North-East India: Land, People and Economy
^Spriringer
K.R. Dikshit • Jutta K. Dikshit
North-East India: Land, People and Economy
Springer
>5" i
Preface I I I
J'or ihc authors ol this book, stationed 2.000 km away rri>m North-Hast India, to write a book on this region would appear at lirst sight a larietehed exereise. But. sometimes, unforeseen situations ehange the perspective of individuals and induce cotnmitment to specific tasks. That is what iiappened with theauthors of this book. Theidea ofa book on Nortii-litist India had itsorigin ina Ixxik-writing workshop, conducted at North-Hastern Hill University. Shillong. in 200.'^. The workshop, attended among others, by the authors ofthis Ixmk. concluded with a plan toproduce a book, on the North-Hast region of India, to which all the partieipants were to contribute. Forsome retison. the plan did not materialise, and eonsequently. thepivsent authors." encouraged and assisted by the geography faculty of the North-Hastern Hill University (NHFIU). undertook to write the book. We started working on thisbook inall seriousness in thesummerol 2006. During the last 6 years, we visited all the states ofNorth-liast India several times and spent considerable time in the field, observing landscape and meeting people, recording ourobservations and collecting numerical data wherever possible. The field work in North-East. though purposive, often appeared it kind of adventure to explore an unfamiliar terrain. It is not that the region, especially its eastern periphery, is an unknt)wn territory, but some parts of the region arecjuite isolated and not absolutely risk-free. The towns arc a safe /one, but away frtim the towns oneis lelitoone'sown devices. It was quite an adventure to cut across the entire length ol mountainous Nagaland or apart of Mi/oram or Manipur. all alone in ahired transport. The disturbed conditions, in some of the border states, have a daunting effect on field researchers, but the thrill of reaching certain points or being able to have a visual contact with the landscape of some important areas provides the required propelling energy. The communication with the local people, always through interlocutors who are able to communicate in English, was not always perfect, but carried enough clarity to draw conclusions. In the remote areas, consulting tnaps in the field, within the sight of local inhabitants, is not without risk. Whenever and wherever we started consulting the map by a roadside, some people arrived from nowhere and started looking at the map from over our shoulders out of curiosity, and finding strangers in their area, .started interpreting our field work in their own way. It is best to avoid \ II I'tl'I.U f i'r.-C., .
consulliny tuups in the opi/n hv tlic ri);iJsicic, ic"-! i>nc shouki niisi.ikcii Iit .1 "»py il.i- .,i,lu..u. l.,-k ..I ,1 "" .1 r--?"'" "'Il' " ilill"'"" ""••'••"W Hcriihls pose antHlier proi-iletii. llie iimii uiili llie hi^jliesi loealioti in llie leeion is Iv.lilK.,! Miu.m,.,, .1.1,1.1 .»,1,I.iiie- "1 I'"'""' "111' "-"II- P-'i-i-""l I" ll'^- hup-- Tawane (over 3.()()() m ASI.). l-or those not aeeusiomed lo this iieieln. a prolonged ,.| L-r.„li,.illv .|,.|.|.||11.J I.pl. ml„m..iii,.ii „I1 ilK ivpion k. Pc .iWc 10 "p.,,,- 1. in .. stay in the reeion is tiriniJ. unless one sia\s iliere lone' enoueh in eel aeelim.iiised to in,:,i„„nlnl k-M In ,nn nil,... un „v,n„kl -.ippnn H"'" ,|.ia,k-r, »l.inh un ...,n these heights. Transpori is a pmhlein not hecaiise lured \eliieles .iie iu>l .i\ .1 liable but .lunklnlK nkn,.i,.iKkl n. 'Vknnkkklnnn.ci'l-'. MP"""- I'"""-; I'-'"'- "" ''"I H"-' heeaiise of the rekietanee ol iransport ojKrators lo na\el to the areas one uoiikl like .,.K.in,.|.,k. ,.| ,,.,„nlnnn liPkni," ll"" "P"" "' 'I"' '">"1-;" ' to visit, It may beemphasised that not all disii lel headipiaileis ni Arunas iial I'l adesh. pnn,. I Ilk- I'l"-"'- "I —'I I; Nayaland. Manipiir and Mi/oram ha\e hotels and one has to liepeml on the iiieuit «,-!! kn,.«n (•,..kl,.,l,- In-imik- nl l'.'!'"- -""I I""""""- ""'I 'I'" 1'-""" ' '.'""fy houses run by the Slate Ciosernments hn" their ou nsisiiors, but are asailable to boiia fide academics and researchers, il' inl'ormeil in adsanee. ,.n, .k.k, P.,nk ,, k- ."l'"i y-i'i" ii'l""'" ; The authors woukl like to make a mention ot the recutrine 01 deal that e\ ei \ tieId h:,, L,, ,,.,,ln,,l .,,,,1 pinlonnnJ .'"."I-. Ill" I'l'iiyi';''^'1 researcher or an otxlitiary visitor inleniiine to enter .Arunachal Pradesh, Naealaiuloi II k.i, ,i,n,,-i\,-,l .111,1 nl\,'P,',l "''"-i'l"l-'l'l" l"l''• ih . n••Is ot" 111,- inni.iiis. iiu- iiik-ii. -I I- \, k Mi/oram has to face in yelliny the entry permit tioin the lepiesentalnes ol lliese I , iK.- vkiirk oi'o"rc^^v'il. vvL iv.lli^isvl tllv slitll states, stationed at (iuu ahati. Shillone or Delhi, to be able to enter tliese states, Sueh umvaM.v ,uKi kollcgc suulcnt.: permission is ret|uircd under an archaic Heneal Keeuhilioii ol IS7T under uhieh kuliv ol limniMgihckkwusMkmol • i„icrpretation of plains people were not permitteil to cross a limit, known as the Imiei l ine tli.ii mincl Icngih. lU-sulcs, ,i !...! .1 - ^ to make it arelcrencc book as separated these stales from the phiin area of Assam, I'liat reeutalion, lo the dismay l.nis I[K-seo,x-olllHsbookw..v IKI _ of many of us. still persists. More frustraline Is the laci that the •inner i.iiie Permits 1 Win!, die pivparation of the maiuiserip.. we are usually valid only Idr a week ami even mention the places one is to visit, thus •mvoiK- mieiesieki mNoiih l-.ot lvuhvs and seminars, and that pro- resiriciine the movement ol the visitors. Deviation Irom the [irescribeil route may <'ee,.s,on.dlv visited the Noiih-l ast *^„,j^.,-,,;,|Kiing and knowledge of the attract penalty. f)ne has to count onesell lucky to be able to obtain a permission to ^ideil us ,Kklekl oppoiumity 10 iinpiow ' ^liiioivnt aspeets of slay in these states for a fortnight at a stretch, it is like ecttine a visa lot a loreien legion. We h,ive .ulheieki lo an ohiek ,,1'appearing suhjeeiive depend- land. Notwithstanding these minor glitches, the authors have enjoyeit travelling Mviely ,imi eek.noniv, hut of tlie .mlhois. We don't elaim ihroueh the region. Another liilficulty that a liekl researcher laces in the Nortii- I'tg on ihe pei speeiive ,md the I"'"'"''',0 imdeisiand that plurality in Hastern region of India is the fear of encountering local insurgetit groups. There is immunity trom sueh a bias, but wiUik 1 v ^ ^.^niormist \ iew is no state in Norlh-Piast India which doesn't have a ilark cortier know ti tor the pres inicrpieLiiion is a eomiiion leaimc ol t ie as. ence of insurgents. Kield scientists are. as such, highly restrained iti their choice of "Iten uiipiodiieiive, ^ mul every aspeel of the areas and time to visit these areas. Access to international bortlcrs with ( hina ;ind Ihis book, it must be undersioov . border eoniliets and siralegie Myanmar is restricted. Intrastale movement in states other than Assam is not a ivgion, Ceiiam aspeets like politiea io\i is eonfmed. as is sug- smooth affair, and one has to he all the time on guard. Our e.xpcrience ol visiting a -iiuaiioMs .ire not wiihm the purview o wayside restaurant in one of the states, where we were ailviseil to hurry up as the .eesied by the title, to laiul. people ait'- ,-^.oiiiii. especially .Vssamcse. area is infested with insurgents, reveals the sttite ol security in the region. Despite ^•^0 ivgici our ignorance k't the i-,^.(ier equipped us tiDniei- all the inconvenience that an individual field researcher faces, contact with the land A knowledge ol the language o! Tel. we have honestly tried scape and the people of the region is a rewarding experience, enoiigli to ignore the •'vi wiili ihem ami even pioinoied a ^ and aspiraiivms. their despair difliculties of field work undertaken by individuals without any logistic support. buindeisiaiui the [X'ople ol die fiiulinii expression in oeeasional revolt, During many of our liekl trips and visits to the tow ns and state capitals, we met •iiid sense ot fi usiraiioii ami ibeii maiiy odier soeielies. eonsists ol people of all shades and opinions. They included schokirs. university teachers, stu ' 'doi timatelv. the soeiety mNoith-I--^ aitenda and adifferent perspeeiivc dents and researchers and the faculty and research workers of several other insti '^'-•w-ial disparate groups. l-.;i^''i ,,^,,,1 pnil does not aeeord with its netgh- tutes. the government officitils and above all the people in the liekl, belonging to l^inir,soeial.gixinghseiiinuuiialdistiustpolitiea! and eeononiK mVLam s yyeii,(,-.i^-iableonK hope thatknottyintergroupproblemsundcr-are differeni professions or engaged in dillerent trades. Contact and dialogue with sim ple peasants and the indigenous people, some ol them openly inlormative while ^diiuling develops and many o \ ,,, p^e hiek of undcmsiai^^^ others secretive and clearly indifferent, opened for us the indigenous world of the '^••'"Ived 10 the benefit ofall the gio ^ ^f initiative in the Norlh-East. without our being able to absorb till that w:is revealed to us. "be of np„,.- p,ohlcms -nW po."^ silting on The faculty and the research workers of different universities and the research ngh-cmem.I vlircction.accusingThe bookone groupickisor the othc . institutes we met. during our visits to the region, wondered at our temerity to undertake .inds
V • l'rcl;ici- Ml
Ihis arduous lask ol uriliiii; a hook oii a roiiion with a diriictill iciTaiii. uiiscitlal poliliL-al situalion and a socicis iioi i|inlc at ivatc uiih iiscll. \\V jHTsiMcd in liic hojx' ol yradiialiv aciiuirini: L-iiouyh iiilornialion on ihc ivyion lo he aiMc lo \\ea\e it in a ineaninylul test. In ourcllon ue reeeisal supcH>rt tVoni main i,|uariers wliieh nc ha\e thanklully incmioncd in 'AckiiouIcilitcmems'. At I'lmc, our home base, ue liad the aihaiiltii-e ol eonsuhinj; se\eral lihraries liiai uere ope-ii lo us. the Jasakar l.ihrary ol' Inline I nisersiiy as well as the libraries ol seseral reseaivti insiiuiles. ineludiiii: iho uell-knoun (iokhale Insiiiule ol I'olilies ami j-.eonomies ami llie Deeean College, [•or seseral years, it u as routine lor us in \ isit iliese lihraries as ami \\ hen rei.]uiix\l to lill the tiap in our dat;i liaitk or lo aeiiuite ain oiliei s|K'eilie inlormalion. W'rilinu the hook has been a ^inadutil aikl proloni:eil allair. The hook took h \ears loeomplele. after it uas eoneeiverl ami iinohesl eoiisiderahle lieltl and lihrars work. Iniliiilly. the intent was to write a hands hook keepiiiii in \ ieu the neeils of the university and college students; hut as the work [trojaressed, ue realisei.1 the difli- cLilly of limilinL: llic discussion of the lanil ami people tif all the states to a pretleier- mined Icnylh. Hcsides. ii had ;i severe resiraininu effect on our interpretation of lads. I lie scope ol this hook was. thereIore. enlariied lo make it a reference hook as much as a textbook. Ihe book, with no technical jargon,can he read or consulted h\ tmyoiie intcresteil in Norili-I-.asi Inditt. Durinji the preparation of the manuscript, we occasioruilh visiietl the Norlh-l-iasi reeion for lectures ami seminars, and that pro vided us iidded opportunity lo improve our umlerstandiiiL: and knowlcilite of the rejtion. We liave adhereil lo an objective interpretation of the different aspeels of society and eeonoiny. hut interpret;itions have ;i vvav of appearing suhjeetive depeiul- ing oir the perspceiive ant! the preconceived notions of the tnithors. We i.lon't claim immunity trom such a bias, hul would like the reavlers to understand that pluralilv in inlerprelalion is a common lealure of ilie academic world ami a conformisi view is often unproductive. This hook, it must be uiulersiood. doesn't cover etich ami every aspect vif the region. Certain aspects like politictil developments, border eonllicts and strategic situttiions ;ire not within the purview of this book and the text is conlined. ;is is sue- gestcd by the title, lo land, people and economy of the region. We regret our ignorance of the langutiges of the region, especially Assamese, A knowledge of the language of the people would have better ei|ui]iped us to inter act with them tind even promoted ;i sense of familiarity. Yet. we have honestly tried toundersttmd the people of the Norih-b'ast. their hopes ;ind aspirations, their despair and sense of frustrtiiion and their anger linding expression in occasional revolt. Unlbriuniitely. the society in North-l-aist India, like tiiany other societies, consists of several dispantte groups. Hach group h;is its own tigenda ttnd a different perspective for social, political and economic developmeiu that does not accvird with its neigh bour. giving rise to mulual distrust and conllict. We tmly hope that intergroup under standing develops and m;my of the apptirently intnictable knotty problems are resolved U) the benelit of all the groups. The core problem is the lack of understand ing of others' problems and points of view and hence absence of initiative in the right direction. The btiok refers to some of these problems but avoids sitting on judgement, accusing one group or the other. i'fCl.KC ,VIII
This book was planned lo he an avcrajie Icnjilh text, hiil as ii lurns «uit. il lias Acknowledgements taken more space and more pages tlian expected. Ilie pliotographs \shich. we lliink. arc cjuite expressive and meaningliil, while adding to the \alue to the hook. h.i\c also added to the length of the voliniie. We. the authors, shall I'eel liilly awarded, il the reailers tind themselves better informed about the region or some aspects ol its lile and economy, alter going through the entire or part of this book.
Punc, Maharashtra. India K.K. Dikshit Jutta K. Dikshit
In wntnn- tins book, we have received assistance Iroin many institutions and UKliMdu..rs There number is legion, and it is not possible to thank all ol them iiKliMdi. ilK ^et It wcnild be sheer ingratitude to torget those who have extended lain ible issistanee duriim the course of our work. We would like lo elarily that the issisi inee we reeened was not in linaneial terms and eontmed to goodwill gesture .trom "imi\ersities aiiu,n.l invnoIriends and extended to library laeilities. guest house .K.,.n.n,.Kla,K.n. a.ul - pank-.pano.. ,n senunarsJd.vc, s,„no cclurcs. IIks. ...ukl laalilaK- >nu uasci Tho assis.a.KC w. valuo ga-a y,s .he .n„.al supper. aiui the aeademie inpui.... r,..'
I
In wriuny ihis hook, wo liavo roooivod assisiancc IVoni iiunn insiiiuiions and incliviciiials. There numher is loyion, aiul ii is noi possihio lo iluiiik all id' them iiKliviilually. Yd, il woiiki ho slioor iniiraliliiilo lo I'oryot llioso wlio have oxtonilod valuablo assisianco durinji tlio oourso ol our work. Wo would like lo clarilV fhat the assisianoo wo roooivod was noi in linancial lorms and oonlinod lo yoodw ill oosuiro I'roni univorsitios and Irionds and oxiondoil lo lihrury I'aoiliiios. guest house aooomniodalion. and inviiaiion lo participaiii>n in soininars or deliver some looiuros. Thoseoouki Caoililalo our iravoi. The assisianoo wo value groally is the moral support and the aoadomio input wo roooivod I'rom iho faoultios of dilToreni unisorsitios of North-Kasl India, ospooially the Norih-Kasiorn Mill University and its geography faoulty. Tiioro is no insiiiutional fumling roooivod or olaimcd hy the authors for writing this book. Among the institutions, the auiliors like to express their gratitude to the North- liasiorn Mill University. .Shillong. for all the support they roooivod. Wo have lost oouni of the numher of visits to this university, at their expense, as a momhor of some advisory or soleoiion oommitioo. as visiting professors and as pariieipanis in some seminars or Cora rest in transit from one ol'the neighbouring stales. In fact, wo took il for granted that once wo are in Shillong. our friends would take care of us. We are. indeed, grateful to the university. The geography I'aculty of the university always extended a frieixlly gesture to us. Prof. A.C. Mohapaira. Prof. Surendra Singh. Prof. B.S. Mipun and Prof. Debendra Nayttk gave us unstinted help when ever needed. This extended to our stay on the beautiful campus of the university, tran.sport facility, consultation and reference work and even help in Held work. We were first taken lo Cherrapunji by Dr. H.J. Syicmlieh and subsequently to some other places. This wasone of our first contact with Meghalaya; we fondly remember and lhankfully acknowledge his help. While staying on the campus of NEHU. the evening get-togethers, with some of our friends, were real unwinding sessions. These arc etched in our memory.There, we met several other distinguished scholars like Prof. T.B-. Subba. We must make a special mention of the generous help extended by Prof. Debendra Nayak during our visit to Iviajuli. the largest river island in the world. His doctoral student Ku Mayuri Das was of immense help. She and her
IX
Acki)(iulcilj,'tinciils \i I
Boindihi aiul lawanjj. uhctv Mr. 1.oki Noihii. aiioihcr j^couraphor. \\ckiimc(.l us and ^ went (Hil 1)1 his way lo orL'anisc our onward jDiirnc) it) lawatvj. Wc would like lo j lliank Pro!. R.C. Joslii and Mr. .Norbu lor their sineeie help. The \isit i») Naualand k was made meanin<:rul eouriesy Dr. Sanesu ^'aden at Mokokehuni: and Dr. /.amir and his assoeitites at Kohimti. I Guwahati. Prol. A.K. Bhagtiwati arranged a trip to anAssamese village that was interesting. I am tluinklul to his doctoral studetit Dr. Nityanand Deka and his parents who played the roleol :i very gnieious host, invited us to an unforgetta bledelicious Assatnese luneh and tnade us feel ;it home during our day long visit to the village. While stationed at the guest houseof Citiuhati University. I visited tiiost humani ties dcparttrients lor consultations. I would specillcally like to thank Prof. Be/barua of economics department. Prol. Piyatn Goswami of History department and Prof. Goswami of Political .Science department. All three professors not only tolerated my intrusion in theirbusy schedule but offered some helpful suggestions andgifted me some of their publications. In Guwahati. Omeo Kumar Das Institute of Social Chtmgc and Development is a quiet placewith a reasonably good library and a guest house. I had the privilege of visiting the Institute and staying at its guest house courtesy of its Director Dr. Indranee Dutta. The library has a good eollection of literature on North-Kast India, and I benelitted greatly from my visit to this institute. The librarian and his staff were friendly and helpful. I would like to thank them. I aiTi especially thankful to Prof. Dutta lor arranging a visit to Prof. Amalendu Guha who warmly received me and narrated his experience ofworking at Pune at Gokhale In.siitule of Politics and Economics in I97()s. One person I always looked up to for advice and encouragement while at Guwahati is Prof. Mohd. Tahcr, former Prol'essor of Geography, at Gauhali Aikiiii'.iili'iti'ciiii'iil-
tliruiiuli ilic su'i lion Iin ilii" 'IVoplL-nl M.iiiipm' \i.t\ niflK'nloiislv ;itul olloiwl soiiu" \;ilii,ilik- sinj-ji-sinnis iik liiiliiii; rn.ikii!).' cottikiinns. In laiiomnplnc uurk. uo UiTc Ik'I[H'iI In Mr. Alilimas Kiitkiiu- aiki Mi. iilunaiknii (lotnasho. \SV oxprms our api^iik lalion iit tin.' liciik alion u iili u ilk li Mi Kuikiilu. Iiolilin;^ a MasU'is in Lk'oL'iapln. )k-i|v.i iis in (nupaiiiii: ilk- ma(n. ik-suk-s ihcsi.- iiuii\khiaK. I'lol. K.C". Tns.iii. anollk'i sluik'iu ol ninu' uilli i.cinsiik-iahk- inlcrcM in .N'onli l-.asi Iiuiia. \sas ol imiik-nsL- lk'l|v III- iniMJivil some \aliiahk- inlormaiitin lor iis Irom llie eeimir\ iiKI Homha\ Asialie kihiaiA, Wiih his kiiou lediie ol Nor(li-l-.asi liiilia llial Ik- liaii aeijuiiL-il o\ci ilk- >eais, he read ihioiiiih several eiiapiers ol ihe liook ami ol'lerei! invaliiahle eomnieiils ami siieuesiions, W'e are ihankriil lo him lor his supinni and willmuness lo help in whaievei \va> he eoiild. l,i. (ien. Nanavaii, a uenilemaii.ihoui:)! nol a pan ol aeademie uorki hiil ileepK aequamled uiih Nonh j-aist India, helped Ihe aiilhors uiealh in iimlei siaiulmjj Xa.ealaiid. Ue lhaiiklii!i> aeknow ledi:e his help. Some o|"m> ueouiaphei Iriends. Irom aeioss (he eoimlrv. who had an idea ol our uorkiiiL' loi Ihe book, kepi eneouiaijmi; m lo eompleie ihis book. In ihis ealeiioiA, we mehide I'rol. (kiiudev SiiiL-h (iosal. I'rol. Copal Krishan. I'rol. K. 1). Sharm.i and I'lol. SiiiAa Kaiil ol Chaiuiiil.iih. I'rol. Ikileshuar Thakm and Dr. Ami Kapiii ol Delhi I'rol D N. Smeh and I'rol. Ka\i Siniih olVaranasi and i'rol. Daksha Rarai ol Baimalore. I.aeh oiie ol ihein ihoiiiihi ol ihe proposed book as an admirable adveniiue My yoiimiei broiher. ainalhemalies jir.idiiale, who speni his uorkinj: hie in Ihe held ol ediieaiimi and sialioned a l.OOO km awa>. eiH|mied aboul ihe book eveiA lime I lalkeil to Imn and evhoried me lo eompleie ihe work. Hm ihe niosi iienlie leinindei eame Irom Riehard. our son. who, sialioned in l-airope. kept Hack of Ihe dillieuliies his elderh paivnis laeed in wiiiine ihe book and was ever ready will, su-n-slions lo overeome ihem. An eeonomies madiiaie Irom a Hr.iish IhiiversMv his mciuisiuveness and eiK|uiiA aboul ihe hook as il he had kepi a log was -I souree ol inspiiaiion lo us. We eomider him a partner mihis hook-wnting enierprise. ihank him lor his inicresi and wail lor his eommenis. as and when the book sees ihe lighi ol ihe da\. •, i • • . • i- , I-nnllv we sinll like lo ihaiik ihe loilowmg individuals, msiiiuiions and publishers lor graming ihe permission lo reproduee pholos and ligures ol whieh ihey hold ihe vopyrighl- I. Survey of India, for eerl.lVing ihe ou.l.ne map ok Norlhd-last India ^ Cieolooical Society nk India. Bangalore, lor permission lo reproduce the geological cross sl-lion (Fig.'^^l Irom -Ovology okAssam" by A.B. Das Ciupla and A.K. Biswas 12()()()) K, . I- •s ACH Puhliai.ions ..hI ,h. Dr. D.ID Nrmdy lor pon.oss.on reproduce the Cleoloeiettl Mttp oh Mcghttlttyt, (Hp. 281 Iron. C.eodyn.uu.es ol N.mh-et.sl India' (2001 ) , ... d. Prok. P.R. Tiwari. Mi/onmi University, lor permission lo reproduce a landslide Dr.TagcRupakorpcrmi.ssionioreprcKluccalandshdephotograph.lroniAriinachalphotograph, from Mi/oram i i r i , . i ,• , , i
Acknowlcdficiiicnis vm
through the section on the "I'eople t)! Manipur" very tneticuUuisl\ and offered some valuable suggestions including making some corrections. In cartographic work, we were helped by Mr. Abhinav Kurkute and Mr. Hhuvanesh Ciomashe. We express our appreciation of the dedicati»)n with which Mr. Kurkute. holding a Masters degree in geography, helped us in preparing the maps. Besides these itulis iduals. Prt>f. R.C. Tiwari. another student of mine w ith considerable interest in North-l-ast India, was of immense help. He procured some valuable information for us from the century- old Bombay Asiatic Library. With his know ledge of North-l-ast India that he had acquired over the years, he read through several chapters t>f the book and t)ffered invaluable comments and suggestions. We are thankful to him for his support and willingness to help in whateverwayhecould. I.t. Gen. Nanavati. a gentleman.thoueh not a part of academic world but deeply acquainted with North-hast India, helped the authors greatly in understanding Nagaland. We thankfully ackmnvledge his help. •Some of my geographer friends, from across the country, wlu) had an idea of out working for the book, kept encouraging us to complete this book. In this category, we include Prof. Gurudev .Singh Gosal. Prttf. Gopal Krishan. Prof. K. D. Sharma and Prof. Surya Kant of Chandigarh. Prof. Baleshw arThakur and Dr. Ann Kapurof Delhi. Prof. D. N. Singh and Prof. Ravi Singh of Varanasi and Prof. Daksha Barai of Bangalore. Hach one of them thought of the prttposed book as an admirable adventure. My younger brother, a mathematics graduate, who spent his wtirkins: life in the field of education and stationed a I.()()() km aw ay. enquired about the book every tiriie I talked to him and exhorted me to complete the work. But the most gentle reminder came from Richard, our son. who. stationed in Hurt>pe. kept track of the difliculties his elderly parents faced in writing the biutk and was ever ready with suggestions to overcome them. An economics graduate from a British University, his inquisitiveness and enquiry about the book as if he had kept a log was a source of inspiration to us. We consider him a partner in this book-writing enterprise, thank him for his interest and wait for his comments, as and when the book sees the light of the day. Finally, we shall like to thank the following individuals, institutions and publishers for granting the permission to reproduce photos and figures of which they hold the copyright. 1. Survey of India, for certifying the outline map of Norih-East India 2. Geological Society of India, Bangalore, for permission to reproduee the geological cross section(Fig. 9) from 'Geology of A.ssam' by A.B. Das Gupta and A.K. Biswas (2000) 3. ACB Publications and the author Dr. D.R. Nandy for permission to reproduce the Geological Map of Mcghalaya (Fig. 28) from 'Geodynamics of North-east India" (2001) 4. Prof. PR. Tiwari, Mi/oram University, for permission to reproduce a landslide photograph, from Mi/oram 5. Dr. TagcRupaforpermission toreproduce a landslide photograph, from Arunachal , XIV Ai, know IciIl'l'ilieIlls
6. Mr. Diisaralh Dcka lor pcriDissioii lo rcpriKliiCL- iIil- [ilioiniimpti ot Hr.ihmapuira Contents in Flood 7. Prof, .S.R. Jog Cor pcnnissioii lo ivprotiucL- several p[ioiogr:ii>lis laken h\ him ol Arunachai Pradcsti and Assam Finally hclbrc vvc close, we (hank .Springer lor hringing oiii ilie preseni volume error-free and in a neai ami presenlahle siyle. Il is likely ihal we have nol acknow ledged llie help received Irom sinne indiv iduals and institutions during the course of our work. I'or all such omissions, we e\i>iess regrets and beg their forgiveness. We genuinely lliank all lliose insiiiulions and individuals who have tielped us directly or irulirectly in the vv riling of itiis book,
K.K, Dikshil Julia K. Dikshil I Inlniduetion. A (ilinipse ol Farly Wrilings on ihe Region Organisation of ihe Texl and (•oiilenl of ihe Rook ()rganisalion of the Present Test The C'onieiil of the Rook The Land The IVople The I'icononiv Ahoiil ihe Maps Relerences
llistnrieal Outline
2 Nui'tli-I'ht.st liulia riirmigli the .Ages lb 2,1 Norlh-I'.asi India, a Terra incognita tiji the Si\ih C'eniurv AD sq 2.1.1 Physical Kohnion s| iiarly Iiistory of Kantarupa s[ Ihe l-.Meni ol l-iarly Kingdonts: Pragjvotish or Kantarupa Roumlaries of Kantarupa and Other Harlv Kingdoms 2^ intergence of Assam as a Distinct litico-Culiural Hntity 2b Onslaught from Neighbouring Reneal 27 Unning of Recordcil Historv 2K Ijpn in l{asiern Assam Duriiii: ^Period; The Rule of the Ahoms. k.the Chutias ^leof Kochcs (15l.S-l72(S) 2b .^0 3a tind the Advent of a New Fra Litvers ol Culture ami l.eantine 3i30
\v i
Contents I
f
Intniduction
1.1 A Glimpse ol l-arly Writiiiiis im the Rciilon 4 1.2 Organisation of the Text and C'tmtent ol the Book 6 1.2.1 Organisation of the Present Text 1.2.2 The Content of the B(H)k 1.2..'^ The I.and 1.2.4 The People 1.2.5 The Peonomy 1.2.6 About the Maps Rclcrences.
Part I Hi.storical Outline
2 North-Kast India Throunh the Arcs 19 2.1 North-East India, a Terra Ineognita till the Sixth Century AD 20 2.1.1 Physical Isolation 21 T 1 Early Hi.story of Kaniarupa 21 2.2.1 The Extent of Early Kingdoms: Pragjyotish or Kamarupa 23 2 2.2 Boundaries of Kamarupa and Other Pearly Kingdoms 25 2.2.3 Emergence of A.ssam as a Distinct Poliiieo-Culiural Entity 26 2.2.4 The Onslaught from Neighbouring Bengal 27 2.2.5 The Beginning of Recorded History 28 2.2.6 The .Situation in Eastern Assam During the Medieval Period: The Rule of the Ahoms. the Kaeharis and the Chutias 29 2.3 Western A.s.sam and the Rule of Koches (1515-1726) 30 2.3.1 The End of Kaniarupa and the Advent of a New Era 30 2.3.2 Koehes as Royalty and Lovers of Culture and Learning 31 T'
Wll
XVI ('»>MU*lUv
^4 C.eoloeic.il Pro\ iiiccs of North-i-iasi India 81 2.4 The Hnil ol' K;muiriip;i Kingdom, itie Arrival v4,l Hie Aiehaean Plateau of Meghalasa 81 ofllic Ahotns and llic Birdml'Assam -^2 v4,: Hie llimalavaii Physiographic and l.ithological 2.4.1 The Ivxpansion of llie Ahom Kinjidiim .V^ 2.4.2 The Rule of Ahoms and die Assamese Sociefv Tlie Moiint.iiiious Palkai and Naga Hills 2.5 The Brilish [nierverilion and .Suhsei|iienl Annexation and Their F.xiension into Barail Range 83 of Assam in Hrilish Territory 40 t -4 4 Hie Nii/or.im - Tripur.i Region of l-'olded Rocks 83 2.5.1 Annexation of Assam in the British Terrilorv 41 3.4.5 Indo-Mvanrnar Plaie Boimdars. I'laie Collision 2.5.2 The Expansion olThe liriiisli Terrilorv 41 and the Plate Sitbduciion /.one 83 2,5..1 Gnippliny widi the Northern iTontiers 44 3.4.0 rhe Brahmaputra \'alle\ 84 2.5.4 Territorial ()rg:mis;ition Durinj: l20Ye;trs .Appendices '• of British Rule 4X Appendix 3.1: I.iiho-SiratigrapIn ol Mi/oraniand Iripura 2.5.5 Soeio-Hconomie C'onditioti of the Assamese .Society ;,nd .Some Pans South of Barail Range I.)uring tile lirilish Rule 50 and Meehalaxa Plate.iu 2.6 Territorial Reorytmisation of Norlh-liast Appendix 3.2: l.iiho-Stratigraphy ol Nagaland 87 India After 1947 5.^ Appendix 3.3: Iitho-Stratigrapln of Nagaland 87 2.6.1 Birth of Nagahind -54 Appendix 3.4: Uuaternarx Sir.nigraphic Seiiuencc 2.6.2 Htiiergence ol Meghalayti as a Slate and Mi/orani in .Arimachal Pradesh as a Utiioti Territory 54 SS 2.6.3 North-fitist I-'roniier Ageticy :iml Arutuichal Rniilesh 55 2.6.4 The Merger of'fripura iti Itidian Territory 56 kdicl- IValuiTS or Sortb-Kost Indm ZZZZZZIZ. bl 2.6.5 Changes in Princely State of Manipur •t.l •••••••••• and Its Merger witli India 56 4 11 Pin sieal Divisions ol North-hasi Region and j-aeets of Reliel References 57 4^ fhe Moutnainoiis Arnnaehal Pradesh 94 " 4.:.1 The Siuahks (The Snh-Htnuilayan Terrain) % Part II The Land _i I The Iesscr lliiiialaxas 7 4:::y nieGieaterllinKtlaxas 100 3 North-Kast India: Structural Framework 61 4.3 The Brahmapnira Phim - ,V;i"7p|'4n loa 3.1 The. I.ilho-Siructure of the Norih-lvasi 62 44I Geotiiorphie CharaetensUvs ot the Plain 4 3.1.1 The Meghalaya Plateau 64 4.4 riK fas.orn Moonlainmo Rcgioo _ 3.1.2 Tcrliiifics of the Hast. Southeast atid Southeni 44.1 Nagala.Kl HiiihlaiKls.. r Part of the Region 69 4.4.2 T,K.Man.porHillaa.Kll-.»la,.ds » 3.1.3 The Himalayan Belt and the Foothill Tertiarics 44 4 The Mi/oiain IhlN..-•••••••• ^ (Siwaliks) 72 444 The Kai-hi-A>H^l''''-^ 3.1.4 The Eastern Mountain Bell 74 44 S The Barail Range • 3.2 Geological Evolution of North-Hast India 74 4.4.6 North Cachar Hills ^ 3.2.1 The Tectonic Fivenls 75 4.5 The Cachar Plain 118 3.2.2 The Main Boundary Fault and the Main Central Thrust 76 i^f'inKN:;r,"nand» 3.3 Tcciomorphic Features 7H 3.3.1 The Grand System of Faults and Fault Escarpments 79 4 a ^he Souihem Border of Meghalaya 122 3.3.2 The Main Boundary Fault and the Main Central 4.7 Tnp';,K,:Tlu..Sccncof.lux,apos,uo„o!H,lly Thrust of the Himalayas 79 Tcnaio and Pcbaic Plaoi 1-4 3.3.3 The Schuppen Belt of Nagaland 80 3.3.4 The Eastern Hills of Nagaland. Manipur and Mi/oram 80 t C'unicnis
3.4 Gc()l«igi(.:il I'niviiKcs 1)1'Niinh-ii:is[ India SI | 3.4.1 riic .Archaean Plalcaii ol McLilialaya SI 3.4.2 The Himalayan I'hysiojiraphic and Lithi>logical i PrDvincc S2 | 3.4.3 The Moiiniaiiums Patkai and Naga Hills and I'hcir Ivxicnsion inti) Barail Range S3 3.4.4 The Mi/oram - I riiuira Region »)!' Poklcd Rocks S3 3.4,.'^ IiKl(>-M> anmar Plate PoiiiKlary. I'laie Collision and llie Plate .Suhdiiction /.»inc S3 3.4,6 The Brahmaputra Valley S4 Appeitdices S.'^ .Appeitdix 3.1: I.itlio-Siratigraphy ol'Mi/oram and Tripiira and Some Pails South ol Barail Range and Mcghalaya Plateau S.S Appeitdix 3,2: l.itho-Stratigraphy ol'Nagaland S7 Appendix 3.3: 1.itho-Stratigraphy of Nagaland S7 Appendix 3.4: giiatcrnary Siraiigraphic Sa|Uonec in Arimachal Pradesh SS References SS
Relief Features of North-Fast India Ml 4.1 j • 4.1.1 Physical Divisions of North-Fast Region { and l-'acets of Relief V3 4.2 The Mountainous Arimachal Pradesh 94 4.2.1 The Siwaliks (The Suh-Himalayan Terrain) 96 ^ 4.2.2 The Lesser Himalayas ^7 4.2.3 The Grealer Himalayas 100 4.3 The Brahmaputra Plain '02 4.3.1 Geomorphic Characteristics ol the Plain 104 4.4 The Hasierti Mountainous Region 105 4.4.1 Nagaland Highlands 105 4.4.2 The Manipur Hills and Lowlands 109 4.4.3 The Mi/oram Hills 113 4.4.4 The Karhi-Anglong Highland 114 4.4.5 The Barail Range 115 4.4.6 North Cachar Hills 116 4.5 The Cachar Plain 117 4.6 Mcghalaya Plateau 118 4.6.1 The Northern and Southern Slopes of Mcghalaya Plateau 121 4.6.2 The Southern Border of Mcghalaya 122 4.7 Tripura: The Scene ofJuxtaposition of Hilly Terrain and Deltaic Plain 124 References '25 j
1 i \1\ I I'Tik-iitv ( ulik'lil'' .will
.S ' W.iter RcMHiices '^'7 5 .The DralnfiKe System <»(' Nnrlli-Iuisl liidisi S.vl The Piospeci ot Surlace Storage 199 '5.1 Drainage Nclwiirk (iT ilic Keeinii 1-^' S ^ llie (innind Water Potential in the Nonh-lkisicm States 200 5.1.1 liralinia[nilra and Ils Diainage ('liaraelerisiic^ 1.^0 .S.5 t .\,H.mal\ III Cmnind Water .•\vailahilit> 200 5.1.2 Barak Kivcr aiul Ils 'rrilnilarics ' s-I Mmei.il Resoiiices ol the Region 201 5.1.."^ Mydrologieal Keginicsaiid Discharge S,.l.| l-iiel Resources 201 ol'llie Risers in Norlli-l-disi India 1.^7 S4 Otliei Mineial Resources 20S 5.1.4 Oilier Riser Sysienis (i"l Nurlh-l-.asi India 140 211 5.2 Drainage Arrangeineni: Atljiisimeni lo Siriieiure 142 5.2.1 Pre-existing Reliel and Riser ("apliire '42 9 Natural Negetatiun; Enrests aiulGrassUmds 5.2.2 l.ongiliidinal Proliles nl'Risers 144 III Ni)i th-L:ist India 5.2..'^ P'lood Proneness (»l (tie Risers in Niirili-I-.asi India 145 o I AhuiKl.inee ol forest in the North-f.ast -14 References '40 0,1,1 Reasons loi the Abuiuianee ol ftuvsi ( over ,11 Noilh f.ast India 215 6 Weather and ("liniate of North-Isasl Iiulin 140 o 12 Some Negative IntUienees on the forest Growth (). Introduetion ' ot the Norih-fiast -'7 6.1.1 Data Smiiee and Weallier Slalion Nelsvork 150 0 1; iorest Data and the Conlio\ers\ About h 217 6.1.2 Loeational Cdiaraeierisiies ol ilie Region i50 ^ l„.,rik,m.nori...«Mn.hcNonh-K.Mon,Suucs :20 6.2 General C'liinaiie ('ondilinns i52 02I State-Wise Disiribmion andQuahtv ot foiests --- 6.2.1 The Seasons 152 0 ' 2 (•lassttiealioii and Comparison of forests 229 6.2.2 Teinpcraliire Conditions 153 Ov I\ isoloev ot forests " 6.2.3 Rainfall '5S 0 >1• forest Tvpes iu the North-f.ast Region... -oO 6.2.4 Humidity - g;,;: Orcluds: ACnique Flonst.e Element ,n the forests 6.2.5 Wind Direelion and Storms 160 ol Norih-IGsi India L" "7 , ' 7 7 s u 6.3 Climatic Divisions of the North-hast 17 I IV,line Conservation in Norih-f.asi India 240 6.3.1 A Type '7! '7'r7:,77:7.Ko.nck.,,.,k.c,,.,,. '6.3.2 CTypc '72 gq,: Need lor the Preservation ol the Biodivusn> 6.3.3 DType '72 of tlie Region ^ 6.3.4 Climate and Biosphere: Relationship and Impact 172 g.4.3 forest ^ References ' 73 Appendices - "7p.77 i,, the Norlh-fiasi Region 252 Natural Hazards in the North-Kast Region of India 175 7.1 Floods '76 7.1.1 Causes of Floods in Bralimapuira 176 7.1.2 Discharge Characteristics and Floods in Brahmaputra 17S Piirt III I he People 7.1.3 Flood Control .Measures 1S3 7.2 Earthquakes 'S4 10 Early Culoiiisnlioii of North-fast India 7.2.1 Earthquakes in the Norlh-hastern Region 1S4 ,„,7 lYaees of HurntHi(Vca.ptmcw 7.2.2 The Indelible Impact of IS97 Earthquake IX5 ,0 1] ReeeiU Invesugaiion. 7.2.3 The 1950 Earthquake 1X6 S.ck.sinn11). 1.2 Megaliliisand Sa|L,c,KConlKi ihe ArrivalA, of Different 7.3 Landslides '^7 7.3.1 Protection Against Natural Hazards 190 References
8 The Resource Endowment of N«)rth-East India 103 '7;i"7777rM.u.nuun Group X.I Introduction '^^4 194 ;;;7 7c BoJoOnprnsric croup -« X.2 Land l„ -0 TIK X.2.1 I.and Suitability for Different Activities 195 8.2.2 The Plateau Land 196 The Mouniainoiis I.and 196
X- N (•oiilcnls M\
S.,^ \\';ilcr Kcsourccs; I^'7 S.^.l I he Prospect ol Surlaee Sioiai:e IW 5.3.2 File (imuful Water I'otetitial in the Notlh-iuisteni States 200 5.3.3 Aiionial) in (iroimd Water A\ailahility 200 S.4 Mineral Kesourees ol the Keeion 201
Part III The People
10 Early Colonisation of North-Ea.st India 259 10.1 Traces of Human Occupanee 260 10.1.1 Recent Investigations 261 10.1.2 Megaliths 263 10.2 Succession and Sequence of the Arrival of Different Human Groups 264 10.2.1 Linguistic Divisions and Their Spread 264 10.3 The Area! Distribution of These l^inguistic Groups 267 10.3.1 Peripheral Mountain Group 267 10.3.2 The Bodo Linguistic Group 269 10.3.3 TheKha.sis 273 ^:SI
( S\l ( tiiilcnls XX
11.X..S Dili'iculis m 1)cicrmining tlic Strength of the Tribal 10.3.4 The Claims of the Botlos Versus Ii]di)-Aryans Comiiuinilies o\er the Decades 346 as [he l-iarlicsi Sciilers 27? 11.N.(i Iin migration m llie I.ate Nineteenth CentiiiA 347 10.3.5 The Antiquity ol'Indo-Aryan Arrival in Assam 277 i 1.S.7 Iminigr.nion: Its Causes, Intensity anil Impact 34S 10.4 The Origin ;uk1 Sequence ol'livents 270 1I.X.S i'he Nontribal People ot Tripura 3,'s2 1 10.4.1 Interaction Belweeii Bodos and Kalitas 2X0 i 11,0 The People of .Megh.ilas a 3.^3 10.4.2 Changes Brought by the Arrival 11.0,1 The Principal Idhnie Croup of Meghalas a: ol' the Indo-Ary;ms 2SI The Kli.isis 354 10.5 Summary 11.0,2 The Caros 363 Rcrcrcnecs 11,0.3 Other Triiial Coinnuinities of Meghalav a 367 11.0.4 The Nontribal People ol' Meghalas a 36S 11 People of North-ICa.st India II.10 'The People ol .Assam 360 11.1 The Arrival ol the Ahonis: The Rulers ol Brahmaputra Valley 2X7 11.10.1 The Indigenous People of .Assam 370 11.2 Racial Idemenis in North-ldist Inditi 2X0 11.10.2 Immigrant'I'ribal Croups 3S3 I 1.2.1 The Mongoloids 2X0 11.10,3 'The Assamese People and Societs 3SS 11.2.2 Indo-Aryans 200 11.10.4 I..inguage of the People 40S i 1.2.3 Ausiraloid or Austric 200 Kelereiices 417 11.2.4 Ii)ravidian Racial HIement 201 11.2.5 Anthropomeiric Characteristics and R;ici:il 1•> j'opulalinn nf the Nortli-Kustern States of India 421 Al'liliation of .Some of the Tribal Croups 202 12.1 DisirilMition and Deitsits of Population 425 11.3 Geographical Distribution and Sociocultural Characteristics 12.1.1 Population Deiisiis in .Assam 425 of the People of North-Hast Inditi 204 12.1.2 I'oinilaiion Density in Manipur Plain 425 12.1.3 Popiihilion Density in .Arimaeltal Pradesh 426 11.3.1 ThoTribal-NontribalDualily 204 12.1.4 Population in the idistern Mountainous Region 426 11.3.2 The Tribal Realm of the North-Hast 205 12.1.5 i'opulalion DensiiN in Meghalas a 427 11.3.3 The Principal Tribes and Their Distribution 206 12.1.6 Tripura 428 11.4 The People ofArunachal Pnidesh 207 2.2 i'opuhilion Cross th in the Norih-T'asi Region 11.4.1 The Main Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh from the i.ate Nineteenth Cenlurv till 2011 428 and Their Distribution 20X 12.2.1 Growili ol'I'opulation in Assam in tlie Nineteenth 11.4.2 The Nontrihal Population of Arunachal Pradesh 3()X Centurs 1872-1001 450 11.4.3 TheTibetan Refugees 310 12.2.2 Pattern of Population Disiribulion in .Assam 11.5 'The People of Nagaland ^ in the Idirly Twentieth Century 432 11.5.1 Subtribes Among the Nagas 311 jiilalion CjM||^in the North-Hast Indian States 11.5.2 Individual Naga Tribes 314 Twenl^m^ury (I001-2001 ) 434 11.5.3 Hastern Nagaland. the Area irosvih of Assam During ihe Hirst Half with Multiple Communities 310 Mh Century (1901-1051) 434 11.5.4 Nontribal Population of Nagaland 320 jwth of the North-Hast Region
11.6 People of Manipur 320 438 11.6.1 TheTribes of Manipur 321 jcs of States in the Second Half I 1.6.2 The Nontribal People of Manipur: 440 The People of Imphal Plain 325 lAficrmaih of Paniiion 11.7 The People ofMi/oram 331 M'M 11.7.1 The Mi/.os/Lushai 331 445 11.7.2 Non-Mizo Communities of Mizoram 336 448 11.7.3 An Overall View of the Peripheral Tribal Region 33X pg'oit 450 11.8 The People ofTripura 339 452 11.8.1 The Components ofTribal Population 341 )mponcnis 11.8.2 The Principal Tribes ofTripura 341 453 11.8.3 ReligiousComposiiion ofthe Population ofTripura 344 455 11.8.4 Tribal-Nontriballnteraction 344
c Hi*
(dIIIl'IIIs \\l
11 .S.5 I)it lieu Its in I)ciermining the Strength of the Tribal 10.3.4 The Claims of the Bodos Versus Jndo-Arvans ConiMuiiiities o\er tlie 1)eeaiies 34P as the Earliest .Settlers 21^ I I.S.fi linmigt.ilion in the I.ate Nineteenth Century 747 10.3.5 The Antiquity of Indo-Aryan Arrival iti Assam 377 I I.S.7 Inimigratioii: Its Causes. Intensity and linpael 348 % 10.4 The Origin and Sequenee ol' Events 37d II ..S.S The Noniril\il l'eo|">le ol I ripura 352 10.4.1 Interaction Between Bodos and Kalilas 3S() II.d The People ol Meglialay a 353 10.4.2 Changes Brought hy the Arrival 11.0.1 The i'rincipai E.lhme (iroup ol Meghalay a: of the Ind
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15 I rbaiiisatinn and I ritaii l.andscapc in Norlh-isast India 527 13 Migration and Its Impact on the Society and the Kconomy 15.1 I lie f..ul> 1liNtoiic Cltle^ m .\ss.im 529 of NortJi-Kast India 15.1.1 l'r:ig|\otishinii 529 13.1 Migration in ilic Noriii-Hiisi 15.2 Ihe ('.ipit.il Citu"- ol Koch Kings. K.ich.niN and lite .Ahoms 5.^I 13.1.1 A Historical View ol" immigration I I 5.2.1 Kocli ifiliar 53 1 in Noiih-l-aisi Inditi 15.2.2 riieCapiiaKoj KachariN 532 13.2 Migration during the British Period 15.2.3 I he C.ipii.iK aiki Iinport.im Cities During 13.2.1 Initiation of Immignilion in llie Mid-.Nineteenth the Rule ot .Ahonis 552 Century I5.2.-4 The Mugh.ils aiki I'heii Coninbulion to rrlxmisalion 533 13.2.2 InlUix of f^lanitiiion Workers •4t'2 15." I he .Aiii".al ol the Bniisli and the iMiieigenee 13.2.3 Karly Tweiiiielh Century: 'i'lie Critical Years ol a Neu Urban I andsc.ipe 55(> in tlie History of Immigrtition in Assam -4^3 15.U1 I evel ol Urbanis.uion in tlie 1 ate Nineteenth 13.3 Migration in tlie North-fvast in ttie 'Iwentieili Ceniury: and l-.aiK IVeiiiielh Ceimny in Noiili-Easi India 53b Volume. .Source and Destination 15.3.2 I •| i\iiHsalion and Ui lsan Centres in the i-irsi Half 13.3.1 Immigration During the Pirsi Half ol the l\\ eniieih CenluiA 537 of the Twentietli Century •4^'-'^ ]5.4 Urb.inisatioii .-\fter 195 t 541 13.3.2 Trihuiary Area of Immigration -470 15.-4.1 (irokih of Urbanisation l 195 I - 201 I ) 541 13.3.3 Immigration Scentirio iti the Hilly Sttiies 15.4.2 Pieseiit 1.e\ el ol' Urbanisation and the (dtange of North-Piast India as seen in P4.3i 472 I)uring 200! 201 1 550 13.4 Post-H^.SI Immigration in the Norih-latst 47S 15.4.3 State-Wise E\ aInation of Urlxinisation 55 ] 13.4.1 7'he Declining Trend of immigration 47S 15.5 The ContemporaiA Urban Scene in .Assam 5M 13.4.2 The Origin of Immigrants from Abroad 47*^ 15.5.1 Esoluiion of .Assam's Urban 1.andscape 504 ' 13.4.3 .Spatial Distrihuiioti of Immigrtmis 4X2 15.5.2 riie CoiiiemporaiA Scene in .-Xssam 570 13.5 Migration During the Last Two Decades 4S4 15.5.3 .Some Major Tow ns of ,-\ssam 570 15.5.4 The ContemporaiA Urban Scene in North-l-ast India 582 13.5.1 Decline in tlie Number of Immigrants in Assam 4S4 References 5^5 13.5.2 Intmigration from Biingiadesh in Assam during or after 197 I •4I<9 Part IN I lo-' Kc4)nomy 13.5.3 Causes of Immigration -193 13.5.4 Conscqucmces of Migration ^497 16 Agriculture in Nnrtli-Kasl India: Past and Present 587 13.5.5 Negative Consec|uences ol Illegttl Migration 498 16,1 1.and Tenure and Agricultural Management in the Nonh-Kasi; References ..\ Hisiorieal Perspeeti\e 14 Rural Settlements in NortJi-East India -'^^43 16.L I "I'enure System louring the Earl\' British Da\s 589 14.1 Some General Observations 5i)4 ,i.and Utilisation and Cropping Pattern in ibc Early linetecnth CentuiA 540 14,1.1 Decline in the NumberofVillages: Some Exceptional Cases 505 lopping Pattern in the Early Twemieih CeniutA 591 ^vironment. Choice of Crops and ilieir Distrihuiiiin 592 14.2 Si/e and Distribution ofVillages 508 ipiation to Km ironmenial Conditions 14.2.1 Interstate Variation -'^•0 the De\ elopmeiit of Optimal l-'arming 14.2.2 Rural Seillement Distribution in Assam 513 km in ihejji|^is 14.3 Village as a Socio-Geographic Unit tlinre Mj^^illy Areas 545 in Norih-East India •'^'4 'AgiWi^^ilic North-East Region of India 602 14.3.1 Village Morphology and Typology inl|B|^|B in tlie Norih-Hastcrn of Houses in ihM^^Kat-s 14.3.2 Villages of the Hilly and Mountainous Region 520 kn I-and 608 14.3.3 Typology of Rural Settlements 524 References -526 t ('onleiiiN win
15 Urbanisatiiin and rrl>an l.andscape in Norlh-Kast India 527 15.1 The l-.ail\ HiNinnc ("iiics 111 .Assam 52^ 15.I.I PraL;j\ Part IV The Economy 16 Agriculture in North-Ka.st India: Past and Present 587 16.1 Land Tenure and Agrieullural Managemeni in the Norih-Easi: A Hisiorical Perspeelive 51.18 16.1.1 Tenure Sysiem During the Early Briiish Days 589 16.1.2 Land Ulilisaiion and Ccopping Paiicrn in the Early Nineicenili Ceniury 590 16.1.5 Cropping Patiern in the Early Twenlielh Ceniury 591 16.2 Pliy.sical Environmeni. Choice ol'Crops and their Disiribution 592 16.2.1 Adaplalion 10 Environmental Conditions and the Developmeni of Optimal Farming Sysiem in the Plains 592 16.2.2 Agriculture in the Hilly Areas 595 16.5 The Present Day Agriculture in the North-East Region of India 602 16.5.1 Progress in Agriculture in the North-Eastern Region in the Last 50 Years 605 16.5.2 Expansion of Agricultural Land 608 XXIV 16.4 Crops and Cropping Piiticrn 611 IS.2.4 The Railu.is Neivsoik and the Problem ol'.-\cce^^lbiIil\ 7()3 16.4.1 Food Crops 612 1S.2..S .Mignmeni of Roads and Rail Netuork 705 16.4.2 Plantation Aiiriculiiirc 62! 15.2.0 Tiansport and the I'roblem of .Aeeessihilitv 16.4.3 Chanjtcs in Ayriculiurc 630 in the North-luist 707 Agriculture and Food .Supply in the Norih-Fiast Region 633 IS.2.7 Air fraiisjiort 710 16..3.I Agriculluntl Kegion.llisation 636 1S.3 Trade Praeliees o! the North-Fiasi Region 7 [ ] Rererences 637 IS.3.1 Tradiiional Trade Practices. I'rarle Cetittvs 17 Industrie.s and A.ssoclatcd Kconiimic Atiivitics 63^^ atid Trade Routes 7 ] ] 17.1 Industrial Dcveloptncnl 640 1S.3.2 Cotiteinporars Trade of the North-ldist 7 ](•> 17.1.1 Industrial Developtneiii in the Norih-Ivasi M2 IS.3.3 Focal Tr.kle 71 g 17.1.2 Raw Material Availaiiilily ^>42 Releiences 722 17.2 Traditional Industries of Norih-idisi Region f>43 ly Soeit)-Kcoiiomie Development of the North-Kast: 17.2.1 Weaving 643 .An .V.ssessnient 723 17.2.2 Sericulture 644 jO,1 Sources of D.it.i 724 17.2.3 Basketry. Cane and Banihoo Industry 647 p).2 The i-iconoms of the Nortii-Faist Region of India; An Oxerxiew 725 17.2.4 Other Cottage Industries 647 10.2.1 Per Capita Domestic PriKluct of Noith-Fasiem States 726 17.3 I.argc-Scale Industries 64S 10.2.2 'The Grow th Rate of ilie licotionn 17.3.1 Pctroleuin and Natural Gas-Based Industry 64d iti the North-ldisterti Region 726 17.3.2 Power Generation 6.3S 10.2.3 Income Distribution and Po\ert\ Fevel 720 17.3.3 Forest-Biised Imlustries 660 10.2.4 Generation of Incoine from DilTerenl Sectors 17.3.4 Bamboo and Bamboo-Based Industries 672 s>f the Ficonomx 7-^1 17.3..5 Mineral-Based Industries 674 10.2.5 The Grow th Monieimim 7^^ 17.3.6 Other Industries 677 10.2.6 Resoitrce I'tilisaiiott b\ the Nonh-Fiastern States 735 17.4' Important Indusiritil Clusters 670 10.2.7 Idnploxmetit 17.4.1 Growth of North-Hastern Industrial Zone 6S0 iO.3 Ilumtin Welfare iti the North-IFist 737 10.3.1 Socittl Wellare as Seen through Humati 17.4.2 Public and Private Initiative in Industrial Development of the North-Fast 6S4 Dex elopment Reports of the States 7->,7 17.4:3 Prospects of Industrial Growth and Constraints 6S6 10.3.2 Culturtil Prolile: An Indicator of Welfarism in the North-Fiast 7-^^ References 10.3.3 The hnptict of Immigration friim Fast Pakistait/ 18 Transport and Trade in North-lva.st India 680 Bangladesh 741 18.1 Transport in the Norih-F2ist Region 600 10.3.4 Societ): Culture atul liconomx 74-^ 18.1.1 System ofTransport in Historic Times 601 10.3.5 Tsolation of the Flill Areas 74-^ 18.1.2 Transport Routes During the Medieval Period 602 10.3.6 Decades of htstabilitx: A Phenomenon Reiardine. 18.1.3 Transport in the Hilly Areas of the North-Fast 604 Dexelopmettt 744 18.1.4 TheContemporary Road Network 606 [0.3.7 The Anti-foreigtiers" Moxemetit ol' lOSO's 744 18.1.5 Transport Development During 10.3.8 Htnergence oi' a Farge Number of Insurgetit Groups.... 745 the Colonial Period 608 J IS.2.4 'I'lic Rtiilway Network tiiul the Problem of Aeeessihility 70.'^ IS.2..> Aliiinmeiit of Roads ami Rail .Network 70? 15.2.6 TratisiKiri and tlie Problem i>f Aeeessihility in the Ntirih-l-asi 707 15.2.7 Air rransport,". 710 IS.."^ Tnide Praetiees of tlie Norlh-l-asi Region 7] I IS.."^. I 'I'ratlitional Tnide Praetiees, Trade Centres and Trtide Routes 71 ] IS..^.2 Cotttemponiry Trade «)f (lie Norih-Piast 716 IS..'^..l I.tical Trade 7IS Referenees 722 19 S<)fii)-ICconomie Development of the N«)rth-Ka.st: An Assessment 72.'^ 19.1 Sources of Data 724 19.2 The lieonotny of the North-luisi Reeii>n of Itulia: An OveiA iew 725 19.2.1 Per Capita Dtimestie PriKluet ol'North-I-astent Sttites 726 19.2.2 The Grovvili Rate of the lieonomy in the North-luisiern Rettion 726 I9.2..1 Income Distribution and i'oscrty l.evel 729 19.2.4 Geneniiion ol" Inconie from Diflercni Sectors of the Kcotiotny 731 19.2.5 The Growth Momentum 733 19.2.6 Resource Utilisation by the North-Hasteni States 735 19.2.7 Hmploymcnl 736 19.3 Human Welfare in the North-l-asi 737 19.3.1 Social Welfare as Seen through Ilumati Dcvclopmetit Reports of the States 737 19.3.2 Cultural Prolilc: An Indicator of Welfarism in the North-Bast 73X I9.3.3 The Itiipaet of Immigration from Bast Pakistan/ Bangladesh 741 19.3.4 Society. Culture and Kconomy 743 19.3.5 Isolation of the Hill Aretis 743 19.3.6 Decades of Instability: A Phenomen{)n Retarding Development 744 19.3.7 The Anti-foreigners" Movement of [9S0"s 744 19.3.8 Emergence of a Large Number of Insurgent Groups 745 19.3.9 Resistance to Hnireprcneurial Initiative in the Region 746 19.3.10 The Path Ahead 746 19.3.11 Inner Line Permit and the Concept of Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas 747 19.3.12 Finance and Development 748 References 748 i Chapter 1 Introduction Abslract The present volume embarks on an exploration ol' Nonh-Kasi India, a rej.'ioii lyinj" on the erossi'oads between liKlia ami Southeast Asia. As the title olThe hook suggests, it discusses the laml ol the reiiioti u ith all its physical attributes, the people ol' liie rejiion with their distribution, ethnic and euhural traits and the ecom)my ol the region in a historical as well coniempt>rary context. Divided into 20 chapters - some long, some short ami some unseemly hmg - the text starts with giving the readers a glimpse t>l the rcgitni's past and ends with evaluating the socio-economic achievements ol the region. .Since space and distribution are involved, the volume carries many illustrations, inclmling maps tind photographs that olTera visual spot contact with the region. The part ol'ihe btiok tilled The Land' looks at the structural base ol" the area, in a geological sense, the physical relief, the climate and the vegetation cover with a short noteon the region s biodiversity, The readers may lind in the appendix a list of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks, meant to save the precious natural heritage of the region. Subjected as the region is to frequent Hoods andseismic tremors, there is a brief antifylical account ol naiund hazards. The indigenous petiplc of the North- East regit)n who account lor 27 '/r of its po]>utation form the most tangled, yet most interesting, section t>l the book, and the important among them are discussed in brief showing their distribution on maps. Population and migration have claimed a large space in the book in view of perpetual problem of illegal immigration in the region, particularly Assam. Agriculture, industrial development and the importance of transport, in the region, have been evaluated objectively. The book concludes with an evaluation of the socio-economic achievements of the region and an epilogue, which broadly records tbe reilections of the authors on the region. The book is intended for scholars as well as others interested in the region. It is not a research monograph but a comprehensive text that provides information on different aspects of the region and different facets of the social life of its people. K.R. Dikshit and J.K. Dikshit. Norih-Eusi liidki: l.und. People ami Economy. Advances in Asian Ilunian-Environmcnia! Research. DOI 10,l007/978-94-007-70.'>5-.^_l. O Sprinjzcr Sciencc+Business Media Dordrcchl 2014 |itk> ' I liiirodiiciiiiii aroiiiul ihc si.xdi ecuiury AD. it eamc to he known as Kaniariipa bel'orc it rmally attained the present name ol' Assam in the lourieenili eentiiry. T'lte lame td' Assam's 90 E •>.1. royalty, alter lihaskarvarmaii. the most illiisirious kiny of Varinan ilynasiy durins; / the sixth eenliirv, ami the lore of its periple Itad hardly any eeho beyond the neigh NORTH-EAST INDIA bouring: Bengal. The mighty Urahmapuira and the iropieal dense lorests. teeming with wildlife, rendereil .Assam least aiiraelive and at the same time most impregnable. The adseni id' British rule opened the regitm and brought it closer to other parts of V Inditi and the world. The diseosery of tea in .Assam; llie growth td' tea plantations, (SIKKImI owned largelv by British eompanies; atid the lea export tVom tlte region to the //' \ BHUTAN -V/' W\ Western capitals niaile Assam faimnis for its tea. In fact. Assam tea beeatiie the most '^s valueil beserage in the Western world ami Assam tea eompanies lite tnosi prolitable r' ventures, atul Assam eatne to be known by its iraiieniark product "the .Assam tea". ^A-° V- iGuv/ahaii Bv introdueinn steam navigaii«'n on Brahintiputra and laeiliialitig eommutiieation '?• between Assatn atul Bengal atul layitig down railw;iys to proviile access to sea. the •Kohini.'j r" A 'MEGHALAYA British rule brought Assatn closer to the rest of Itidia. l-'rotn Assam as the focal point, the British expanded in the eastern frontier regions, enlarging the area of ^ Imphal? ' Assam prosince that incltidetl many tribal territories. Tints. Assam, as a British II'' province in 1947, had a tnuch larger area than what it had in the early nineieetith # / it.ii.i' ,|ti-."-i ^ o •' r, ,1jti'l'i' / century when the British wrestetl it from the ruling Ahoms. ':=^r- i /-•'^ '' / Alter 1947. the year of India's independence, several smaller stales, notably >>- DHAKA ^^A^jartala, Niigtiland.-Meehalaya ami Mi/oram were carved out of tite nuuudilhic province of Asstim. In tiildilion. two priticely states, vi/.. Manipur ;md Tripura. were merged inui V Indian Utiitm and attained the sitiius of fuli-lleilged states. The North-Hast Hronlier Area (NHI-A). tlie land between tlie llitnalayan waterslicd and the Brahmaputra, r. was also sziven the sititus t)f a state. 'I bus. se\en states, including Assam, etnergcd in the region, popularly known as seven sisters. Together, the.se states constitute what INDIA is administratively recognised as North-Hast region of India. Though t'or the pur AY pose td' niving grtinis ;ind other mtiieritd assistance, the Governtnent of India has N GA l' clubbed .Sikkim with other North-Hasiern state of states, the Sikkim is not contigu ous to any oi' the above states and has no close eeonomic or cultural link with other states of the regitm. Hemmed in by Bhuitin. West Bengal. Nepttl and Tibet, its east Fig-1-1 OuUi ine- "liipof N.inh-f- ern boundary is at least l.'SO km west of Assam's border, Sikkim is. therel'ore. omit Indi ^'ilh (.oiisiii ui-"iil sillies unil iIk'U t .i|'i'>i ' ted from the ambit of North-Hast India. Locationally. North-Hast India represents a transition between South and Southeast Asia, on the one hand, and between the eastern extremity of the Indo- The volume, as the liiu Aryan iimiuistic and racial dotnaiti that extends across North Itulia and the aiul I ^^onomyofNorth-Hasi India. 11,^^^?.^,?^'. iliu laml. ihe i^'i' SK' Mongoloid domain of East and Southeast Asiti. on the other hand. Equally, the ^ ^'onstcllati,, region represents the crossroads of Indo-Malayan. Indo-Chinese. Sino-Himalayan I and»:^'7"^M^^halaya;M.a::T'':'"''''"'Nasal,,, slalcs. ,ArrnKs hal and Hast Asiatic flora. Besides, the Eastern Himalayas and the peripheral eastern »area of jsj"^^ 42' and 1""' ""'I Tripurai. I.>inp '",1",« C mountains are labelled as one of the two biodiversity hoispots in India. Indeed, 20111 Ov " has a Doniii' ihi-' ix-ijum i'^ "^1'' .||j(4ii standing between S<">uth Asia and Southeast Asia, the regit»n shares the characteristic features of both these regions. The land of Norih-E^ast India is a nature's museum. With "blue hills and red rivers', the forest clad mountains rising in stages to the Great Himalaya heights, the * i,,, ""-'aaml,„canlali..n.ab> I |v t % I'M: I ^ • iWUM M' '• -• .'•M' lW.kV . - -* ...n . --ff iV,., rt~ --W,/ .. I. . jti.¥ JJ'V-• --stir li: - -T" I SLg -v IIA (itimpNV I'l r.ittv Wtilings on ihc , 1 lnliiHliii.111111 4 tS-<- m ITS.s. arc replete wiiii reports and deseripiions of all kinds. 'Vhese related to evergreen and scmi-evcrgrecn Inresis wiih a vet\ liigh level ni Inodiversiiv. inler- hisiorie ruins, inseriplions, some imiiiue eiiltural practices or any other event that spcrscd with clearings occupied hy irihal hahiials, are a plain evplorer's delight. .ippeareil uniiiue and threw some liglil on the history, lite and eulture of the Added to this are the lush green lea plantations, soothing i«> an ohserver. where the people. .As eatlv as |S()4, when the F.asi India Company was nowhere in .Assam. British planters with their exclusive 'Planters C'luhs'. tennis courts and evening par |)r J(>lin IVier Wade t ISO.'si wrote al Skcii lu\s el A.ssuiii piihlisiied in lies. with a host oC native attendants iji tow. ruled the roost. A visii to a latge tea the .Asiatic .Aniuial Register. far more comprehensive work, one of its kind, was estate plantation reminds one of the lilesiyle ot tea planters during the Hriiish Kaj, William Kohinson's book A /)« \c/7/'nr<' Ainuiiil oj A.ssiint. willi ii .sketch <>1' the Ahounding in wildlire. large mamnials. like tigers and panthers. elei>hants and lin iil (Ici'iiniphw iiiul ii ('oni i.sc Hi.siorv oj the 'I'cii Pliiiu (>f .•\.s.siiiii: To Which l.s rhinos, with a large variety ol' reptiles, the region is home t»> somet>t the tare animals \dilctl ii Short .^ifoiiiil ol A'ci^hhoiirin^ Trihcs. T.xhihiliiii; Their Hi.slorv. like the one-horned rhino. India's Norih-l*aisi is especitillv known tor a large lange Mii'iiicrs. iHkI Cii.sioin.s published in 1S41. .-Xlmosl on the eve of the British dis- ol"orchids, some ol them very rare. lod-'ini: the .Ahoms and taking control of .Assam's administration, they deputed This land is largely inhabited by two groups ol people: the indigenous people ("apt, Bedford and i.ls Wileox aiul Biirllon to explore the Bralunaputra toward its source in IS2>. Burlton surveyed tiie Bralimapuira .is far as Sadiya. BedfordJour- of the Mongoloid stock who. largely conlined to the peripheral mountainous iicved up the rivers [liltong and Hibong until he was stopped by wild fromier region, constitute about aL|uarter (27 '!< )ol the total population ol the region and tribes and Wileox made one journey bey oiul the t'roiuier up the Brahtnapuira and the Indo-Aryan group living in the two alluvial valleys of Biahmaputia and in another penetrated to the hanks of Irrawaddy. The results of many of tliese sur- Barak. While the indigenous people, distributed over 200 tribes, speak a "1 iheu.- \L'\ s were eoinhined by Capt. Beinhenon in 1X35 and Wileox (1 S.^2), Burman dialect, spccilic to each tribe, the people ol the plains have a well-devel The British inlcrc.sl in Norih-l-lasi India was phenomenal and stemmed not only oped language, the Assamese, with its own grammar, and aliterature, comparable Ironi the exigenex of knowing ihonnighlv the lerriloty; they ruled, or were to rule, to the best oC any other Indo-Aryan group ol' languages. In fact, the state ol ihe two unique reatures ol the North-Fast especially attracted ihein: one was the Assam, the focal stale of the region, occupying the Hrahinaputra vallev. with a | ir"e population of indigenous tribes wliicli ev oked tlieir curiosity ami interest, and population of over .^0 million (.21.1 b9.272 in 201 h. is the most developed part ol ilic otherwas the biodiversity ol the region ilial attracteil plant explorers like Francis the region. For centuries, it has experienced successive waves ot immigration Kineiioii Ward. Ward visited .Assam not once but several times, starting from ld26 and the cultural impulses from ihe Ciangetic valley and developed a society, •md endiiie in i'F'iO. As a plant explorer, he spent montlis together in the inhospita which in its language, religious beliefs, liimily atul social relationships atul cul ble juintles ot Assam and Arunaehal Pradesh. His tirst visit to Fkist Tibet was in tural practices is akin to the one in the North Indian plains. There has certainly iq''6 and his last to Assam was in in fact, lie was in Fohil valley when the been a cross-fertilisation of ideas and cultures, and in the process a society with -Meat earthquake of I oeeurred in Assam. The results of his exploration are pub- a relatively syncretic culture h;is emerged. ijeil in many books and research papers. Tiie most (.[uoied of his books in relation Amajority of the indigenous people, especially those in the peripheral mountain ^ssam are 'The RMjUc of the '/'.vi/ug/xi (loritc.s i F)26). .A.s.sani .Adventure (1 d41) ous areas. haVc embraced Christianity and the indigenous tribal culture is replaced ic I'hini Hi^^^^Mtmipnr (FFa2). Another great etirih seieniist. a geologist, with one based on Christian morality. The emergence of some of the states, vi/.. lushed Ass^^^^^id-nineleemli eenlury, was .SirThomas Oklham. Oldliam the lust ^Geological Survey of India, made extensive traverses of Nagaland. Mi/oram and Meghalaya. was the fullilmeni ol the aspirations ol these jlislied liis account under the title Oit the Geolosiical groups to have astate of their own and manage their own allairs. hci.si Hills with Ohscrvntions on Mcteoroloi^y and stayed at ChetTapunji for live rainv iieter. besides recording temperature. 1.1 A Glimpse of Early Writings on the Region 7ogy oj Hcnp,al | 1X72), published .andard piihliealion on the trihcs Such a region as India's Norlh-F:ast, one could imagine, may not have attracted Maeken/ie A. (IXS4) wrote a any serious research or writing on the region. This is not so. Besides the accounts the Hill 'Tribes N I.I A (ilimpsir ctl liurK \Vriiitij;s on ihc Ri;j;ii>ri ill 17X5. arc rcpiclc with reports and dcscripiit>iis ol' all kinds. These related to historic ruins, inscriptions, some unique cultural practices or any other event that appeared uniituc and threw some lijihi on the history, life and culture of the people. As early as 1X04. when the liast India Company was nowhere in Assam. I)r John Peter Wade (I X()5) u roie (ivD^rnphicul Sketches nfAsmwi puhlishcd in the Asiatic Annual Rcftisicr. A far more comprehetisive work, one of its kind, was William Kohinson's hook A Descriptive Accimiit cf Assam, with a skeli'h of the Ijical (ieofiraphv. and a Concise History oj the Tea I'lani ol Assam: To Which Is Added a Short Account of iWeiyhhotirinfi Tribes. Ti.vhihiliiifi Their Historv. Manners, and Customs puhlishcd in 1X41. Almost on the eve of the British dis- lodiiing the Ahoms and lakinj: control ol Assam's administration, they deputed Capt. Bedford and l.ts Wilco.x and Burlton to e.xplore the Brahmaputra ttnvard its source in 1X25. Burlton surveyed the Brahmtipuira as j'ar as Sadiya. Bedford Jour neyed up the rivers Dihony and l.^ihonj: until he was stopped hy wild frontier tribes and Wilcos made one journey beyond the I'rontier up the Brahmaputra and in another penetrated to the banks of Irrawaddy. The results of many of these sur veys were combined by Capt. Petnberlon in 1X.V5 and Wilcox (IX.12). The British interest in North-Hast Itidia was phenometial and stetnmed not tinly from the exigency of knowing thoroughly the territory; they ruled, or were to rule. The two imicjue I'eatures of the North-Hast especially attracted them: one was the large population of indigenous tribes which evoked their curiosity and interest, and the other,was the biodiversity of the region that attracted plant explorers like Krancis Kingdon Ward. Wtird visited Assam ti I "I iIk' IcO ,iiui t 'ontviii ol itu- Itoi>k I lnl(<>iluk.iii»i Hie text o! (he hook is dixidcd into li\e pariN, die historical outline, the land, by Alexander Iv Gait ( I'JOb). a Icxi llial is \:iliiahle even lodav. Sltakespear. I.AS', die peo|>le, the eeonomx .iml die luuire, each com,lining one or seseral chapters, picked up (he thread I'rotn Macken/ie. inok itie simlies i>l Inmiiers lurilier ami Iiuis theie .ire 20 chapters, some sliori and sume long. The themes, as signilied wrote A Hi.slorx <>/ Upper Assain. Upper liiirnui iinti Nnrlli i.tiM f-miitirry in I I4. In each eh.ipiei. are discussed in a eomenipor.ir> frame, widiom sacrilieing the The last in the series of the hisinry «>] Ironliers was the Hi\i"r\ nt the I rmtliei histiuical perspectoe. based on the eoiuiclion dial the cuhmal landscapes carry Arc(i\ Horderin^ on A\.' 1.2.1 Organisation ofthe Present Text 1.2.2 The Content of the Book The present volume is a tad different in that it carries a holistic perspective on the Besides the t1ucc... Pm-incinal which acquaint the readers with''1^'theeconomx.region's past.thereTheare land, people and economy of the region. It doesn't, nor was there evei' an intention some mtrodiietoiy ^ ^ North-lias! India Through the ,dgc.v, .Similarly, to to. drift into the unfamiliar terrain of literature or regional ;ind local politics. b(H,k opens lo Die part 011 'the People', a chapter entitled Early Depending on the demand of each chapter, the authors have discussed the contem prox-ide a nac p,.^.p,je to enable the readers to appreciate the enormous porary physical, cultural and economic landscapes of the regioti without tidhering to Colonisation isgiwi ^ nresent distribution of different croups. Abrief any pre-established theoretical framework. Similarly, while discussing the people, variety in nomonelaiuic anu i their spatial distribution is emphtisised together with the economic tictivities, mode of living and some of their principal cultural traits. A. n \ - ''•I'** • <•• • i 1.2 Orjjaiiis.itioii III ihc Icvl aiul ('i)nicnl ol the Hook 7 ( I The tc.M of the hook is cli\ idctl into live parts, the hisit)rieal outline, the land, the people, the eeonomy aiul the liitiire. eaeh eontainitie *>ne or several ehapters. Thus, there are 20 ehtipters. some short and some loni:. The thentes. as siimilied by eaeh ehapter. are discussed in a contemporary Iratue. without saerilieint: the historical perspective, based on the eonvietion that the cultural hitidseapes carry the imprint ol their history as mueh as the inlluenee of their physical aiul social environment. The openiiiii chapter "North-l-iast India Throujih the .Aties" is intended to establish a continuity with the past and itives a elimpse ol u hat has happened in the history ol the rcL'ion. .Similarly, the book closes \sith an 'bipiloeue' where the authors record their impression tjl the rciiion. keepine in mind its past and the contemporary situa tion. and project their imaitination about the region's luture. Most ol the chapters in the book have a modenite lenj'th; some are quite short, but the chapter - "People of North-Paisi India'- is inordinately lonti. lone enouiih to test the patience ol the read ers. The authors, despite the awareness ol this lact. could not pame its lenyth. A discussion of the people of the North-i-aist reeion ol India involves takins: stock ol rouyhly twohundred tribes includine subtribes. Hven limiting the discussion ol tribes to those having a population of over 20.000 doesn't simplily things. Ihere are over 70 tribes with a population over 20.000 population. Besides, there are regional con texts and coticcrns. which cannot be sacriliced. A grettter part ol this chapter is devoted to the "people of Assatii'. The impotlance given to Assatii signilies the cru cial role that the state and its people play itt the allairsol the ctitire regioti. Assatn is the socio-economic and cultural core of the region. Il acts as a balancing lever. It has. for long, experienced the interaction between the tribal atid the nontribal people, learning from eachother. :ind absorbing from each otherelements ol culture that suit them. Many of the sociocultural elements t)!" the Assamese society are brielly recounted to strengthen our understanding of its structure and unique leatures. The number of Illustrations is kept to the minimum, keeping in view the length of the book 1.2.2 The Content ofthe Book Besides the three principal parts, the land, the people and the economy, there are some introductory chapters which acquaint the readers with the region's past. The book opens with a chapter titled North-Easi India Throui>h the At-es. Similarly, to provide a background to the part on 'the People", a chapter entitled Early Colonisation is given as a prelude to enable the readers to appreciate the enormous variety in nomenclature and the present distribution of different groups. A brief am •» ) 1.2 ()r^unis;iijiiii tif iht- 'l"c\l ami Ctmifnl t>l Ihi- IJiH>k y S-ri (iiii>iiiic A\sc\si)iftii of flic Itciiion. which besides hcinir uiicon\enlional appears judjiciiienuil. wiiieh it is inn. Ii is more or less a periormaiiee indicator on a scale ol progress, as seen in India or in other states ol' the region. This, the autiiors believe, gives an idea of the pace ol'development and ilie extent of achieve ment or lite lack of it. After all, one would always like to know the state til" welfare of the people. The objective of this cliapter is to provide some hints on the socio economic standing of the region. All other chajtters arc I'actual. sometimes with some simplilied technical details, as iti the case of (jfnlt'Mifiil Sinu luiv that prtwides the base for all the siibtierial and diastrophic forces to work on. to fashioit a physical landscape. A round up of what to find in the book follows. 1.23 The Land The stniciural base of the region is formed td'two contrasting setsof rocks. 1.caving the Arunachal HittKilayas titul the Meghalaya plateau which have crystalline rocks, much of the North-l-iasi Inditi is formed of the Tertiary rocks, ranging in age from 2 to 60 million years, l-iveit the alluvial valleys of Brahmaputra and Barak rest over a thick pile ofTertiary sediments, deposited on the crystalline basement. The move ment of Indian plate to the nortii and North-liast. underthrusting the Tibetan and the Burmese plates, has subjected the regii>n to a variety of compressional or tensional movements, throwing the region into a number of folds ami thiusts and, thus, bring ing into existence mountain ranges and synclinal valleys. The eastern peripheral mountainous system of the regioti. covering the slates of Nagaland. Manipur and Mi/oram. and a series of north-south trending hills of Tripura have resulted lr(>m such movements, The Arunachal Himalayas are theeasternctintinuation oi thegreat Himalaya rtinge. where underthrusting ol the Indian plate staned about 50 million years ago during early Tertiary and still continues, giving rise to the mighty Himalayas. The median /.(uic between the two major thrusts, the Naga-Disang thrust on the east and southeast and the main boundary thrust (MBT) on the outer limit of the Himalayas, was occupied by a scdimeni-lilled Brahmaputra valley. What appears today as the relict ot the region is an expression of the lithology and structure of the area, subjected to tectonic movements, triggered by the collision of the continental plates, Subsetiuently tu" even concurrently, the subacrial forces have worked to create the present relief. The physical landscape ofthe ivf-ion is best described by comparing the region to an amphitheatre, in which the two east-west flowing main rivers, the Brahmaputra and Barak, are surrounded, and overlooked, hy mountains and plateaus from the three sides, north,cast and south. There is. besides, an alternate arrangement of four east-west aligned subparallcl physical units: the 150-200 km wide high Himalayan /.one in the north, followed hy a 70 km wide Brahmaputra valley in the south, to be buttressed again in the south by Karbi-Anglong plateau and the Barail range and 7- - I : i i>l iIk- To\I ,iiul Ci'nii'ni ot ihc Honk 11 II) I InttKiluv I lot) people and some ruling dynasties which transplanted an lndo-,-\r\an cultural in the (inally the \:illey ol'eiiM-wesi llovsiiie riser Harak. Hie liiiii.ilas.is. riMne iicrlh i>l \alle\. ,Suceessi\e wa\es of iniinigration .iiui invasion produceil a mass of humanity the Brahinapiitni plain, in a series ol ssesi cast .iliened ranges, and Ittrmiiie the in winch multiple r.ieial and etiinie stocks were liised to pioduce an ,-\ssaniese northern houndary ol ilie reeion. attain a [iei;.'hi ol 7.IHHI m .AS! . The liiniai.isan laneu.iue, an .Assamese eiiUure and an Assamese cutlural landscape. ranges have llie inosi vjial intliienee on the lile and eeonoins o! the teeion. I lies not The cv'ntemporaiA society ot the North-b.ast region has two major strands of only cause heavy orographie rain hut are the s«niree ol all the noiihein tiihiii.ines i>l ethnicity .md ciiliure. One is the Mongoloid stock. I.irgely represetned iw the tribal Brahmaputra, which. runninL' tlown on sleep slopes, create .1 huge potenti.il lor population ot the region, and the other is the dominant indo-.Ary an group of people, the generation ol" liydroelectric jtossei, Ihe north south tremline Indo lUirma the Assamese, the Bengalis aiul myriad other immigrant Indo-.Aryan gnnips. l-iven orographic chain, a rellection t>l the sulHlueiion ol the Indian [d.ite undei the lod.iv these tribal groups maint.iin theirdistinct iilentiiy . atul the largei among them Burmese pitile. I'orms the eastern hountlary ol the region aiul esteiuls all the was assert their dtstinctiveness. In the litsi group .ire included the tribes like Nttgas. south till the lip ol Mi/oram and heyonil. (he height ol the region saries Ironi .*>1) m Mi/OS and the Khasis, While the tribal groups, regaidless of mimerictil strengih. AS). in lower Brahmaputra region to the Ilimalas an heights le.iching 7,001) m .A.SI.. have letained their ciiltur.il moorings, speaking iheir own dialects and practising The regiiin lying between 22 anil 20 .^0' N. though not ssithin the Iropics. llieii own lituals. the people ot tlie pl.iitis h.i\e ailopted .1 regional iilentity and are enjoys a climate, almost similar to the one svithiii the tropics, Banging in .iltitude collectively known as .Assamese, signifying acommon bond oftlie l.md they inhabit between ."iO and 100 m A.SI. and enjoying monsoon rains sars ing in ainouitt hetss een and the language they speak. I.XOO and 2..'iOO mm in ihc plains to 2,.'sOO > 10,000 mm in the hills, the region is The leeion h.is one of the largest concentrations of indigenous (vople who form the rtiiniesi p.art ol India, ssiih high temperatures in summer and a high relatise irouiKl 27 '< id i's total population. Distributed over 200 odd tribal communities, humidity iluring the monsoons. This clitnaiic ens ironnient has generated a kind ol none ofthem has ;t po(ntlation ofover two million. The three huge tribal communities vegetation that rtinges Croin tropical esergreen at losser lesels to conilers in the in the rceii'ii ;irc represented by the Ntigas. the Khasis and the Mi/os. Ihich ofthese higher Hitmilayati /one. The phs sical landscape ol the region can be suminariseil by Ins sucs-eeded in carving out a state lot itself, out of the parent sttiie of .Assam. the two linear plains, one develo[ied by the Brahmaputra and the other by the river Tlie North-hast region with .1 population of 4.a million, in 201 1. is div ided into Barak, surrounded by a girdle ol' forest clail mountains u Inch lorm the habitat of a multiple sociocultural blocks, represcnteil by some major tribal communities and Assam, the principal st.ite of the region, vv ith roughly ,s() ''I of the area and over large variety of wildlife lluil includes, among others, elephants, tigers and otie- two-thirds of the total population of the region, horned rhino and all kinds of ai|u:itic tind avian fauna. Besides pros iding a glimpse Assam is the principal state ol the North-Hast with a millennium-old sociocullurtil ol some salient facts about the biodiversity in the region, sshich claims the status a ti-idition and an economy larger and more balanced th;m the rest. The principal biological hotspoi. the measures iniiitiied to preserse the bioilisersity and iiroieci tea producinc state of the region ;tnd rich in minerals like petroleum. .Assam has a wildlife are discussed in a short section on region's liiodiversiiv. streamlined administrtttion. The popuhition ofAssam consists largely ofHindus and Muslims- unlike Nagaland, Mi/oram and Megiialaya where a huge majority lias enibraceil Chtistianity. The Noilh-lhtst w.is onee the most sp.irsely populated part ol India. The population 1.2.4 The People ofthe region has grown from around ten million in IPO I to 4.a million in 201 I. with a corresponding increttse in the density of population I'rom less than 40 persons per The part devoted to ihe I'copic of Norili-lui.^i hitliii is the longest. As mentioned in km- in '' hugely occupying Brahmtiputra valley, and subsequent paragraphs, the region has :i hu ge number of complex social and ethnic unlike olhet states ol the North-hast, has a much highet density of jiopulation that groups. Illustrating this cotiiplexity has taken large space. Despite the length o! this persons per km-, comixirahle to ;m overall deiisitv of India. There chapter, the authors are not sui'e if they have succeeded in providing some idea of arge chunks of territory in the region. ;is ,Arunach;il Pradesh, ^leiisiiy is around 1.a persons per knr, 1 he reeion is luit hiiihiv the people of the region. the capital of Assam, is the only million-city in the region, This unique theatre of ntilure. once in its pristine glory, has been gradually colo l^ut the population of North-Hast India is the huge immi- nised and transformed into a cultural landscape, a mosaic of triiditional and tnoderti . from the neighbouring countries, ,A .serious cultures, juxtaposed to each other. The etirliest colonisers of this land were the 47 into two countries. India and Pakistan, is Neolithic people, in ail probability of Mongoloid slock. In fact, the Mongoloid ^im the neighbouring countries, principally people were firmly established in this region, at least several ihousatid years ago. single important element disturbing the A culture of belter agricultural methods, a grammatically relined literary language and a better organisation of territory, people ;tnd administralioti arrived in the valley from the Gangetic plain, later. This region also witnessed an early migration of 1.2 Or^itnisiiiiiin «>l ihc ri-M jitul Cunlcni ol ilic Bcmk pctipk- and some ruliiii; dynasiics which iratisplanicd an liido-Aryan culuira! in the valley. .Siieeessive waves tiriinniiyralion and invasion produced a mass orhimuinily in which muliiple racial aiui elhnic stocks were liised to produce an .Assamese lanj!iiaee. an Assamese culture and an .Asstimese cultural landscape. 'I he contemporary st)ciel\ ol the Nonh-l-!asi reeion has two mtijor stratids of ethnicity ;uul culture. One is tlte Moneohiid stock, laritelv represented hy the irihal population of the region, and the otlier is the dominant lndo-.Ar\an croup of people, the Assamese, tiie Hencalis anil mvriad other imtniiirttm liulo-Arvan croups, liven today, these trihtil croups mtiintain their distinct identity, anil the lariter amotic them assert their distinciivetiess. in the lirst croup ;irc incluiled the tribes like Nacas. Mi/OS and the Khasis. While the tribal croups, reiiardless of ttutiierical strencih. have reiiiincd their cultural moorincs. speakittc their own dialects and practising their own ritutils. the people ol the plains iia\e adopted a regional identity and are collectively knim it as Assatnese. signif\ ing a comtnott bonil ol' the land ihev inhabit ;tnd the liinguage thc\ spcttk. The region has otie of the largest concentrtitions ol' itKligetious people uho j'ortn around 27 '/< of its total popuhition, Distributed o\cr 200 odd tribal cotnmuniiies. none of them h;is tt popultiliini of o\ er two million. The three large tribal cotntmitiitios in the regioti :ne represented by tlie Nagas. the Khasis and the Mi/os. F.ach ofthe.se has succeeded in carving out ti state lor itself, out of the parent state of Assam. Tile North-litist region with ;i population of A.'s millioti. in 201 1. is divided into multiple socioeiiltural blocks, represented by some tnajor tribtil cotnnninities and Assam, the principal state of the region, with roughly .'^0 of the arett and o\er two-thirds of the total population of the region. Assam is the principal stale of the North-liast with a millentiium-old sociocultural tradition and an economy larger and more balanced than the rest. The ]irinclpal tea-producing state of the region and rich in minerals like pelroleum. Assam has a streamlined administration. The popuhition ofAsstim cotisists largely of Hindits and Muslims, unlike Nagtiltuiil. Mi/or:im and Meghalaya where a large majority has embraced Christianity. The North-Hast wasonce the most sparsely populated partof India. The population of the region has grown from around ten million in 1901 tod? million in 2011. with a corresponding increase in the density of population from less than 40 persons per km' in 1901 to 147 in 2011. Assam, largely occupying Brahmaputra valley, and unlike other slates of the North-Hast, has :i much higher density of population that reaches over .700 persons per km-, comparable to an o\-cr;ill density of India. There are. however, still large chunks of territory in the region, as Arunachal Pradesh, where the population density is around l.*^ persons per km'. Tlie region is not highly urbanised and Guwahati. the capital ol Assam, is the only million-city in the region. A very important fact about the population (4 North-East India is the huge immi gration of people, much ol it illegal, Irom the neighbouring eountries. A serious consequence of India's division in 1947 into two eountries. India and Pakistan, is the uninteiTupicd illegal iintnigration from the neighbouring countries, principally East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. In fact, the single important clement disturbing the (jic.iiii'-.ilion i)| ihi- IcM .iiul C'lHiii'iil >'l ilio HiHik 12 IiilriKliiiliKii It IS estimated that .Arunaclial rivers have the polemial to generate .sO. ()()() MW of harmonious cxislcncc of Assamese soeieiy is ihe lear ol immij^raiion am! ihe |>o\ser, that !•<. half the potential of tiie entire couniiA. .A terrain, quite suitable immigranis who increasingly influence ihe politics ami the econonis ol itie slate. till liorticiilture. remains imutilised. .So far. ihe public sector eiuerprises have The border clashes, helween llie indijjenous jvople and die iminietanls, don'i appear concentrated on (he exploration and exploitation of oil and gas and the relining of lo be one odd incident and have turned into periodic ilisturhances. I he possihilii) ol pein'leimi. The inlfastructural de\elopineiii to connect and bring the mosi inimigralion ol' people wiih an alien eulture is a per[">eiiial threat lo the .Assamese m.iccessihie areas - and tliere are main - closer to the centres of population and society. So immense has been the immigration, especialK alter Id7l. ihat Assam economic activities is under wax. revolted against die Union Cio\ernment. accusing it not onl\ ol its lailute to 'Ihe book closes with an "Hpilogue". This is our relleeiion on the future of the check this immigration but even ol the jailer's connisatice at the illegal enir\ ol tvion which we pereeixe rather opliniisticallx lo be bright. We genuinely foresee Bangladeshis in Assam. Another conset|uence ol illegal inimigiaiion and ilie the emergence of .i xibrani \orih-Hasi India, in a span of a few decades, after its perceived indillerence ol' the Central (jovernmeni is the emergence of a number economic poteniiaU are realised and social harnionx reuiriis to the regiini. ol" insurgent groups who advoctile secession Ironi India. 'I'he insurgeiics in the North-Hast of India, a recurring (ilienomenon. has done trememlous harm to the region and its overall rievclopment. 1.2.6 About the Maps 1.2.5 The Economy •fhe Nortii-blast India, the outline of which, as given in this chapter, is authorised and approved bx the Survey of India. While authorising ihe use of this outline map. Agriculture, the main occupation * 1.2 ()rj;ains;ilii)ti ol iho Icvi ami Contotu ol ilic Biu)k 1.'^ Il is cstiniiilcd that Ariinachal rivers have the poiemial to generate 50. 000 MW ol" power, that is. hall the potential of the entire eountry. A terrain, quite suitable lor horticulture, remains unutilised. .So far, the public sector enterprises have eoneentrated on the e.xphiration and e.xploitation of oil and gas and the relining of petroleum. The infrastructural development to eonneet and bring the most inaccessible areas - and there are niany - closer to the centres of population and economic activities is under way. The book closes with an i-pilogue'. This is our relleetion on the future of the region which we perceive rather optimistically to be bright. We genuinely foresee the emergetice of a vibrant Norih-l:ast India, in a span ol a lew decades, alter its economic potentialsare realised and social harmony returns to the region. 1.2.6 About the Maps The Norih-Kast India, the outline t)f which, as given in this chapter, is authorised and approved by the .Survey t)f India. While authorising the use ofthis outline map. Survey of India requires the lolUtwing lootnotes to be written in eaeh map. Since this is impractical, they suggested to us to record these footnotes in the initial pages of the book. These footnotes, related to the outline map of North-Hast India (as given in this chapter), are as follows: (1) C'i'Government of India, copyright 201.(2) the responsibility for the correctness of the internal details rests with the author; (?>) the territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate ba.seline; (4) the interstate boundaries among Arunachal Pradesh. Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the •North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971' but have yet to be verilied; (5) the external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the record/master copy ecrtilied by the Survey of India; and (6) the spellings of the names in this map have been taken from various stmrees. The authors lake complete rc.sponsibility to adhere to thc.sc instructions. The foregoing paragraphs, we think, arc enough ofan introduction to the book and should give an idea about what the book is about. To our readers, wc would like to say that North-East India is a very fascinating region, suffu.scd with natural beauty, but riddled with disputes and controversies. Writing about the regions, as has been our experience, is a cautious enterprise ifone wants to keep away from any controversy. Yet. the possibility of being accused of bias is always there. Wc, on our part, have tried to keep away from being judgemental unless we are convinced of the facts and their interpretation offered. Yet. there may have crept in the book some sentences or statements which may appear ambiguous or convey meanings (hat don't conform to the views ofthe some readers. In alarge volume of this size, the po.ssibility of .some repetitions cannot be ruled out, but these have to be seen contextually. We have acknowledged the sources of data, information or T I r (liir.inis.idiiii I'l ilif ,inJ Cn'iii'iii I'l tlic lliH'k 15 14 Xiim.kti.il I'l.idcsh Maiiipui Tripura italcrprcluiion ih;ii ;iic iisu-il in ihc icxi as a suppori hasc N»r disciissii»t). Omissions I l.iw.iiie I Senap.iii 1. W'esl Tiipiira and misiakcs. ifany. arc inadvcrlcnl and would he corrccic Internalional Boundary State Boundary District Boundary BAY OF BENGAL 22" N- Fiy. 1.2 N(irlii-East India: states and districts. The numbers, appearing in liie map. eonrmni to the numbers assigned to the disiiicts in the appended list 1.2 Orparii^-alnHi dI ihc Ti-\l ,iiui C'oiilftit nl liii- Book 15 Aruiiiichal Pnuk-sh Mainpiir Tripiira 1, I'.nv.iiii: I Senapali 1. West Tripiira 2. VS'cM Kaiiicii}; 2. lamengloiig 2. Souih Tripiira B.ik-imi (liiisl Kamcng) L Churaehaiulpur 3. Dhalai 4. I'.ipiiin Pare 4. Bishnupur 4. Nonh Tnpiir.i 5. ( ppcr -SuhatiMfi 3. riioiihal 6. Wcsl Siaiij; ft. Itnphai \3esl 7. 1-asl Siaiij; 7. Iiiiphal IvasI S. I'ppcr Siaiij; 8. Lktmil y. Cliaiielan}: y. Ciiaiiiiel 10. Tirap ! I. Lower .Suhaiisiri •Meglialaya 12. Kuriiiif? Kiiines 1. Wesi (taro I lills L^. Dil-iaiii: Valley 2. liasl Ciato Mill 14.1 .ower DiBani! Valley L Soulh (iai'o Mills 15.1.oliil 4. West Khasi Mills 10. Anjaw 3. Ki Bhoi ft, j-.asi Khasi Hills Assam 7, Jaiiilia Mills 1. Kokrajhar 2. DhiiBri Mi/oram .L (ioalpara 1. Mainil 4. Barpeia 2. Kolasih .5. Miirigaoti 3. Ai/aw l ft. Nagaoii 4. C'liamphai 7. Soiiiipur 3. Serchip 8. I.akhinipur ft. Limglei 9. Dhernaji 7.1.awngllai 10. Tiiisukiii 8. Saiha 11. Dihriigarh 12. Sivasagar Nagalanil I .L Jorlial 1. Moil 14. Golaglial 2. Mokokelning 13. Karbi-Aiiglcni! 3. Ziinhcbolo Ift. Dima Masao 4.Woklia 17. C'achar 3. Diniapur 18. Kariniganj ft. Phek 7. 'ruensang ly. Hailakaiitii 20. Bongaigaon 8. Longleiig 21.rhiraiig y. Kiphire 22. Kainrup 10. Kohinia 23. Kanirup Meiropolilan 11- Percii 24. Nalbari 23. Baksa 26. Darrang 27. Udalguri ritroi ul lion References Part I Historical Outline Chandnimouli C, Census of liulj;i (20111 Adniintsinilne Athis, ( JIIkc >>l the Kcv'isir.ir (iciiiT.il .mil Census Comniissioiicr. Ministry ol IInrtie Allairs. Cost, nl Irului. Irulia hitp //v«,i,s\s kcnsijsiiuli.i g()v,in/20l leensus/iTiiips/aiiniiriisiralise tTiaiis/jnial''; 20Atlas'i 20inilia'i 20201 I (Hit Dalloii liT (IS72) Descriptive elhrmlojty <>1 Ueiijtal. .Asiatic Sncieiy dI Hcuyal I'ress. Cakima, (I073j Repriiileil hy ('(isnici I'tihlicatiim, Delhi Ciiiit r.A (I006| A liistnry nl Assam. "I'hacker Spink. Calciilia. leprmteil (200f)i I OS. (iijv..ili.iii HutliinJH (1021 aI i'lie Angami .N'ayas with some notes on neiphhoiifiny" triK's M.icmillan A ( o . I.ondon. reprinted Oi l' Mutton Jll (1021 h) 'I he .Setna Napas. Macmrllaii. I.ojuloii Kingdoii-Ward f' (1026) The riddle of the rsan(:po poijies. I:. Aiiiold. I.oiulon Kinydon-Ward h ' 104 I) Assatii advenliire. Jonathan Ca(>e. I.ondon Kiiiedon-Ward f-110.52) Plant hunter ))i Manipur. Joiiailiaii ('ajx-, I,ondo!i Mackenzie A IIKK4) History of relations of the (iovernmeni with the lull iiil>es ol North l ast frontier of Benyal. Home Departtticnl Press. Calmita. f2(KI5| reprint .is -North l-.asi frontiers of India'. .Miltal Ptihiications. New Delhi Mills JP (1022) Ihe I.otha .N'ayas. .Mticmilhm. I.ondon. leprmied loXO. Diteciorate ol Art iN Culture. Cjovcrnment of Nayaland. Kotiima .Mills JP (1026) The Ao Nayas. .Maemillan. i.ondon, reprinted 200^. Nayal.ind Diieciorale of Art A. Culture Mills JP11037) The Renyma Nayas. Maemillan. I.ondon. reprinted I0S2. .Nay.ilaiid Diteciorate ol Art & Culture fJidharn TfIK,50) Dn (he yeoloyical struetuie of a potlion of the Kh.isi Hills. .Mem (iSI 1:00 207 Pemberton (Cap!.) RB (1X3.5) Report on the eastern frontier ol British India. Department of Historical and Antiijuarian Studies in Assam, (iauhati. reprint (I06()) Mittal Pulilicaiiotis. Delhi Reid R (1042) History of the frontier aieas borderiny on Asstim. from IKK^ to 1041. Assam Governtrienl Press. Shillony. Reprinled (10X3) l-iasiern I'ublisiiiny House. Delhi Robinson W (1X41) A ilescriptive history of Assam: with sector on the local ycoyraphy. ;iiul :i concise history ofthe lea plant ofAssam: to which is added a short account ol the neiyhbouriny tribes, exhibitiny their history, manners and customs, (iowhatti (iovernmciit Seminar). (1075) reprint Sanskaran Praktishak. Delhi Shakespear (Col.) I.W (1014) History of IIpper Assam. L'pper Burma and Notth-Pastern I-roniier. Maemillan. London Thomas () (1X54) On the yeoloyical structure of parts of the Khasi Hills with observations on meteoroloyy and ethnology of that district. PCurbcry. Bengal Military Orphan Press. Calcutta von Furer-Haimendorf C (1062) The Apalanis and their neighbours. Routledge Kcyan Paul, London von Fiirer-Haimcndorf C (1060) Konyak Nagas. Holt. Rinehart & Winston. London Wade JP (1865) Ageographical sketch ofAssam. Asiatic annual reyistet. Last India Co.. Calcutta Wilcox (Li.) R (1X32) Memoir of the survey of Assatn and neighbouring cmintries execuleil in 1825. 1826, 27. & 28. Asiatic Researches, vol 17. map on page 314 k -•r> Part I Historical Outline "V Chapter 2 North-East India Through the Ages Abstract l-'or lotis:, Norlli-lia^i liutia was a icrra incdgiiiia firsih' liccausc of iis physical isolation biil no less hecause ol' its hein^ in a renune corner of India far away from the early ruling dynasties uhich were conlined largely to the Gangti plain. The etirliest known kingdom in the region, known as Pragjyotish/Kamtirupa. was estiiblished by the Vannan dynasty in the tliird century AD. The most illustrious rulerof Assam in the pre-Ahom perioil was Bhaskarvarman IAD.'Sd4-6.S()). Through a succession of ilynasiies. vi/,. Varman. .Salastamblia. Pala and Vaidytideva. all of which have left ihcir imprint on the regit>n. the region passed in the hands of Ahoms who ctime to Assam in the ctirly ihirtcenlh century, from the Shan regit>n of Myannntr. settled in the eastern part of Brahmaputra \;illey. atid ruled o\cr Assam for 600 years. I')uring the medieval period, .Assatn dcnelojicd as a distinct polilico- culiurtil unit, 'i'he region suffered rc|K-aied ittvasions from the Nawabs of Bengal, hut none of the invaders could establish a permatient foothold in the region. Some of them even suffered defetii and had to retreat. Besides the Alioms who ruled over ttiuch olThc Bnihmaputrti valley, tlierc were other dynasties who ruled in other parts of the regioti. The Koclies ruled over western Assam during the sixteenth century. The bOO-year reign ofAhoms came to ;iti end in the early nineteenth century with the iirriviti of the British who dislodged the Alioms and occupied the Assamese ter ritory. The British, besides establishing their rule and administering Assam, expanded the Asstimesc territory, before they quit India in 1947. The state of Assatn. in a series of administrative manoeuvres, was divided into four states, vi/.. Assatn. the parent state. Nagaland. Mi/oram. and Meghalaya. Besides, the two princely stiites of Tripura and Manipur were merged in the Indian Union and came into existence as independent slates. Another territory. North-East Frontier stales, siindwiched between the Himalayas and the Brahmaputra, was made into a full-Hedged sttite of Arunachal Pradesh. Thus, the seven states of North-East India came into existence. These seven stales constitute North-East India. Together, these states have an area of 2.'S.'i.()()() km- and a population of 45 million. K.R. Diksliil anci J.K. Dikshil, Narili-Etisi hulia: Laiul. Feople and Economy. Advances 19 in Asian Hunian-nnvironniental Research, DOI 10.l()07/978-94-007-7055-.t_2. O .Springer Science-t-Busincss Media Dordrechl 2014 2 2 l-.itb Ili--li'r> Hi K;iiu.iriip;i 21 20 Notlli J .i--! Itiili.i I hnluj'li Ok- Sci-x The (iaiiea-lUaliiuapiilra divide, beyond SS 1-.. presented a formidable barrier North-Hasl Ituiia. .is wc kiiou imlay. is very dillorcnl Iroiti vslial it «as ccimincs tor turther eastward moxemenl. It was marked i\v a number of Himalayan fixers, ago. The region was not a part of India polilie.dls and not e\en adininistr.iiisels llouiii!: almost north-south and Ireijuenily changing their course, and tliey needed till the British iinifieil it witli the resi ol' liulia. w ilh llieir coiujiiesi in the begin to be crossed, one after llie other, for further east ward inoveinenl. rihs had a resirain- ning ol'the nineteenth eentury. It s\as a land heyoiui Bengal to ilie Noiih l-.asi. a me impact on the exietision of lndo-.-\ry an regime further east. .Secondly , a progres- niountainotis territory drained hy the niighty Biahnia[>ntra, ktioun miii.iih .is sixeix increasing hieher rainfalU llood-prone rivers especially Brahmaputra and its Pragjyotisli and later as Kainarupa. a name uhieh retn.imed in \ogiie tor o\er tributaries; and a forest cl.td marsiiy plain of .-Vssam. teeming xx iih xx ildlife atui a thousand years beldrc it was siihsiituiei! b\ 'Assam'. Ilie l.iitei name was gi\en tione-ioo-he;ilihx clunate were also .iseriousdeterrent to the conquest ol'the regioti. to the region alter the Ahoni dyntisiy, whieh tiileloreil 2. /. I Physical Isolation as the present otie. and eonlineil largely to the lower region ol what is ]Meseni-day Assam, was ruled by a sueeession ol'dynasties ol mixed descent who had adopted India's North-l-"ast is as much aphysical divide between the ixxo continental drain- the Indo-Aryan cultural ethos anil traditions atid lollowed the religious practices mu.'svstcms one leadine to the Pacilic and the other to the Indian ocean, as it is and rituals enjoined by the Vedie tradition and emulated the royally in the (iaiigetie Irclwccn the two cultures, the Indo-Aryan and the Mongoloid. The Eastern plain. This was a period beldre the arrival ol Islamic order in Indi.i and the establish Him ilaxas attainim: aheight of 6.1)00 m. bend southward and merge into the Indo- ment of Muslim rule. A brotid genetilogy ol the niling ilynasiies atui the rulers ol Burma• oroeiaplnc'' • chain,T.,;,, ..VtVctixelx'separaiineviiisUMix . i the East and Souiiteast .Asian reeion. Katnar^ipa is traced by historiiins. starting Irom the sexenth century Al) till the lom . 'Hit f1.Is - i-nr millennia, this region has beenPaikai.one olNagathe mostand l.ushaiinaccessibleHills arrival of the British, yet the history of Assam till the twelf th ccjitury is kiu>wn only h legions ol IK _ji^^ected, forest coxered and experiencing heax y in broad outlines as gletined from copper plates anil inscriptions, as will be brielly (. Irom noith osi •,,|,..iqn.j bv tribal people, some of them head hunters, with discussed in the sei)uel. h haully .my coiU.u ihlie mst ol'thewas virttiallyworld, didblocked.not induceNorth-Easta.n signilicaniIndia remainedimim- gnilion. .-Xny c.isi ^ ..yK-tuarx' for biological exolulion and perhaps a rare for long a naiure presciw. 2.1 North-East India, a Terra Incognita till niche loi' homcosia.sis,^ ^synna and Brahmaputra - witli iheir annual iloods inun- the Sixth Century AD riic two associated with frequently occurring hhils dating large forests, did not present a picture of a liospiiable terrain There was hardly anything known about the North-l-iast ot' liulia. or even picseni CUl-olts. xvild .1111111.1, .^-oiuimic atiraelion K.i.;ivlbased onnn ilsits agriculturallU'rii-nhiiral potential. Thus,Thuv: Assam, till about the beginning ol'the seventh century, a period marked by nour nor did it exeiciss an c kingdom in the early part of the Christian era. as establishment ol a I'-c ' , r, ..-,|^^.,-eoioncametobeadminisIcred. was retarded. ishing kingdoms in other parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is mainly because nnichasthedevelopmenicxcnaiic of the geographical isolation of the region, but in no small measure also tlie result of a slow spatial progression of the Indo-Aryan culture that moved grtulu- ally from the mid-Gangeiic plain eastward. The movement ol" the Indo-Aryan people eastward, marked by the einergence of several kingdoms even before 2.2 Early History of Kamarupa Christ, was slow to reach the Brahinapuira valley. They, as a rule, followed the Av,s im based on epics and scriptures sians with Narakasura. the Gangeiic axial route and several of their kingdoms, strung along the river, The earliest history o losceiident Bhagdatta participated in tlie Mahabharat xvar. included the fertile alluvial plain of Ganga and its tributaries. The eiisiernmosl kiiig of orieinaling from Mahahharai. Vi.shiui Fnnuia and extension of these kingdoms terminated in Gauda kingdom corrcspimding with the northern and western part of the present-day Bengal as well as part of eastern Bengal. Mil aft •sc- T 2.2 iiarh Misiors of Kanuiriipa 21 2n s,.- I• The Ganga-Brahniapuira tlivide. heynnd S8' H. presented a I'ormidablc barrier Niirlli-I-.asl India, as ut' ktn lu imlas. is \ I'l s dilU-n'iii l!• m:. a !, i' :! -i-- »I'li'i""^" for luriher eastward movement, h was nitirked by a number of Himalayan rivers. ai!(). The-fi rejiinii uas noi a pan <.| India puliiK..lK ..nd n..- ..i-i.ir.i 1%I. Ilowine almost norih-soiilh and rrequenily cliatiging their course, and they needed nil ihc Hrilish uiiilicd il uiili die ies( ,i| India uidi (heir m 'he he.i ill to he crossed, one al ter the other, for ruriher eastw ard movement. This had a resLrain- nine ol die nineleendi eeniuis, !i vsas ,i l.md hesnnd h. !,.- t,. :i;. N -nh 1 •' ing impact on theextension ol" Indti-Aryan regime lurihereast. .Scci>tully. a progres moiintammis lerriKin diained h> die iiiielils Hi.>iiiiiai'i.i! .i nnii.'tlN .i» sively increasing higher rainfall; tlood-pr