development of children Fundamental Duties (Article 39). Following is the list of FDs: c. To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor (Article 39 A). This was added by (a) To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals 42nd constitutional amendment act, 1976. and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; d. To secure the right to work, to education and to (b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals that public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, inspired the national struggle for freedom; sickness and disablement (Article 41). (c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; e. To make provision for just and humane conditions (d) To defend the country and render national service for work and maternity relief (Article 42). when called upon to do so; (e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common f. To take steps to secure the participation of workers brotherhood amongst all the people of India in the management of industries (Article 43 A). Also transcending religious, linguistic and regional or added by 42nd constitutional amendment act, 1976. sectional diversities and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; g. To organise village panchayats and endow them (f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of the with necessary powers and authority to enable them country’s composite culture; to function as units of self-government (Article 40). (g) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to h. To promote cottage industries on an individual or have compassion for living creatures; co-operation basis in rural areas (Article 43). (h) To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform; i. To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks (i) To safeguard public property and to abjure and drugs which are injurious to health (Article 47). violence; www.gradeup.co

(j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of (c) The Elected MLAs of National Capital Territory individual and collective activity so that the nation of Delhi (added by 70th Amendment Act, 1992 and constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and with effect from 1-06-1995) and Union territory of achievement; and Puducherry. (k) To provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen 2. Thus, nominated members of parliament and years. This duty was added by the 86th legislative assemblies and members of legislative Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002. councils do not participate in the presidential election. President of India 3. The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single (1) Article 52 – There shall be a President of India transferable vote and voting is done by secret ballot. (2) Article 53 – the Executive power of the Union: 4. All doubts and disputes arising out of the The executive power shall be vested in the President Presidential elections are decided into and enquired and shall be exercised by him either directly or by the Supreme Court whose decision is final. through officers’ subordinate to him. 5. The elections are monitored and conducted by the (3) He is the supreme commander of the defence Election Commission of India. forces in India. (4) Though he’s only the constitutional head, or Impeachment of the President (Article 61) titular head, de jure head or nominal executive or just a symbolic head. 1. He is impeached for the ‘Violation of the Constitution’. However, the term is NOT defined in Important Articles related to the President: the constitution. 2. The charges can be preferred by either house of the Articles Provisions parliament. However, a 14-days’ notice shall be Article 52 The President of India served to the President before the acceptance of such Article 53 Executive power of the a resolution. Union 3. Also, that notice must be signed by at least one- Article 54 Election of the President fourth members of the total members of that house Article 55 Manner of Election of which initiated the charges. President 4. After the acceptance of that bill in that house, that Article 56 Term of office impeachment bill must be passed by the majority of Article 57 Eligibility for re-election 2/3rd of the total membership of that house. Article 58 Qualifications of 5. Then that bill goes in another house which should President’s office investigate the charges and the President shall have Article 59 Conditions of President’s the right to appear and to be represented at such an office investigation. Article 60 Oath and Affirmation by 6. If another house sustains the charges and finds the President President of violation, and passes that resolution by Article 61 Procedure for 2/3rd of the total membership of that house, the impeachment President stands removed from the date the resolution is so passed. 7. Hence, impeachment is a quasi-judicial process. Election of the President And though, the nominated members of 1. The President shall be elected by the members of Parliament do not participate in his election, they an ELECTORAL COLLEGE consisting of: take part in the impeachment process. Also, states’ (a) The Elected MPs legislatures do not have a role in the impeachment (b) The Elected MLAs of the states process.

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Important Powers of the President: Legislative Powers: Veto Powers The legislative powers of the President are as The President of India has three types of Veto follows: powers, namely 1. The President summons the houses of the 1. Absolute Veto- Withholding the assent to the bill. Parliament at least twice a year at the place of The bill then ends and does not become an Act. his choice. Example- in 1954, Dr. Rajendra Prasad withheld his 2. He nominates 12 members to the Rajya assent to the PEPSU Appropriation Bill. Also, in Sabha. 1991 R. Venkataram withheld his assent to the MPs 3. Some bills such as follows need President’s Salaries, allowances bill. recommendation for their introduction into 2. Suspensive Veto- Returning the bill for the Parliament: reconsideration. In 2006, President APJ Abdul ➢ A bill for formation of new states or Kalam used the suspensive veto in the office of profit alteration of boundary of existing bill. However, the President can return the bill for states. reconsideration to the legislature only once, after ➢ A money Bill which he has to give his consent. ➢ A Finance Bill 3. Pocket Veto- Taking no action on the bill sent to ➢ A bill involving taxation or the President. There’s no time limit provided in the distribution of financial resources to constitution within which the President has to give states. his assent or sign the bill. Hence, he has a ‘bigger ➢ A state bill that seeks to restrict pocket’ than the American President. In 1986, freedom of trade. President Zail Singh applied Pocket Veto to Indian Post Office Amendment bill. Vice-President of India

Judicial Powers: Important Articles related to Vice-President: President has the power to grant Pardon, Reprieve, Respite, Remit, Commute the sentence of a Article Provisions convicted person. Article 63 The Vice-President of ❖ Pardon: It absolves the offender from all India sentences and punishment. Article 66 Election of Vice- ❖ Reprieve: It means a temporary suspension President of the execution of the sentence. Article 67 Term of office ❖ Remission: It reduces the amount of sentence Article 69 Oath and Affirmation by without changing its character. the Vice-President ❖ Respite: It leads to awarding of a lesser sentence in some special cases. E.g. in case of a pregnant woman ● The Vice-President shall be ex-officio Chairman of ❖ Commutation: It substitutes one form of the Council of States and shall not hold any other punishment for another of a lighter character. office of profit. ● The first Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha - Dr. Note: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ✓ The judicial power of the President extends ● Provided that during any period when the Vice- to cases where the sentence has been awarded President acts as President or discharges the by court martial and in the cases where functions of the President under article 65, he shall punishment is a death sentence. The judicial not perform the duties of the office of Chairman of power of Governor does not extend to both the Council of States and shall not be entitled to any these cases. www.gradeup.co salary or allowance payable to the Chairman of the • Vice-President can be removed by a Council of States under article 97. resolution of Rajya Sabha passed by a ● This is the second most important function of the majority of all the then members of Rajya V.P. He can act as the President in case of the death, Sabha and agreed to by Lok Sabha. impeachment, resignation or otherwise of the • A 14 days day notice needs to be given to the President of India. However, he can act as the Vice-President. president only for a maximum period of six months • Procedure of removal of Vice-President (question asked) within which a new president has to cannot be initiated in Lok Sabha. be elected. ● The V.P gets the salary, allowance etc. of the Parliament of India President when he acts as the president, not as the Organization of the Parliament chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. 1. The Parliament consists of the President, the Lok ● The salary, emoluments etc. of the chairperson Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. of the Rajya Sabha is mentioned in the second 2. Lok Sabha is the Lower House (First Chamber or schedule of the Constitution of India. Popular House) and Rajya Sabha is the Upper House (Second Chamber or House of Elders). Article 66: Election of Vice-President Composition of Rajya Sabha ● The Vice-President of India is elected by an 1.Under Article 80, The maximum strength of the electoral college consisting of: Elected and Rajya Sabha is fixed at 250, out of which, 238 are to nominated members of both house (Lok Sabha be the representatives of the states and union and Rajya Sabha) of parliament. (MLAs are not territories (elected indirectly) and 12 are nominated included) by the president. ● Vice-President of India is elected by proportional 2. At present, the Rajya Sabha has 245 members. Of representation system by means of the single these, 229 members represent the states, 4 members transferable vote. represent the union territories, and 12 members are ● Voting in Vice-President election is done by secret nominated by the president. ballot. 3. The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution deals with ● A candidate to be elected to the office of Vice- the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha to the states President, He/she must secure a fixed quota of Votes. and union territories. ● All disputes related to the election of Vice- 4. The representatives of states in the Rajya Sabha President are inquired into and decided by the are elected by the elected members of state supreme court whose decision is final. legislative assemblies. The seats are allotted to the states in the Rajya Sabha are based on their Eligibility Criteria for Vice-President population. ● He/she should be the citizen of India ● He/she has completed the age of 35 years. Composition of Lok Sabha ● He/she should be qualified for the member of 1. The maximum strength of the Lok Sabha is fixed Rajya Sabha at 552. Out of this, 530 members are to be the ● Does not hold any office of profit under union, representatives of the states, 20 members are to be state or local authority. the representatives of the union territories and 2 ● However, for this purpose, the President, members may be nominated by the president from Vice-President, Governor of a State and a Minister of the Anglo-Indian community. the Union or a State, are not held to be holding an 2. At present, the Lok Sabha has 545 members. office of profit. (An office of profit is an office that 3. The representatives of states in the Lok Sabha are would give its occupant the opportunity to gain a directly elected by the people from their respective financial advantage or benefit). constituencies. 4. The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 years Removal of Vice-President by the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988. www.gradeup.co

1. The Speaker is elected by the Lok Sabha from Qualification, disqualifications to be an MP amongst its members (as soon as may be, 1. Eligibility after its first sitting). The date of election of (a) Citizen of India. the Speaker is fixed by the President. (b) Minimum age – 30 years in Rajya Sabha and 25 2. The Speaker offers his resignation to the years in Lok Sabha. Deputy Speaker and he can be removed by a (c) He must possess other qualifications prescribed resolution passed by a majority of members by Parliament. (Hence, the Representation of People of Lok Sabha, however, only after giving him Act, 1951). a 14-day notice. 3. He presides over a joint sitting of the two 2. Criteria for disqualifying an MP: Houses of Parliament. Such a sitting is Only the following criteria are mentioned in the summoned by the President to settle a constitution for disqualification of an MP. deadlock between the two Houses on a bill. (a) If he holds any office of profit under the Union or 4. He decides whether a bill is a money bill or state government not and his decision on this question is final. (b) If he is of unsound mind and stands so declared 5. Under the Anti-defection law, the authority by a court. of the speaker is final on disqualification of a (c) If he is an undischarged insolvent. member (subject to judicial review). (d) if he is not a citizen of India or has voluntarily 6. He can’t vote in the first instance, though can acquired the citizenship of a foreign state or is under vote in the event of a tie. When his removal any acknowledgement of allegiance to a foreign motion is under consideration, he can take state; and part and speak in the proceedings and can (e) If he is so disqualified under any law made by vote as well but not in the case of a tie. Parliament (RPA, 1951). Deputy Speaker 3. The Constitution also lays down that a person shall 1. The deputy speaker is elected by the be disqualified from being a member of Parliament if members of Lok Sabha from amongst he is so disqualified on the ground of defection under themselves by simple majority of the the provisions of the Tenth Schedule. members present and voting. Note: Under the tenth schedule a MP may be 2. The speaker and the deputy speaker give their disqualified if: resignation to each other. ➢ He voluntarily gives up the membership of 3. Deputy Speaker can be removed by a his political party, resolution passed by a majority of all the then ➢ If he abstains from voting in the house members of the house after serving a 14-day contrary to any direction given by his party notice to him. (unless party condones his actions in 15 days) ➢ An independent member is disqualified if he Speaker Pro-tem joins any political party after his election. 1. As soon as a new Lok Sabha is elected, the President appoints a Speaker Pro-tem who is 4. Double Membership - A person cannot be a usually the senior most member of the house. member of both Houses of Parliament at the same 2. His functions include administering the oath time. to new speaker and preside over the election of the speaker. 5. A House can declare the seat of a member vacant if he is absent from all its meetings for a period of Attorney-General for India sixty days without its permission. 1. Attorney-General is not a member of Parliament or the Council of Ministers, but he Speaker of the Lok Sabha has a right to take part in the proceedings of either house, but he cannot vote. www.gradeup.co

2. A person qualified to be a judge of the 6. Guillotine: When due to lack of time, Supreme Court is appointed the Attorney- demands for grant are put to vote whether General by the President. they are discussed or not in the house on the 3. He holds the office during the pleasure of the last day, it is called Guillotine. President. Important points regarding bills: Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha 1. Money and Finance bills can not be 1. He is elected by the Rajya Sabha from introduced in the Rajya Sabha. amongst its members and he remains in the 2. Money, Finance and an Ordinary Bill under office until the expiry of his term as a Article 3 can only be introduced only on the member. recommendation of the President. 2. In the absence of Chairman, Deputy 3. Constitutional Amendment Bill can be Chairman presides over the functions and introduced in either house. proceedings of Rajya Sabha. 4. The President cannot send back a Money Bill for reconsideration of the of Parliament, he Sessions of Parliament shall give his assent to the Money Bill. A ❖ The Budget Session (February to May Money bill is defined under the Article 110. ❖ The Monsoon Session (July to September); 5. There is no provision for the joint sitting of and two houses for Money Bills and ❖ The Winter Session (November to Constitutional Amendment Bill.( So far, Joint December). Session of the Parliament of India has been called for only three bills that have been The maximum gap between two sessions of passed at joint sessions: the Dowry Parliament cannot be more than six months Prohibition Act, 1961, the Banking Service The President summons and prorogues the two Commission Repeal Bill, 1978, and the houses of parliament. Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002.)

Important terms related to Sessions of the Types of Amendment Procedures: Parliament: 1. By simple majority: 1. Prorogation: A session of the house if Simple Majority means the majority of the terminated by an order called the members present and voting. i.e. more than “Prorogation order” made by the President. 50%. The following Articles are amended 2. Adjournment sin die: It means termination under this method: of the sitting of the house without specifying ➢ Admission of new states or fixing any date for its next sitting. Such ➢ Changes in the names and boundaries order is made by the Presiding order of the of the states. house. ➢ Creation or abolition of legislative 3. Hung Parliament: When no single party has councils in the states by the majority to form the government. Parliament. 4. Quorum: Minimum number of members ➢ Salaries, allowances of President, required to carry out business of the house. Governors and Judges of SC and HC. There should be at least one-tenth members ➢ Quorum for Houses present to conduct the business of the house. ➢ Power, Privileges of MPs. 5. Starred and Unstarred Question: A starred ➢ Delimitation of Constituencies. question is one to which a member desires an oral answer, and an Un-starred question is 2. By Special Majority: one to which written answer is desired by the Under this a bill is passed by each house of asking member. the parliament by a majority of the total membership of that house and by a majority www.gradeup.co

of not less than 2/3rd of the members in the ➢ Functions: to examine whether the money is house present and voting. All the Articles of well laid out within the limits of the policy the constitution can be amended by this implied in the estimates, to suggest the form method except the specific provisions which in which estimates shall be presented to are mentioned in the Article 368 of the Parliament. constitution. 3. Committee on Public Undertakings 3. By Special majority with ratification by ➢ The committee consists of 15 members the states: elected from Lok Sabha and 7 Members from Some federal matters are amended by this Rajya Sabha. method, under this, the bill is required to be ➢ Functions: to examine the Reports and passed by the parliament under special Accounts of the public undertakings, Reports majority and needs to be ratified by more than of CAG, may also examine such matters 50% of the states. There is no time limit which may be referred to it by the house or within which the states must ratify such bills. by the speaker. Following provisions fall under this category: ➢ Election and manner of election of the Provisions under which the Parliament can make President laws on state subjects: ➢ Extent of executive power of the union (Art.73) and states (Art. 162) 1. Article 249: If Rajya Sabha passes a ➢ Union Judiciary resolution with not less than 2/3rd majority, ➢ High Courts on the ground that it is in national interest, it ➢ Legislative relations between the can allow the parliament to legislate on the centre and the states state subjects. Such law can be in force of 1 ➢ 7th schedule year but can be extended any number of ➢ Provisions dealing with amendment times. It ceases to have effect 6 months after of the constitution (Art. 368) the resolution ceases to be in force. 2. Article 250: If a national emergency is declared under Article 352, the parliament Important Parliamentary Finance Committees: has the right to make laws with respect to all the 61 subjects in the state list automatically. 1. Committee on Public Accounts: 3. Article 252: If legislatures of 2 or more states ➢ The committee on Public Accounts consists request the parliament to make a law on the of 15 members from Lok Sabha and 7 state subject, the parliament can do so. Members from Rajya Sabha. However, such law can be amended or ➢ The term of office of the members is not more repealed only by the parliament. E.g. Wildlife than 1 year. (Protection) Act, 1972. ➢ The committee examines: Account showing 4. Article 253: The Parliament can make laws the appropriation of sums granted by on the state subjects to comply with any parliament, Annual Financial Accounts of international agreements to which India is a GoI, Reports of CAG. party. 5. Article 356: If President’s rule is imposed in 2. Committee on Estimates: a state the power of the legislature of the state ➢ The Estimates Committee consists of 30 is exercised by the Parliament. members- all from Lok Sabha- who are elected by the Lok Sabha every year from amongst its members according the principle Emergency Provisions in the Constitution: of proportional representation by means of single transferrable vote. www.gradeup.co

There are 3 kinds of emergency mentioned in the respect to conviction for constitution: offences) and Article 21 1. National Emergency- Emergency caused by (Right to life) cannot be threat to the security of India by war or suspended even during a external aggression or armed rebellion national emergency. (Article 352). ➢ Armed rebellion word replaced the 2. President’s Rule: Emergency caused by word “internal disturbance” in the failure of constitutional machinery in the 44th Amendment Act, 1978. state (Article 356) ➢ So far National Emergency has been ➢ President makes the proclamation declared 3 times in india. with or without the report of the ➢ Duration: Initially 1 month, during governor. which it has to be approved by the ➢ President cannot assume the powers parliament by a special majority. If of the High Court parliament approves the ➢ Duration: Initially for 2 months, after proclamation, then it stays in force for approval of the parliament- 6 months. 6 months, it can be approved any At a stretch it can be in force number of times but not more than 6 maximum for one year. It can be months at a time. extended beyond on year but in no ➢ Revocation: The proclamation can be case beyond 3 year in following revoked by the President at any time, cases: it does not require approval of the • An emergency under Article Parliament. Also, If not less than 352 exists, 1/10th members of Lok Sabha issue a • If EC certifies that there is notice disapproving the emergency, difficulty in holding elections to the president when Lok Sabha is in the concerned state. not in the session, then a special sitting of Lok Sabha has to be held in ➢ Effects: the next 14 days to consider such • Council of Ministers headed resolution. by CM is dismissed. ➢ Effects: The administration is • Assembly is incapable of converted to unitary. Parliament can making laws. enact laws on subjects in state list. • There is not effect on the FRs ➢ Effect on Fundamental Rights: of the people of the state. • Article 358 states that when emergency is declared on the grounds of war or external 3. Financial Emergency: Under Article 360, a aggression (not on the ground proclamation is made by the President if he is of armed rebellion) the six satisfied that a situation has arisen where FRs under Article 19 are financial stability of the India or any of its automatically suspended. territory has been threatened. • The President, under Article ➢ Duration: Initially for 2 months, after 359, may by order, suspend approval of the parliament it stays in the operation of any of the force until it is revoked by the other FRs when an emergency President. is declared on the grounds of ➢ Effects: War or external aggression. • Union government may give • However, the FRs under directions to states regarding Article 20 (Protection in financial matters. www.gradeup.co

• President may ask the states to (b) He should have been an advocate of a High Court reduce the salary of all (or High Courts in succession) for ten years; or persons in government c) He should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion service. of the president. • All money bills of the states may be asked to be reserved 8. Oath- The oath to the judges and CJI is for the consideration of the administered by the President or any other person President. appointed by him for this purpose. • President may also direct to 9. Tenure of Judges – reduce salary and allowances A. He holds office until he attains the age of 65 years. of central government B. He can resign his office by writing to the employees and judges of SC president. and HC. C. He can be removed from his office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament. Indian Judiciary 10. Removal of Judges- A judge of the Supreme Supreme Court Court can be removed from his Office by an order of 1. Articles 124 to 147 mentioned in Part V of the the President. However, he can do so only after an Constitution deal with the organisation, address by Parliament has been presented to him in independence, jurisdiction, powers, and procedures the same session for such removal. The address must and so on of the Supreme Court. be supported by a special majority of each House of 2. At present, the strength of the Supreme Court’s Parliament - a majority of the total membership of judges stands at 34 judges (including the chief that House and a majority of not less than two-thirds justice). of the members of that House present and voting. The 3. Originally, the strength of the Supreme Court was grounds of removal are —proved misbehaviour or fixed at eight (one chief justice and seven other incapacity. judges). 11. The jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme 4. Appointment- The judges of the Supreme Court Court can be classified into- Original Jurisdiction, are appointed by the president. The appointment of Writ Jurisdiction, Appellate Jurisdiction, Advisory the Chief Justice is made by the president after Jurisdiction, A court of Record and so on. consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court 12. The Constitution has constituted the Supreme and high courts as he deems necessary. The other Court as the guarantor and defender of the judges are appointed by the president after fundamental rights of the citizens. consultation with the chief justice and such other 13. The Supreme Court is empowered to issue writs judges of the Supreme Court and the high courts as including habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, he deems necessary. The consultation with the chief quo-warranto and certiorari for the enforcement of justice is obligatory in the case of appointment of a the fundamental rights of an aggrieved citizen. judge other than Chief justice. 5. In 2015 the National Judicial Appointments High Court Commission was declared Ultra Vires by the Supreme Court and hence the collegium system still 1. At present, there are 24 high courts in the country. holds the ground mentioned above. Out of them, three are common high courts. Delhi is 6. Qualification- A person to be appointed as a judge the only union territory that has a high court of its of the Supreme Court should have the following own (since 1966). The other union territories fall qualifications: under the jurisdiction of different state high courts. (i) He should be a citizen of India. (ii) (a) He should have been a judge of a High Court 2. Unlike Supreme court the number of judges in (or high courts in succession) for five years, or High courts is flexible and is decided by the President based on the amount of work before a high court. www.gradeup.co

➢ The writ jurisdiction of HC is wider than SC. 3. Appointment of Judges The judges of a high Under Article 32 SC can issue writs only court are appointed by the President. The chief when fundamental right is infringed, while justice of the High Court is appointed by the HC, Under Article 226 can issue writs for the President after consultation with the chief justice of enforcement of fundamental rights as well as India and the governor of the state concerned. For other ordinary legal rights. appointment of other judges, the chief justice of the ➢ SC is bound to issue to issue writs under concerned high court is also consulted. In case of a Article 32, while High Courts issue writs at common high court for two or more states, the their discretion. governors of all the states concerned are consulted by the president. The Governor ➢ No appointment can be made without conformity with opinion of CJI. Important Articles related to Governor ➢ Under Article 222, President after Articles Provisions consultation with CJI (who consults 4 senior Article 153 Governors for states most judges of SC and two chief justices of Article 155 Appointment of HCs where the transfer is taking place) can Governor transfer a judge from one HC to other. Article 156 Term of office of ➢ The opinion provided by the CJI is binding Governor on the President. Article 157 Qualifications for Appointment as 3. Qualifications of Judges A person to be Governor appointed as a judge of a high court should have the Article 158 Conditions of Office following qualifications: Article 159 Oath by the Governor A. He should be a citizen of India. B. (a) He should have held a judicial office in the territory of India for ten years, or The Governor is the De Jure executive head at the (b) He should have been an advocate of a high state level. His position is analogous to that of the court (or high courts in succession) for ten years. President at the centre.

4. Oath or Affirmation Oath to the judge is ● The Governor is appointed by the president. administered by the governor of the state or some ● To be appointed as the Governor of any state or person appointed by him for this purpose. two or more states as a person: (a) Should be a citizen of India. 5. Tenure of Judges – (b) And should have attained 35 years of age. A. He holds office until he attains the age of 62 years. (c) He should not hold any office of profit as well. B. He can resign his office by writing to the president. ● Like the President, the governor is also entitled to C. He can be removed from his office by the several immunities and privileges. During his term of President on the recommendation of the Parliament. office, he is immune from any criminal proceedings, D. He vacates his office when he is appointed as a even in respect of his personal acts. judge of the Supreme Court or when he is transferred ● The oath - is administered by the chief justice of to another high court. the corresponding state high court and in case he’s E. The salaries and allowances of the High Court absent, the senior-most judge of that particular court. judges is charged on the consolidated fund of the ● A governor holds office for a term of five years state, while pensions are charged on the consolidated from the date on which he enters upon his office. He fund of India. holds office until the pleasure of the President, and he offers his resignation to the President. Note: www.gradeup.co

● He appoints the advocate general of a state and legislative assembly of that state. However, the determines his remuneration. The advocate general number of ministers, including the C.M, in a state holds office during the pleasure of the governor. should also not be less than 12. This provision was ● He appoints the state election commissioner. added by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003. However, the state election commissioner can be ● A member of either House of state legislature removed only in the like manner and on the like belonging to any political party who is disqualified grounds as a judge of a high court. on the ground of defection shall also be disqualified ● He appoints the chairman and members of the state to be appointed as a minister. The provision was also public service commission. However, they can be added by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003. removed only by the president and not by a governor. ● He nominates one-sixth of the members of the state The State Legislature legislative council. Organization of the State Legislature ● He can promulgate ordinances when the state ● Most of the states in India have a Unicameral legislature is not in session. The ordinances must be Legislature. Six States have Bicameral Legislature, approved by the state legislature within six weeks that is-Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, from its reassembly. He can also withdraw an Bihar, U.P. and Karnataka. ordinance anytime (Article 213). ● The Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) is the ● He can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, and upper house (second chamber or house of elders), remissions of punishment or suspend, remit and while the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) is commute the sentence of any person convicted of any the lower house (first chamber or popular house). offense against any law relating to a matter to which Delhi and Puducherry are the only two UTs that have the executive power of the state extends (Article a Legislative Assembly. 161). Composition of the State Legislature Article 371: ● The legislative assembly consists of Some governors have to discharge certain special representatives directly elected by the people based responsibilities under Article 371 to 371J. Such on universal adult franchise. Its maximum strength is special states and respective articles are listed below: fixed at 500 and minimum strength at 60 depending Article State on the population size of the state. However, in the Article 371 Gujarat and Maharashtra case of Sikkim it is 32; and Goa and Mizoram it’s 40. Article 371A Nagaland ● The members of the legislative council are Article 371B Assam indirectly elected. The maximum strength of the Article 371C Manipur legislative council is fixed at 1/3rd of the total Article 371D and Andhra Pradesh strength of the corresponding assembly and the 371E minimum strength is fixed at 40. But an exception Article 371F Sikkim being Jammu and Kashmir having 36 members. Article 371G Mizoram ● Manner of Election Of the total number of Article 371H Arunanchal Pradesh members of a legislative council: Article 371I Goa Article 371J Karnataka (a) 1/3 are elected by the members of local bodies in the state such as municipalities etc., (b) 1/12 are elected by graduates of three years Chief Minister and State Council of Ministers standing and residing within the state, (c) 1/12 are elected by teachers of three years ● Chief Minister is the real executive authority (de standing in the state, not lower in standard than facto executive). He is the head of the government. secondary school, ● The total strength of the number of ministers, (d) 1/3 are elected by the members of the legislative including the C.M, in the state’s CoM should not assembly of the state from amongst persons who are exceed 15 percent of the total strength of the not members of the assembly, and www.gradeup.co

(e) The remainder are nominated by the governor from amongst the persons who have special ● Like the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker is also knowledge or practical experience of literature, elected by the assembly itself from amongst its science, art, cooperative movement, and social members. He is elected after the election of the service. Speaker has taken place. ● Thus, 5/6 of the total number of members of a legislative council is indirectly elected and 1/6 are ● The Chairman is elected by the council itself from nominated by the governor. The members are elected amongst its members. in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. ● The Speaker decides whether a bill is a Money Bill or not and his decision on this question is final. Duration of the two Houses ● Analogous to the Lok Sabha, the legislative Local Government system in India assembly is also not a permanent chamber. The term of the assembly is five years from the date of its first Evolution of Panchayati Raj System meeting after the general elections. ● Analogous to the Rajya Sabha, the legislative ● The first Panchayati raj system in India was council is a continuing chamber, that is, it is a established by the state of Rajasthan in 1959, in permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. Nagaur district followed by Andhra Pradesh. But, one-third of its members retire on the expiration Thereafter the system was adopted by most of the of every second year. states. The major concern regarding the local self- government was its architecture, amount of power to Membership of the State Legislature be devolved, finances etc. Several committees were The Constitution lays down the following constituted by respective union governments to qualifications for a person to be chosen as a member devise a method for the same. of the State legislature. (a) Citizen of India. Some of the important committees are: (b) He must be not less than 30 years of age in the case of the legislative council and not less than 25 ➢ Balwant Rai Mehta Committee,1957 years of age in the case of the legislative assembly. It suggested a 3-tier structure at village, block and district level. He should not have been found guilty as per the provisions of RPA, 1951. In defection case also a ➢ Ashok Mehta Committee,1977 member is liable to be disqualified as per the Anti- It suggested a 2-tier system. Defection Act (10th Schedule). Also, he should not be of unsound mind, he should ➢ G V K Rao Committee,1985 not hold any office of profit; he isn’t declared an un- Recommended revival of Panchayati Raj discharged insolvent etc. institutions and a 3-tier system.

Presiding Officers of State Legislature ➢ L M Singhvi Committee,1986 ● Each House of the state legislature has its own Recommended Constitutional status to presiding officer. There is a Speaker and a Deputy Panchayati Raj institutions, also Speaker for the legislative assembly and Chairman recommended setting up a finance and a Deputy Chairman for the legislative council. A commission for Panchayats. panel of chairmen for the assembly and a panel of vice-chairmen for the council are also appointed. ➢ Thungon Committee,1989 Recommended Constitutional recognition to ● The Speaker is elected by the assembly itself from Panchayats. amongst its members. www.gradeup.co

➢ Gadgil Committee,1988 ➢ They hold office for a term of six years. The age of retirement is 65 years, whichever 73rd Amendment Act,1992 comes earlier. This Act has added PART IX to the constitution and ➢ The first election commissioner of India was consists of provisions from Articles 243-243O. Also, Sukumar Sen. it has added 11th Schedule consisting of 29 items of ➢ The administrative expenditure of the the Panchayat. Election Commission is NOT charged upon the Consolidated fund of India. Important Articles added under the Act: ➢ Commission has advisory jurisdiction in the matters of post-election disqualification of Article Provisions sitting members of Parliament and State 243A Gram Sabha Legislatures. The opinion of the commission 243B Three tier system on all such matters is binding on the 243D Reservation of seats President/Governor. 243F Qualification (Min. age ➢ Political Parties are recognised by the 21 years) Election Commission. The conditions for 243I State Finance recognition of a Party as National Party and Commission State Party are as follows: 243K State Election National Party: Commission • 2 % seats in Lok Sabha from at least 3 different states in general election. 74th Amendment Act, 1992 • In election to Lok Sabha or State This Amendment Act inserted a new Part IX A which Legislature, the party has polled 6 deals with the administration of Municipalities and % of total valid votes from at least Nagar Palikas. It consist of Articles 243P to 243ZG. 4 different states, in addition to It also added a new 12th Schedule to the constitution. winning 4 Lok Sabha. • A party has recognition as a state Important Articles added under the Act: party in at least 4 states.

Article Provisions State Party: Article 243R Composition of • Secure at least 6% of the valid vote Municipalities and win at least 2 seats in an Article 243S Wards Committee assembly election. Article 243Q Duration • Secure 6% valid votes and at least Article 243T Reservation of seats for 1 Lok Sabha seat. SC, ST & Women • Win at least 3% of the seats or at Article 243V Qualifications (21 years) least 3 seats, whichever is more, in a Assembly Election. Constitutional Bodies • Win at least 1 out of every 25 seats from a state in Lok Sabha General ELECTION COMMISSION Election. ➢ Article 324 of the Constitution mentions • Secure at least 8% of the total valid about the election commission mentioned in votes in Assembly or Lok Sabha part XV. Elections. ➢ The institution of Election Commission presently consists of the chief election commissioner and two other election UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION commissioners, appointed by the President. www.gradeup.co

➢ Mentioned under articles 315 to 323 in Part taxes to be shared between the centre and the XIV of the Constitution (Article 315 states and the allocation between the states mentions about the public service the respective shares of such proceeds. commission for the union and the states). ➢ The Chairman of the first finance ➢ The UPSC consists of a chairman and other commission was K.C Neogi and presently it members appointed by the president of India. is the 15th F.C. whose chairman is N.K ➢ The term is of six years or the retirement age Singh. is 65 years, whichever is earlier. ➢ The chairman of UPSC (on ceasing to hold NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SCs office) is not eligible for further employment ➢ Mentioned in Article 338 of the Constitution in the Government of India or a state. of India.

STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR STs ➢ A State Public Service Commission consists ➢ Mentioned in Article 338-A of the of a chairman and other members appointed Constitution of India. by the governor of the state. ➢ The term of office is 6 years or retirement age SPECIAL OFFICER FOR LINGUISTIC is 62 years, whichever is attained earlier. MINORITIES They offer their respective resignations to the ➢ It is mentioned in 350-B in Part XVII of the governor. Constitution. ➢ The chairman and members can be removed only by the President, though they’re COMPTROLLER and AUDITOR GENERAL of appointed by the Governor. The ground for INDIA removal is same as that of a chairman or a ➢ The Constitution of India (Article 148) member of the UPSC. provides for an independent office of the ➢ A JPSC is/can be created by an act of Comptroller and Auditor General of India parliament on the request of the respective (CAG). states, unlike UPSC and SPSC which are ➢ He is the head of the Indian Audit and constitutional bodies. Hence, a JPSC is a Accounts Department. statutory body not a constitutional one. ➢ He is the guardian of the public purse and ➢ The chairman and members of a JSPSC are controls the entire financial system of the appointed by the president. The term of office country at both the levels—the Centre and the is again six years or the age of retirement is state. 62 years, whichever comes earlier. ➢ This is the reason why Dr. B R Ambedkar said that the CAG shall be the most important FINANCE COMMISSION Officer under the Constitution of India. ➢ Article 280 of the Constitution of India ➢ The CAG is appointed by the president of provides for a Finance Commission. It is India by a warrant under his hand and seal. constituted by the president of India every ➢ He holds office for a period of six years or up fifth year or at such earlier time as he to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. considers necessary. ➢ The method to remove CAG is same as that ➢ The Finance Commission consists of a of Supreme court judge. chairman and four other members to be ➢ He is not entitled to hold any further appointed by the president. They hold office employment after he retires or is removed, for such period as specified by the president either at the centre or at the state government in his order. They are eligible for level. reappointment. ➢ The administrative expenses of the office of ➢ It is majorly an advisory body though and it the CAG, including all salaries, allowances, advises on the distribution of net proceeds of and pensions of persons serving in that office www.gradeup.co

are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India. Thus, they are not subject to the vote of Non-Constitutional Bodies Parliament. ➢ He audits the accounts related to all NITI (National Institution for Transforming expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India) Aayog India, consolidated fund of each state and ➢ It is established in 2015 by the government to consolidated fund of each union territory replace the Planning commission (was based having a Legislative Assembly. on top-down model). ➢ He audits all expenditure from the ➢ It is based on the bottom-up model. Contingency Fund of India and the Public ➢ It is the policy-making body for whole India. Account of India as well as the contingency ➢ The Ex-officio chairman of aayog is prime fund of each state and the public account of minister. each state. ➢ Current Vice Chairman of aayog is Rajiv ➢ He submits his audit reports relating to the Kumar. accounts of the Centre to President, who ➢ Permanent members of the governing shall, in turn, place them before both the council- (a) All state Chief Ministers (b) Houses of Parliament (Article 151). Chief ministers of Delhi and Puducherry (c) ➢ He submits his audit reports relating to the Lieutenant Governor of Andaman and accounts of a state to the governor, who shall, Nicobar (d) Vice chairman nominated by the in turn, place them before the state legislature Prime Minister. (Article 151). ➢ The President lays the reports submitted by NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL CAG before both the Houses of Parliament. ➢ The National Development Council (NDC) The Public Accounts Committee then was established in August 1952 by an scrutinizes them and reports the findings to executive resolution of the Government of the Parliament. India on the recommendation of the first five year plan (draft outline). Like the Planning ATTORNEY GENERAL OF INDIA Commission, it is neither a constitutional ➢ Mentioned in Article 76 of the Constitution body nor a statutory body. of India. ➢ The NDC is composed of the following ➢ Titled as the highest law officer in the members: country. • P.M of India (as its chairman/head). ➢ Appointed by the President. • All Union cabinet ministers (since ➢ An AGI is one who is qualified to be 1967). appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. • Chief Ministers of all the states. ➢ The term is not fixed and he holds office • Chief Ministers/administrators of all during the pleasure of the President. the union territories. E. Members of the Planning Commission. ADVOCATE GENERAL OF THE STATE ➢ The Constitution (Article 165) has provided NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION for the office of the advocate general for the ➢ The NHRC is a statutory (and not a states. He is the highest law officer in the constitutional) body. It was established in state. Thus he corresponds to the Attorney 1993 under a legislation enacted by the General of India. Parliament, namely, the Protection of Human ➢ The advocate general is appointed by the Rights Act, 1993. This Act was amended in governor. He must be a person who is 2006. qualified to be appointed a judge of a high ➢ The Act was amended by Protection of court. Human Rights(Amendment) Bill,2019 to facilitate following provision: www.gradeup.co

• Now, ex chief justice as well as ex ➢ The Commission consists of a Chief judge of SC can be appointed as the Information Commissioner and not-more- chairperson of NHRC. than ten Information Commissioners. • The bill allows 3 members to be ➢ They are appointed by the President on the appointed of which at least one has to recommendation of a committee consisting be a woman. of the Prime Minister as Chairperson, the • Members of NHRC: The Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha and a chairpersons of the National Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Commission for Scheduled Castes, Prime Minister. National Commission for Scheduled ➢ They should be persons of eminence in public Tribes, and National Commission for life with wide knowledge and experience in Women, National Commission for social service, science, and technology, mass Backward Classes, the National media, management, journalism, law, or Commission for the Protection of administration and governance. Child Rights, and the Chief ➢ They should not be MPs or MLAs of any Commissioner for Persons with State or Union Territory. They should not Disabilities. hold any other office of profit or connected • An ex chief justice of HC or an ex- with any political party or carrying on any judge of HC can be appointed business or pursuing any profession. chairperson of SHRC. ➢ By an amendment, the term of office and • The term of office is reduced to 3 allowances, salaries of Information years or until the age of 70 whichever Commissioners are to be prescribed by the is earlier. The 5 year limit for Central government. reappointment is also removed. • Cases relating to human rights violations come under the purview of CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSION NHRC. ➢ The CVC is the main agency for preventing ➢ The chairman and members are appointed by corruption in the Central government. It was the President on the recommendations of a established in 1964 by an executive six-member committee consisting of the resolution of the Central government. prime minister as its head, the Speaker of the ➢ Its establishment was recommended by the Lok Sabha, the Deputy Chairman of the Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Rajya Sabha, leaders of the Opposition in Corruption (1962–64). both the Houses of Parliament and the ➢ Thus, originally the CVC was neither a Central home minister. Further, a sitting constitutional body nor a statutory body. In judge of the Supreme Court or sitting chief September 2003, the Parliament enacted a justice of a high court can be appointed only law conferring statutory status on the CVC. after consultation with the chief justice of ➢ The CVC is a multi-member body consisting India. of a Central Vigilance Commissioner (chairperson) and not more than two CENTRAL INFORMATION COMMISSION vigilance commissioners. ➢ The CIC was established by the Central ➢ They are appointed by the president by Government in 2005. It was constituted warrant under his hand and seal on the through an Official Gazette Notification recommendation of a three-member under the provisions of the Right to committee consisting of the prime minister as Information Act (2005). Hence, it is not a its head, the Union minister of home affairs constitutional body. and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.

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➢ They hold office for a term of four years or eight failed attempts were made to pass the until they attain the age of 65 years, Bill. whichever is earlier. After their tenure, they ➢ Finally, massive pressure from civil societies are not eligible for further employment under and demand from the social groups resulted the Central or a state government. in the passing of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Bill, 2013. Lokpal and Lokayukta Act Criteria for selection of Chairperson Important Facts ➢ She/he should be either former Chief Justice ➢ The Lokpal and Lokayukta is an anti- of India or Judge of the Supreme Court. corruption ombudsman established by the ➢ She/he should be an eminent person with Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013. impeccable integrity and outstanding ability ➢ It has the provision of appointing ‘Lokpal’ at with at least 25 years experience in matters the centre and ‘Lokayukta’ on every state. related to anti-corruption policy, law, ➢ These are statutory bodies established management etc. without any constitutional status. ➢ The former Supreme Court Judge Justice Appointment of Chairperson and Members Pinaki Chandra Ghose is the first Lokpal of ➢ The President appoints the chairperson and India. members on the recommendation of a select committee consisting of the following :- Composition of the Lokpal • The Prime Minister ➢ The office of Lokpal consists of a chairperson • The Speaker of Lok Sabha and a maximum of 8 members. • The Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha ➢ The Chairman and half of the members • The Chief Justice of India should be from legal backgrounds. • One eminent jurist appointed by the President ➢ The 50% of the seats are reserved for SC, ST, OBC, minorities or women. Term of Office ➢ The Chairman and members of Lokpal hold office for five years or upto the age of 70 yrs. Evolution of Lokpal and Lokayukta in India ➢ The salary, allowances and other condition of ➢ For the first time, an office ombudsman was service of the chairperson shall be equivalent established in Sweden in 1809. to the Chief Justice of India, and members are ➢ The concept of ombudsman developed comparable to the Judge of the Supreme significantly after the Second World War. Court. The United Kingdom adopted it in 1967. ➢ All expenses are charged from the ➢ In India, this concept was first proposed by consolidated fund of India. the then law minister Ashok Kumar Sen in the early 1960s. Basic Structure of Constitution ➢ In 1966 the recommendations of the First Following are the components of the Constitution: Administrative Reforms Commission ➢ The supremacy of the Constitution suggested the setting up of independent ➢ Rule of law authority for looking after the complaint ➢ The Sovereign, Democratic and Republican against public functionaries. nature of Indian polity ➢ In 2005 the 2nd ARC the chaired by ➢ The principle of Separation of Powers Veerappa Moily also recommended for between the executive, legislative and provision of Lokpal. judiciary ➢ In India for the first time, the Lokpal bill was ➢ Federal Character of the Constitution introduced in the Lok Sabha in 1968 but ➢ Unity and integrity of the Nation could be not passed, and till 2011 a total of ➢ Independence of the Judiciary www.gradeup.co

➢ Judicial Review 17. Article No. 45:- Provision for early childhood ➢ Freedom and dignity of the individual care and education to children below the age of 6 ➢ The Parliamentary system of government years. ➢ The balance between Fundamental Rights 18. Article No. 46:- Promotion of educational and and DPSP. ] economic interests of scheduled castes, scheduled ➢ The principle of equality tribes and other weaker sections ➢ Secular character of the Constitution 19. Article No. 50:- Separation of judiciary from the ➢ Restriction on amending the power of executive Parliament. 20. Article No. 51:- Promotion of international peace ➢ Effective access to justice and security ➢ Principle of reasonableness 21. Article No. 51A:- Fundamental Duties ➢ Free and fair elections 22. Article No. 72:- Powers of President to grant ➢ The Powers of the Supreme Court under pardons, suspend, remit or commute sentences in Articles 32, 136, 141, 142 certain cases ➢ The concept of Welfare State consisting of 23. Article No. 74:- Council of Ministers to aid and social and economic justice. advise the President 24. Article No. 76:- Attorney-General of India 25. Article No. 78:- Duties of the Prime Minister as List of Most Important articles of Indian respects the furnishing of information to the Constitution President, etc. 1. Article No. 1:- Name and territory of the Union 26. Article No. 110:- Definition of Money Bills 2. Article No. 3:- Formation of new states and 27. Article No. 112:- Annual Financial Statement alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing (Budget) 28. Article No. 123:- Power of President to states promulgate ordinances during recess of Parliament 3. Article No. 13:- Laws inconsistent with or in 29. Article No. 143:- Power of President to consult derogation of the Fundamental Rights Supreme Court 4. Article No. 14:- Equality before the law 30. Article No. 148:- Comptroller and Auditor- 5. Article No. 16:- Equality of opportunity in matters General of India of public employment 31. Article No. 149:- Duties and powers of the 6. Article No. 17:- Abolition of untouchability Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 7. Article No. 19:- Protection of certain rights 32. Article No. 155:- Appointment of the Governor regarding freedom of speech, etc. 33. Article No. 161:- Power of Governor to grant 8. Article No. 21:- Protection of life and personal pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute liberty sentences in certain cases 9. Article No. 21A:- Right to elementary education 34. Article No. 163:- Council of Ministers to aid and 10. Article No. 25:- Freedom of conscience and free advise the Governor profession, practice and propagation of religion 11. 35. Article No. 165:-Advocate-General of the state Article No. 30:- Right of minorities to establish and Which British Laws are still used in India administer educational institutions 36. Article No. 167:- Duties of Chief Minister with 12. Article No. 31C:- Saving of laws giving effect to regard to the furnishing of information to the certain Directive Principles Governor, etc. 13. Article No. 32:- Remedies for enforcement of 37. Article No. 168:- Constitution of Legislatures in Fundamental Rights including writs the states 14. Article No. 38:- State to secure a social order for 38. Article No. 169:- Abolition or creation of the promotion of the welfare of the people Legislative Councils in the states 15. Article No.40:- Organisation of village 39. Article No. 170:- Composition of Legislative panchayats Assemblies in the states 16. Article No. 44:- Uniform Civil Code for the 40. Article No. 171:- Composition of Legislative citizens Councils in the states www.gradeup.co

41. Article No. 172:- Duration of State Legislatures 68. Article No. 312:- All-India Services 42. Article No. 173:- Qualification for membership 69. Article No. 315:- Public Service Commission for of the State Legislature the Union and for the states 43. Article No. 174:- Sessions of the State 70. Article No. 320:- Functions of Public Service Legislature, prorogation and dissolution Commissions 44. Article No. 178:- Speakers and Deputy Speaker 71. Article No. 323-A:- Administrative Tribunals of the Legislative Assembly 45. Article No. 194:- 72. Article No. 324:- Superintendence, direction and Powers, privileges, and immunity of Advocate- control of elections to be vested in an Election General Commission 46. Article No. 200:- Assent to bills by the governor 73. Article No. 330:- Reservation of seats for (including reservation for President) scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House 47. Article No. 202:-Annual financial statement of of the People the State Legislature 74. Article No. 335:- Claims of Scheduled Castes and 48. Article No. 210:- Language to be used in the State Scheduled Tribes to services and posts Legislature 75. Article No. 352:- Proclamation of Emergency 49. Article No. 212:- Courts not to inquire into (National Emergency) proceedings of the State Legislature 76. Article No. 356:- Provisions in case of failure of 50. Article No. 213:- Power of governor to constitutional machinery in states (President’s Rule) promulgate ordinances during recess of the State 77. Article No. 360:- Provisions as to Financial Legislature Emergency. 51. Article No. 214:- High courts for the states 78. Article No. 365:- Effect of failure to comply with 52. Article No. 217:-Appointment and the conditions or to give effect to, directions given by the Union of the office of the judge of a High Court (President’s Rule) 53. Article No. 226:- Power of high courts to issue 79. Article No. 368:- Power of Parliament to amend certain writs the Constitution and procedure therefore. 54. Article No. 239AA:- Special provisions with respect to Delhi 55. Article No. 243B:- Constitution of Panchayats 56. Article No. 243C:- Composition of Panchayats 57. Article No. 243G:- Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats 58. Article No. 243K:- Elections to the Panchayats 59. Article No. 249:-Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest 60. Article No. 262:- Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-state rivers or river valleys 61. Article No. 263:- Provisions with respect to an inter-state council 62. Article No. 265:- Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law 63. Article No. 275:- Grants from the Union to certain states 64. Article No. 280:- Finance Commission 65. Article No. 300:- Suits and proceedings 66. Article No. 300A:- Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law (Right to property) 67. Article No. 311:- Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a state. www.gradeup.co

INDIAN ECONOMY ● People’s plan was drafted by M. N. Roy, the communist leader, on behalf of the Post- War List of 5 Year Plans of Indian Economy Reconstruction Committee of the Indian 1. Visvesvaraya Plan Federation of Lahore in 1944. ● The era of economic planning in India started ● It was based on ‘Marxist Socialism’ and gave with Visvesvaraya’s ten-year Plan. primacy to agriculture. It advocated for the ● Sir M. Visvesvaraya published a book titled nationalization of agriculture and all “Planned Economy in India” in 1934 wherein production activities. he presented a draft to double the national 5. Gandhian Plan income in a decade. ● The Gandhian Plan was drafted by S. N. ● He proposed to shift the labor from the Aggarwal, the principal of Wardha agrarian set up to the industries thereby Commercial College in 1944. advocating for democratic capitalism (similar ● The plan articulated a ‘decentralized to the USA) with emphasis on economic structure’ for India with ‘self- industrialization. However, there was no contained villages’. follow up of this plan in British Government, ● Unlike the NPC and Bombay Plan, the plan it successfully stirred an urge for national laid more emphasis on agriculture. planning among the educated citizens of the ● And wherever industrialization was talked country. about, it stressed upon promoting cottage and 2. National Planning Committee (NPC) village level industries. ● It was the first attempt to develop a national 6. Sarvodaya Plan plan for India emanated in 1938 with the set- ● This plan was drafted by Jai Prakash Narayan up of NPC under the chairmanship of in 1950. Jawahar Lal Nehru. ● It was inspired by Gandhi Plan and Vinoba ● However, because of the commencement of Bhave’s principles of self-reliance. World War II, the reports of the committee ● It laid stressed upon agriculture as well as could not be prepared. The papers finally small and cotton industries. came out after independence in 1948-49. It advocated self-sufficiency by curtailing the 3. Bombay Plan ● use of foreign technology and implementing ● Eight leading industrialists and technocrats land reforms and decentralized participatory formulated a draft titled “A Brief planning. Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic 7. Planning Commission Development for India” under the editorship After independence, the Economic of Purushottamdas Thakurdas in 1944. ● Programme Committee (EPC) was formed by ● This draft is known as the ‘Bombay Plan’. the All India Congress Committee. ● The basic objectives of the plan were ● Pandit J.L. Nehru was its chairman. doubling the output of the agricultural sector In 1948, this committee recommended the and a five-fold growth in the industrial sector ● formation of the planning commission. in 15 years. ● It was an extra-constitutional body, charged ● A key principle of the Bombay Plan was that with the responsibility of formulating five- the economy could not grow without year plans. government intervention and regulation. 8. National Development Council (NDC) ● Officially the plan was never accepted, It was founded on August 6, 1952. It was however, its ideas were replicated in future ● presided over by the Prime Minister. economic plans. 4. People’s Plan

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● It is the apex body for decision creating and ● It gives the final approval to the Five-Year deliberations on development matters in Plan of India. India. Summary of First three Five-year plans Plans Time Objective and Remarks frame

First Plan 1951- · Focus: agriculture, price stability, and infrastructure. 1956 · It was based on Harrod Domer model (growth rate of the economy depends upon investment rate and productivity of capital in a positive manner).

Second Plan 1956- · Focus: rapid industrialization (target 1961 · It was also known as Mahalanobis Plan (advocated planning shift from growth: 4.5% agriculture to industries). Actual · It laid emphasis on heavy and basic industries. growth: · Also advocated import substitution; export pessimism and overvalue 4.27%) exchanges.

Third Plan 1961- · Focus: heavy and basic industry which was then shifted to agriculture (Target 1966 (PL480). growth: 5.6% · Due to two wars- war with China, 1962 and war with Pakistan, 1965 and Actual severe drought of 1965-66; it failed on many fronts. growth: 2.84%)

● 1966-67, 1967-68 and 1968-69 were annual plans. Discontinuation of five-year planning for three consecutive years is regarded as plan holiday. ● Due to the prevailing food crisis, annual plans were primarily focused on agriculture. ● During these plans, the foundation of the green revolution was laid down which included widespread use of HYV (high yielding varieties) seeds, chemical fertilizers and extensive exploitation of irrigation potentials. During these years, the shocks of a third-year plan were absorbed and a five-year planning system was resumed from 1969. Summary of IV to XII FYPS Plans Time Objective and Remarks Frame

Fourth 1969- · Focus: Self-sufficiency in food and self-reliance Plan 1974 · Objective was to improve domestic food production. (Target · It was aimed at saying no to foreign aid. Growth: · First oil shock of 1973, made remittances a major source 5.7% of foreign exchange reserve. Actual Growth: 3.30%)

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Fifth Plan 1974- · Focus: ‘removal of poverty’ and ‘attainment of self- (Target 1979 reliance’. Growth: · It was drafted and launched by D. D. Dhar. 4.4% · This plan was terminated in the year 1978. Actual · There were rolling plans for the year 1978-1979 and 1979- Growth: 1980. 4.8%)

Sixth Plan 1980- · Focus: poverty eradication and productivity enhancement (Target 1985 · Stressed upon modernization of technology. Growth: · For the first time, the frontal attack was made on poverty 5.2% by adopting ambitious poverty eradication programmes Actual (trickle down strategy was discarded). Growth: 5.4%)

Seventh 1985- · Focus: productivity and work i.e. employment generation. Plan 1990 · For the first time, the private sector got priority over the (Target public sector. Growth: · Due to volatile political situations at the center, two annual 5.0% plans were commenced for the year 1990-1991 and 1991- Actual 1992. Growth: 6.01%)

Eighth 1992- · Focus: ‘Plan with a human face’ i.e. human resource Plan 1997 development. (Target · During this plan, new economic policy was launched with Growth: LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization). 5.6% · It gave primacy to human capital and the private sector. Actual Growth: 6.8%)

Ninth Plan 1997- · Focus: ‘Growth with justice and equity’ (Target 2002 · It stressed upon four dimensions: quality of life; Growth: generation of productive employment; regional balance and 7.1% self-reliance. Actual Growth: 6.8%)

Tenth Plan 2002- It was aimed to double the per capita income of India in the (Target 2007 next 10 years. Growth: And to reduce the poverty ratio by 15% by 2012. 8.1%

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Actual Growth: 7.7%)

Eleventh 2007- Focus: Faster growth and more inclusive growth. Plan 2012 (Target Growth: 8.1% Actual Growth: 7.9%)

Twelfth 2012- Focus: Faster, more inclusive growth and sustainable Plan 2017 growth. (Target Growth: 8%)

NITI Aayog ● GDP is the total value of all final goods and ● NITI Aayog, the National Institution for services produced within the geographical Transforming India, is a policy think tank of boundary of the country during a particular the Government of India established in 2015. period (Generally one year). ● It replaced the Planning Commission. ● In this, we consider all goods/ services, ● It has a dual objective of achieving produced by both resident citizens and sustainable development goals and to foreign nationals who reside within the enhance cooperative federalism with boundary of that country. ‘bottom to top’ approach. Its initiatives (B) GNP (Gross National Product)- include ● GNP is defined as the total value of the final (a) Action Plan- 3 Years goods and services produced by Indians in (b) Strategy Plan- 7 Years India as well as abroad during a particular (c) Vision Plan- 15 period. National Income ● GNP includes the value of goods produced by About National Income resident and non-resident citizens of a ● National Income is usually defined as the country whereas the income of foreigners total Value of all final goods and services who reside in India is excluded. produced in a country in a particular period (C) Net National Product (NNP)- (Generally one year). ● It is calculated by deducting depreciation ● Following are the measures of National from Gross National Product (GNP) Income- ● NNP = GNP – Depreciation (A) GDP (Gross Domestic Product) Note- (B) GNP (Gross National Product) Factor Cost- Cost incurred to produce goods (C) NNP (Net National Product) and service (D) PI (Personal Income) Market price- For calculating market price (E) DPI (Disposable Personal Income) we add Indirect taxes and deduct subsidies (A) GDP (Gross Domestic Product)- given by the government in Factor cost.

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Market Price = Factor cost + Indirect Taxes – ● After some years the Central Statistical Subsidy Organisation (CSO) was formed. ● NNP at factor cost = NNP at market price – Various Price Indices in India Indirect taxes + subsidy Price Indices in India ● Usually, we called NNP at factor cost as Various weighted price indices are calculated in National Income. India. ● Likewise, NNP at factor cost, we can also These are- calculate GDP at factor cost. 1. Wholesale Price Index (WPI) (D) Personal income- 2. Old Consumer Price Index (a) Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers ● It is the sum of all the income received by the (CPI- IW) people of the country in one year. (b) Consumer Price Index for Urban Non- Manual Personal Income = National Income + Employees (CPI- UNME) Transfer payments – Undisclosed profits of (c) Consumer Price Index for Agriculture Labourers corporate + Payment for social security (CPI-AL) provisions (d) Consumer Price Index for Rural Labourers (CPI- ● Transfer Payments are the payments that are RL) not against any productive work. (Example- 3. New Consumer Price Index (Introduced in Old Age Pension, Unemployment February 2011) compensation etc.) (a) CPI (Rural) ● Social Security Provisions- Payment made by (b) CPI (Urban) employees towards PF, Insurance etc. (c) CPI (Combined) (E) Disposable Personal Income- 4. Consumer Food Price Index ● Income available to individuals after Till April 2014, the Inflation rate was measured with deducting direct taxes. the help of WPI (Wholesale Price Index). ● Disposable Personal Income = Personal Currently, in India inflation rate is measured with the Income – Direct Taxes help of Consumer Price Index- combined. Real Income and Nominal Income- 1. Wholesale Price Index ● If we use base year price for calculating ● It measures the change in the price of National Income, this is called the real commodities traded in the wholesale market. income. ● It is also known as headline inflation. ● Current base year- 2011-12. ● If we use a particular year (current year) price ● The index basket of the current series has a for calculating National Income, this income total of 697 items (117 items for Primary is called the Nominal income. Articles, 16 items for Fuel & Power and 564 GDP Deflator- items for Manufactured Products.) ● Used to calculate overall price rise. ● Published by- Economic Advisor, Ministry of Estimation of National Income in India Commerce & Industry. ● In 1868, Dadabhai Naoroji wrote a book 2. Old Consumer Price Index ‘Poverty and Un British Rule in India’. It was (a) Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers the first attempt at the calculation of National (CPI- IW) Income. ● It measures the change in the price of ● The first person to estimate National Income commodities consumed by industrial scientifically was Dr V. K. R. V. Rao who workers. estimated national income for the period ● Current base year- 2001 1925-29. ● Published by- Labour Bureau ● After Independence National Income (b) Consumer Price Index for Urban Non- committee was formed in 1949 under the Manual Employees (CPI- UNME) chairmanship of P.C. Mahalanobis. www.gradeup.co

● It measures the change in the price of ● Here Real GDP- GDP calculated at constant commodities consumed by Non- Manual Price Employees. ● Nominal GDP- GDP calculated at current ● Published by- CSO (Central Statistics Office, Price Ministry of Statistics) ● The GDP deflator is the most accurate ● It has been discontinued. because it covers all goods and services (c) Consumer Price Index for Agriculture produced in the economy. The other indices Labourers (CPI-AL) (WPI and CPI) derive from price quotations ● It measures the change in the price of for select commodity baskets. commodities consumed by agriculture ● The government does not use it because GDP labourers. deflator data comes quarterly (not ● It is a subset of CPI-RL. weekly/monthly basis). ● Current base year- 1986-87 ● Published by- Labour Bureau RBI and Monetary Policy ● Used for revising minimum wages RBI (Reserve Bank of India) (d) Consumer Price Index for Rural Labourers ● RBI was established in April 1935 under (CPI- RL) Reserve Bank of India, 1934. ● It measures the change in the price of ● On the recommendation of Hilton-Young commodities consumed by rural labourers Commission. (include agriculture labourers, labourers of ● Central Bank of India which was nationalized village and cottage industries). in 1949. ● Current base year- 1986-87 ● Central office initial was established in ● Published by- Labour Bureau Calcutta and later moved to Mumbai in 1937. ● Used for revising minimum wages. ● Official Directors- Governors and not more 3. New Consumer Price Index (Introduced in than four deputy governors. February 2011) ● RBI performs his function under the guidance (a) CPI (Rural)- of the Board of financial supervision. ● Current base year- 2012 Other facts related to Reserve Bank of India ● Published by- CSO (Central Statistics Office, ● The first governor of RBI- Sir Osborne Smith Ministry of Statistics) ● The first governor of RBI after (b) CPI (Urban)- nationalization- C. D. Deshmukh ● Current base year- 2012 ● First women Deputy Governor of RBI - ● Published by- CSO K.J.Udeshi. (c) CPI (Combined)- ● RBI Emblem: Tiger and Palm tree ● Current base year- 2012 What is Monetary Policy? ● Published by- CSO ● The policy made by the central bank (Reserve ● Currently, in India inflation rate is measured Bank of India) to control the money supply in with the help of Consumer Price Index- the economy. combined. MPC (Monetary Policy Committee) 4. Consumer Food Price Index- ● The Monetary Policy Committee of India is a ● It is a measure of change in retail prices of committee of the Reserve Bank of India that food items consumed by the people. is responsible for fixing the benchmark ● Current base year- 2012 interest rate in India. ● Published by- CSO ● Section 45ZB of the amended RBI Act, 1934 GDP Deflator provides for an empowered six-member ● Used to calculate overall price rise. monetary policy committee (MPC) to be ● Known as implicit price deflator. constituted by the Central Government to ● GDP Deflator= (Nominal GDP/Real GDP) × determine the interest rate that is required to 100 achieve the inflation target. www.gradeup.co

● The MPC is required to meet at least four How is MSF different from Repo rate? times in a year. ● MSF loan facility was created for commercial ● Six-membered MPC is headed by RBI banks to borrow from RBI in emergency governor Urjit Patel. conditions when inter-bank liquidity dries up ● The Members of the Monetary Policy and there is a volatility in the overnight Committee appointed by the Central interest rates. Government shall hold office for a period of ● To curb this volatility, RBI allowed them to four years. deposit government securities and get more Various tools/instruments of monetary policy liquidity from RBI at a rate higher than the These can be divided into quantitative and Repo rate. qualitative instruments. 4. Reserve Ratio (SLR, CRR) Quantitative instruments ● SLR (Statutory liquidity ratio): All 1. Open Market Operations (OMO) commercial banks in the country are required ● This method refers to the buy and sells of to keep a given percentage of their demand securities, bills and bonds of government by and time deposits (Net demand and time RBI in the open market to expand or contract liabilities or NDTL) as liquid assets in their the amount of money in the banking system. vault itself. ● When RBI purchases Government securities, ● It prevents the bank from lending all its liquidity increases (because RBI is paying deposits which is too risky. that party some money to buy that security or ● Note: Net Demand and Time Liabilities RBI is pouring additional money into the (NDTL) mainly consist of Time liabilities system). and Demand liabilities. ● On the reverse, when RBI sells Government Time liabilities include: securities, liquidity decreases (because those (1) Money deposited in Fixed deposits (FD) players are giving their cash to RBI to (2) Cash certificates purchase the securities.) (3) gold deposits etc. 2. Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) Demand liabilities include: ● Liquidity adjustment facilities (LAF) is also (1) Money deposited in the savings account a tool used by RBI to control the short-term (2) Money deposited in the current account money supply. (3) Demand drafts etc. ● Liquidity adjustment facilities (LAF) has two Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): The Cash Reserve instruments namely Repo rate and Reverse Ratio is the amount of funds that the banks are bound Repo Rate. to keep with the Reserve bank of India as a certain ● Repo Rate: The interest rate at which the percentage of their Net Demand and Time Liabilities Reserve Bank provides loans to commercial (NDTL). Bank cannot lend it to anyone. Bank earns banks by mortgaging their dated government no interest rate or profit on this. securities and treasury bills. What happens when CRR is reduced? ● Reverse Repo Rate: The interest rate at ● When CRR is reduced, this means banks which the Reserve Bank borrows from required to keep fewer funds with RBI and commercial banks by mortgaging its dated resource available to banks for lending will government securities and treasury bills. go up. ● While repo rate injects liquidity into the 5. Bank Rate system, the Reverse repo absorbs the ● The bank rate is the rate which is fixed by liquidity from the system. RBI at which it re-discounts bills of exchange 3. Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) and government securities held by ● It is a loan facility for banks to borrow from commercial banks. the Reserve Bank of India in an emergency ● It is also known as the discount rate. when inter-bank liquidity dries up completely. www.gradeup.co

Bill of exchange- is a financial document that (b) Not working (looking for work) assures payment of money by the purchaser to the (c) Neither working nor looking for work seller for goods purchased. People in category (a) are called workforce. Differences between Repo rate and Bank rate: People in category (b) are called Repo Rate is a short-term measure on the other hand unemployed. Bank Rate is a long-term measure. People in categories (a) and (b) are called Qualitative instruments Labour force. 1. Credit rationing People in category (c) are called not in the ● In this, RBI controlled the maximum amount Labour force. of credit flow to a certain sector. Number of unemployed = Labour force – ● RBI may also make compulsory for the banks Workforce to provide certain fractions of their loans to ● Unemployment data in India are kept under certain sectors such as priority sector lending the Ministry of Labour and Employment. etc. Types of Unemployment 2. Selective Credit control 1. Structural Unemployment ● Selective credit control is a tool in the hands ● Caused by structural change. of Reserve Bank of India to restrict bank finance against sensitive commodities. ● Example- technological change, growing 3. Margin Requirements population etc. ● RBI can prescribe margin against collateral. 2. Frictional Unemployment For instance, lend only 70 Rs. for 100 Rs. ● When people shift from one job to another value Property, margin requirement being and remain unemployed during this interval 30%. If RBI raises margin requirements, period. customers will be able to borrow less. 3. Cyclical Unemployment (Demand 4. Moral suasion Deficient Unemployment) ● Moral Suasion refers to a method of request, ● When people are thrown out from the job due a method of advice by the RBI to the to a decrease in demand. commercial banks to take certain measures as per the trend of the economy. ● Example- recession 5. Direct Action 4. Disguised Unemployment ● RBI issues certain guidelines from time to ● In this type of employment, people are time based on the current situation in the employed but their marginal productivity is economy. zero. ● These guidelines should be followed by ● Example- One man is engaged in some banks. If any bank violates these guidelines agriculture work, his friend joins him but the RBI penalizes them. productivity of both remains same. His friends come under disguised unemployment. Different type of Unemployment 5. Educated Unemployment Unemployment ● If one educated person is not able to get a ● It is a situation in which people are ready and suitable job suited to his qualification. willing to work at the existing rate of wages ● Example- Engineering graduate is getting but still, they cannot get work. clerk post instead of engineer post. ● Measurement unemployment and 6. Open Unemployment employment are done by NSSO (National Sample Survey Organization) in India. ● A condition in which people do not find any work to do. ● NSSO divide people into the following three categories - ● It includes both skilled and unskilled people. (a) Working people (engaged in an 7. Under Unemployment economic activity) www.gradeup.co

● When people obtain work but their efficiency 3. Running Inflation and capability are not utilized at their ● Price rise at high rate (10 % < Inflation < 20 optimum and they contribute to the %) production up-to a limited level. ● It affects the economy adversely. 8. Voluntary Unemployment 4. Hyperinflation or Galloping Inflation or Runway ● In this type of unemployment, jobs are Inflation available but individuals want to remain idle. ● Price rise at very high rate (20 % < Inflation ● Example- lazy people, people who have < 100 %) ancestor property do not want to earn. ● This situation brings the total collapse of the 9. Natural Unemployment Economy. ● 2 to 3 % unemployment is considered natural Based on the causes and cannot be eliminated. ● Demand Pull Inflation: When Inflation arises 10. Chronic Unemployment due to higher demand for goods and services over the limited supply. ● Caused due to the long-term unemployment present in the economy. ● Cost-Push Inflation: When Inflation arises due to higher input cost (Example- raw 11. Seasonal Unemployment material, wages etc.) for goods and services ● In this type of unemployment, people are over the limited supply. unemployed for a few months of the year. Other definitions ● Example- Farmers 1. Deflation Inflation (Types and Effects) ● It is opposite to Inflation. Inflation ● Reduction of general level of price in an ● The general rise in the price level of goods economy. and services. ● In this price index measured is negative. ● It is estimated as the percentage rate of 2. Stagflation: When stagnation and inflation change in price index over the reference time coexist in the economy. period. 3. Stagnation: low national income growth and high ● Currently in India inflation rate is measured unemployment. with the help of the Consumer Price Index- 4. Disinflation combined (Base year- 2012). ● When the rate of Inflation is at a slower rate. ● Till April 2014, the Inflation rate was ● Example: measured with the help of WPI (Wholesale If the Inflation of last month was 4 % and the Price Index). rate of inflation in the current month is 3 %. ● Rate of Inflation= (Current period price 5. Reflation: index-Reference period price ● Deliberate action of government to increase index)/(Reference Period Price Index)×100 the rate of inflation to redeem the economy Type of Inflation from a deflationary situation. Based on the rate of rising in Inflation 6. Core Inflation: 1. Creeping Inflation ● It is a measure of price rise in the economy ● Price rise at the very small rate (< 3 %) excluding the price rise of some products ● It is considered safe and essential for the (whose price is volatile and temporary in economy. nature. 2. Walking or Trotting Inflation Measures to control Inflation ● Price rise at moderate rate (3 % < Inflation < 1. Credit control 10 %) ● It is used by RBI. ● Inflation at this rate is a warning signal for the 2. Increase in Direct Taxes Economy. www.gradeup.co

● Due to the increase in direct taxes, people population in different percentile groups is have less money available to them and low estimated and compare them. demand from them leads to a lower price. ● It provides inequality present among the 3. Price Control total population. ● By fixing the maximum price limit by ● Quintile ratio is one of the measures of authorities. inequality. 4. Trade measures Quintile Income Ration= Average income of ● Maintain proper supply in the economy by richest 20 Percent/ Average income of export and import of goods and services. poorest 20 persons Poverty estimation in Independent India Poverty in India (A) Dr. V.M. Dandekar and Nilantha Rath Poverty (1968-69) ● A condition in which section of society is ● Fixed desired minimum nutrition = 2250 unable to fulfil its basic necessities of life. calories/day ● It is of two types- ● In Rural, money required to purchase this (a) Absolute Poverty amount of nutrition- 170 Rs. / year (b) Relative Poverty ● In Urban, money required to purchase this (a) Absolute Poverty amount of nutrition- 271 Rs. / year ● In this, we calculate an aggregate value (a ● Using this reference, they found that 40 figure expressing per capita consumer Percent of rural resident and 50 Percent of expenditure) of the minimum quantity of urban residents were below the below commodities which are necessities of life. poverty line in 1960-61. ● The population whose level of income (or (B) Planning commission expert group expenditure) is below this aggregate value is ● Poverty line concept was first introduced by Below Poverty Line (BPL). the planning commission working group of ● In this measure of poverty, we expressed the the planning commission in 1962. number of poor as a proportion of the total (i) Alagh Committee population. This measure also is known as ● Chairman- Y K Alagh the headcount ratio. ● Till 1979 poverty estimation was done on Example: 13 Percent of People are BPL. the basis of lack of income, but in 1979 Y K ● Why we prefer consumption expenditure Alagh Committee adopted a new approach method instead of income- based on household per capita consumption In per capita income we cannot separate expenditure basis. dependent people (children, senior citizens ● This committee defines the first poverty line etc.) who are consuming but not earning. So, in India. for correct data calculation, we prefer the ● Daily consumption fixed by the committee consumption expenditure method instead of in Rural= 2400 calories/day income. Daily consumption fixed by the committee (b) Relative Poverty in Urban= 2100 calories/day ● In this type of poverty, a person may be Note- In rural India value of consumption above Below Poverty Line but happens to be was put high because of physical labour they poor in comparison with the other person undergo. whose income is above his (ii) Lakdawala Committee income/consumption. ● Formed in 1989. ● In this type of poverty calculation, ● Chairman- D.T. Lakdawala income/consumption distribution of the ● Submitted report in 1993.

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● Daily consumption fixed by the committee ● Banking system commenced in India with in Rural= 2400 calories/day the foundation of Bank of Hindustan in Daily consumption fixed by the committee Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1770 which in Urban= 2100 calories/day ceased to operate in 1832. ● The committee used CPI-IL and CPI-AL for ● After that many banks came but were not estimation of Poverty successful like: Note- CPI-IL (Consumer Price Index for (1) General Bank of India (1786-1791) Industrial Labourers) (2) Oudh Commercial Bank (1881-1958) – the first CPI-AL (Consumer Price Index for commercial bank of India. Agriculture Labourers) Whereas some are successful and continue to lead (ii) Tendulkar Committee even now like: (1) Allahabad Bank (est. 1865) ● Formed in 2005. (2) Punjab National Bank (est. 1894, with HQ in ● Chairman- Suresh D. Tendulkar Lahore (that time)) ● Submitted its report in 2009. (3) Bank of India (est. 1906) ● Changed calorie based estimation to (4) Bank of Baroda (est. 1908) nutrition, health and other expenditure based (5) Central Bank of India (est. 1911) ● Introduce a new term Poverty Line Basket ● While some others like Bank of Bengal (est. (PLB) which is the basket of all goods 1806), Bank of Bombay (est. 1840), Bank of selected to determine poverty. Madras (est. 1843) merged into a single ● Consumption quantity fixed the same for entity in 1921 which came to be known as both rural and urban people but price differs- Imperial Bank of India. Daily per capita expenditure for Rural- Rs. ● Imperial Bank of India was later renamed in 27 1955 as the State Bank of India. Daily per capita expenditure for Urban- Rs. ● In April 1935, Reserve Bank of India was 33 formed based on the recommendation of (iii) Rangarajan Committee Hilton Young Commission (set up in 1926). ● In this time period, most of the banks were ● Formed in June 2012. small in size and suffered from the high rate ● Chairman- Rangarajan of failures. As a result, public confidence is ● Submitted its report in June 2014. low in these banks and deposit mobilization ● Again, adopted the calorie-based approach was also very slow. People continued to rely which was used in past. on the unorganized sector (moneylenders ● Daily per capita expenditure for Rural- Rs. and indigenous bankers). 33 2. The second phase from 1947 to 1991 Daily per capita expenditure for Urban- Rs. ● Broadly the main characteristic feature of 47 this phase is the Nationalization of the bank. History of Banking in India (Before & After ● With the view of economic planning, Independence) nationalization emerged as the effective Phases of Indian Banking System measure. The advancement in the Indian banking system is ● Need for nationalization in India: classified into 3 distinct phases: (a) The banks mostly catered to the needs of large 1. The Pre-Independence Phase i.e. before 1947 industries, big business houses. 2. Second Phase from 1947 to 1991 (b) Sectors such as agriculture, small-scale 3. Third Phase 1991 and beyond industries and exports were lagging behind. 1. The Pre-Independence Phase i.e. before 1947 (c) The poor masses continued to be exploited by ● This phase is characterized by the presence the moneylenders. of a large number of banks (more than 600). ● Following this, in the year 1949, 1st January the Reserve Bank of India was nationalized. www.gradeup.co

● Fourteen commercial banks were ● Increased penetration of Bank branches in nationalized on 19th July 1969. Smt. Indira rural areas. Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India, 3. Third phase 1991 and beyond during in 1969. The following banks are ● This period saw a remarkable growth in the nationalized: process of development of banks with the 1. Central Bank of India liberalization of economic policies. 2. Bank of India ● Even after nationalization and the 3. Punjab National Bank subsequent regulations that followed, a large 4. Bank of Baroda portion of masses is untouched by the 5. United Commercial Bank banking services. 6. Canara Bank ● Considering this, in 1991, the Narasimham 7. Dena Bank committee gave its recommendation i.e. to 8. United Bank allow the entry of private sector players into 9. Syndicate Bank the banking system. 10. Allahabad Bank ● Following this, RBI gave license to 10 11. Indian Bank private entities, out of which few survived 12. Union Bank of India the market demands, which are- ICICI, 13. Bank of Maharashtra HDFC, Axis Bank, IndusInd Bank, DCB. 14. Indian Overseas Bank ● In 1998, the Narsimham committee again Six more commercial banks were nationalized in recommended entry of more private players. April 1980. These are mentioned below: As a result, RBI gave license to the 1. Andhra Bank following newbies: 2. Corporation Bank (a) Kotak Mahindra Bank (2001) 3. New Bank of India (b)Yes Bank (2004) 4. Oriental Bank of Commerce Points to Note 5. Punjab & Sindh Bank 1. Allahabad Bank, established in 1865 – Allahabad 6.Vijaya Bank. Bank is the oldest Public Sector Bank in India ● Meanwhile, on the recommendation of having branches all over India and serving the Narasimham committee, Regional Rural customers for the last 145 years. Banks (RRBs) were formed on Oct 2, 1975. 2. Imperial Bank of India was later renamed in 1955 The objective behind the formation of RRBs as the State Bank of India. was to serve the large unserved population 3. Punjab National Bank is the first bank purely of rural areas and promoting financial managed by Indians, which was established in inclusion. Lahore in 1895. ● With a view to meet the specific requirement 4. First Truly Swadeshi bank – Central Bank of from the different sector (i.e. agriculture, India is called India’s First Truly Swadeshi bank, housing, foreign trade, industry) some apex which was established in 1911 and wholly owned level banking institutions were also setup and managed by Indians. like:(a) NABARD (est. 1982) 5. Union Bank of India was inaugurated by (b) EXIM (est. 1982) Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. (c) NHB (est. 1988) 6. Osborne Smith was the first governor of the (d) SIDBI (est. 1990) Reserve Bank. Impact of Nationalization 7. CD Deshmukh was the first Indian to be the ● Improved efficiency in the Banking system governor of the Reserve Bank. – since the public‘s confidence got boosted. 8. The first Indian bank to open an overseas branch ● Sectors such as Agriculture, small and is Bank of India. It established a branch in London medium industries started getting funds in 1946. which led to economic growth.

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9. State Bank of India has the maximum number of ● In these banks, the majority of shares (more overseas branches. than 50%) are held by the Government. ● Currently, in India, there are 21 Public Money Market- Banking System in India sector banks after the merger of SBI with The banking structure is divided into many parts their associate banks and Bhartiya Mahila like Capital Market, Money Market etc. Bank (BMB). Money Market ● The Nationalisation of banks was done by ● In this, borrowing and lending of funds take government in two stages: place up to 1 year. The first stage of nationalization took place ● It is used for short-term credit. in July 1969, in which fourteen banks were ● It includes Reserve Bank of India, nationalized. Commercial Banks, Cooperative Banks, The second stage of nationalization of Banks Regional Rural Banks, some NBFC’s etc. took place in April 1980, in which six banks Composition of Money Market were nationalized. Indian Money market consists of organised sector Objectives of Nationalization of Banks: and unorganized sector. But here, we will put a 1. Reducing Private Monopolies focus on the organised sector. 2. Social Welfare Organised Sector: 3. Expansion of Banking Facilities It is divided into two categories: 4.Focus on Priority Sector Lending A. Banking (b) Private Sector Banks Classification of Banks based on the schedule of ● In these banks, the majority parts of shares RBI Act 1934 are not held by the government. All banks (Commercial Banks, RRB, Cooperative ● Private sector banks consist of both Indian Banks) can be classified into scheduled and non- Banks as well as foreign banks. scheduled banks. ● Private banks which were set up before 1990 1. Scheduled Banks (liberalisation of the economy) are ● Banks are listed in the second schedule of categorised as Old Banks. RBI Act, 1934. ● Private banks which were set up after 1990 ● Eligible for obtaining loans from RB on (liberalisation of the economy) are Bank Rate. categorised as New Banks. 2. Non- Scheduled Banks ● Local Area Banks- Private Banks which are ● Banks that are not listed in the second allowed to operate in the limited area called schedule of RBI Act, 1934. local area banks and registered under the ● Generally, not eligible for obtaining loans companies act, 1956. The minimum capital from RBI. required for these banks is Rs. 5 crores. ● Keep CRR with itself, not with RBI. Regional Rural Banks ● Established under RRB Act, 1976. Commercial Banks ● Regional Rural Banks are set up by public ● It is divided into two parts i.e. Public and sector banks. Private Sector Banks. ● The objective of RRBs is to increase credit ● Regulated under Banking Regulation act flow to rural areas. 1949. ● After the Kelkar committee’s ● They can accept deposits, can provide loans recommendations in April 1987, no new and other financial services to earn the RRBs have been opened. profit. Cooperative Banks (a) Public Sector Banks ● Established with the aim of funding agriculture, cottage industries etc. www.gradeup.co

● Can perform both deposits and lending (a) Treasury Bills activities. ● Issued by Government treasury. ● NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture ● Used for short-term credit. and Rural development) is the apex body of ● Non-interest bearing (Zero Coupon bonds), the cooperative sector in India. issued at discount price. Composition of Cooperative Banks (b) Commercial Bill Market 1. Rural Cooperative Credit Institutions ● Bills other than treasury bills. (a) Short Term Structure ● Issued by traders and industries. ● Lend up to one year. (iii) Dated Government Securities ● It is further divided into a three-tiered setup. ● Used for long-term maturity. (i) State Cooperative Bank: Apex body for (iv) Certificates of Deposits cooperative banks in the state. ● Issued by commercial banks and financial (ii) Central or District Cooperative Banks: Operate Institution at the district level. (v) Commercial Paper (iii) Primary Agriculture Credit Societies: Operate at the village level. ● Issued by corporate, Primary dealers and (b) Long-Term Structure financial institutions.

● Lend for more than one year to twenty-five Capital Market years. Financial Market is the market where borrowing ● It is divided into two-tiered setup: and lending of funds of all individual, institutions, (i) State Cooperative Agriculture and Rural companies and of the government take place. In Development Banks and India, Financial Market can be divided into two (ii) Primary Cooperative Agriculture and main categories-(A) Money Market (B) Capital Rural Developments Banks Market. In this article, we will read the "Basics of 2. Urban Cooperative Credit Institutions Capital market, Stock market, their types, and ● Set up in urban and semi-urban areas. features" ● Lend to small businesses and borrowers. Money Market B. Sub Markets ● It is used for short-term credit. ● Sub Market, market to generate resources ● Generally, we use it for borrowing and for investment and to meet the shortage of lending of money up to 1 year. money for regular activities. ● It includes Reserve Bank of India, ● The government, Financial Institutions and Commercial Banks, Cooperative Banks, Industries take part in the submarket. Regional Rural Banks, Some NBFC’s etc. The composition of the Sub Market- Capital Market (i) Call Money Market ● It is used for long-term credit. ● Known as Short Notice Market. ● Generally, we use it for borrowing and ● Generally used for inter-bank borrowing and lending of money above 1 year. lending. ● It includes Stock exchanges, Housing ● Loans for a range from one to fourteen finance companies, Insurance companies Days. etc. ● It is also divided into two categories- A. Call ● All the institutions listed in the capital market or Overnight Market (Within one market are called Non-banking financial Day) companies (NBFC’s). But it is not ○ B. Short Notice market (up to Necessary that all NBFCs are part of the fourteen days) capital market. (ii) Bill Market or Discount Market NBFCs

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NBFCs is a company registered under the ● If any company that has already issued companies act, 1956. It differs from banks in shares, they again issue shares to raise the following aspects- additional funds it is known as Follow-on (i) It cannot accept demand deposits. Public Offering (FPO). (ii) They do not have insurance coverage on Secondary (Old Issue Market) their deposits however bank deposits have ● Buying and selling of securities which are insurance cover of Deposit Insurance and already issued in New issue (Primary) Credit Guarantee Corporation. market. Composition of Capital Market ● There are two platforms for the trading in ● It is mainly divided into three categories- this market which are- (A) Securities Market (1) Stock Exchanges (Only listed securities), (B) Development Financial Institutions (2) Over the Counter Exchanges (Securities (c) Financial Intermediaries which are not listed on any stock exchange) (A) Securities Market Terms used in the securities market ● It deals with shares and debt instruments. ● Declared Price Issue- Fixed price These instruments are used for fund-raising. ● Book Building Issue- Price fixes according ● In shares instruments, we include equity to demand share, preference share, derivatives etc. In ● Merchant Banker- Issuer appoints it on these instruments, investors have a partner in behalf of it to carry out fund-raising the capital, profit and loss. activities ● In a debt instrument, we include bonds, ● Authorised Capital- Maximum amount debentures etc. In these instruments, we authorized by higher officials of the need to pay interest to the debt instrument company that can be raised by the company holder regardless of profit or loss. ● Issuer Capital- Actual amount issued by the ● Debentures- In this lender lends money to company companies with some surety (maybe Plant, machinery etc). But in case of Bonds, the ● Subscriber Capital- Actual amount lender lends money to the companies subscribed by the public without any surety. ● Underwriter- It is a financial intermediary ● Shares are mainly of two types- the First one who promises to purchase Unsubscribe is equity share and the second one is capital. preference share. In equity shares, the holder ● Called up Capital- Company collects the has claimed over the capital, profit and loss. fund in instalments and a portion of money In Preference shares holder is entitled to called from Subscriber is called as Called up have a fixed amount of dividend. In case of Capital. the closing of company preference ● Paid up Capital- the Actual amount paid by shareholders have the preferential right to subscribers get back the capital paid. ● Reserve Capital- Un-demanded of money ● For trading of securities, we have a primary portion (New issue) and secondary (Old Issue) ● Right Issue- In this offer of securities to market. existing shareholders via FPO. Primary (New Issue Market) ● Bonus Issue- the issue of shares as against a ● In this, securities issued by the issuer and profit of existing shares purchased by Public. Purchase of new or ● Sweat Equity Issue- Offer of shares to fresh securities is carried in this. employees against their hard work for the ● In the primary market, if any company company issues shares for the first time, it is called as the Initial Public offering (IPO). www.gradeup.co

● Cash trading- Sale and purchase of securities (2) Merchant Banking Companies on the price of the trading day (3) Stock Broking Companies ● Forward trading- Both buyer and seller Balance Of Payments signed an agreement to repurchase of Introduction securities on pre-agreed price. ● International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines ● Derivatives- It does not have independent the Balance of Payments (BoP) as a value, it has value only because of statistical statement that summarizes underlying securities which need to be economic transactions between residents and traded. non-residents during a specific time period. ● Demutualisation- Process of transferring of ● The BoP, thus, includes all transactions share from brokers to Public showing: Stock Exchanges (a) Transactions in goods, services and income between an economy and the rest of ● There are two important stock exchanges in the world, India- NSE and BSE. (b) Change of ownership and other changes National Stock Exchanges (NSE) in that economy’s monetary gold, special ● It was established on the recommendation of drawing rights (SDRs), and financial claims Pherwani Committee in 1992. on and liabilities to the rest of the world ● Nifty and Nifty Junior are the indices of (c) Unrequited transfers- transfer of money NSE. Nifty measures share price of top 50 in which nothing is expected in return. and later top 50 by Nifty junior. Example- Foreign aid, debt forgiveness etc. Bombay Stock Exchanges (BSE) ● These transactions are categorized into ● It is Asia’s oldest stock exchange and was (i) Current Account established in 1875. (ii) Capital Account and Financial Account ● SENSEX (Sensitive Index) is the Index of (capital account is redesignated as capital BSE. SENSEX measures share price and financial account) movement of top 30 companies. ● The balance of payments is, basically, the Depositaries record of all international financial ● In this Investors keep their securities in transactions made by a country's residents. Demat (Dematerialised) form. Currently, ● The balance of payments tells us whether the there are two depositories in India. country has a surplus or deficit. It also (1) NSDL (National Securities Depository reveals whether the country produces Limited)- It is located in Mumbai. enough economic output to pay for its (2) CDSL (Central Depository Services growth. Limited)- It is also located in Mumbai. When BoP is deficit it implies (B) Development Financial Institutions ● A balance of payments deficit means the ● They provide a long-term loan, country imports more goods, services and entrepreneurial assistance (technical advice capital than it exports. etc). ● The country must borrow from other ● Examples of these are- IDBI, EXIM bank countries to pay for its imports. etc. ● In the short-term, that fuels the economic (C) Financial Intermediaries growth. But, in the long-term, the country ● RBI regulated becomes a net consumer, not a producer, of (1) Asset Finance company the world's economic output. (2) Loan Company ● The country goes into debt to pay for (3) Investment Company consumption instead of investing in future ● SEBI regulated growth. If the deficit continues for long, the (1) Venture Capital Fund www.gradeup.co

country gets into the debt trap and might end Current Account Deficit both are different up selling its assets to pay off its debt. and the Trade Deficit is one component of When BoP is surplus it implies Current Account Deficit. ● A balance of payments surplus means the Capital Account and Financial Account country exports more than it imports. ● The capital and financial account reflect the ● The country basically saves more than it net changes in financial claims on the rest of earns. This boosts the capital formation with the world. its additional income. They might even lend Note- outside the country. The former balance of payments capital ● A surplus boosts economic growth in the account has been redesigned as the capital short term. and financial account as per the fifth edition of Balance of Payments Manual (IMF). ● In the long run, the country becomes too dependent on export-driven growth. It must ● The capital account can be broadly broken encourage its residents to spend more. A up into two categories namely- larger domestic market will protect the (a) Non-debt flows such as direct and country from exchange rate fluctuations portfolio investments BOP Components (b) Debt flows such as external assistance, commercial borrowings, non-resident ● The BoP can be broadly divided into two deposits, etc. accounts namely- (a) Current Account ● The financial account records an economy’s (b) Capital and financial account. transaction in external financial assets and Current Account liabilities. ● The current account measures the transfer of ● All components are classified according to real resources (goods, services, income and type of investment or by functional transfers) between an economy and the rest subdivision of the world. (a) Direct investment (b) Portfolio investment ● The current account is further subdivided (c) Other investment into a merchandise account and invisible (d) Reserve assets account. ● The sum of the current account and capital ● The merchandise account consists of account indicates the overall balance, which transactions relating to exports and imports could either be in surplus or in deficit. The of goods. movement in overall balance is reflected in ● In the invisible account, there are three changes in the international reserves of the broad categories namely- country. (a) non-factor services such as travel, Economic Theory: Microeconomics Notes transportation, insurance and miscellaneous IMPORTANT CURVES services; 1. LORENZ CURVE: (b) transfers which do not involve any value ● Lorenz curve is a graphical representation of in exchange, and income distribution in the society. (c) income which includes compensation for ● It was given by Max O Lorentz in 1905. It is employees and investment income. used to analyze inequality prevailing in the Current Account Deficit (CAD) population. ● Current Account Deficit (CAD) = Trade ● In this graph, the cumulative percentage of Deficit + Net Income From Abroad + Net national income is plotted against the transfers cumulative percentage of households. Note: Here Trade Deficit= Export-Import So we can see here that Trade Deficit and

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● The degree to which the curve sags away ● It is thus represented as an inverted U-shaped from the line of perfect equality is the graph as shown below. measure of inequality in society. ● Similar in the line is the Environment ● It is given by Gini’s coefficient. Kuznets curve. ● Gini’s coefficient: It is the proportion of the 5. ENVIRONMENT KUZNETS CURVE: shaded region with respect to the area ● It shows the relationship between economic corresponding to the line of perfect equality. progress on one hand and environmental Higher the value more is the inequality in degradation over a period of time caused in society. lieu of that economic progress. 2. LAFFER CURVE: ● It says, as the economy starts the journey of ● Laffer curve represents the relationship development, pollution in first phase between tax collection and levied tax rates by increases but with further development of the the state authorities. economy, pollution rates begin to decline. ● It states that as the tax rate increases from the ● And eventually, both economic progress and low level, tax collection also increases but as environment maintenance go hand in hand. the tax rate increases beyond a critical limit, GRESHAM’S LAW tax collection starts falling. ● Gresham’s Law states that ‘bad money drives ● This can be due to lower profitability and out good’. higher incentive to cheat associated with ● It means if in a country there are two higher taxes. currencies, the overvalued currency (cheaper 3. PHILLIPS CURVE: one) will drive the undervalued ● It was given by A. William Phillips, a New (precious/expensive one) out of use. Zealand economist. ● This is because people start hoarding the ● According to this, there is an inverse and undervalued currency as a store of value and stable relationship between inflation and eventually, that will be eliminated from unemployment. As one falls, other increase. circulation. ● There is also a term which defines the ● This law was named after an English simultaneous existence of high inflation and financier, Sir Thomas Gresham (1519-1579). high unemployment i.e. low growth with high OPPORTUNITY COST inflation, which is known as stagflation. ● Value of the loss incurred on account of the 4. KUZNETS CURVE: next best alternative/choice forgone, in ● Kuznets curve is based on a hypothesis availing the best alternative/choice available forwarded by an economist Simon Kuznets. rather than the next best, is known as the ● According to the hypothesis, when a country opportunity cost of the chosen alternative. starts developing, economic inequalities first ● In simple words, it refers to the value one increases for a period of time but after a decides to give up in availing any threshold when a certain average income is opportunity. attained, economic inequalities begin to ● Or in other words, what have you lost while decrease. opting for an option is the opportunity cost of your choice. Sr. No. Articles Opportunity cost

1. Free goods like clean air, abundant fresh water, etc. No

2. Common goods (in abundant) No

3. Common goods (scarce) Yes

4. Government expenditure in defence Yes www.gradeup.co

5. Government freebies to citizens Yes

6. Public goods like roads, railways, infrastructure, etc. Yes

● The opportunity cost is considered to be zero ● It represents the relationship between the for naturally occurring abundant resources price and quantity of a product produced like free unpolluted air, water etc. and also for which the seller is ready to supply in the common goods like grazing land, oceans etc. market, keeping other variables to be ● For government expenditures, the constant. Opportunity cost is never zero because the ● Herein quantity of the product is plotted authorities always have choices to make. horizontally on x-axis and price of the same ● So, whatever is chosen, there would exist product on the y-axis. something forgone as well. Like if the ● It is generally a straight line sloping upward government decides to build a bridge, the from left to right as shown in the graph. This government could have spent that price onto is so because price and quantity of a product increasing more personnel to ensure safety. are directly related, i.e. if the price of a ● In the case of freebies, for consumers/ product is increasing in the market, its citizens, there is no opportunity cost because quantity in the market will also increase in the it is transferred from them to the government. same manner (increase in price acts as an PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE: incentive for the suppliers to produce more). ● With the available amount of resources and ● With the change in variables, the supply technology, the various alternative curve can shift in either direction. If it shifts combinations of production of a set of two towards the left, it implies a decrease in the goods are plotted to give a production quantity of product supplies in the market and possibility curve. rightward shift implies an increase in quantity ● It is also known as the Production Possibility supplies with respect to the price of the Frontier or Transformation curve. product. ● The curve helps in deciding “what to Demand curve: produce”. ● It represents the relationship between the ● Thus, the curve provides all the production price and quantity of the product demanded possibilities available, out of which the most by the consumers, keeping all other variables economically or physically viable one could to be constant. be chosen to maximize profit and minimize ● It generally represents a downward sloping the losses attached. straight line from left to right as shown in the Different points on a curve graph below. Point X represents underutilization of resources; ● This is so because price and quantity of the point Y represents infeasible option i.e. non- product demanded are inversely related to feasibility of the chosen combination (beyond the each other, i.e. if the price of a commodity capacity); falls, its demand rises. while points A, B and C represent the full utilization ● Conforming to the supply curve, if it shifts of resources. leftwards, it implies a decrease in demand If the resources and technology available increases, and if rightwards, it implies an increase in the curve shifts towards the right and if resources and demand of a product. technology fall short, the curve shifts towards the Keynesian Theory left. Keynesian Economics SUPPLY-DEMAND CURVE: ● It was developed by the British economist Supply curve: John Maynard Keynes during the 1930s. It

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was an attempt to understand the Great organization for regulating international Depression. trade. ● It suggested increasing government ● In 1945 a conference known as the Bretton expenditures and lower taxes to stimulate Woods Conference (by two Bretton wood demand and pull the global economy out of institutions- IMF and World Bank) was held the depression. for the creation of international trade Keynesian Theory of Employment organization (ITO) which finally could not be ● This theory rejected the notion of full ratified due to lack of approval by the US and employment and instead suggested full many other major countries. employment as a special case and not a ● As the US was an emerging world power general case. after World War-II, hence the creation of ITO ● It said if there is an increase in national without the US was meaningless. income, there would be an increase in level of ● Meanwhile, through negotiations, a employment and vice versa. multilateral agreement was concluded in ● According to this theory, the level of 1947 known as the General Agreement on employment is dependent on national income Tariffs and Trade (GATT). and output and factors of production remain unchanged while determining the level of ● Various conferences of GATT were held on employment. periodic intervals for negotiations on trade. Laissez-faire Theory Finally, during the Uruguay round of ● This theory opposed any government conference held from 1986-1994, agreement intervention in business affairs. on the creation of WTO was finally ratified through the Marrakesh Agreement. World Trade Organisation: Structure, ● India has been a member of GATT since Objectives, Agreements, Subsidies 1948 and a founding member of WTO. China Introduction joined WTO only in 2001 and Russia in 2012. ● WTO is an international organization set up Objectives of WTO in 1995 by replacing the General Agreement ● To formulate and implement rules for on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) under the international trade. Marrakesh Agreement. ● To provide a platform for negotiating and ● It is the only global international organization monitoring further trade liberalization. dealing with the international Trade between ● To provide a platform for the settlement of nations. disputes. ● Its HQ is located in Geneva, Switzerland. ● Providing assistance to the developing, least- ● Currently, WTO has 164 members and India developed and low-income countries in is a founding member of WTO. transition to adjust to WTO rules and ● Currently, the head (Director-General) of disciplines through technical cooperation and WTO is Roberto Azevedo. training. Evolution of WTO ● To cooperate with the other major economic ● After the end of World War-II, various institutions (like UN, World Bank, IMF etc) international organizations were formed to involved in global economic management. facilitate collaboration between countries in Structure of WTO dealing with economic, social, and technical The basic structure of WTO is as appended below:- problems. ● Ministerial Conference – It is the topmost ● For the development of the world economy decision-making body of the WTO. Usually, and seamless trade among all the countries, a it meets after every two years. It brings dire need was felt for an international together all WTO participants.

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● The General Council – It is composed of ● General Agreement on Trade in Services representatives of all the member states. It is (GATS) etc. responsible for the day-to-day business and Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) management of the WTO. ● It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round ● Other councils/bodies - There are many other of the GATT and was concluded with the bodies like Goods Council, Services Council, establishment of the WTO in 1995. Trade Policy Review Body, Dispute ● Through AoA, WTO aims at reforming trade Settlement Body etc. which deals with other in agriculture with a fair and market-driven specific issues. system. Principles of WTO ● The Agreement allows governments to The WTO Agreements are based on the following support their rural economies, but only simple and fundamental principles:- allows those policies that cause less trade ● Non Discrimination “distortions”. ● Most Favored Nation - All nations should be ● This agreement has fixed commitments from treated equally. No one country can grant any all member states on the following three other member country any special favour. For agricultural supply chain system:- example, if one country lower tariff to one 1. Improving Market access– This can be country then it has to be lowered to all other done by removing various trade barriers by member countries. the member states. By fixing the tariffs and ● National Treatment- Same treatment to all progressively promoting free trade among products, either local or foreigners. Fair and member states which will ultimately lead to equal treatment is given to local as well as the an increase in market access. products imported from other countries. ● Reciprocity - Lowering of import duties and 2. Domestic Subsidies- It basically motivates other trade barriers in return for similar for the reduction in domestic subsidies that concessions from another country. distorts free trade and fair prices. This is ● Predictability through Binding and based on the premise that not all subsidies enforceable commitments - To make the distort trade to the same extent. Under this business environment stable and predictable. agreement, Subsidies can be categorized into ● Transparency - The WTO members need to the following three boxes – publish their trade regulations and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. (a) Green Box – All those subsidies that do not distort trade or cause minimal distortion, ● Encouraging Development and Economic come under the green box. Reforms - All efforts are made by the WTO Ex-All government services such as research, system to contribute to development. disease control, and infrastructure and food Important Trades Agreements of WTO security. Also, all those subsidies given to the The important trade agreements concluded under farmers that directly do not affect WTO are - international trade also comes under the ● Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), green box. ● Agreement on TRIPS (Trade-Related

Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), (b) Amber Box - All kinds of domestic ● Agreement on the Application of Sanitary subsidies or support that can distort and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), production and trade (with some exceptions) ● Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade fall into the Amber Box. The measures to (TBT), support prices come under this box. The ● Agreement on Trade-Related Investment exception is the provision that accepts Measures (TRIMS), subsidies upto 5% of agricultural production www.gradeup.co

for developed countries, 10% for developing ● Special and differential treatment (SDT) - countries. During Doha round, member states agreed to provide favourable treatment to developing (c) Blue Box – All those Amber Box nations. However, developed countries are subsidies which tend to limit the production denying the emerging economies such as comes under Blue Box. This can be increased India and China as unworthy of this without limit as long as subsidies are linked provision. to production-limiting programs. 3. Export subsidies – All those subsidies that ● Issues related to intellectual property rights – make the export of agricultural products The issues of compulsory licensing of cheaper are called export subsidies. These are medicines have been resolved through basically presumed to have trade-distorting TRIPS. However, the developed nations are effects. This agreement prohibits the use of trying to push for TRIPS commitments. export subsidies by the member states for NITI Aayog agriculture products. ● NITI Aayog is created for the financial India’s trade concerns and WTO planning at pan-India and the important Appended below please find India’s concerns related reports it releases for the development to trade in WTO:- assessing various parameters. ● Tariff on steel and aluminium – Recently the ● The Planning Commission was established in USA govt imposed 10% tariff on aluminium March 1950 by a resolution of the and 25% tariff on steel against various trade Government of India. partners. India wants that it should be ● It was made responsible for assessing removed or it will raise the issue in WTO. national resources and drafting five-year plans for the effective use of the resources. ● Export Subsidy Issue – Recently USA ● The objective was to the proper and effective dragged India to WTO and raised concern on utilization of resources. With changing times, the export subsidy regime provided to the and growing needs of the people and Indian companies in the form of SEZ, MEIS, effectively address them, a new version of EPCG, etc. USA argues that as India’s Per planning body i.e. NITI Aayog was Capita Income has increased from $ 1000, established by a resolution of the Union India can’t use the export subsidy regime as Cabinet on January 1, 2015, replacing the per the ACSM. Planning Commission. ● NITI Aayog is regarded as the premier policy ● Agricultural subsidies - The present quota of ‘Think Tank’ of the Government of India. It subsidies is based on the price levels of 1986- provides both directional and policy inputs. 88. Presently the minimum support price ● Besides designing the strategic and long-term (MSP) concept which provides subsidies to policies and programmes for the Government the farmers in India falls under the Amber of India, the Aayog also provides relevant box. It can directly affect India’s food technical advice to the Centre as well as the security program. India wants that it should States. be at the current price level and the amber box Role of International Labour Organization (ILO) concept should be done away with. However, in Social Security a ‘peace clause’ agreed to during the Bali ● It was created as part of the "Treaty of conference allows India to carry on with its Versailles" that ended World War I to ensure PDS program as of now. But the developed social justice for people of work. member states are not taking any steps for a ● It became a specialized agency of newly permanent solution of this problem. formed united nations after the second world war and today has a membership of 186 states that continues to grow. The tripartite www.gradeup.co

structure is unique to the ILO where ■ 20 crore women Jan Dhan account holders to representatives from the government, get Rs 500 per month for next three months employers and employees openly debate and ■ Increase in MNREGA wage to Rs 202 a day create labour standards. from Rs 182 to benefit 13.62 crore families ● The ILO received the Nobel Peace prize in 19 ■ Ex-gratia of Rs 1,000 to 3 crore poor senior 69 and today is recognized as the world's citizen, poor widows and poor disabled authority on the world of work. ● Its impact has seen key moments in history. ■ Government to front-load Rs 2,000 paid to Headquartered in Geneva with over 40 new farmers in the first week of April under offices around the globe, the ILO is unique existing PM Kisan Yojana to benefit 8.7 crore amongst international organizations, where farmers not only governments but employers and ■ Central Government has given orders to State workers as well have equal voices. Governments to use Building and ● They work together to create Labour Construction Workers Welfare Fund to standards and qualities that impact today’s provide relief to Construction Workers global economy. MGNREGA: The Contribution to Strengthening ● In 2008, the ILO adopted a Declaration on the Rural Economy Social Justice for fair globalization to What is MGNREGA? respond to our world faced with the economic ● The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural crisis. It made decent work the core of ILO Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is policy and with the decent work agenda into a law whereby any adult who applies for practice. The Decent Work Agenda has employment has to be given a guarantee of forced to teach objectives: 100 days of work on local public works ● Promote decent employment opportunities within fifteen days of registration. If ● Enhance social protection employment is not given, then the unemployment allowance has to be paid. ● Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue ● The Act enacted in 2005 is regarded as the ● Guarantee Fundamental principles and rights largest work guarantee program in the world, at work guarantees 100 days of wage employment per Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana year to rural households. Roughly one-third About Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana of the stipulated workforce must be women. ● The Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana Note: Previously, this social security scheme was (PMGKY) was originally launched by PM called ‘National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Narendra Modi in 2015 as a scheme built but after April 2008, it was renamed as Mahatma with the objective of addressing poverty. Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. ● However, with the recent demonetization Presently, the minimum number of days of work drive launched by the government to curb the have been increased up to 150 days. spread of black money, an amendment has The objective of the MGNREGA Scheme been made to the existing Income Tax Bill ● It aims at addressing the causes of chronic and the PMGKY has been made a part of the poverty through the works that are Taxation Laws (Second Amendment) Act, undertaken and ensuring sustainable 2016. development. Quick Glance at the announced highlights: ● The Act was introduced with the aim of ■ Insurance cover of Rs 50 Lakh per health improving the purchasing power of the rural worker fighting COVID-19 to be provided people, primarily semi or unskilled work to under Insurance Scheme people living below the poverty line in rural ■ 80 crore poor people will get 5 kg of wheat or India. rice and 1 kg of preferred pulses for free every month for the next three months www.gradeup.co

● It also aims to strengthen the process of Raj Institutions (PRIs) for the planning and decentralization and empowers Panchayati implementation of these works.

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PHYSICS a person on the surface of the moon will be 1/6 of his actual weight on the Earth. WORK SATELLITE ● Work is said to be done, if force acting on a ● Satellites are natural or artificial bodies body is able to actually move it through some revolving around a planet under its distance in the direction of the force. Its SI gravitational force of attraction. unit is a joule. ● Moon is a natural satellite, while INSAT-B is an artificial satellite of Earth. ENERGY ● The period of revolution of satellite revolving ● Energy is a scalar quantity and its unit is near the surface of earth is 1 hour 24 minutes Joule. (34 minutes). ● The sum of all kinds of energies in an isolated ● Geo-stationary satellite revolves around the system remains constant at all times. This is Earth at a height 36000 km (approx). the law of conservation of energy. ● Time period of rotation of geo-stationary satellite is 24 hours. POWER ● The Earth rotates on its axis from West to Its unit is watt. East. This rotation makes the Sun and the · 1 watt hour = 3600 Joule stars appear to be moving across the sky from · 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joule East to West. · 1HP = 746 watt ● A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period GRAVITATION the same as the Earth's rotation period. ● Everybody in the universe attracts other body ● A special case of geosynchronous satellite is by a force called force of gravitation. the geostationary satellite, which has a ● The gravitational force of the earth is called geostationary orbit – a circular gravity. geosynchronous orbit directly above the ● The acceleration produced in a body due to Earth's equator. force of gravity is called acceleration due to ● Geo-stationary satellite is used to telecast. gravity (g) and its value is 9.8 m/s' TV programmes from one part of the world ● Acceleration due to gravity is independent of to another, in weather forecasting, in shape, size and mass of the body. predictions of floods and droughts. ● Escape velocity is the minimum velocity ● Polar Satellite Revolves around the earth in with, which an object just crosses the Earth's polar orbit at a height of 800km (app.) Time gravitational field and never returns. Escape periods of these satellites is 84 min. velocity at the Earth's surface is 11.2 km/s. ● Escape velocity at the Moon's surface is 2.4 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS km/s. Due to low escape velocity there is no atmosphere on the moon. Cathode Rays ● Value of g decreases with height or depth from Earth surface. Cathode rays, discovered by Sir William ○ g is maximum at poles. Crooke and its properties are ○ g is minimum at equator. ● travel in straight lines. ○ g decreases due to rotation of Earth. ● Produce fluorescence. ○ g decreases if angular speed of Earth ● can penetrate through thin foils of metal and increases and increases if angular deflected by both electric and magnetic speed of Earth decreases. fields. ● The acceleration due to gravity at the moon is ● have velocity ranging 1/30th to 1/10th of the one-sixth that of the Earth. So, the weight of velocity of light.

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Positive or Canal Rays ● When two or more light nuclei combined ● These rays were discovered by Goldstein. together to form a heavier nucleus is called as ● The positive ray consists of positively nuclear fusion. charged particles. ● For the nuclear fusion, a temperature of the ● These rays travel in straight line. order of 108 K is required. ● These rays are deflected by electric and ● Hydrogen Bomb was made by the American magnetic fields. Scientist in 1952. This is based on nuclear ● These rays can produce ionization in gases. fusion. It is 1000 times more powerful than atom bomb. X-Rays ● X-rays are electromagnetic waves with Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile wavelength range 0.1 A-100 A. ● Nuclear reactor is an arrangement, in which ● X-rays were discovered by Roentgen. controlled nuclear fission reaction takes ● X-rays travels in straight line. place. ● Long exposures of X – rays in injurious for ● First nuclear reactor was established in human body. Chicago University under the supervision of ● X – rays shows photoelectric effect. Prof Enrico Fermi. ● Heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide Uses of X-Rays are used to slow down the fast moving ● In medical sciences X-rays are used in neutrons. They are called moderate. surgery for the detection of fracture, diseased Uses of Nuclear Reactor organs, foreign matter like bullet, stones etc. (i)To produce electrical energy from the energy They are used in treatment of cancer and in released during fission. skin diseases. (ii)To produce different isotopes, this can be used ● In Engineering, X-rays are used in detecting medical, physical and agriculture science. faults, cracks, flaws and gas pockets in the finished metal products and in heavy metal There are several components of nuclear reactor sheets. which are as follows ● In Scientific Work, X-rays are used in ● Fissionable Fuel U235 or U239 is used. studying crystal structure and complex ● Moderator decreases the energy of neutrons, molecules. so that they can be further used for fission ● In Custom Department X-rays are used in reaction. custom department for detection of banned ● Heavy water and graphite are used as materials kept hidden. moderator. ● Control Rod rods of cadmium or boron are Radioactivity used to absorb the excess neutrons produced ● Radioactivity was discovered by Henry in fission of uranium nucleus, so that the Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre chain reaction. Curie for which they jointly won Nobel Prize. NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION ● First Law: Everybody maintains its initial Nuclear Fission state of rest or motion with uniform speed on ● Atom Bomb is based on nuclear fission. U235 a straight line unless an external force acts on and Pu239 are used as fissionable material. it. It is also called Galileo's law or law of ● Nuclear fission was first demonstrated by inertia. Halin and Fritz Strassmann. Example: While jumping from a slowly moving train/bus one must run for short distance, in the Nuclear Fusion direction of motion.

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● Second Law: The form acting on an object is ● A fat person will quickly learn the swimming directly proportioned to the product of the as compared to a slim person because he will mass of the object and the acceleration displace more water. So, it will be more produced on it. balanced. ● Third Law: To every action, there is an equal ● Hydrogen filled balloon float in air because and opposite reaction. hydrogen is lighter than air. A person can lift Example : Bogies of the trains are provided with more weight in water. buffers to avoid severe jerks during shunting of trains. Rocket moves up due to reaction of downward WAVE ejection of gas. A wave is a disturbance, which propagates energy CIRCULAR MOTION from one place to the other without the transportation ● When an object moves along a circular path, of matter. its motion is called circular motion. Waves are broadly of two types: ● The external force required to act radially · Mechanical wave (longitudinal wave and inward over the circular motion of the body transverse wave) is called Centripetal force. · Electromagnetic wave ● Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force that. · Following are the electromagnetic (Non- is equal and opposite to Centripetal force. mechanical) waves- ● Cream separator, centrifugal dryer work on a. Gama rays (Highest frequency) the principle of centrifugal force. b. X-rays c. UV rays FRICTION d. Visible radiation ● In the opposing force that is set-up between e. infra-red rays the surfaces of contact, when one body slides f. short radio waves or rolls or tends to do so on the surface of g. Long radio waves (Lowest frequency) another body. All are in decreasing order of the frequency ● Due to friction, we are able to move on the Following waves are not electromagnetic. surface of Earth. a. Cathode rays ● While applying brakes in automobiles, it b. Canal rays stops only due to friction. c. alpha rays d. beta rays e. sound wave Pascal's Law of Pressure f. ultrasonic wave • Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes are based on the Pascal's law of Longitudinal Waves pressure. ● In this wave the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of Archimedes Principle wave. ● When a body is immersed partly or wholly in ● Waves on springs or sound waves in air are a liquid, there is an apparent loss in the examples of longitudinal waves. weight of the body, which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body. Transverse Waves ● The weight of water displaced by an iron ball ● In this wave, the particles of the medium is less than its own weight. Whereas water vibrate perpendicular to the direction of displaced by the immersed portion of a ship propagation of wave. is equal to its weight. So, small ball of iron ● Waves on strings under tension, waves on the ball sink in water, but large ship float. surface of water are the examples of transverse waves. www.gradeup.co

Sonar: It stands for sound navigation and ranging. It Electromagnetic Waves is used to measure the depth of a sea, to locate the ● The waves, which do not require medium for enemy submarines and shipwrecks. their propagation i.e., which can propagate even through the vacuum are called LIGHT electromagnetic waves. ● Light is a form of energy, which is ● Light radio waves, X-rays etc are the propagated as an electromagnetic wave. examples of electromagnetic wave. These ● It is the radiation which makes our eyes able waves propagate with the velocity of light in to 'see' the object. Its speed is 3 x 108 m/s. It vacuum. is the form of energy. It is a transverse wave. ● It takes 8 min 19s to reach on the earth from Sound Waves the sun and the light reflected from moon Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. takes 1.28s to reach earth. Eased on their frequency range sound waves are ● Primary Colours- Blue, Red, Green divided into following categories. ● Secondary Colours- The coloured produced ● The sound waves which lie in the frequency by mixing any two primary colors range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible ● Complementary Colours- Any two colours waves. when added produce white light. ● The sound waves having frequencies less ● Blue colour of the sky is due to scattering of than 20 Hz are called infrasonic light. ● The sound waves having frequencies greater ● The brilliant red colour of rising and setting than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. sun is due to scattering of light. ● Ultrasonic waves are used for sending Human Eye signals, measuring the depth of see, cleaning ● Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. clothes and machinery parts, remaining lamp ● Myopia or short sightedness- far objects short from chimney of factories and in cannot see clear ultrasonography. ● Hyperopia or hypermetropia or Long- sightedness- Near objects cannot see clear Speed of Sound ● Presbyopia- in elder person, both far and ● Speed of sound is maximum in solids near cannot see clear minimum in gases. ● When sound goes from one medium to Reflection of Light another medium, its speed and wave length ● When a ray of light falls on a boundary changes, but frequency remain unchanged. separating two media comes back into the The speed of sound remains unchanged by same media, then this phenomenon is called the increase or decrease of pressure. reflection of light. ● The speed of sound increases with the increase of temperature of the medium. Spherical Mirror ● The speed of sound is more in humid air than Spherical mirrors are of two types in dry air because the density of humid air is 1. Concave mirror less than the density. 2. Convex mirror

Echo: The repetition of sound due to reflection of ● Image formed by a convex mirror is always sound waves is called an echo. virtual, erect and diminished. Intensity: It is defined as amount of energy passing ● Image formed by a concave mirror is normally per unit area held around that point per generally real and inverted. source unit time. Pitch: The sensation of a frequency is commonly Uses of Concave Mirror referred to as the pitch of a sound. (i) As a shaving mirror www.gradeup.co

(ii) As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle, Insulator: Insulators are those materials which do search light not allow electricity to flow through them. Metals (iii) In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear, nose like wood, paper, mica, glass, ebonite are insulators. by doctors. (iv) In solar cookers. Electric Current ● Its unit is Ampere. It is a scalar quantity. Uses of Convex Mirror ● An electric bulb makes a bang when it is (i) As a rear-view mirror in vehicle because it broken because there is a vacuum inside the provides the maximum rear field of view and electric bulb, when the bulb is broken air image formed is always erect. rushes at great speed from all sides to fill the (ii) In sodium reflector lamp. vacuum. The rushing of air produces a noise generally referred to as the bang. Refraction of Light ● A Galvanometer can be converted into an ● The bending of the ray of light passing from ammeter by connecting a shunt parallel to it. one medium to other medium is called ● The sodium and mercury street lamps light up refraction. When a ray of light enters from due to atomic emission. one medium to other medium, its frequency ● The purpose of choke coil in fluorescent is to and phase do not change, but wavelength and produce high voltage to ionize the gas in the velocity change. Due to refraction form tube required for high current to flow through Earth's atmosphere, the stars appear to filament. twinkle.

Total Internal Reflection Magnetism ● Sparkling of diamond, mirage and looming, ● Diamagnetic substance- when placed in shinning of air bubble in water and optical magnetic field, acquire feeble magnetism Fiber are examples of total internal reflection. opposite to the direction of the magnetic Power of a lens field. ● Power of a lens is its capacity to ● Examples- Gold, Diamond, Copper, Water, deviate a ray. It is measured as the Mercury etc. reciprocal of the focal length in ● Paramagnetic substance- when placed in meters. magnetic field, acquire feeble magnetism in ● SI Unit of Power is diopter. the direction of the magnetic field. ● Example- Al, Na, Mn etc. ● Ferromagnetic substance-when placed in ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM magnetic field, are strongly magnetized in the direction of the magnetic field. Charge ● Examples- Iron, Cobalt, Nickle Charge is the basic property associated with matter ● Curie temp- the Curie temperature (TC), or due to which it produces and experiences electrical Curie point, is the temperature at which and magnetic effects. Similar charges repel each certain materials lose their permanent other and opposite charges attract each other. The SI magnetic properties, to be replaced by unit of charge is coulomb. induced magnetism. ● Isogonic lines are lines on the Earth's surface Conductor: Conductors are those materials, which along which the declination has the same allow electricity to pass through them. Metals like constant value, and lines along which the silver, iron, copper and earth acts like a conductor. declination is zero are called agonic lines. Silver is the best conductor. ● Isoclinic lines are imaginary lines on the earth's surface connecting points where the earth's magnetic field has the same angle. www.gradeup.co

● The aclinic line is the magnetic equator, ● Knot: For measuring speed of ships where the magnetic field is inclined neither north or south, so it's a special case of an SOME CONVERSION FACTORS isoclinic line. ● Isodynamic line- A line on a map connecting Mass and Density points of equal strength of the earth's · 1 Kg = 1000 g = 6.02 u magnetic field. · 1 Slug = 14.6 kg · 1 u = 1.66 kg Surface Tension and capillary ● Lubricating oil spread easily on all parts Length and Volume because of their low surface tension. · 1 m = 100 cm = 39.4 inch = 3.28 ft ● Dirt get removed when detergents are added · 1 mile = 1.61 km = 5280 ft while washing clothes because surface · 1 inch = 2.54 cm tension of water is reduced. · 1 nm = m = 10 A ● The absorption of ink by a blotting paper is · 1 pm = m = 1000 fm due to capillary action · 1 light year = 9.46 m ● The supply of water to the leaves at the top of · 1 = 1000 L = 35.3 = 264 gal even a tall tree is through capillary rise. Angular Measure · 1 m/s = 3.28 ft/ s = 2.24 mi / h Heat · 1 km / h = 0.621 mi / h = 0.278 m/s ● Unit of heat- C.G.S- Calorie Force and Pressure F.P.S- British Thermal Unit (B. Th. U) · 1 lb = 4.45 N ● Absolute Zero Temp- minus 273 K (-273 K) · 1 ton = 2000 lb ● 1 calorie= 4.2 J · 1 Pa = 1 N/ = 10 dyne/ = 1.45 lb/ ● The specific heat is the amount of heat per · 1 atm = 1.01 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/ = 76 cm – unit mass required to raise the temperature by Hg one degree Celsius. ● Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate SOME IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC of change of the temperature of an object is INSTRUMENTS proportional to the difference between its own temperature and the ambient Accumulator: Electrical energy is stored temperature (i.e. the temperature of its · Altimeter: Used in aircraft for measuring surroundings). altitudes ● Hoar Frost-is the reverse process of · Ammeter: Measuring the electrical sublimation. current in amperes · Anemometer: Measuring the strength of MEASUREMENT UNITS winds ● Angstrom : For measuring length of light · Audiometer: Measuring intensity of wind waves · Audiophone: It is used for improving ● Barrel : For measuring liquids. One barrel is imperfect sense of hearing. equal to 31½ gallons or 7,326.5 cubic inches · Barometer: Measuring atmospheric ● Cable: For measuring length of cables. It is pressure about 183m. in length · Binocular: An optical instrument designed ● Carat : Used for measuring precious stones. for magnified view of distant objects by both It is also a measure for the purity of gold alloy eyes simultaneously ● Fathom : It is used for measuring depth of · Bolometer: To measure heat radiation water. One fathom is equal to 4 inches www.gradeup.co

· Cardiogram: For recording the heart · Seismometer (Seismograph): An movements Apparatus for measuring and recording · Calorimeter: Measuring of quantities of earthquake shock heat · Sextant: For guiding ships or surveying · Chronometer: A clock that keeps very land. accurate time as the one that is used to · Spectroscope: An instrument used for determine longitude at sea. spectrum analysis · Colorimeter: An instrument for · Speedometer: It registers the speed at comparing intensities of colour. which the vehicle is moving · Commutator: An instrument to change or · Spherometer: For measuring curvature remove the direction of an electric current, of surfaces in dynamo used to convert alternating · Sphygmomanometer: An instrument used current into direct current. to detect blood pressure in a human body. It · Cyclotron: Studying the properties of is also called B.P.Apparatus atoms by smashing them. · Sphygmophone: Instrument with the help of · Dynamo: A device for converting which, a pulse beat makes a sound mechanical energy into electrical energy · Spring Balance: Useful for measuring · Dynamometer: An instrument for weight measuring the electrical power · Stereoscope: It is used to view two · Electroscope: An instrument for dimensional pictures. detecting the presence of electric charge. · Stethoscope: An instrument which is · Endoscope: To examine internal parts of used by the doctors to hear and analyze heart the body and lung sounds. · Fathometer: Measure depth of the ocean · Stroboscope: It is used to view rapidly · Galvanometer: For detecting and moving objects. measuring electric current · Tachometer: An instrument used in · Hygrometer: Measure level of humidity measuring speeds of aero planes and motor · Phonograph: For reproducing sound boats. · Pyrometer: Measure very high · Teleprinter: This instrument receives temperature and sends typed messages from one place to · Quartz Clock: A highly accurate clock another. used in astronomical observations and other · Telescope: It views distant objects in precision work space. · Radiometer: An instrument for · Theodolite: It measures horizontal and measuring the emission of radiant energy vertical angles. · Radio Micrometer: An instrument for · Transistor: A small device which may be measuring heat radiations used to amplify currents and perform other · Rain Gauge: An instrument for functions usually performed by a thermionic measuring rainfall valve · Rectifier: An instrument used for the · Viscometer: For measuring viscosity conversion of AC into DC. · Voltmeter: To measure potential · Refractometer: An instrument used to difference between two points measure the refractive index of a substance · Udometer: Rain guage · Resistance Thermometer: Used for determining the electrical resistance of conductors · Salinometer: A type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their densities www.gradeup.co

CHEMISTRY Isotopes and Isobars MATTER · In general it exists in 3 states i.e., ● Isotopes have the same number of protons (i) Solid (i.e., atomic number), but different number (ii) liquid of neutrons and mass number (atomic (iii) gas. number + number of neutrons), e.g., 1111, 1H2. · Now-a-days there is a discussion on ● Isobars have the same mass number but two more states of matter i.e., Plasma different atomic number. (Ionised gases containing super energetic ● Example: 18Ar40, 19K40 and super excited particles and Bose- Einstein condensates or BEC (a gas at Dating Techniques super low temperatures with extremely ● Radiocarbon dating is used to determine low density). the age of carbon bearing materials like wood, animal fossils etc. Boiling Point ● Uranium dating is used to determine the ● The temperature at which liquid converts in age of Earth, minerals and rocks. to vapours is called its boiling point. ● Boiling point of water is 100°C. Battery ● The boiling point increases in the presence ● Battery is a device, used to convert chemical of impurities. That's why boiling point of energy into electrical energy and is of two sea water is more than the boiling point of types pure water (as the former contains (i) Primary batteries (non-rechargeable) act impurity). as galvanic cell, e.g., dry cell, mercury ● It usually decreases at high altitudes, cell etc. that's why at high altitudes, the boiling (ii) Secondary Batteries: (rechargeable) Act point of water is less than 100°C and as galvanic as well as voltaic cell E.g., more time is required to cook a food. lead storage battery, nickel cadmium battery etc. Melting Point ● It is a temperature at which a substance Corrosion converts from its solid state to liquid ● The oxidative deterioration of a metal state. surface by the action of environment is ● Melting point of ice is 0°C; It decrease in called corrosion, an electrochemical the presence of impurity process. ● When iron exposed in to air, iron surface Atom, Molecule and Element turns brown due to the formation of ● Atom is the smallest particle of a matter hydrated ferric oxide (Fe203.xH20) which that takes part in chemical reactions, but is also called rust, cannot exist in free state. ● Silver - Surface turns black due to the ● Atom is made 43 of electrons, protons and formation of silver sulphide (Ag2S) neutrons. ● Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus Renewable Non-renewable Natural (at the centre of atom) whereas electrons Resources revolve around the nucleus. ● Atoms combine to form molecules, the ● Renewable resources are available in smallest part of matter which can exist in large excess, i.e., never ends, e.g, air, free state. sunlight etc. www.gradeup.co

● Non-renewable resources are available in ● The substance, which produce heat and light limited quantity and end, if used on combustion are called fuels. excessively, after a limited period of time. ● A strong foul smelling substance, called e.g., mineral, coal, petroleum, natural gas ethyl mercaptan is added to LPG to detect etc. its leakage as LPG is an odourless gas. Fuels Some important fuels and their compositions Fuel Composition Sources Water Gas Carbon monoxide (co) + By passing stream over red hot coke hydrogen(h2) Producer Gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + By passing insufficient air over red hot Nitrogen (N2) coke Coal Gas Hydrogen + methane + Ethylene + By fractional distillation Acetyene + CO +Nitrogen Natural Gas Methane(83%) + Ethane From petroleum Liquefied Butane (CH4) 95% From petroleum Petroleum Gas (LPG) Compressed Methane (CH4) 95% From petroleum Natural Gas (CNG) Biogas or Gobar Methane (CH4) + Carbon dioxide From organic wastes Gas (CO2) + Hydrogen (H2)+ Nitrogen (N2)

Physical and Chemical Changes ● Physical changes are the change, which only affect the physical properties like colour, ● Coal is obtained by carbonization of hardness, density, melting point etc. of vegetable matter and is available in different matter, but do not affect the composition and varieties: chemical properties of matter. ○ Peat- 60% C ● A physical change is temporary, while a ○ Lignite or Brown Coal – 70% C chemical change is permanent. ○ Bituminous – 60 to 80 % C ● Crystallisation, sublimation, 'boiling, ○ Anthracite Coal – 90% C melting, vaporisation, cutting of trees, ○ Fame dissolving sugar or salt in water etc. are physical changes. Flame contains three parts ● Chemical changes affect the composition as well as chemical properties of matter and 1. Innermost Part- which is black due to the result in the formation of a new substance. presence of unburned carbon particles- ● Burning of fuel, burning of candle and paper, has lowest temperature. electrolysis of water, photo synthesis, 2. Middle part – is yellow due to incomplete ripening of fruits etc, are examples of of fuel. chemical changes www.gradeup.co

3. Outermost part- which is blue due to complete combustion of fuel is the hottest INORGANIC AND ORGANIC and used by goldsmith to heat the gold. CHEMISTRY

Fire Extinguishers Carbon Dioxide ● Water extinguishes fire because as it ● It is an acidic oxide of carbon and is used by evaporates, the vapours surround the green plants for photosynthesis. It does not burning substance, cutting off the oxygen help in burning. supply, thus inhibiting burning process. Air and our breath contain carbon dioxide. ● In case of electrical or oil (petrol) fires, Thus, when lime water is kept in air or we water cannot be used as extinguisher. This pass our breath into it, the lime water turns is because water is a conductor of electricity milky. and heavier than oil. Thus, oil floats over it Carbon Monoxide and continues to burn. · It is a neutral oxide of air and has more ● Carbon dioxide, which is generated by the affinity towards haemoglobin than oxygen reaction of baking soda with acid, is used (about 200 times more). That’s why in the extinguish electrical or oil fires. Quality of environment of carbon monoxide – which petrol is measured in terms of octane is a non- poisonous gas - people die for the number and that of diesel in terms of cetane need of oxygen. number. It is dangerous to sleep in an unventilated room with fire burning inside because the fire Safety Matches produces carbon monoxide and carbon ● In safety matches, the stick consists of dioxide gases. mixture of antimony trisulphide and Plaster of Paris potassium chlorate at its one end. The box It is chemically calcium sulphate hemihydrate side contains a mixture of powdered glass (CaSO4.1/2H2O) and is prepared by heating and phosphorus. gypsum – which is calcium sulphate dehydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K. Acids, Bases and Salts On Mixing with water, plaster of Paris further sets into a hard solid, called gypsum. Thus, it Acids is used to plaster fractured bones, for making ● These are the substance, which have sour toys, materials for decoration and for making taste and turn blue litmus red. surfaces smooth. ● These are good conductor of electricity in Portland Cement aqueous solution. It is a complex mixture of silicates and ● Pickels are always kept in glass jar because aluminates of calcium with small amount of acid present in them reacts with metal to gypsum. Raw materials used for the produce hydrogen gas. manufacture of Portland cement are limestone and clay. Bases The composition of Portland cement is ● These are the substances, which have bitter calcium oxide (50-60%), alumina (5-10%), taste and turn red litmus, blue. and magnesium oxide (2-3%). Gypsum is ● They give different colours in acid and base added to cement to decrease its rate of setting. solutions. In cement, if lime is in excess, cement cracks during setting and if lime is less, cement is of Salts weak strength. ● These are the product of neutralisation Mortar a mixture of sand, cement and water is reaction between an acid and a base. used for joining bricks and plastering walls. ● pH is the measure of acidity/basicity. www.gradeup.co

Concrete—a mixture of gravel, sand, cement protium, in that each atom of deuterium and water is used for flooring and making contains a proton and a neutron. Heavy water roads. may be deuterium oxide, D2O or it may be Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC)— which deuterium protium oxide, DHO. is concrete with steel bars and wires is used for ● Note: Heavy water occurs naturally, constructing roofs, bridges and pillars although it is much less common than Glass regular water. Approximately one water Glass—an amorphous solid or super- cooled molecule per twenty million water liquid—contains maintz silica (SiO2). molecules is heavy water. Hard Water Different substances are added to obtain glass of ● The water in which soluble bicarbonates oil different colour calcium and magnesium are present, is Colour Substance Added called temporary hard water and in which soluble sulphates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium are present is called Red Copper oxide (CuO) permanent hard water. ● The temporary hardness of water is removed by boiling or by adding calcium hydroxide, Green Chromium oxide (Cr203) Ca(OH)2—the Clark's process The permanent hardness of water is removed by adding sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), or Blue Cobalt oxide (Co0) calgon (sodium hexametaphosphate, Na2[Na4(P03) Hardening of Oil (Hydrogenation) Brown Iron oxide (Fe203) Oil, an unsaturated fat when heated with nickel catalyst and hydrogen gets converted into a solid mass, called ghee, a saturated fat. Heavy water This process is called hardening of oil and is ● Heavy water is water that contains heavy carried out through hydrogenation in the hydrogen or deuterium. Deuterium differs presence of nickel as a catalyst. from the hydrogen usually found in water, Some Important Ores of Metals Ores - Those minerals from which the metals are extracted commercially and economically and with minimum effort are called Ores of Metals.

Name of Elements Ores Chemical Formulae

1. Aluminum (Al) (a) Bauxite Al2O32H2O Al2O3 (b) Corundum Na3AlF6 (c) Kryolite 2. Iron (Fe) (a) Hematite Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FeS2 (b) Magnetite FeCO3 (c) IronPyrite (d) Siderite

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3. Copper (Cu) (a) Copper Pyrite CuFeS2 Cu2S (b) Copper Glance 2CuCO3Cu(OH)2 (c) Malachite

4. Zinc (Zn) (a) Zinc Blende ZnS ZnCo3 (b) Calamine

5. Sodium (Na) (a) Rock Salt NaCl Na2CO3 (b) Sodium Carbonate

6. Potassium (K) (a) Karnalite KClMgCl6H2O KNO3 (b) Salt Petre

7. Lead (Pb) (a) Galena PbS PbCl2 (b) Anglesite

8. Tin (Sn) (a) Tin Pyrites Cu2FeSnS4 SnO2 (b) Classiterite

9. Silver (Ag) (a) Silver Glance Ag2S

10. Gold (Au) (a) Calve rite AuTe2 AgAuTe2 (b) Sybarite

11. Mercury (Hg) (a) Cinnabar HgS Hg2Cl2 (b) Calomel

12. Magnesium (Mg) (a) Dolomite (b) Karnalite

13. Calcium (Ca) (a) Lime Stone CaCO3 MgCO3CaCO3 (b) Dolomite

14. Phosphorous (P) (a) Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)CaFe2 (b) Floreopetite 3Ca3(PO4)CaFe2

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BIOLOGY ● Vitamin B3 is also known as Pentothenic Vitamins: acid. ● Organic compound required in small ● Deficiency diseases: Burning sensations of amounts in the diet to maintain normal feet. metabolic functions are known as 'Vitamins'. Vitamin B5: ● Many vitamins act as (or) are converted into ● Vitamin B5 is also known as Nicotinic coenzymes; they neither provide energy nor acid/Niacin. are incorporated into tissues. ● Deficiency diseases: Pellagra, dermatitis, ● These also regulate the Bio-chemical diarrhea. processes in the body. Vitamin B6: Vitamins are classified into two groups ● Vitamin B6 is also known as Pyridoxine. 1. Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). These ● Deficiency diseases: Dermatitis and are rich in liver cells. convulsions. 2. Water soluble vitamins (C, B-complex). Vitamin B7: These are present in much smaller ● Vitamin B7 is also known as Biotin (also amounts in cells. considered as vitamin H). Fat soluble vitamins: ● Deficiency diseases: Dermatitis, blood Vitamin A: cholesterol increases, loss of hair and ● Vitamin A is also known as 'Retinol'. paralysis. ● Deficiency diseases: Night blindness, Vitamin B9: redness in eyes (Exophthalmia), degeneration ● Vitamin B9 is also known as Folic acid. of lachrymal glands. ● Deficiency diseases: Anemia, inflammation Vitamin D: of tongue, gastro intestinal disorders. ● Vitamin D is also known as 'Calciferol'. Vitamin B12: ● Deficiency diseases: Rickets in children, ● Vitamin B12 is also known as 'Cynocobal Osteomalacia in adults. amine'. Vitamin E: ● Deficiency diseases: Pernicious anemia, ● Vitamin E is also known as 'Tocopherol'. hyperglycemia. ● Deficiency diseases: Sterility nutritional Vitamin C: nuclear dystrophy, neurosis of heart muscles. ● Vitamin C is also known as 'Ascorbic acid'. Vitamin K: ● Deficiency diseases: Scurvy, delay in wound ● Vitamin K is also known as 'Anti healing. hemorrhagic'. Human Diseases Caused by Fungi :- ● Deficiency diseases: Blood coagulation is ● Ringworm caused by Microsporum, prevented, continuous bleeding occurs. Trichophyton by direct contact from Water soluble vitamins: unbathed cats and dogs or objects handled by Vitamin 'B Complex': Vitamin B Complex is a infected individuals. mixture of B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12. ● Athlete's foot caused by Trichophyton by Bad Vitamin B1: foot hygiene where skin remains warm and ● Vitamin B1 is also known as Thiamin. moist for long period, fungi finds optimal ● Deficiency diseases: Beri Beri disease which condition, invade dead outer layer of skin. affects the legs. Human Diseases Caused by Viruses • Vitamin B2: ● Smallpox caused by Variola Virus by direct ● Vitamin B2 is also known as Riboflavin. contact (droplets), indirected by infected ● Deficiency diseases: Dark red tongue, articles. dermatitis, cheilosis occurs at the corners of ● Chicken pox caused by Varicella virus by mouth & lips. direct contact (droplets) indirected by Vitamin B3: infected objects.

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● Common cold caused by Rhinovirus by ● Tetanus or Lock•Jaw caused by Clostridium contact. tetani by Bacteria in soil, enters through ● Influenza/Flu caused by Orthomixo•virus by wound. contact (droplets) virus transmitted through ● Typhoid or enteric fever caused by discharge from respiratory tracts of persons Salmonella typhi by Flies, food, faces water infected with disease and carriers. ● Mumps caused by Mumps virus by direct ● Cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae by Flies contact, virus in Saliva and secretion of nose food, stools, water and carriers. invades salivary glands. ● Bacillary dysentery caused by short rod ● Viral encephalitis caused by Encephalitis (Shigella dysenteriae)by Flies, food, faeces, virus (arbovirus) by some domestic animals’ water and carriers. reservoir of virus, transmitted by mosquito ● Whooping cough caused by small short rod bite to man. (Hemophilus pertussis) by Droplets protected ● Poliomyelitis caused by Poliovirus by during coughing and sneezing. contact, houseflies, fleas, food and water. ● Syphilis caused by Spiral•shaped organism ● Rabies (Hydrophobia) caused by Rabies (Treponema pallidam) by direct contact, virus (Rhabdovirus) by Bite a mad (rabid) chiefly sexual intercourse. dog ● Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium Leprae ● Dengue fever or breakbone fever caused by by long and close contact with infected Dengue virus (arbovirus) by Mosquito persons (Aedes) bite. ● Botulism caused by Clostridium botulinum ● Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome by organism produces poison in food. (AIDS) caused by Human T•cell Human Diseases Caused by Protozoans ● Lenkemia virus (HTLV•IlI) also called LAV ● Amoebic dysentery (Amoebiasis) caused by (Retrovirus) by blood and sperm among Entamoeba histolytica by Transmission from homosexuals, heterosexuals, intravenous man to man through ingestion of cysts in drug users, haemophiliacs, promiscuous drinking water vegetables and food individuals and prostitutes. contaminated with faeces. Human Diseases Caused by Bacteria ● Diarrhea 'Giardiasis' caused by Giardia ● Septic sore throat caused by Streptococcus intestinalis by Transmission from man to man Sp by Bacteria infect throat and nasal through ingestion of cysts in drinking water membranes by droplets and direct contact. vegetables and food contaminated with faces. ● Diphtheria caused by Irregular rod ● Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax by (Corynebacterium diphtheria) by Bacteria Transmitted to man by bite of an infected infect respiratory tract by carrier, through female auophelise mosquito. contact, droplets and food items. ● Sleeping sickness (Trypanosomiasis) caused ● Pneumonia caused by Diplococcus by Trypanosoma brucei by Transmitted by pneumonia by Bacteria transmitted to bite of tse•tse fly respiratory tract, including the lungs by Some Important Information & Facts Related to droplet infection. Biology ● Tuberculosis caused by Irregular rod 1. Melvin Kelvin was awarded Nobel Prize (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) by Bacteria for his work on Photosynthesis transmitted to lungs, bones and other organs 2. The largest flower in the world is by direct contact droplet infection, food and Refflessia and the smallest one is milk. wolfessia. ● Plague or Bubonic caused by Short rod 3. Penicillin is obtained from penicillium (Yersinia pestis) by Rat flea spreads disease Notatum. from rat to man.

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4. Reserpine derived from the plant 28. Hydroponics is cultivating plants 'serpentine' is used to alleviate high blood without using soil. pressure. 29. Palco botany is the study of fossils of 5. Plants, living in acidic soils, are called botanical specimens. oxalophytes. 30. Pepsin & Lactose enzymes add proteins 6. Photosynthesis is most active in blue in the digestive system. and red light in which light energy is 31. The water soluble vitamins are vitamin converted into chemical energy. B and C 7. The smallest bone, lies stapes is found 32. A chemical change in DNA molecule is in the human ear. called mutation. 8. Enzymes are basically proteins. 33. Glycogen acts as a short •term food 9. Mitochondria is called the 'power house reserve in animals. of the cell' 34. Estrogen is a female sex hormone. 10. Pancreas is both an endocrine and 35. The enzyme amylase aids in the digestion exocrine gland. of starch. 11. Persons of blood group '0' are called 36. ATP synthesis takes place in 'Universal Donor' while that of 'AB' are mitochondria. called 'Universal Acceptors'. 37. 70% of the body weight of a man is 12. Seedless fruits are formed by water. parthenogenesis. 38. The tough transparent membrane that 13. Simple plants that contain no protects the eye ball is called cornea. chlorophyll are called fungi. 39. Energy is produced in human body by 14. Spirogyra is commonly known as 'pond Carbohydrates. silk' 40. Sugar is the product of the dark reactions 15. The longest muscle in the human body of photosynthesis. is found in thigh. List Of Scientific Laws and Theories 16. In a leaf, the opening between two guard 1. Archimede's principle - It states that a body cells is stomata. when wholly or partially immersed in a liquid 17. Gibberellins are responsible for cell experience an upward thrust which is equal to elongation. the weight of the liquid 18. The chemical name of chlorophyll is displaced by it. Thus, the body appears to lose magnesium Dihydro prophysin. a part of its weight. 19. Bile is produced in liver and stored in gel 2. Aufbau principle - It states that in an bladder. unexcited atom, electrons reside in the lowest 20. All arteries, except pulmonary artery energy orbitals available to them. carry oxygenated blood. 3. Avogadro's Law - It states that equal 21. The main function of W.B. C. is to volumes of all gases under similar conditions produce antibodies. of temperature and pressure contain an equal 22. Retina in the eye, acts as a film in the number of molecules. camera. 23. Human tears contain a mild antibacterial 4. Brownian motion - It is a zigzag, irregular agent, named Lysozyme. motion exhibited by small solid particles 24. The biggest bone in the human body is when suspended in a liquid or gas due to femur. irregular bombardment by the liquid or gas 25. Vitamin B12 is almost never found in molecules. plants. 5. Bernoulli's principle - It states that as the 26. Agrostology is the study of grasses. speed of a moving fluid, liquid or gas, 27. Phycology is the study of a algae while increases, the pressure within the fluid the study of fossils is called paleontology decreases. The aerodynamic lift on the wing www.gradeup.co

of an aeroplane is also explained in part by which bear simple whole number ratios to this principle. one another and also to the volumes of the 6. Boyles's Law - It states that temperature products, if gaseous — all the volumes being remaining constant, the volume of a given measured under similar conditions of mass of a gas varies inversely with the temperature and pressure. pressure of the gas. Thus, PV = K (constant), 11. Graham’s Law of Diffusion - It states where, P = Pressure and V = Volume. that the rates of diffusion of gases are 7. Charles's Law - It states that pressure remains inversely proportional to the square roots of constant, the volume of a given mass of gas their densities under similar conditions of increases or decreases by 1/273 part of its temperature and pressure. volume at 0-degree Celsius for each degree 12. Kepler's Law - Each planet revolves Celsius rise or fall of its temperature. around the Sun in an elliptical orbit with the 8. Coulomb's Law - It states that the force of Sun at one focus. The straight line joining the attraction or repulsion between two charges Sun and the planet sweeps out is proportional to the amount of charge on equal areas in equal intervals. The squares of both charges and inversely proportional to the the orbital periods of planets are proportional square of the distance between them. to the cubes of their mean distance from the 9. Heisenberg principle (uncertainty principle) - Sun. It is impossible to determine with accuracy 13. Law of Floatation - For a body to both the position and the momentum of a float, the following conditions must be particle such as an electron simultaneously. fulfilled: 10. Gay-Lussac’s Law of combining ○ The weight of the body should be equ volumes - Gases react together in volumes ○ al to the weight of the water 17. Newton's Third Law of Motion - To displaced. every action, there is an equal and opposite ○ The centre of gravity of the body and reaction. that of the liquid displaced should be 18. Newton's Law of Gravitation - All in the same straight line. particles of matter mutually attract each other 14. Law of conservation of energy - It by a force directly proportional to the product states that energy can neither be created nor of their masses and inversely proportional to destroyed but it can be transformed from one the square of the distance between them. form to another. Since energy 19. Ohm's Law - It states that the current cannot be created or destroyed, the amount of passing through a conductor between two energy present in the universe is always points is directly proportional to the potential remain constant. difference across the two points provided the 15. Newton's First Law of Motion - An physical state and temperature etc. of the object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an conductor does not change. object in motion tends to stay in motion, with 20. Pauli exclusion principle - It explains the same direction and speed in a that no two electrons in the same atom or straight line unless acted upon by some molecule can have the same set of quantum external force. numbers. 16. Newton's Second Law of Motion - 21. Raman effect - It is the change in The rate of change of momentum of a body is wavelength that occurs when light is directly proportional to the force applied and scattered by the atoms or molecules in a takes place in the direction in which the force transparent medium. acts.

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22. Tyndall effect - The scattering of light by very small particles suspended in a gas or liquid. Diseases and its Affected Area Parts of the Body Affected by Diseases Malaria Spleen Disease Affected Body Part Meningitis Brain and Spinal Cord

Arthritis Joints Otitis Ears

Asthma Bronchial Muscles Paralysis Nerves

Cataract Eyes Pneumonia Lungs

Diabetes Pancreas Polio Legs

Diphtheria Throat Pyorrhoea Teeth and Gums

Eczema Skin Rheumatis Joints m Glaucoma Eyes Sinusitis Inflammation of sinus linings Goitre Thyroid Gland Tonsillitis Tonsils

Jaundice Liver Trachoma Eyes

Leukemia Blood Tuberculosi Lungs s

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Typhoid Intestines Proto Malaria, Sleeping sickness, zoans Kala-azar, Leishmaniasis, Amoebic dysentery

Diseases and Causative Agents Fung Athlete's foot, Ringworms, us Madura foot, Dhobi's itch Caus Disease ative Helmi Filaria, Tapeworm and Agent nths Hookworm transmission

Important Information about Human Body Bacte Diphtheria, Gonorrhoea, ● Biggest Organ: Liver ria Meningitis, Cholera, Leprosy, ● Heart Beat: 72 times in a minute Typhoid, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Plague, ● Master Gland: Pituitary Whooping Cough, Pneumonia ● Number of Bone: 206 ● Number of Muscles: 640 Virus Chicken Pox, Small Pox, ● Number of chromosomes: 46 or 23 pairs Measle, Mumps, AIDS, Yellow ● Normal Blood Pressure: 80 to 120 fever, Influenza, Dengue fever, Teeth: 32 Rabies, Polio-meritis ● phelebotomus ● The volume of Blood: About 7 litres in normal body or about 7% of the total body weight. ● Largest; Part of human Brain: Cerebrum

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