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2020 India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

2020 India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

MAPPING MADE EASY -2020 MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

Table of Contents

S.no. Title Page

India– Location 2 1

Structure and physiography 4

2 Drainage system 17

3 Climate 24 4

Natural vegetation 52 5

Soils 56 6

1 Page

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED due to their vast east-to-west extent. For 1. India– Location example, the USA has seven time zones.

India, extends from in the north to Size Kanniyakumari in the south and in the east to in the west. India‘s - territorial limit further extends towards the • upto 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the It includes the countries — , coast. , Bhutan, and India. • The , together with other ranges, • Southern boundary extends upto 6°45' N have acted as a formidable physical barrier latitude in the Bay of . in the past. Except for a few mountain • the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of passes such as the Khyber, the Bolan, the India, they are roughly about 30 degrees, Shipkila, the Nathula, the Bomdila, etc. it whereas the actual distance measured from was difficult to cross it. north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and • Peninsular part of India extends towards that from east to west is only 2,933 km. the Indian . (provided the country • distance between two longitudes decreases with a coastline of 6,100 km in the towards the poles whereas the distance mainland and 7,517 km in the entire between two latitudes remains the same geographical coast of the mainland plus everywhere. southern part of the country the island groups) Andaman and Nicobar lies within the tropics and the northern part located in the and the lies in the sub-tropical zone or the warm in the . temperate zone. This location is India and its neighbours responsible for large variations in land forms, climate, soil types and natural • India is located in the south-central part of vegetation in the country. the of , bordering the Indian • A general understanding among the ocean and its two arms extending in the countries of the world to select the form of Bay of Bengal and the Arabian standard meridian in multiples of 7°30' of Sea. longitude. That is why 82°30' E has been • Sri and Maldives are the two island selected as the standard meridian‘ of India. countries located in the , Indian Standard Time is ahead of which are our neighbours. is Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 separated from India by the Gulf of minutes.There are some countries where Mannar and . there are more than one standard meridian

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Fig: India and its Neighbours 2. Structure and physiography

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Fig: India-Physical

The was to the south of the equator • Karbi Anglong and the Plateau millions of years ago. It was much larger in size in the northeast and in the west and the Australian plate was a part of it. Over are also extensions of this block. millions of years, this plate broke into many parts • The northeastern parts are separated by the and the Australian plate moved towards the south Malda fault in from the eastern direction and the Indian plate to the north. Chotanagpur plateau.In Rajasthan, the This northward movement of the Indian plate is desert and other desert–like features still continuing and it has significant consequences overlay this block. on the physical environment of the Indian subcontinent. • As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjected to various vertical • Based on the variations in its geological movements and block faulting. The rift structure and formations, India can be divided valleys of the Narmada, the Tapi and the into three geological divisions. These and the Satpura block mountains geological broadly follow the are some examples of it. physical features: • The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and (i) The Penisular Block residual mountains like the Aravali hills, the , the Javadi hills, the (ii) The Himalayas and other Veliconda hills, the Palkonda range and the Peninuslar Mountains hills, etc. The river valleys (iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra here are shallow with low gradients. Plain. 2- The Himalayas and other peninsular 1- The peninsular block mountains • The Himalayas along with other Peninsular • The Peninsula is formed by a great complex mountains are young, weak and flexible in of very ancient gneisses and granites, which their geological structure unlike the rigid and constitutes a major part of it. stable Peninsular Block.

• The northern boundary of the Peninsular • Consequently, they are still subjected to the Block - line running from Kachchh along interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces, the western flank of the Aravali Range resulting in the development of faults, folds near Delhi and then roughly parallel to the and thrust plains. and the Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta. • These mountains are tectonic in origin, gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in etc. are indicative of this stage. their youthful stage. Various landforms like 3- Indo-ganga-brahmaputra plain

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depression • Average depth of alluvial deposits in these which attained its maximum development plains ranges from 1,000-2,000m. The relief during the third phase of the Himalayan and physiography of India has been greatly mountain formation approximately about 64 influenced by the geological and million years ago. Since then, it has been geomorphological processes active in the gradually filled by the sediments brought by Indian subcontinent. the Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.

Based on these macro variations, India can be iii. The Peninsular Plateau divided into the following physiographic divisions: iv. The Indian Desert v. The Coastal Plains i. The Northern and North- eastern vi. The Islands. Mountains

ii. The Northern Plain • The general orientation of these ranges is The North and Northeastern Mountains from northwest to the southeast direction in • The North and Northeastern Mountains the northwestern part of India. consist of the Himalayas and the • Himalayas in the Darjiling and Northeastern hills. The Himalayas consist of regions lie in an east-west direction, while in a series of parallel mountain ranges. Arunachal Pradesh they are from southwest • Some of the important ranges are the Greater to the northwest direction. Himalayan range, which includes the Great • In , and , they Himalayas and the Trans-Himalayan range, are in the north-south direction. the Middle Himalayas and the Shiwalik.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • The approxiate length of the Great (i) Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas Himalayan range, also known as the central axial range, is 2,500 km from east to west, (ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas and their width varies between 160-400 km (iii) Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas from north to south. • Himalayas are not only the physical barrier, (iv) Arunachal Himalayas they are also a climatic, drainage and cultural divide. (v) Eastern Hills and Mountains. Himalayas can be divided into the following sub- divisions:

Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas between the Greater Himalayas and the ranges. • comprise a series of ranges such as the • Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Karakoram, , Zaskar and Pir Panjal. Panjal range, lies the world famous valley • The northeastern part of the Kashmir of Kashmir and the famous Dal . Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • Important glaciers of such as the three ranges of Himalayas are the Baltoro and Siachen are also found in prominent in this section also. These are this . the Great Himalayan range, the Lesser Himalayas (which is locally known as • The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous Dhaoladhar in and for Karewa formations, which are useful Nagtibhain ) and the Shiwalik for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety range from the North to the South. of saffron. • The two distinguishing features of this • Some of the important passes of the region region from the point of view of are on the Great Himalayas, physiography are the Shiwalik‘ and Dun Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photu La on the formations‘. Zaskar and on the Ladakh • Some important duns located in this region range. are the -Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota • Some of the important fresh such as dun, etc. Dal and Wular and salt water lakes such as • Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns and are also in with an approximate length of 35-45 km this region. and a width of 22-25 km. • This region is drained by the river Indus, • In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys and its tributaries such as the and are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia‘s. the Chenab. • These are nomadic groups who migrate to • Jhelum in the valley of Kashmir is still in Bugyals‘ (the summer glasslands in the its youth stage and yet forms meanders – a higher reaches) during summer months typical feature associated with the mature and return to the valleys during winters. stage in the evolution of fluvial land form • The famous Valley of flowers‘ is also situated in this region. The places of The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and • lies approximately between the Ravi in the Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this west and the (a tributary of ) part. The region is also known to have five in the east. drained by two major river famous Prayags

systems of India, i.e. the Indus and the The Shiwalik Ganga. • The word shiwalik has its origin in the geological formation found in and around • Tributaries of the Indus include the river a place called Sivawala near Dehra Dun Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj, and the which was once a headquarter of the tributaries of Ganga flowing through this Imperial Survey and which subsequently region include the Yamuna and the established its permanent headquarters at Ghaghara. Dehra Dun. • The northernmost part of the Himachal • In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh are caused by the local base cold desert, which lies in the Spiti level provided by the erstwhile larger lake subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti. All

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED of which the present is a small The general direction of the mountain part. range is from southwest to northeast. • Some of the important mountain peaks of NAME LOCATION the region are Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing Punjab Between Indus and rivers from the north to the south, forming Himalaya Satluj deep gorges. Kumaon Between Satluj and • the Bhramaputa flows through a deep Himalaya Kali gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some Between Kali and Nepal of the important rivers are the Kameng the Tista Himalaya Subansiri, the Dihang, the Dibang and the Between Tista and Lohit. Himalaya Dihang • These are perennial with the high rate of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas power potential in the country. An • Bordered by Nepal Himalayas in the west important aspect of the Arunachal and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. It is Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal relatively small but is a most significant community inhabiting in these areas. part of the Himalayas. Known for its fast- • Some of the prominent ones from west to flowing rivers such as Tista, east are the Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of these • it is a region of high mountain peaks like communities practise Jhumming. It is also Kanchenjunga (Kanchengiri), and deep known as shifting or slash and burn valleys. The higher reaches of this region cultivation. are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the • This region is rich in biodiversity which southern part, particularly the Darjiling has been preserved by the indigenous • Himalayas, has a mixed population of communities. Due to rugged topography, Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central the inter-valley transportation linkages are India. The British, taking advantage of the nominal. Hence, most of the interactions physical conditions such as moderate are carried through the duar region along slope, thick soil cover with high organic the Arunachal-Assam border. content, well distributed rainfall throughout the year and mild winters, introduced tea plantations in this region. The Eastern Hills and Mountains • absence of the Shiwalik formations. In • Part of the Himalayan mountain system place of the Shiwaliks here, the duar having their general alignment from the formations‘ are important, which have also north to the south direction. They are been used for the development of tea known by different local names. gardens. • In the north, they are known as Bum, , the Manipur hills and in The Arunachal Himalayas the south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These • Extend from the east of the Bhutan are low hills, inhabited by numerous tribal Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east. groups practising Jhum cultivation.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • The Barak is an important river in Manipur unconsolidated deposits. Most of the rivers and Mizoram. The physiography of in Nagaland form the tributary of the Manipur is unique by the presence of a Brahmaputra. While two rivers of large lake known as Loktak‘ lake at the Mizoram and Manipur are the tributaries centre, surrounded by mountains from all of the , which in turn is the sides. tributary of Meghna; the rivers in the eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries • Mizoram which is also known as the of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of Molassis basin‘ which is made up of soft the Irrawady of .

Brahmaputra.extend approximately 3,200 km from the east to the west. The Northern Plains • average width of these plains varies • Formed by the alluvial deposits brought by between 150-300 km. maximum depth of the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED alluvium deposits varies between 1,000- • Rising from the height of 150 m above the 2,000m. river plains up to an elevation of 600-900m • From the north to the south, these can be is the irregular triangle known as the divided into three major zones: the Bhabar, Peninsular plateau. the Tarai and the alluvial plains.The • Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of alluvial plains can be further divided into Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, the Khadar and the Bhangar. Gir range in the west and the Cardamom • Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8- hills in the south constitute the outer extent 10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at of the Peninsular plateau. the break-up of the slope. • However, an extension of this is also seen • As a result of this, the streams and rivers in the northeast, in the form of coming from the mountains deposit heavy and Karbi-Anglong plateau. materials of rocks and boulders, and at • The Peninsular India is made up of a series times, disappear in this zone. of patland plateaus such as the • South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi an approximate width of 10-20 km where plateau, the plateau, the most of the streams and rivers re-emerge plateau and the without having any properly demarcated plateau, etc. channel, thereby, creating marshy and • This is one of the oldest and the most swampy conditions known as the Tarai. stable landmass of India. • This has a luxurious growth of natural • The general elevation of the plateau is vegetation and houses a varied wild life. from the west to the east, which is also • The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of proved by the pattern of the flow of rivers. old and new alluvial deposits known as the • Some of the important physiographic Bhangar and Khadar respectively. features of this region are tors, block • These plains have characteristic features of mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky mature stage of fluvial erosional and structures, series of hummocky hills and depositional landforms such as sand bars, wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural meanders, ox- bow lakes and braided sites for water storage. channels. • The western and northwestern part of the • The Brahmaputra plains are known for plateau has an emphatic presence of black their riverine islands and sand bars. soil. • Most of these areas are subjected to • This Peninsular plateau has undergone periodic floods and shifting river courses recurrent phases of upliftment and forming braided streams. submergence accompanied by crustal • The mouths of these mighty rivers also faulting and fractures. (The Bhima fault form some of the largest deltas of the needs special mention, because of its world, for example, the famous recurrent seismic activities). Sunderbans delta. • These spatial variations have brought in • These river valley plains have a fertile elements of diversity in the relief of the alluvial soil cover which supports a variety Peninsular plateau. of crops like wheat, rice, sugarcane and • The northwestern part of the plateau has a jute, and hence, supports a large complex relief of ravines and gorges. population. • The ravines of Chambal, Bhind and The Peninsular Plateau Morena are some of the well-known

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED examples. On the basis of the prominent an elevation varying between 600-900 m relief features, the Peninsular plateau can above the mean sea level. be divided into three broad groups: • This forms the northernmost boundary of the . It is a classic example (i) The Deccan Plateau of the relict mountains which are highly (ii) The Central Highlands denuded and form discontinuous ranges. (iii) The Northeastern Plateau. • The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West, The Deccan Plateau where it has been covered by the • This is bordered by the Western in longitudinal sand ridges and crescent- the west, in the east and the shaped sand dunes called barchans. Satpura, Maikal range and • This region has undergone metamorphic in the north. are locally processes in its geological history, which known by different names such as can be corroborated by the presence of Sahyadri in , Nilgiri hills in metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, Karnataka and and Anaimalai gneiss, etc. hills and in . The Northeastern Plateau • Western Ghats are comparatively higher in • In fact it is an extension of the main elevation and more continuous than the Peninsular plateau. Eastern Ghats. • It is believed that due to the force exerted • Their average elevation is about 1,500 m by the northeastward movement of the with the height increasing from north to Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan south. Anaimudi‘ (2,695 m), the highest origin, a huge fault was created between peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya the of the Western Ghats plateau. followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the • Later, this depression got filled up by the Nilgiri hills. deposition activity of the numerous rivers. • Most of the Peninsular rivers have their Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong origin in the Western Ghats. plateau stand detached from the main • Eastern Ghats comprising the Peninsular Block. discontinuous and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers such as the Mahanadi, The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into the Godavari, the Krishna, the , etc. three: • Some of the important ranges include the (i) The ; Javadi hills, the Palconda range, the (ii) The ; Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills, (iii) The Jaintia Hills, etc. • An extension of this is also seen in the • The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. Similar to each other at the Nilgiri hills. the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya The Central Highlands plateau is also rich in mineral resources • They are bounded to the west by the like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone Aravali range. and uranium. • The is formed by a series of • This area receives maximum rainfall from scarped plateaus on the south, generally at the south west monsoon. As a result, the

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded etc. are some of theimportant natural ports surface. located along the west coast. • displays a bare rocky surface • western coast may be divided into devoid of any permanent vegetation cover. following divisions –1- the Kachchh and The Indian Desert Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, 2- • To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies coast in Maharashtra, 3- Goan coast and the Great Indian desert. in Karnataka and Kerala • It is a land of undulating topography respectively. dotted with longitudinal dunes and • The rivers flowing through this coastal barchans. plain do not form any delta. • This region receives low rainfall below • The Malabar coast has got certain 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate distinguishing features in the form of with low vegetation cover. Kayals‘ (backwaters), which are used for • It is because of these characteristic features fishing, inland navigation and also due to that this is also known as Marusthali. its special attraction for tourists. Every • The flowing in the southern part year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali of the desert is of some significance. (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in • Low precipitation and high evaporation Kerala. makes it a water deficit region. • There are some streams which disappear The eastern coastal plain after flowing for some distance and present • is broader and is an example of an a typical case of inland drainage by joining emergent coast. a lake or playa. • There are well- developed deltas here, • The lakes and the playas have brackish formed by the rivers flowing eastward in water which is the main source of to the Bay of Bengal. obtaining salt. • These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. The Coastal Plains • Because of its emergent nature, it has less • On the basis of the location and active number of ports and harbours. (The geomorphological processes, it can be continental shelf extends up to 500 km into broadly divided into two: the sea, which makes it difficult for the (i) the western coastal plains; development of good ports and harbours. (ii) the eastern coastal plains. The Islands • There are two major island groups in India The western coastal plains – one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in • are an example of submerged coastal plain. the Arabian Sea. • It is believed that the city of Dwaraka • The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of which was once a part of the Indian about 572 islands/islets. mainland situated along the west coast is • These are situated roughly between 6°N- submerged under water. 14°N and 92°E -94°E. • Because of this submergence it is a narrow • The two principal groups of islets include belt and provides natural conditions for the the Ritchie‘s and the Labrynth development of ports and harbours. island. The entire group of island is Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha divided into two broad categories – the Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin,

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in • These islands are located at a distance the south. of280 km-480 km off the Kerala coast is • They are separated by a water body which built of deposits. There are is called the Ten degree approximately 36 islands of which 11 are • Some smaller islands are volcanic in inhabited. origin. Barren island, the only active • Minicoy is the largest island with an area volcano in India is also situated in the of 453 sq. km. The entire group of islands Nicobar islands. is broadly divided by the Eleventh degree • The coastal line has some coral deposits, channel, north of which is the Amini and beautiful . These islands Island and to the south of the Canannore receive convectional rainfall and have an Island. equatorial type of vegetation. • The Islands of this archipelago have storm The islands of the Arabian sea beaches consisting of unconsolidated • include Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders. are scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.

PT Titbits:

India Position & Population Statistics Lies in South Asia North of Equator Latitude (8*4’ – 37*6’) N Longitude (68*7’ – 97*25’)E 2nd largest arable land (after US) Population 17.6 % of the world Area → 3.28 million sq. km (2.4 % of 7th Largest in Area world) Southernmost Point → Indira Point St. meridian → Allahabad (82*3’)E (6*45’)N Kashmir – Kanyakumari →3214 km – Arunachal Pradesh →2933 km Mainland Coastline → 6100 km (Mainland + A & N + Lakshadweep ) coastline → 7517 km Peninsular Mountains

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED The  Extending from the north east to the sout-west of India and Total length : 700 km. separates the semi-deset regions of Rajasthan from the fertile Highest peak : guru shikhar Udaipur and Jaipur region. (1,722 m) on the abu hills.  It is an example of relict mountain.  One of the Most oldest fold mountains in the world. Vindhyan range  A block mountain which separates northern Indian from the southern mainland.  Composed of sandstones, shales and quartzites.  Western part of the range is chiefly composed of .  South of it, flows in the rift valley.  Acts s a natural watershed between north and . Satpura range  Extending in east west direction, to the south of Vindhyans. Highest peak :  Starting from Rajpipala hills in the west through Mahadeo (1,350 m) near . hills to Maikal ranges. Average elevation : 1,030 m above sea level. Maikal range  Eastern part of Satpura system is situated in .  Mount is the highest peak. Ajanta range, balaghat  Extending in east west direction, are all spurs of Western range, and harish chandra Ghats forming local watershed. range  (1,646 m), the highest peak of Western , is located in Harish Chandra Range. Nilgiri hills  It is the meeting point of Western and Eastern Ghats.  Doba Betta (2,637 m) is the highest peak of Nilgiri Hills.  The hills are separated from southern hills by a gap called Palghat Gap. Annaimalai hills  Anai Mudi (2,695 m), the highest peak of South India is in Annaimalai Hills.

Cardamom hills  It is situated in the extreme south of Peninsular India.  Formed of gneisses and schists.

Rajmahal hills  Extends in north south direction and is situated in the northeastern edge of Chhotanagpur Plateau.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Sahyadris (western ghats)  Runs along the western coastal plain from the south of valley Total length : about 1600 of Tapi to Kanniyakumari, the southern most point of km. mainland India. Average height : 1200 m.  The northern section is made up of horizontal sheets of lava, Highest peak : kalsubai producing a typical trappean like landscape. (1646 m).  The Western Ghats meet with Eastern Ghats in the Nilgiri hills.  Acts as a main watershed of Peninsular rivers.

Eastern ghats  Runs along the eastern coast of India from northern Orissa to the Nilgiri Hills.  Characterised by unbroken hills between Mahanadi and Godavari.  Mahendragiri (1501 m) is the highest peak of Eastern Ghats.  Nallamalai Hills and Velikonda are other prominent ranges.

Important Lagoons and Lakes

NAME STATE INFORMATION Kayals Kerala  Popularly called backwaters in Kerala, on the Malabar coast.  A chain of lakes which are connected with each other by canals.  (Peaty soils of backwaters are called Kari in Kerala). Vembnad Lake Kerala  Large sized backwater of Kerala, have fertile (Largest Kayal) alluvial islands. It is 75 km long and 5-10 km wide enclosed by a spit. Chilka Lake Orissa  Situated to the south west of the Mahanadi Delta. Maximum length -  Enclosed by the sand pit, has an opening which 64 km permits sea-connection. Maximum breath -  20 km Largest brackish water lake in Asia. Average width -150 km

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

Fresh Water Lakes

Wullar Lake Jammu and  Largest lake of India. Kashmir Andhra  A part of the southern border of . 60 km long and 60 Pradesh  Lagoon formed due to enclosure by sand spit now km in the widest called Sriharikota islands. part.

Jaisamand Lake Rajasthan  Largest fresh water lake of Rajasthan. Rajasthan  A small natural lake near Mt. Abu surrounded by hills, important as tourist place. Manipur  Site of hydroelectricity power generation. An example of centripetal drainage.

Saline Water Lakes Sambhar Lake Rajasthan  Largest Lake of Rajasthan lies on the border of Jaipur and .  Sodiumchloride (common salt) and sodiumsulphate are produced fainly by the Hindustan Salt Ltd.

Deedwana Lake Rajasthan  Situated near Deedwana Town of Nagaur District.

Major Mountain Peaks in India

Broad Peak  Also known as K3 & Falchan Kangri, in Karakoram range Godwin Austen  Also known as K2, Highest of Karakoram range Gasher Brum  Karakoram range Nanga Parbat  J & K  skirts this range before it debouches into the plains of Pakistan  J & K, Karakoram Range Nun Kun  Highest of Zaskar Range (J&K) – Indian side Badrinath  Uttarakhand  Famous for Holy temple of Badrinath (Lord Vishnu)

Nanda Devi  Uttarakhand, 2nd highest mountain in India and the highest entirely within the country

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Kanchenjunga  Nepal and Sikkim (BetweenTeesta river in east & in west)  Highest mountain in India & 3rd highest mountain in the world

Nokrek  Highest point of the Garo Hills (Meghalaya) Saramati  Highest of Naga Hills Blue Peak  Also known as , highest of Mizo hills Gurushikhar  Mt. Abu, Rajasthan, highest point of the Aravalli Range Gorakhnath  Highest peak of the Girnar mountain, Gujrat Dhupgarh  Highest point of Satpura Range, Located in Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh (Highest of MP also)  known as means venerable peak + Sammet Shikhar means peak of concentration  a place where 20/24 Tirthankaras attained mokṣa through meditative concentration  Parasnath is derived from Pārśva, the 23rd Tirthankara who attained nirvana at the site  Highest peak of chhota plateau, Located in , is a Jain pilgrimage site

Mahendragiri  Highest mountain peak of Orissa  2nd highest of Eastern Ghats, next only to Jindhagada Peak, Andhra Pradesh

Malayagiri  Orissa Nimgiri  2nd highest mountain in Orissa Kalsubai  Highest peak in Maharashtra  a hill station at Maharashtra  On the border of Karnataka, Origin of river Kaveri Kundremukh  Located on Karnataka, literally means Horse Face  Highest point in Tamil Nadu , near Udhagamandalam (Nilgiri Hills)  second highest peak in the Western Ghats only next to

Anaimudi  Located in Kerala, It is the highest peak in Western Ghats and in South India

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Agasthyamalai  also called as Ashambu Hills, lie at the extreme southern end of Western Ghats, straddle both sides in Kerala and in Tamil Nadu Saddle Peak  highest point of the archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, located in Andaman

Mount Hariet  3rd highest peak in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago only next to  Saddle peak (Highest of Andaman)  Mount Thullier (Highest of Nicobar)

Plateaus in India

Shillong  A part of Peninsular Deccan Plateau, made of Garo, Khasi & Jaintia Hills & Plateau homeground of Shillong city  World’s highest rainfall receiving point Mawsynram is situated here

Chhotanagpur  Covers NE part of Peninsular plateau including Jharkhand, parts of Plateau & WB, with highest Peak Parasnath  Famous as Patland plateau & known as ruhr of India due to large mineral deposits

Malwa Plateau  Located on north of Narmada rift valley & part of central Highland made up of granite & gneiss  A dissected lava plateau covered with black soil, famous for production of cotton  Northern part of this plateau has been transformed into Badland by river chambal & its tributeries

Deccan Plateau  Lies to the south of Tapi river, Deccan plateau is majorly a lava region made up of basalt, whose erosion has led to the formation of black soil  Largest plateau of Indian peninsula, famous for the cultivation of cotton

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED  A part of deccan plateau, located on north of river krishna Plateau  Lies in the rain shadow region of south west monsoon, have mainly dry

thorn forests

Karnataka  Located on the south of deccan lava region, Built of Malnad region in west Plateau (Western Ghats) & Raichur Maidan in east.  Bababudan hills (Famous for iron ores) are located in this plateau

Bundelkhand  Spreads along the borders of UP & MP Plateau  Has been transformed into ravines by extensive erosional activities of river Chambal & its tributeries

Dandakaranya  Spreading in parts of Chhatisgarh & , contains igneous & Plateau metamorphic rocks of Archaen period  River Indravati & Mahandi flows through this plateau & is largely inhabited by Gond tribes

India-Bays,Gulf & Sea

Gulf of Katchh  Separate Katchh & Kathiawar Peninsula  Max. potential for tidal energy  Famous ports : Kandla, Mundra, Okha, Salaya

Gulf of  Forms mouth of various rivers, namely, Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati Khambat

Gulf of  Separates India & Srilanka, Located at south east of Tamil Nadu Mannar  Asia’s 1st oceanic biodiversity protection region & a biosphere reserve  Famous port Tuticorin lies along its coast  Its environment is likely to be hampered by Setusamundram project

Palk Bay  betweenIndia & Srilanka, & home to proposed Setusamundram project Palk Strait  betweenIndia & Srilanka, Palk strait has coral formation  Setusamundram project to connect Palk strait with

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Bay of Bengal  Bay of Bengal is bordered to the north by a wide continental shelf that narrows to the south and by slopes of varying gradient on the northwest, north, and northeast.  Bay of Bengal has a distinct tropical marine ecosystem, and copious river drainage into the northern part of the bay and the profusion of , marshes, and increase productivity of nearshore fish species.  Petroleum and natural-gas discoveries have been made in the Bay of Bengal, notably offshore of the Godavari and Manandi deltas.  The principal trade routes for large tankers en route from the to the pass south of the Bay of Bengal.  Haldia, Vishakhapatnam, and Paradeep are well developed as iron ore terminals, reflecting India’s profitable exportation of raw materials. Arabian Sea  The Arabian Sea is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the south by northeastern Somalia, on the east by India and on the west by the .  The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives.  The Arabian Sea has two important branches — the in the southwest, connecting with the through the strait of Bab-el- Mandeb; and the to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf.  There are also the gulfs of Cambay and Kutch on the Indian coast.  The Indus and the Narmada rivers are the principal waterways draining into the sea.

Indian Ocean  Strategic significance: India overlooks some of the most important sea lanes viz. Suez Canal, Malacca Strait  Economic significance: Long coastline, 2.02 million sq km EEZ (Exclusive economic zone)  Tourism Significance: Marine biodiversity and rich ecosystem with coral reefs, mangroves  Large Fishing potential, Wave energy & Tidal energy potential, Zone of Hydrocarbons.  Generation of south west Monsoon

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Mountain Passes in India

J & K Aghil Pass Ladakh – Karakoram Burzil Pass Kashmir –Giligit Karakoram Ladakh – China Karakoram Jojila Pass Srinagar- (J&K) Zaskar Ladhak Kashmir Gateway to Zaskar J & K Famous for Jawahar Tunnel Himachal Pradesh Baralacha Pass Ladakh – Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh India- border Uttarakhand India-Tibet border (Also known as Dungri La) Niti Pass India-Tibet border India-Tibet border Sikkim Pass India – Tibet Pass India – Tibet Arunachal Pradesh Bomdila Pass India – Tibet India – Tibet Tunga Pass India – Tibet Dihang Pass India – Tibet Assam Diphu Pass Tri-point of the , China, and Burma Ghats and Glaciers in India Goram Ghat Aravali range, Rajasthan Asirgarh Pass Madhya Pradesh, connects Narmada & Tapi valleys, also known as Key to Deccan Maharashtra – Connects to Kolkata via rail route Maharashtra – Connects Mumbai to via rail route Pal Ghat Kerala – Connects Chennai to Cochin via rail route Batura Glacier J & K – Karakoram range Khurdopin Glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Hispar Glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Biafo Glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Baltoro Glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Chogolungma glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Diamir Glacier  J & K – Karakoram range Siachin Glacier  LOC between India & POK  Close to China border – Karakoram Range

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Gangotri Glacier  Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand Milam Glacier  located in Trishul peak of Pithoragarh of Uttarakhand  Source of Goriganga Pindari glacier  Nanda devi, Uttarakhand Zemu Glacier  Largest glacier in the Eastern Himalaya  Located on Kanchenjunga peak, Sikkim

Islands in India

A & N Islands  Continuation of Arakan Yoma mountain range of Myanmar

Nicobar Islands  Just 147 km from Sumatra island (Indonesia)

Mazuli Island  Largest riverrine island of the world, located on Brahamaputra in Assam New Moore Island  On -Brahmaputra Delta region & a disputed site betweenIndia & Bangladesh Sagar Island  W.B – on the continental shelf of Bay of Bengal Wheeler Island  Odisha, Integrated Missile Test Range facility

Hope Island  On coast of Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh — Houses Satish Dhawan Space Centre Sriharikota Island  Andhra Pradesh – Satellite launch center

Narcondam Island  Extinct Volcano island –

Barren Island  Dormant Volcano island – Andaman Sea  forcibly given to Srilanka by India in 1974

Salasette Island  Group of 7 islands, known as Mumbai today

Wellington Island  Naval Station → Kerala

Drainage system

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • The flow of water through well-defined Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar channels is known as drainage‘ and the systems discharge their waters in the network of such channels is called a Arabian Sea. drainage system. On the basis of the size of the watershed, the • It is the outcome of the geological time drainage basins of India are grouped into three period, nature and structure of rocks, categories: topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow. a. Major river basins with more than 20,000 • An area drained by a river and its sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 tributaries is called a . drainage basins such as the Ganga, the • The boundary line separating one drainage Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the basin from the other is known as the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the watershed. Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. • The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets b. Medium river basins with catchment area and rills are often referred to as between 2,000-20,000 sq. km watersheds. incorporating 44 river basins such as the • difference between a river basin and a Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc. watershed- Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger areas. c. Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly Classifications of Drainage: good number of rivers flowing in the area On the basis of discharge of water of low rainfall (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and into: characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be  the Arabian Sea drainage; classified into  the Bay of Bengal drainage.  the Himalayan drainage and • They are separated from each other through  the Peninsular drainage the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris .Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc.

• It is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Fig: Major Rivers of India

Drainage Patterns:

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED The Himalayan drainage India it is 321, 289 sq. km and total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km). The Himalayan drainage system has evolved  originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu through a long geological history. It mainly (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E longitude) includes the Ganga, the Indus and the in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 basins. m in the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, rivers of this system are perennial. These it is known as Singi Khamban; or Lion‘s rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out mouth.enters into Pakistan near Chillar in by the erosional activity carried on the Dardistan region simultaneously with the uplift of the  The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Himalayas. Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the River Kosi, also know as the sorrow of ‘, south-eastern part of the valley of has been notorious for frequently changing its Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the course. The Kosi brings huge quantity of before entering Pakistan sediments from its upper reaches and deposits through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. consequently, the river changes its course.  The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. formed by two streams, the Chandra It is opined that in due course of time Indo– and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Brahma river was dismembered into three Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is main drainage systems: also known as Chandrabhaga. The river (i) the Indus and its five tributaries in the flows for 1,180 km before entering into western part; Pakistan.  Satluj originates in the Rakas lake near (ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in in the central part; and Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the (iii) the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam Indus for about 400 km before entering and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern India, and comes out of a gorge at Rupar. part. It passes through the Shipkila on the The river systems of the Himalayan Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab drainage plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal The Indus System system of the Bhakra Nangal project.  one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in

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Fig: The Indus River System

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag The Ganga System (Allahabad).  The Chambal rises near Mhow in the  most important river of India both from the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and point of view of its basin and cultural flows northwards through a gorge up significance. wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the  It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally as the Bhagirathi. joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is famous  At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the for its badland topography called the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Chambal ravines. Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in  The Gandak comprises two streams, the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It  The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the From here, it flows first to the south, then Dhaulagiri and and drains to the south-east and east before splitting the central part of Nepal. It enters the into two distributaries, namely the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar Bhagirathi and the Hugli. and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna  The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is  The Damodar occupies the eastern margins shared by Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and through a rift valley and finally joins the West Bengal (520 km). The Ganga basin Hugli. The is its main tributary. covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India Once known as the sorrow of Bengal‘, the alone. Damodar has been now tamed by the  The Ganga river system is the largest in Damodar Valley corporation, a India having a number of perennial and multipurpose project. non-perennial rivers originating in the  The Mahananda is another important Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula tributary of the Ganga rising in the in the south, respectively. Darjiling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last  The Son is its major right bank tributary. left bank tributary in West Bengal  The important left bank tributaries are the  The Son is a large south bank tributary of Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The plateau. After forming a series of river finally discharges itself into the Bay waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it of Bengal near the Sagar Island. reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join the  The Yamuna, the western most and the Ganga. longest tributary of the Ganga, has its

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Fig: The Ganga River System

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Fig: The Yamuna River System

The Brahmaputra System  The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km long journey  The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers through the Assam valley. Its major left of the world, bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and  It has its origin in the Chemayungdung Dhansari (South) whereas the important glacier of the Kailash range near the right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Mansarovar lake. Kameng, Manas and Sankosh. The  Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is which means the purifier.‘ The Rango an antecedent river. Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary  The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh of this river in Tibet. near Dhubri and flows southward. In  enters India west of Sadiya town in Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it bank from where the river is known as the receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Yamuna. It finally merges with the river Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal. is known as the Brahmaputra.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED  The Brahmaputra is well-known for tributaries are large, and bring large floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. quantity of sediments owing to heavy This is due to the fact that most of its rainfall in its catchment area.

Fig: The Brahmaputra River System

The peninsular drainage system  Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to east.  older than the Himalayan one. The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the  Evident from the broad, largely-graded Ken, the Son, originating in the northern shallow valleys, and The Western Ghats part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga running close to the western coast act as river system. the water divide between the major  The other major river systems of the Peninsular rivers, discharging their water Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi the in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. joining the Arabian Sea.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED  Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed i. Subsidence of the western flank of the course, absence of meanders and non- Peninsula leading to its submergence perennial flow of water. below the sea during the early tertiary  The Narmada and the Tapi which flow period. through the rift valley are, however, ii. Upheaval of the Himalayas when the exceptions. northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage consequent trough faulting. System iii. Slight tilting of the Peninsular block Three major geological events in the distant from northwest to the southeastern past have shaped the present drainage systems direction gave orientation to the entire of Peninsular India: drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.

Fig: The Peninsular River System

Comparison between the Himalayan and the Peninsular River

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River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its major  The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur tributaries. district of Chhattisgarh and runs through  The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills Odisha to discharge its water into the Bay (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its Its length is 800 km and it drains an area of catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. 81,155 sq. km. Since the upper catchment km. area receives rainfall during the southwest  The Godavari is the largest Peninsular monsoon season (summer) and the lower river system. It is also called the Dakshin part during the northeast monsoon season Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of (winter), the river carries water throughout Maharashtra and discharges its water into the year with comparatively less the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run fluctuation than the other Peninsular rivers. through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and 56 Pradesh. per cent in Tamil Nadu.  The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita,  Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the and the Manjra are its principal tributaries. Bhavani and the . The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods  The Narmada originates on the western in its lower reaches to the south of flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque of about 1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley gorge. It is navigable only in the deltaic between the Satpura in the south and the stretch. Vindhyan range. Dhuandhar waterfall near  The Krishna is the second largest east- . After flowing a distance of about flowing Peninsular river which rises near 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian sea south Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED . Its catchment area is about 98,796 the of Madhya Pradesh. It is sq. km. The Sardar Sarovar Project has 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 been constructed on this river. sq. km.  The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river. It originates from in

PT Titbits:

Indus River System

Indus . Ancient name → Sindhu . Origin → Bokharchu Glacier, Near Mansarovar . In Tibet, Called Singi Khamban / Lion’s mouth

. Enters In India through Ladakh, flows only in J &K

. Enters Pak through hair pin bend of Nanga Parbat

. Finally Discharges in Arabian Sea

. Flows approx. ( 709 / 2880 ) Km in India

. India uses 20 % of its water by Indo Pak water treaty of 1960

Shyok . Originates from Rimo Glacier

. Known as river of death

. flows through Ladakh in India

. A tributary of the Indus River Jhelum . Ancient name → Vitasta . Origin → Verinag Spring (Kashmir) . Tributary of Chenab, flows only in J &K

. Flows Northward to Wular Lake

. Cut through gorge in Pir- Panjal range to reach Muzzafarabad (POK)

Chenab . Ancient name → Akshani / Iskmati . Origin → Bara Lacha Pass (Himachal)

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED . Known as chandra-bhaga in Himachal

. Chandra River → Water flowing south from the pass . Bhaga River → Water Flowing north from the pass . Flows Northward & parallel to Pir –Panjal Range for some distance

. Cut through gorge in Pir – Panjal & Turns southward

. Largest tributary of Indus, Flows through Himachal & J & K

. Famous Projects → Duhasti, Baglihar & Salal hydroelectric project Ravi . Ancient name → Purushni . Origin → Kullu hills near Rohtang Pass (Himachal) . Tributary of Chenab

. Smallest of 5 rivers

. Flows through Indo – Pak boundary

. Flows northward betweenPir – Panjal & Ranges

. Cut a gorge through Dhauladhar range & flows southward Beas . Ancient name → Vipasha . Origin → Beas kund near Rohtang Pass, Himachal . Tributary of Satluj

. Only river flowing entirely in India

. Runs southward, Cut a deep gorge in Dhauladhar & turns west to meet Satluj near Harike (Punjab) . Famous Project → Sutluj . Ancient name → Shatadru . Origin → Rakas lake, Tibet, near Mansarovar . Enter Himachal at Shipki La Pass

. Collects water from Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum & Beas to join Indus near Mithalkot (Pak)

. Famous Projects → Naptha Jhakri Project & Bhakra Nagal Dam with Govind Sagar Reservoir

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Ganga River System Ganga . Origin → As Bhagirathi from Gangotri Glacier (Uttarkashi – Uttarakhand) . Alakananda unites with Bhagirathi at Devprayag, Uttarakhand → Henceforth known as Ganga . Passing through Rishikesh, it debounches in plains of Haridwar

. From Haridwar, it flows Southward to reach Allahabad where it joins Yamuna

. Near Rajmahal Hills, it turns southeast & bifurcate at Farraka into Hoogly (Kolkata) & Padma (BD) . At Bangladesh, Ganga merges with Brahmputra (Known as Jamuna in Bangladesh) at Goalundo Ghats . Mixture is known as

. Then it merges with Meghna & finally falls in Bay of Bengal . Meghna → Known as Barack river in India

. Ghaghara . Origin → Bharchachungar Glacier (Rakas lake) near Mansarovar . Joins Ganga at Chhapra . Known as Manchu or Karnali in Nepal . Known as Saryu or Ghaghra in UP

. Perennial river

. Major tributaries → Sarda & Rakti Gandak . Origin → Sino – Nepal Boundary (Dhaulagiri range) . Known as Kalyani in Nepal

. Major River of Nepal

. Joins Ganga at Sonpur, Bihar Kosi . Origin → Gosainath peak (Tibet) . Merges with river Ganga at Bhagalpur (Bihar)

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED . Consists of 7 streams & known as Saptakoshi in Nepal

. Main stream → Arun, Tamur & Sun Koshi . Formerly Known as Sorrow of Bihar

. Major Projects → Kusha Dam Son . Origin → Amarkantak Plateau (Near north of origin of Narmada) . Flows through to meet Ganga at Patna Gomti . Originates from Gomat Taal / Fulhaar jheel – Pilibhit

. A tributary of Ganga Yamuna . Origin → Yamunotri Glacier (Uttarkashi – Uttarakhand) . Largest Tributary of Ganga

. After cutting deep gorge across Shivalik, it enters into plains near Tajewala

. Flows southward up to & then turns southeast to meet Ganga at Allahabad

. Famous tributaries → Chambal, Sind, Betwa & Ken Betwa . Major Tributaries → Tributary of Yamuna, rises from , MP . Major Projects → Matatila dam & Rajghat dam Ken . Rises from Kaimur hills in Satna (Madhya Pradesh), a tributary of Yamuna

. Famous for its Shajar stone & Raneh waterfalls Chambal . Origin → Vindhya Range (Mhow, MP) . Passes through Kota & Dhaulpur (Rajasthan)

. Merge with Yamuna at Etawah (UP)

. forms boundary between Rajasthan & MP

. Major tributaries → Kali Sindh, Parvati & Banas . Main Power Projects → Gandhisagar, Rana Pratap Sagar & Jawahar Sagar Banas . Originate from eastern slopes of Aravali

. Tributary of Chambal Damodar . Origin → Eastern part of Chhota Nagpur Plateu

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED . Meets Hoogli at Falta

. Power Projects → Talaiya, Maithan, Barakar &

Brahmaputra River System Brahmaputra . Origin → Chemayungdung Glacier (Kailash Range, Tibet) . In Tibet, known as TSANG – PO . In China, known as YARLUNG ZANBO

. Forms grand canyon in Tibet

. Turns southward near Namcha – Barwa

. Enters Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang River at Sadiya, emerging from the mountains

. Joined by Dibang river from the north & Lohit river from the south → Known as Brahamputra . Turns at Dhubri to enter into Bangladesh

. After joining Teesta, known as Jamuna in BD

. Joins Ganga & Megna → Merges to BOB nd . Forms many river island of which Majuli is world 2 largest one

. Major tributaries → Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta, Meghna (Barack in Assam), Manas .

Teesta . Major tributary of Brahmaputra

. Rises from Sikkim

. Known as lifeline of Sikkim Lohit . Tributary of Brahmaputra

. Flows through Arunachal Pradesh

. Along with river Dihang merges into Brahmaputra, at Sadia town (Arunachal Pradesh)

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Peninsular Rivers India Luni . Desertic river, also known as the Sagarmati

. Rises from the western slopes of the Aravalli Range near

. Ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat

. Inspite of high salinity, it is a major river in region

. Serves as a primary source of irrigation Sabarmati . Rises from in Aravalli Range of the Udaipur (Rajasthan)

. Flow Route: Udaipur → Gulf of Khambat → Arabian Sea via Estuary Mahi . Rises from Vindhya range (MP)

. flows through MP, Rajasthan & Gujrat & drains in Gulf of Cambay

. Famous Projects → Banswara Dam & Kadana dam Narmada . Origin → Amarkantak, Shahdol, MP . Also known as Rewa River

. Flows through rift valley of Vindhya & Satpura

. Flow Route: MP → Bharuch (Gujrat) → Gulf of Khambat (Gujrat) → Arabian Sea via Estuary . Longest among all east to west flowing rivers . Known as Life line of MP . Forms Duandhar falls at Jabalpur . Only tributary → Hiran River . Aliabet → Largest Island in Estuary

. Famous projects →, Maheshwar Dam, Indira Tawa . Rises in the Satpura Range of Betul (MP)

. Narmada’s longest tributary Tapi . Origin → Mahadev hills, Satpura range, Betul district, MP . Flow Route: MP → Maharashtra → Gulf of Khambat or Cambay → Arabian Sea via Estuary . Famous projects → Kakrapar Dam & Ukai Dam

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Periyar . Rises from Western Ghats in Kerala

. Flows towards west & drains in Arabian Sea via an estuary Mahanadi . Origin → Hills, Raipur . Flow Route: Chhattisgarh → Orissa → EGs → BOB . Famous Project : Hirakund Dam Godavari . Origin → Triambakeshwar Plateau, , WGs . Largest Peninsular River

. Known as Dakshina / Vriddha Ganga

. Flow Route: Nashik → Andhra Pradesh → BOB . Famous Tributaries → Penganga, Sabri, Wardha & Indravati . Famous Projects → Poochampad, Jayakwadi, Polavaram Penganga . Rises from Ajanta hills (Maharashtra)

. a tributary of River Wardha which finally merges into Godavari Krishna . Origin → Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra, WGs . Flow Route: Maharashtra → Andhra Pradesh → BOB . Famous Projects → Koyna, Tugrabhdra, & Tungabhadra . a major tributary of Krishna

. Rises from Western Ghats Bhima . Rises from Balaghat range (Maharashtra)

. Tributary of Krishna Kaveri . Origin → Brahamgiri hills, Karnataka, WGs . Flow Route: Karnataka → Kaveripatnam (TN) →BOB . Perrenial River

. Forms Shivasundaram Waterfalls

. Famous projects → Krishnaraja sagar & Mettur Penner . Rises from Karnataka

. Flows betweenKrishna & Kaveri

. Drains into BOB Vaigai . Rises from Palni hills (TN)

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED . A seasonal river flows through TN

. Drains in Gulf of Mannar

Major River Valley Projects of India

PROJECT RIVER STATE Bhakra Nangal Multipurpose Satluj Joint venture of Project. Punjab, (A tributary of Indus). and Rajasthan. : One of the highest gravity in the world. Govind Sagar Lake (H.P.) is a reservoir. Thein Dam project Ravi (A tributary of Indus). Punjab Dulhasti project Chenab (A tributary of Indus). Jammu and Kashmir Salal project Chenab (A tributary of Indus). Jammu and Kashmir Beas Project Beas (A tributary of Indus). Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana Sharda Sahayak Project Chuisot stream near Kalabagh and Rajasthan. Banasagar project Son M.P., Bihar and U.p. Rihand Scheme Reservoir: Rihand Uttar Pradesh Godind Ballabh Sagar (U.P.) Damodar valley multipurpose Damodar West Bengal (also project shared by Four dams: and (on Jharkhand). the ), Konar () and Panchet (). Mayurakshi project Mayurakshi West Bengal Hirakud, multipurpose Project Mahanadi Orissa (world’s longest mainstream dam). Poochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh Upper Krishna Project Krishna Karnataka Tungabhadra multipurpose Tungbhadra (A tributary Krishna). Joint venture of

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED project Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Ghatprabha project Ghatprabha (A tributary of Andhra Pradesh Krishna). and Karnataka. Malprabha project Malprabha(A tributary Karnataka of Krishna). Bima project Bhima Maharashtra Mettur project Cauvery Tamil Nadu Shivasamudram Scheme On Cauvery Falls Karnataka Kundah project Kundah Tamil Nadu Project Sharavati(near Jog Karnataka falls) Chambal project Chambal (A tributary of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh (Gandhi Sagar Dam (M.P.), Rana Pratap Sagar and or Kota Dam. Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat Sardar Sarovar Project Narmada Gujarat, M.P. Rajasthan Maharashtra Tawa project Tawa (A tributary of Narmada. Madhya Pradesh Mahi Project (Jamnalal Bajaj Mahi Gujarat Sagar) Matatila project Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh Nagarjunasagar Krishna Telangana Pochampad (Sri Ramasagar) Godavari Telangana Srisailam Krishna A.P. Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat Ukai Tapi Gujarat Hirakud Mahanadi Orissa Bhakra Nangal Himachal Pradesh Pong (Maharana Pratap Sagar) Beas Himachal Pradesh Thein (Ranjit Sagar) Ravi Punjab Baglihar Chenab Jammu & Kashmir

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Chutak Suru Jammu & Kashmir Panchet Damodar Jharkhand Maithon Barakar Jharkhand Tehri Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Koyna Koyna Maharashtra Mettur Kaveri Tamilnadu Krishnaraja Sagar Kaveri Karnataka Alamatti Krishna Karnataka Mullaperiyar Periyar Kerala Gandhisagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh Nimoo Bazgo Indus Jammu & Kashmir

Factors related to Location and Relief- Climate 1- Latitude - Northern part of the India lies Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the while climate refers to the average of the weather part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer falls conditions over a longer period of time. Weather in the tropical zone. The tropical zone being changes quickly, may be within a day or week but nearer to the equator, experiences high climate changes imperceptively and may be noted temperatures throughout the year with small after 50 years or even more. daily and annual range. Area north of the Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds. India Tropic of Cancer being away from the has hot monsoonal climate which is the prevalent equator experiences extreme climate with climate in south and . high daily and annual range of temperature.

Factors determining the 2-The Himalayan Mountains : The lofty Himalayas in the north along with its

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED extensions act as an effective climatic Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind divide. The towering mountain chain 1-Distribution of air pressure and winds provides an invincible shield to protect the on the surface of the subcontinent from the cold northern winds. The Himalayas also trap the monsoon 2- Upper air circulation caused by factors winds, forcing them to shed their moisture controlling global weather and the inflow of within the subcontinent different air masses and jet streams

3- Distribution of Land and Water India 3 - Inflow of western cyclones generally is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three known as disturbances during the winter sides in the south and girdled by a high and season and tropical depressions during the continuous mountain-wall in the north. As south-west monsoon period into India, compared to the landmass, water heats up or creating weather conditions favourable to cools down slowly. This differential heating rainfall. of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around the Indian subcontinent. Difference in air Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season pressure causes reversal in the direction of • Surface Pressure and Winds : monsoon winds. A high pressure centre in the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops 4- Distance from the Sea : With a long during winter which gives rise to the flow coastline, large coastal areas have an of air at the low level from the north equable climate. Areas in the interior of towards the Indian subcontinent, south of India are far away from the moderating the mountain range. influence of the sea. Such areas have The surface winds blowing out of the high extremes of climate. pressure centre over reach India in the form of a dry continental air 5-Altitude : Temperature decreases with mass. These continental winds come in height. Due to thin air, places in the contact with trade winds over northwestern mountains are cooler than places on the India. plains. 6- Relief : The physiography or relief • Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation : of India also affects the temperature, air Higher up in the lower troposphere, about pressure, direction and speed of wind and three km above the surface of the earth, a the amount and distribution of rainfall. The different pattern of air circulation is windward sides of Western Ghats and observed. The variations in the Assam receive high rainfall during June- atmospheric pressure closer to the surface September whereas the southern plateau of the earth have no role to play in the remains dry due to its leeward situation making of upper air circulation. along the Western Ghats.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED All of Western and Central Asia remains • Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation : under the influence of westerly winds An easterly jet stream flows over the along the altitude of 9-13 km from west to southern part of the Peninsula in June, and east. These winds blow across the Asian has a maximum speed of 90 km per hour. continent at latitudes north of the In August, it is confined to 15oN latitude, Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan and in September up to 22o N latitudes. highlands. These are known as jet streams. The easterlies normally do not extend to the north of 30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere. Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season • Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical • Surface Pressure and Winds : Cyclones : As the summer sets in and the sun shifts The easterly jet stream steers the tropical northwards, the wind circulation over the depressions into India. These depressions subcontinent undergoes a complete play a significant role in the distribution of reversal at both, the lower as well as the monsoon rainfall over the Indian upper levels. By the middle of July, the subcontinent. The tracks of these low pressure belt nearer the surface depressions are the areas of highest rainfall [termed as Inter Tropical Convergence in India. The frequency at which these Zone (ITCZ)] shifts northwards, By this depressions visit India, their direction and time, the westerly jet stream withdraws intensity, all go a long way in determining from the Indian region. the rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoon period. It is generally believed that there is a cause and effect relationship between the ictz and jet stream . The ITCZ being a zone of The Nature of indian monsoon low pressure, attracts inflow of winds from different directions. The maritime tropical Onset of the Monsoon airmass (mT) from the southern • During April and May when the sun shines hemisphere, after crossing the equator, vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the large rushes to the low pressure area in the landmass in the north of Indian ocean gets general southwesterly direction. It is this intensely heated. This causes the formation of an intense low pressure in the northwestern moist air current which is popularly known part of the subcontinent. as the southwest monsoon. • Since the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the

The Inter Tropical south of the landmass is high as water gets Convergence Zone (ITCZ) heated slowly, the low pressure cell attracts the  a low pressure zone located southeast trades across the Equator. at the equator where trade winds converge, and so, it is EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon a zone where air tends to ascend.  In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes The name associated with excellence Aspire(over the Gangetic plain), IAS 10/70 Old Rajenedersometimes called Nagar the N.Delhi www.aspireias.com 8010068998/9999801394 monsoon trough.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED • EI-Nino is a complex weather system that There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in appears once every three to seven years, India. bringing drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world. The 1- in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over system involves oceanic and atmospheric the plains of . phenomena with the appearance of warm currents off the coast of Peru in the Eastern 2- the Arabian Sea current of the south- west Pacific and affects weather in many places monsoon which brings rain to the west coast including India. of India.

Break in the Monsoon: • EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced During the south-west monsoon period after temporarily by cold Peruvian current or having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur Humbolt current (locate these currents in your for one or more weeks, it is known as break in the atlas). This current increases the temperature monsoon. These dry spells are quite common of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°C. during the rainy season.

This results in: The rhythm of seasons: (i) the distortion of equatorial atmospheric The climatic conditions of India can best be circulation; described in terms of an annual cycle of seasons. (ii) irregularities in the evaporation of sea four seasons : water; (i) the cold weather season (iii) reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in (ii) the hot weather season the sea. (iii) the southwest monsoon season

The word EI-Nino means ‗Child Christ‘ because (iv) the retreating monsoon season this current appears around Christmas in December. December is a summer month in Peru (). EI-Nino is used in India The Cold Weather Season: for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there was a wild EI-Nino event and the  In northwestern India, some weak temperate onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over cyclones from the cause most parts of the country ranging from five to rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and twelve days. western Uttar Pradesh.  Although the amount is meagre, it is highly Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall beneficial for rabi crops. The precipitation is Distribution in the form of snowfall in the lower Himalayas. It is this snow that sustains the

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED flow of water in the Himalayan rivers during oppressive. This is commonly known as the the summer months. October heat‘  During October and November, northeast  The weather in the retreating monsoon is monsoon while crossing over the Bay of dry in north India but it is associated with Bengal, picks up moisture and causes rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula. torrential rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, Here, October and November are the rainiest southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast months of the year. Karnataka and southeast Kerala.  The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic The Hot Weather Season depressions which originate over the  In the coastal regions, the north-south extent Andaman Sea and manage to cross the ofisotherms parallel to the coast confirms eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. that temperature does not decrease from Distribution of Rainfall north to south rather it increases from the coast to the interior. The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations . The Southwest monsoon season  Areas of High Rainfall : The highest The rain in the southwest monsoon season rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the begins rather abruptly. One result of the first Western Ghats, as well as in the sub- rain is that it brings down the temperature Himalayan areas is the northeast and the substantially. This sudden onset of the moisture- hills of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall laden winds associated with violent thunder and exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of Khasi lightening, is often termed as the ―bre The and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 monsoon approaches the landmass in two cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the branches: adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200 (i) The Arabian Sea branch cm.

(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.  Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the

southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, Season of Retreating Monsoon northeastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh,  The months of October and November are northern Ganga plain along the sub- known for retreating monsoons. Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and  The retreating southwest monsoon season is Manipur. marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and  Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar humidity, the weather becomes rather Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat  Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall the Peninsula, especially in Andhra between 50-100 cm. Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Fig: India-Annual Rainfall

Climatic Regions of India hence, dry. If dryness is less, it is semi arid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid(W). Major climatic types of India based on Koeppen‘s  Warm temperate climates, where mean scheme: Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic temperature of the coldest month is classification on monthly values of temperature between 18°C and minus 3°C. and precipitation. He identified five major  Cool temperate climates, where mean climatic types, namely: temperature of the warmest month is over  Tropical climates, where mean monthly 10°C, and mean temperature of the coldest temperature throughout the year is over month is under minus 3°C. 18°C.  Ice climates, where mean temperature of  Dry climates, where precipitation is very the warmest month is under 10°C. low in comparison to temperature, and

Fig: Climatic Regions of India According to Koeppen’s Scheme

i. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Natural vegetation Forests It refers to a plant community that has been left  found in the western slope of the Western undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its Ghats, hills of the northeastern region and individual species to adjust themselves to climate the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and soil conditions as fully as possible.  found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and Types of forests: mean annual temperature above 22oC.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED  well stratified, with layers closer to the  They spread over regions which receive ground and are covered with shrubs and rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis creepers, with short structured trees of the availability of water, these forests followed by tall variety of trees. are further divided into moist and dry  trees reach great heights up to 60 m or deciduous above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. iv. The Moist deciduous: As such these forests appear green all the  forests are more pronounced in the regions year round. Species found in these forests which record rainfall between 100-200 cm. include rosewood, mahogony, aini, ebony,  These forests are found in the northeastern etc. states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and ii. The semi evergreen Odisha.  found in the less rainy parts of these  Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, regions. semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the  Such forests have a mixture of evergreen main species of these forests. and moist deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers provide an v. Dry deciduous forest – evergreen character to these forests. Main  covers vast areas of the country, where species are white cedar, hollock and kail rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm. found The British were aware of the economic in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the value of the forests in India, hence, large plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. scale exploitation of these forests was  the dry season begins, the trees shed their started. The structure of forests was also leaves completely and the forest appears changed. like a vast grassland with naked trees all  The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon around. were replaced by pine (chirs) which was  Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, needed to lay railway lines. Forests were axlewood, etc. are the common trees of also cleared for introducing plantations of these forests. tea, rubber and . The British also used timber for construction activities as it vi. Tropical Thorn Forests acts as an insulator of heat. The  in the areas which receive rainfall less protectional use of forests was, thus, than 50 cm. replaced , thus, replaced by commercial  These consist of a variety of grasses and use. shrubs.  It includes semi-arid areas of south west iii. Tropical Deciduous Forests Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,  These are the most widespread forests in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. plants India.They are also called the monsoon remain leafless for most part of the year forests. and give an expression of scrub vegetation.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED  babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, regions, and subtropical on the lower neem, khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass regions of the Western Ghats, especially in grows upto a height of 2 m as the under Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. growth.  The temperate forests are called in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and hills. vii. Montane Forests Some of the other trees of this forest of  In mountainous areas, the decrease in economic significance include, magnolia, temperature with increasing altitude leads laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests to a corresponding change in natural are also found in the Satpura and the vegetation. Maikal ranges.  Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests ix. Littoral and Swamp Forests and the southern mountain forests  India has a rich variety of  The Himalayan ranges show a succession habitats. of vegetation from the tropical to the  About 70 per cent of this comprises areas tundra, which change in with the altitude. under paddy cultivation. Two sites — Deciduous forests are found in the (Odisha) and Keoladeo foothills of the Himalayas. National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention viii. The southern mountain forests of Wetlands of International Importance  found in three distinct areas of Peninsular (Ramsar Convention). India viz; the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Fig: India- Natural Vegetation

The country‘s wetlands have been grouped into eight categories, viz. imageries. A. the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the According to lagoons and other wetlands of the southern west coast; India State of Forest Report B. the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh 2011, the actual forest C. freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan cover in () and Madhya Pradesh; India is only

D. the delta wetlands and lagoons of India‘s east coast (Chilika Lake); 21.05 per cent. E. the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;  Most of the states F. the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills with less than of and the Himalayan foothills; 10 per cent of

G. the lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and the forest area lie in the H. the forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the north and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt northwestern marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and . part of the country. Forest cover in india These are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and It is important to note that the forest area and the Delhi. actual forest cover are not the same. The forest  Lakshadweep has zero per cent forest area; area is the area notified and recorded as the forest Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93 land irrespective of the existence of trees, while per cent. the actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy.  The former is based on the records of the Soils State Revenue Department, while the latter is based on aerial photographs and satellite It is the mixture of rock deb

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

ris and organic materials which develop on the climate, vegetation and other life-forms and time. earth‘s surface. The major factors affecting the Components of the soil are mineral particles, formation of soil are relief, parent material, humus, water and air.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Classification of soils In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their • Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks nature and character as per the United States • Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil • rocks Taxonomy. • Deccan • A. Alluvial soils Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks B. Black (or Regur soil) of extra peninsular India {Rock System} C. Red and Yellow soils Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks D. Laterite soils E. Arid and desert soils They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian F. Saline and alkaline soils era)(formed due to solidification of molten magma G. Peaty and marshy soils about 4billion years ago)]. They form the H. Forest and mountain soils ‘Basement Complex’ of peninsular India.

Factors that influence soil formation in Indian They are basically granites, gniesses and schists. Conditions These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on weathering. The red 1. Parent Material colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron 2. Relief oxide. 3. Climate 4. Natural Vegetation Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks

Parent Material They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick). On weathering they give calcareous The rocks from which soils are formed are called [containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and parent materials. In most of the cases, the parent argillaceous [consisting of or containing clay] material determines the colouration, mineral soils. composition and texture of the soil. The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous In some cases, the soil formed may or may not minerals. have the same physical properties of the parent rock. Climatic factors induce chemical changes Gondwana rocks which also affect physical properties of the soil. These rocks are also sedimentary in nature and The surface rocks are exposed to the process of they are much younger. On weathering they give weathering. In this process, the rocks are rise to comparatively less mature soils. The soil is converted into fine grains and provide a base for more or less of uniform character but of low the soil formation. fertility.

Deccan basalts

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks Peninsular India many hundred million years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps. Basaltic lava flowed Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten India have given rise to soils with high porosity. lakh sq km. These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial soils on weathering. Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium. Consequently the weathering of Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. these rocks has given rise to soils of darker colour. These soils have little relation with the original The is fertile with high moisture holding capacity rocks. On the other hand, the soils of peninsular and is popularly known as ‘regur’ or black cotton plateau are generally coarse-grained and are soil. closely related to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED

Fig: Major Soil Types of India

Relief Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal The relief is the most important factor for soil ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there formation in places with steep slopes like the hilly is minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep regions, edges of plateaus etc. southern slopes) etc.

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the experience deposition and have deep soils. process of vegetation decay is very slow and the Example: Indo-Gangetic plain. The exceptions in soils are acidic in nature. In areas of heavy rainfall the plateau are river basins where the soil layers and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. are sufficiently deep. Why?

Climate Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the materials into Temperature and rainfall are the most important deeper horizon. factors in soil formation. They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, During the dry summer season the evaporation the quantity of water seeping through the soil and exceeds precipitation and through capillary action the type of micro-organisms present therein. iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making the soil red. Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate. Similarly, In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the the same parent material may produce two leached material which goes deep down in the different types of soils in two different types of horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes climates. the top soil so hard that it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in literally means brick. relatively moist parts of the monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas. Hot summer and Natural Vegetation low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of Tamil Nadu irrespective of the Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of parent rock. relief and climate. The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth the growth of vegetation. to sandy soil under arid climate. The decayed leaf material adds much needed In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always humus to soil thereby increasing its fertility. The exceeds precipitation. There is little vegetation densely forested areas contain some of the best and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils in India. There is a close relationship soils are invariably of light colour. between the vegetation types and soil types in India. In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid and arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter].

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India MAPPING-1 NCERT BASED PT Titbits:

Types of States where Rich in Lacks in Crops Soils found grown Alluvial Mainly found in the Potash and Nitrogen and Large variety of plains of Lime Phosphorous rabi and kharif Gujarat, Punjab, crops such as Haryana, UP, Bihar, wheat, rice, Jharkhand etc. sugarcane, cotton, jute etc. Black Deccan plateau- Lime, Iron, Phosphorous, Cotton, (Regur soil) Maharashtra, Magnesia and Nitrogen and sugarcane, jowar, Madhya Pradesh, Alumina, organic matter tobacco, wheat, Gujarat, Andhra Potash rice etc. Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Valleys of Krishna and Godavari. Red Eastern and southern Iron and Nitrogen, Wheat, rice, part of the deccan Potash Phosphorous and cotton, sugarcane plateau, Orissa, humus. and pulses Chattisgarh and southern parts of the middle Ganga plain. Laterite Karnataka, Kerala, Iron oxide and Organic matter, Cashewnuts, tea, Tamilnadu, Madhya potash Nitrogen, coffee, rubber Pradesh, Assam and Phosphate and Orissa hills. Calcium Arid and Desert Western Rajastan, Soluble salts, Humus, Nitrogen Only drought north Gujarat and phosphate resistant and salt southern Punjab tolerant crops such as barley, rape, cotton, millets maize and pulses Saline and Western Gujarat, Sodium, Nitrogen and Unfit for Alkaline deltas of eastern Potassium, Calcium agriculture coast, Sunderban Magnesium areas of West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana

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