The Gold Star Journal 2016
Flag in Sun by Ashley Williams
ii The Gold Star Journal 2016 About the Staff
Luis Miguel Parrado, Editor-in-Chief Miguel, a senior, is a Political Science major specializing in pre-law studies. He is the captain of the Intercollegiate Ethics Bowl team, actively involved in the Honors Program, and currently serves as Mike Company’s Commander. He has earned gold stars every semester at The Citadel, as well as President’s List twice. Miguel plans to attend law school upon graduation from The Citadel.
Jennifer Burch, Editor Jennifer is a senior member of Victor Company and comes from Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. She is a Criminal Justice major and a member of the Honors Program. Jennifer has received Gold Stars and Dean’s List for seven semesters and is also a member of The Citadel Women’s Rifle Team, as well as a member of The Citadel’s Model Arab League team. Jennifer will be commissioned in May of 2016 as a Field Artillery Officer. Lauren Seedor, Editor Lauren is a junior in Lima Company. She comes from Wayne, Pennsylvania. She is a Political Science major with a French minor, pursuing a gold seal track through the Honors Program. She has a four-year Army ROTC scholarship, with hopes of becoming a Military Intelligence Officer upon graduation. Lauren is the future editor-in-chief. She is involved in the Honors Program Student Advisory Council, Phi Kappa Phi, and Phi Sigma Alpha. John Clark, Editor John is a sophomore Business Administration major with a focus in accounting. He is a recipient of the Citadel Scholars Scholarship and has earned Gold Stars for three semesters. He will commission as an officer in the US Army upon graduation. John hopes to earn an MBA following his service.
iii The Gold Star Journal 2016 About the Staff
Ryan Leach, Editor Ryan is a US Army Veteran and senior Political Science major with a specialization in American Government. In addition to his major, he is pursuing a minor in Southern Studies as well as an Honors Gold Seal. He is a member of the Honors Program Student Advisory Committee. Ryan is currently applying for a Rotary Scholarship to pursue a Masters in Sociology and Culture from the London School of Economics. Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk, Advisor Dr. Mabrouk is a Professor of Chemistry at The Citadel. She teaches organic chemistry, introduction to chemistry for non-science students, and the chemistry of art. She earned her A.B. from Wheaton College and her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Dr. Mabrouk enjoys working with the editors of The Gold Star Journal each year. Her hobbies include making soap and toiletries, using the lathe and scroll saw, cooking, and reading.
iv The Gold Star Journal 2016
The editors and advisor of The Gold Star Journal thank the following individuals and groups for contributing funds to the 20th anniversary issue:
Anonymous The Citadel Foundation Fidelity Foundation BG Samuel M. Hines, Jr., SCM, Emiritus Provost and Dean of The College Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk and Mr. Stephen S. Jones School of Business Administration School of Engineering School of Humanities and Social Sciences Mr. Daniel J. Vallini, 1995 Zucker Family School of Education
If you would like to support this publication, please make a donation to The Citadel Foundation and specify your contribution to The Gold Star Journal. Thank you.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this publication are solely those of the authors and editors and do not necessarily reflect those of The Citadel.
v The Gold Star Journal 2016
A Letter From the Editors As editors, we are exceptionally proud of our Twentieth Anniversary Edition of The Gold Star Journal. We hope you enjoy the featured papers submitted by some of the best minds The Citadel has to offer. For this year, as with others, we have selected an assortment of papers we found to be outstanding. Selecting papers for publication was especially challenging this year, as we had a record number of high quality submissions! Especially striking about this year’s papers was the ability of the authors to explore the ethical and socially relevant dimensions of their subjects--demonstrating not only a deft intellectual grasp of the material but also a humanistic perspective that speaks to their characters and passions.
John Hope, winner of “best undergraduate paper,” analyzes the philosophical underpinnings of American political thought in both the Conservative and Progressive tradition. Joseph Draper tells of the history of explorer, Jacques Cartier and his voyages to North America. Matt Scalise, who won our award for “best overall paper,” discusses the relationship between religious belief and homosexuality and how this relationship continues to evolve. Grant Miller examines the rhetorical skills of Marc Antony as presented in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. Michael Holmes presents the art of spycraft as it was practiced during the American Revolution. Picking up from the art of spying, Joshua Hamilton investigates the science of the parachute landing fall and its effects on the body. Finally, Brett Seidler considers the threat posed by the terrorist group Al-shabaab to East Africa and the impact this has on the international community.
Recognition and appreciation are also due to Karl Mack of the Sun Printing Co. for his continued help printing the journal and to John Whitten of Citadel ITS for his assistance and expertise in developing the design of this year’s edition. We also wish to extend a heartfelt thank you to all of our gracious donors whose contributions made it possible for our Twentieth Anniversary Edition to be printed in color. Additional thanks to our readers and their constructive feedback as to how we can make a stronger journal, year after year.
Finally, we would like to recognize our faculty advisor Dr. Mabrouk for her tireless patience and invaluable advisement in each year’s Gold Star Journals. Her dedication to the journal has helped us countless times, and we are sure that she will be a guide for future editors, long after we have left.
Luis Miguel Parrado, Editor-in-Chief Jennifer Burch, Editor Lauren Seedor, Editor Ryan Leach, Editor John Clark, Editor
vi The Gold Star Journal 2016 Table of Contents Progressive and Conservative Understandings of the American Political Tradition John Hope 1 Jacques Cartier’s Voyages to New France Joseph Draper 8 Homosexuality and Religion: Can Jewish and Christian Dogma Reconcile the Actions of the LGBT Community? Matthew Scalise 16 A Call to Arms: Oratory as a Leadership Tool in the Case of Marc Antony Grant Miller 26 Espionage During the American Revolution Michael Holmes 33
Mechanics of a Parachute Landing Fall Joshua Hamilton 39 Al-shabaab: Its Threat to the International Community and East Africa and the Need for More Support for the Mission in Somalia Brett Seidler 44 A History of The Gold Star Journal Ryan Leach 51
vii The Gold Star Journal 2016 “We hold these truths to be self-evident, Progressive and Conservative that all men are created equal, that they Understandings of the are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are American Political Tradition Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”1 By John Hope Those words, written by Thomas Jefferson, have had a significant impact upon human history — they have also been John Hope, Class of a source of rigorous political debate. Today, 2016, is a Political two political philosophies stand out as they vie Science major from for supremacy on the battlefield of American Spartanburg, South politics: progressivism and conservatism. Carolina. Currently the These two visions differ in their understanding Company Commander of the American political tradition in areas of November Company, such as equality, liberty, democracy, and the rule of law. Their advocates, well-known names he is a member of the on both sides such as Theodore Roosevelt Honors Program and and Franklin Roosevelt on one and Herbert has achieved Gold Hoover and Ronald Reagan on the other, have Stars each semester. With a specialization in furthered this competition. Both sides cite a International Relations and Military Affairs, as modern American crisis that must be solved well as a German minor, John has studied at the through their chosen creed: for progressives, German Military Academy and the London School the problem primarily concerns economic and of Economics. He is an Army contract and will social inequality, while conservatives identify an ever more-powerful state and an alienation commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in May. of traditional social norms. Recently the battle lines have been drawn clearer than ever Abstract before through the increasing partisanship of the party system— progressives and the left This paper examines the progressive in the Democratic Party and conservatives and conservative understandings of the and the right in the Republican Party. A nature of the American political tradition close analysis of these two schools of thought through the works and writings of select reveals not only the ideas and motivations eminent politicians and philosophers in behind progressivism and conservatism in both schools of thought and tracks their America, but also which side more accurately developments over the past three centuries. understands the American political tradition. Furthermore, it establishes the conservative understanding as having a more accurate Progressives and conservatives differ in view of the nature and institutions of their understanding of the American traditions the American political system.With a behind the creation of the United States, from presidential election looming, it is critical the motivations of the Founders that led to to analyze the origins of the political beliefs the Revolution, to the understanding of the of those running for office.
1 The Gold Star Journal 2016 meaning of progress. The origins of the modern in The Promise of American Life, which was progressive and conservative debate (in their “contained in the assertion of Lincoln, that our contemporary forms) are in the early 20th government is ‘dedicated to the proposition century—an era of huge economic inequality, that all men are created equal.’”2 Equality, as well as great optimism for the potential of increasingly emphasized in economic terms, the American people and government. The became a cornerstone of progressive politics. writings, actions, and beliefs of several men on both sides of the debate will be analyzed Other progressives differentiated on the to provide context for the ideological conflict. notion of economic equality through policies such as Theodore Roosevelt’s The Progressive “trust-busting” initiatives understanding of the American that would crack down on founding emphasizes the the ‘special interests’ of the radical nature of revolution wealthy that were detailed and what they see as the in his New Nationalism (and founding documents’ stress which he claimed were based on the ideal of equality. The on Lincolnian principles).3 “All men are created equal” Economic equality would clause in the Declaration of become even more important Independence is considered under FDR whose government as being of prime importance provided thousands of jobs and as a result Progressives and exponentially increased place substantial weight on government agencies in a bid to economic and later social address the Great Depression. inequality. Furthermore, Progressives turned their Theodore Roosevelt, they hold that equality progressive President of the United States 1901-190925 focus on equality into a is necessary for the quest—firstly, for increased maintenance of personal rights for the economically liberty and freedom. Progressivism’s advocates impoverished and later for increased rights believe that the fight for individual rights based for the socially impoverished. The Students on Enlightenment principles and embraced by for a Democratic Society(SDS) represented the Founding Fathers through the writings of the evolution of the progressive idea of such men as Locke and Hume continues today. equality in it’s Port Huron Statement when they demanded: “America should concentrate Herbert Croly, one of the founders on its genuine social priorities: abolish of modern Progressive political thought, squalor, terminate neglect, and establish emphasized the democratic mechanisms of the an environment for people to live in with Constitution that would enable social change dignity and creativeness.”4 To progressives, through government interference. These the government must assume a powerful democratic mechanisms meant the ability of role to guarantee the equality mentioned in all citizens to vote within a legal framework America’s founding documents. Furthermore, that took steps to make sure that all citizens Croly claimed that American democracy was were treated equally. Equality, Croly claimed based on Jeffersonian democracy combined
2 The Gold Star Journal 2016 with the Hamiltonian “principle of national through government intervention, as well as responsibility.”5 Essentially, a political elite quickly pushing the needed reforms through must be responsible “for the success of their the political system), a strong executive in political and social ideal” that is dedicated the tradition of Lincoln would be needed. to the entire American people through Theodore Roosevelt considered himself a “social improvement.”6 Croly believed “steward of the public welfare” while his cousin, that the government Franklin Delano Roosevelt, should incorporate the maintained that “action Hamiltonian ideal of and bold leadership” were being as efficient as needed to address the issues possible in order to of his day.10 11 To recap, embody the Jeffersonian progressives have used the ideal of solving social mantra of what they see as problems. The impatience the radical nature of the with the inefficiencies American Revolution as of traditional American well as the egalitarian and democracy was continued democratic ideals outlined under Theodore in the founding documents Roosevelt who was (that built on Enlightenment influenced by Croly’s principles) to advocate for ideas. Roosevelt wrote in the government taking New Nationalism, “I mean an active role in securing not merely that I stand economic and social for fair play under the equality, as well as a strong present rules of the game, executive to push through but that I stand for having Russell Kirk, conservative intellectual change in a political system b.1918-199426 those rules changed so as to work that is slow and complicated. for a more substantial equality of opportunity.”7 Not only were the American The conservatives, however, have people not being given a fair chance, but the a far different understanding of the ideals system was also tilted in favor of the “sinister of the founding fathers, of the role of the influence or control of special interests.”8 different branches of government, and on the very idea of progress. The beginning of Yet not only does Progressivism have modern political conservatism in America impatience with the American political can be traced back to Herbert Hoover and system, but it also has impatience with his emphasis on decentralized government, history. Woodrow Wilson remarked in The individualism, and incremental progress. New Freedom, “We are in the presence of Hoover’s individualism was not “progressive a new organization of society. Our life has individualism,” but individualism built upon broken away from the past…the old political “equality of opportunity to take that position formulas do not fit the present problems.”9 in the community to which [one’s] intelligence, character, ability and ambition entitle In order to accomplish these progressive him.”12 Equality of opportunity is based on a missions (economic and social equality
3 The Gold Star Journal 2016 conservative understanding of the nature of the and government (keeping it at the most local rule of law; this conservative understanding, level possible). This approach, conservatives differentiated through early documents such such as Barry Goldwater hold, is necessary as the Mayflower Compact and men such as so that “the people’s welfare depends on John Witherspoon, rested on the application individual self reliance rather than on state of “just and equal laws.”13 Conservatives paternalism.”16 Conservatives claim the maintain that an equal application of the law sentiment, that “government has proved to that has been determined as good for the whole be the chief instrument for thwarting man’s community enables all citizens to answer liberty,” is a clear echo of the claims made in “the challenge of opportunity… the challenge the Declaration of Independence about the of nature…the challenge of life… the call of British Crown.17 Subsidiarity in government the frontier,” in contrast to the progressive also means increased federalism, an ideal understanding that conservatives which focuses upon believe, was equal outcomes.14 Conservatives vehemently ingrained in the reject the ideas of social and founding documents Conservatives and was maintained vehemently reject political leveling as well as for many years until the ideas of social radicalism and revolutionary the progressive era, and political leveling, actions... and for many until radicalism, and the Civil War. The revolutionary actions it Twelve Southerners claims are visions of utopia, while they embrace and Richard Weaver, a group of scholars who tradition, spirituality and hierarchy. On defended Southern agrarianism and culture, progress, Russell Kirk, the founder of modern represented this strain of thought in their conservative intellectualism, believed that fight against industrialism and secularism. the American Revolution was a conservative one, in which the Founding Fathers sought to Modern American conservatism has its protect their English liberties against “royal origins in rejecting the progressive reforms innovation.” Kirk promoted the political of the early 20th century. The conservative philosophy of Edmund Burke, an Anglo-Irish intellectual and founder of the National Minister of Parliament (MP) during the late Review, William F. Buckley, wrote, “It is the job 18th century who not only advocated for the of centralized government (in peacetime) to rights of the American colonists to defend protect its citizens’ lives, liberty and property. their English liberties, but who also influenced All other activities of government tend to John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and John diminish freedom and hamper progress.”18 Randolph. Burke believed in a deliberate, That position towards government had entered temperate approach to progress while rejecting American policymaking some decades before. the radical approach of the French Revolution. Beginning with Herbert Hoover, conservatives have sought to increase individual rights The conservative approach to liberty through less government interference while means a strict adherence to the rule of law securing equality of opportunity through the combined with the subsidization of politics rule of law. Furthermore, conservatism has
4 The Gold Star Journal 2016 also meant embracing tradition with faith in that encourage utopianism through an incremental progress. Conservatism, in the idealistic view of human rationalism. classical American sense, claims to respect Progressive thinkers appropriated Thomas the values embedded within thousands Jefferson’s famous ‘wall of separation between of years of Western civilization that was church and state’ in order institutionalize a ultimately institutionalized by the founding radical secularization within the American fathers, and questions attempts to reject government. This secularization ignores or twist to their precedents. history; the founding fathers generally held the belief Both sides present that virtue was supposed to an intriguing claim: for be learned through religion progressives, the founding and civic education in public fathers were revolutionaries life. It would be much more who would have sought to accurate for progressives bring equality to all people to trace their beliefs to the through popular sovereignty, French Revolution, which but for conservatives those embraced ideas of “Liberté, same men wanted to hold on Égalité, and Fraternité,” to their ancient political rights than to the American of self government while being Revolution. Whereas the skeptical of radical political early Americans advocated change. However, when the for a “Humane, civil and actions and intentions of the Christian” people who were Edmund Burke, Anglo-Irish MP founding fathers are considered considered the founder of modern conservatism27 understood as imperfect in full, the conservative but capable of virtue cause is vindicated. Conservatives have through civic education and religion, a much better understanding of the the progressives emphasize the American founding as well as the intentions perfection of man through reason alone.19 of the founding fathers. The progressive understanding is not only inaccurate because For example, many states had official of the weight it places on equality, individual religions well into the 19th century and the rights and government centralization, but founding fathers clearly accepted the role of is harmful because it rejects the combined religious thought in public life (for instance, wisdom of Western civilization that was the inclusion of the terms “Supreme Judge,” reflected in America’s founding documents. “Nature’s God,” and “Divine Providence” in the Declaration of Independence and George To begin, America’s founding Washington’s Thanksgiving Address of 1789).20 documents, from the Mayflower Compact to The conservative position, expressed in the Federalist Papers, show that the founders Russell Kirk’s “Six Canons of Conservatism,” had a far different understanding of human articulates a “belief in a transcendent order, nature than the modern progressives do. or body of natural law, which rules society as Progressives trace their understanding of well as conscience.”21 The founders believed in human nature to Enlightenment principles a secular government, separated from religion
5 The Gold Star Journal 2016 due to government’s tendency towards the use guaranteed by the Constitution to the federal of force, which would be manned by a “virtuous government according to the Supremacy Clause people,” not a government whose position and the Federalist Papers. The progressives relative to society was based on relativistic are correct in asserting the example of moral principles as the progressives claim.22 Abraham Lincoln for the position of a strong executive, however for the first decades of The progressive notion of equality is the American government, Congress and the also antithetical to the position of the founders states were superior. Abraham Lincoln was as well as the purposes of the founding the first truly powerful icon of an American documents. Equality, as conservatives president. He wielded so much power in the understand it, midst of a terrible crisis. means the ability The progressive ideal of all citizens to Equality, as conservatives of a strong executive, have the equal understand it, means the as claimed by Croly opportunity to reach and the Roosevelts, their full potential ability of all citizens to have is simply meant to and to lead a good the equal opportunity to fit the progressives’ life. Equality in the goals as a result of application of the reach their full potential and their impatience law is also necessary to lead a good life. with the structure in order to protect of the American the rights of each governmental system. citizen to live freely. The progressive idea of equality requires government intervention, In order to address the problems stymying liberty and freedom. It also stifles of American society, the tools given to the individualism and increases the corruption American government by the founding fathers of government institutions because of the are the best tools available. Modern American necessary power given to those institutions problems, such as encroachments on personal (like the Supreme Court and the Executive) liberty due to government surveillance, debt in order to carry out progressive policies. problems due to huge government spending Progressive equality also breeds moral on welfare programs and war, and social relativism, which, as it has previously been said, problems such as poverty and joblessness, rejects the Christian principles of the American can all be addressed through the principles founding and the autonomy of the states. that were laid out by the founding documents. Equality cannot be addressed through the Furthermore, the founding fathers government creating winners and losers, foremost believed in self-governance and liberty cannot be addressed by increased liberty in order to rule with the “deliberate government surveillance and spending, sense of the community.”23 This meant that and freedom does not mean the stripping of the executive (the founders having learned traditional civic life from the public sphere. from the example of King George) was weak Instead, the government, in an age in which it compared to the legislative branch and that is increasing its power and influence, must be the states were given any powers that were not reformed to its original state by applying the
6 The Gold Star Journal 2016 principles of the American founding instead of the principles of alien philosophies. The 14. Kendall, Willmoore, and George W. American government is best run with the Carey. The Basic Symbols of the principles it was originally imbued, and these American Political Tradition, 48. principles happen to be advocated for by the conservative side of the American political 15. “Herbert Hoover: American debate. In an era in which political philosophy Individualism,” 1135. has swung too far left, the pendulum must be centered through adherence to the values of 16. Kirk, Russell. “The Idea of Conservatism.” In The Conservative Mind, from Burke to San the right. tayana, 4. Chicago: H. Regnery, 1953. Works Cited 1.“The Declaration of Independence: A 17. “Barry Goldwater: The Conscience Transcription.” National Archives and Records of a Conservative,” 1257. Administration. Accessed December 12, 2014. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/ 18. Ibid, 1261. charters/declaration_transcript.html. 19. Buckley, Jr., William F. “Our Mission State 2. Kramnick, Isaac and Lowi, Theodore. “Herbert ment.” National Review Online. Accessed December 13, 2014. http://www.nationalre 3. Croly: The Promise of American Life.” In Ameri view.com/articles/223549/our-mission- can Political Thought: A Norton Anthology, statement/william-f-buckley-jr. 1070. New York: W.W. Norton, 2009. 20. The Basic Symbols of the American 4. “Theodore Roosevelt: New Nationalism,” 1087. Political Tradition, 55.
5.“SDS: The Port Huron Statement,” 1297. 21. “The Declaration of Independence: A Transcription.” 6. “Herbert Croly: The Promise of American Life,” 1073. 22. “The Idea of Conservatism,” 8.
7. “Theodore Roosevelt: New Nationalism,” 1086. 23. The Basic Symbols of the American Political Tradition,138-150. 8. Ibid, 1086. 24. Ibid, 71. 9. Ibid, 1089. 25. https://upload.wikimedia.org/ 10. “Woodrow Wilson: The New Freedom,” 1103. wikipedia/commons/1/19/President_ Theodore_Roosevelt,_1904.jpg 11. “Theodore Roosevelt: New Nationalism,” 1086. 26. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_ 12. “Franklin Delano Roosevelt: First Kirk#/media/File:Russell_Kirk.jpg Inaugural Address,” 1180. 27. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_ 13. “Herbert Hoover: American Burke#/media/File:EdmundBurke1771.jpg Individualism,” 1134.
7 The Gold Star Journal 2016 The New World was initially discovered by Christopher Columbus in his service to the Jacques Cartier’s Voyages Spanish. It was not long before other European explorers were commissioned by imperial to New France powers such as the British, Portuguese, and French. There was a whole new land waiting By Joseph Draper to be explored and, to put it bluntly, exploited. The goods, minerals, and even the people could be used to fuel the growth of their empires and Joseph Moritz Draper, spheres of influence. Indeed, it was a good Class of 2016, is a history time to be an adventurer, as the monarchs of and political science double Europe were very willing to pay for the voyages major. He comes from Oscar to explore this new world with great hopes of Company from Huntley, the riches and land that could be acquired. Illinois. He has received Dean’s List for six semesters, The foremost French explorer of this Gold Stars four semesters time period was Jacques Cartier. He was born and Commandant’s and in the town of Saint-Malo, France on December 31, 1491, just one year before Columbus sailed President’s Lists one semester each. He is a member the uncharted Atlantic Ocean. The details of of the Citadel Honors College and is also a Citadel his upbringing are uncertain, though by some Scholar recipient. After graduation he plans to method he found himself earning a charter pursue a master’s degree in counterterrorism and a from King Francis I to explore the “northern commission in the U.S. Navy. lands” of what today is called America. Cartier would end up making three voyages to the New World, and would be responsible for the first Abstract attempted permanent French settlement of these lands. Eventually, Cartier would end up in While most Americans are familiar the same place he was born, Saint-Malo, where with explorers such as Christopher he would remain until his death on September Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci who 1st, 1557. His travels and exploration would no doubt played a significant role in the enable France to make great use of the wealth development of America, Jacques Cartier is of the “northern lands,” even in spite of the much less known for his exploration. He was harsh winter and suspicious natives. Though an adventurous man from France who would Cartier has not been remembered in history make three journeys to North America in an as well as other explorers, it could be argued effort to open a trade relationship with the that his exploration was just as important as natives and start a permanent colony. Apart that of Columbus. “The fame and service of from his expeditions, France would not the great captain whose untiring zeal in the likely have tried to settle the northern lands king’s service twice explored the St. Lawrence of America and the continent as we know it river after having first found the Gaspe coast, today would be shaped quite differently. has been somewhat obscured.”1 In spite of the obscure place he has in many history books, he
8 The Gold Star Journal 2016 still made a significant contribution to French The initial thought was that the land exploration and eventually control in Canada. was empty and barren. It seemed as if there was no hope to find anything of value in this In 1534, the French King Francis I particular region and on May 13th they, “set wanted to begin exploration of what was sail again trying to discover more wonders of referred to as the “northern lands” of the New this new world.”6 Cartier would sail into the World. Jacques Cartier was about to be given Gulf of St. Lawrence, but he did not realize his chance to make a mark on history and he what he had found. He thought that it was a would not waste it. On this journey he would bay like any other through which he had sailed. explore, “The Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. This ignorance came from the weather being Lawrence River and take possession of the overcast so that he could not fully explore territory in the name of the King of France, the layout of the waterway. Cartier would Francis I.”2 The stated goal of this first voyage eventually turn around due to the thick fog and of Cartier was to explore the coast, find a route would not fully comprehend the significance of to Asia, and find as much gold, riches and the Gulf of St. Lawrence until a later voyage. spices as possible. To accomplish his mission, Cartier was given two The first ships and sixty-one interaction with the men. This small party Though Cartier has natives of the area came left Saint-Malo on April not been remembered on June 1st, “along the 20th, and as a result of coast of Acadia (now Nova good weather, arrived in history as well as Scotia), Jacques Cartier May 10th. Cartier wrote other explorers, it found Micmac waving furs about the day in his could be argued that on sticks as an invitation 7 journal saying, “After his exploration was just to land and trade.” Their twenty days at sea we reaction of waving their finally reached the as important as that of furs and welcoming the shores and the men were Columbus. Europeans implies that more than happy to walk the Indians had traded on solid ground.”3 Cartier with Europeans previous would claim the land for King Francis shortly to this interaction. Still, they did not speak after, but first the successful crossing of the each other’s language, but the French were ocean called for a celebration and the men, able to trade to get some much needed food. “made a huge fire and ate some of our last Cartier was very suspicious of the natives from supplies of food and of course the traditional the first interaction he had with them, and he glass of wine for each.”4 Now that they had would keep his reservations even after several overcome the perils of the sea, the real work friendly interactions. Cartier would eventually was to begin. The following day, the men bring two Indians back to France with him, were broken into small groups to commence though whether they were willing travelers or a search of the area. Other than a mentioning kidnapped hostages is uncertain. These two that, “some of us almost got lost and appeared Indians were the sons of Chief Donnacanna, the only in the early hours of the morning,” nothing ruler of one of the villages with whom Cartier is reported about these initial explorations.5 traded. Either way the interaction between the
9 The Gold Star Journal 2016 Indians and French on this first voyage seems of the first voyage. They were no doubt excited to have been good enough that the Indians to return and agreed to serve the expedition were still friendly when Cartier returned on as guides. On this trip the Frenchmen would his second trip. When Cartier was going over have significantly more interaction with the maps with these two Indians they told him that natives, really discover the great location and the village was called “Kanata,” which Cartier accessibility of the St. Lawrence River, and give began to write on his maps in reference to the a name to this land which they were exploring. whole land. This would later become “Canada” The relations with the Indians eventually would the name of the land as we know it today. be strained, and the hardships of a bitter, cold winter would take their toll on Cartier’s men. This first voyage The men by Cartier on this trip was deemed a have been success by the described as, “A French King. sturdy band of The return of sailors equally the party in prepared to face relatively good the terrors of health was an the climate, or encouragement, the fury of the and the stories of savages, well the abundance disciplined, and 20 and quality of Route Map from Cartier’s 1534 Voyage having full faith the land were enough to in their commander, make the king desire further exploration. Jacques Cartier.”8 They would have had high The two Indians whom Cartier brought back hopes and expectations for what was to come no doubt told the king about the land, its after the reports from the first voyage were so resources and animals. In addition, there was positive. It is interesting to note that they felt still hope among the French at this time to prepared for both the cold and the Indians; find a passage through this land to the Indies. time would show that they were not really The favorable interaction with the natives, a prepared to deal with either. There was a feeling positive report from Cartier and the men, and of adventure and excitement within the group, the hope of a northwest passage to the Indies and as the quote suggests, they believed they all would help Cartier earn another chance to were in good hands with Cartier at the helm. explore Canada for the betterment and glory Heading into this trip, Cartier “had resolved to of France. endeavor to penetrate the continent by sailing up the great river he had named St. Laurent.”9 It was less than a year before Cartier was His goals for this voyage were lofty, and after once again headed over the ocean to Canada. the successful nature of his last trip, and the He departed on May 19th, 1535 with 112 men rudimentary understanding of the area he and three ships at his disposal. Two of these gained from that trip and the Indians he had one hundred and twelve, were the Indians captured, he would not easily be stopped. Cartier had brought back with him at the end
10 The Gold Star Journal 2016 T h e crossing of the ocean would a northwest passage to the Indies and Cartier not be as easy this time as it was on the first was determined to be the one to find it. He voyage. While no men died on the way during wrote in his journal, “I’m anxious to see what the first voyage, the men of this second trip lies ahead. Every day we are getting deeper and would not be as fortunate. Five men were lost deeper inside the continent which increases during the trek across the ocean, with the my curiosity.” The men were amazed with party arriving on the 1st of July 1535. There the beauty of the land surrounding the river, was not as much excitement and fanfare with and they grew very fond of the natives as well. the landing as there had been with the first voyage, as Cartier was ready to plunge further While the exploration of the area left into the continent than ever before. The group the men amazed with its rich beauty, there arrived at the same was no success in village from which finding a route to the their two Indian In 1534, the French King Francis I Indies. Soon winter guides had been wanted to begin exploration of what came, and the French taken a year before was referred to as the “northern would have to learn at the end of July. lands” of the New World. Jacques how to survive in the Upon their arrival, Cartier was about to be given his cold like they never the chief organized chance to make a mark on history had experienced. a large feast in honor Unfortunately, of the return of the and he would not waste it. Cartier’s distrust for two members of the Indians would the village and the really hurt them in visit of the Frenchman. In his journal Cartier this area. The Indians had been nothing but noted, “He threw a large feast for everyone. kind to the French on this visit, in spite of the He also gave us to drink this strong liquor fact Cartier had taken with him (willingly or made out of corn. It definitely got the men unwillingly) the chief’s sons on the last voyage. dizzy but the locals are peaceful so everything The chief still thought so highly of Cartier, turned out well.”10 This village would become “that on parting from his distinguished a sort of base of operations for the Frenchman visitor, the French sailor was requested for the remainder of their time in the area. to suffer his arm to be kissed, in Indian fashion.”12 Yet Cartier seemed determined to The largest ship the French had spoil the relationship between the Indians remained harbored at Stadacona, the Indian and his men ordering his men to stay away village, while their smaller ones were used from the Indian village during the winter to keep pushing up the St. Lawrence. The and not allowing any Indians aboard his ship. site of Stadacona would eventually become Cartier, “fancied the Indians meditated an Quebec, while another village further up river attack on his vessels during winter, and had known as Hochelaga would become Montreal. them fortified and surrounded by palisades.”13 Montreal got its name from Cartier because of its beauty. He called it “Mount Royal” in honor There was one exception in which an of the king and this was eventually changed to Indian woman was allowed to come aboard the Montreal. At this time there was still a belief in explorer’s ship. The Indian woman would come
11 The Gold Star Journal 2016 to nurse one of the men who had been very While Cartier spoke very nobly and sick for quite a while. A romance was kindled maintained a position of honor in his meeting between them and she continually came to the with the chief, had the Indians attacked ship to visit him and provide him with comfort. there was little hope any of the French would Her Indian husband did not approve of this survive. A combination of the cold giving the and the men aboard the ship reported that he men frostbite and a bad spread of scurvy left would beat her and harass her every time she twenty men dead, and most of the others too left. Eventually, Cartier decided she should weak to fight. The Chief recognized this and not be let aboard either, but she came anyway and refused to leave. She clung to her French invalid and Cartier Route Map from Cartier’s 1541-1543 Voyage:21 was forced to let her stay. As determined to help the a result of this, her Indian French recover by showing them a remedy husband decided he would form a raiding for scurvy that the Indians used. The French party and kill her and as many Frenchmen as were grateful to have this remedy and those possible. “The warriors were eager to attack who were afflicted soon began to regain their the Frenchmen whose conduct had effectually 14 strength. The Indians did not plan to attack effaced all kindly feelings from their hearts.” the French until the winter was over, so Fortunately for the French, Chief Donnacanna Cartier had time to plan a counter to the raid was not ready to give up on the French yet. The he now knew was coming. When spring came, Chief, “warned him of his danger, and pointed he decided to act first and he kidnapped nearly out, in noble manly language, that it was the 15 a dozen Indians including Chief Donnacanna. just retribution of the crime of his crew.” The Indians were shocked by this raid, but Cartier thanked the chief for his warning before they could respond the French ships and replied, “Jacques Cartier will never give lifted anchor and sailed away. up a woman who has sought his protection 16 to be butchered by savages.” The chief This second voyage was deemed to be was impressed by this resolve and withdrew less of a success than the first. While Cartier was hoping that conflict could still yet be avoided. able to really explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence, he was also unable to find a northwest
12 The Gold Star Journal 2016 passage to the Indies. The relationship with Frenchmen interested in going to live in the Indians was very strained as a result of Canada and he did not follow through with Cartier’s constant suspicion. Over thirty men the original plan of bringing settlers in the died on the expedition and most of those fall. Instead, Cartier and his men would have would have been prevented had the travelers to winter alone. In the spring Cartier decided learned from the Indians as to how to survive to abandon the effort and, “on his way home the cold winter, instead of hiding from them he met Roberval in a harbor of Newfoundland, during it. Upon the return to France, the king and disobeyed his orders to go back with him 17 was busy fighting wars with Britain and other to St. Lawrence.” Cartier sailed for his home European powers so he did not have time or port while Roberval was left to try and to money to consider another journey to Canada revive the settlement Cartier and his men had at the moment. Unlike the report from his first abandoned. Roberval, “applied himself with voyage, this one was less encouraging and did great energy to the settlement at Charlesbourg little to encourage potential adventurers to join Royal, but after a terrible winter’s experience Cartier’s third voyage, Cartier was sent out again to bring him home 18 which would come a (June, 1543).” This few years later in 1541. While no permanent settlement would be Cartier’s or route to the Indies was found last voyage to the When the land he had explored as a result of Cartier’s voyages and named. The King European wars came to and exploration, he still served an end a few years later was disappointed in 1541, King Francis France well by opening trade with his decision to again wanted to send relations with the native people. abandon Roberval and out explorers to Canada. would no longer offer The purpose of this voyage would not be to him a commission find a way to the Indies, but instead to form to explore or to settle the land. a permanent colony so the French could open up a great trading operation in the area. Cartier was unable to produce Obviously Jacques Cartier was the man to a permanent settlement in Canada, but he was lead such a daring attempt as he had a good not completely to blame for this failure. The understanding of the area and knew where food and supplies he brought initially were it would be good to settle. The plan was for not supposed to be enough to last through Cartier to lead an advance party to get the the first winter in Canada. If Roberval had colony set up and shortly after Jean-Francois come before the winter as originally planned de La Roque, Seignor de Roberval would come the result might have been different. In to be the governor of the colony. Roberval was addition, the French people were not very supposed to bring the colonists who would live interested in living in Canada. It would be in Canada. Cartier was given five ships of men a long time before a permanent settlement, and sent on his way. other than trading posts, were established.
The advance party arrived in early While no permanent settlement or summer and began to form a settlement route to the Indies was found as a result of near Quebec. Roberval was unable to find Cartier’s voyages and exploration, he still
13 The Gold Star Journal 2016 served France well by opening trade relations with the native people. Specifically, “Cartier Works Cited had demonstrated that European ships could ascend a thousand miles to meet Indians, who 1.John M. Clark, “A Recently Found Portrait of Jacques could come even greater distances by canoe Cartier,” Proceedings of the New York State Historical from the vast Great Lakes country, where Association 9 (1910): 112, accessed December 07, 19 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42889419. beaver abounded.” The beaver fur trade of Canada would become a huge industry for 2. Ralph Sarkonak, “A Brief Chronology of French Canada, 1534- French adventurers. The furs provided by the 1982,” Yale French Studies 65 (1983):276, accessed 07 December, 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2930052. Indians were not very expensive to trade and they were in very high demand back in Europe. 3. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyage of 1534.” last modified September 14, 2009. https://jacquescartier1534. This industry would be the fuel that would wordpress.com/journal-of-1534-voyage/. lead to the eventual construction of cities like Quebec and Montreal. If Cartier did not make 4. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyage of 1534.” his voyages and interact with the natives, there 5. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyage of 1534.” never would have been any French fur traders in the north and the area would probably 6. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyage of 1534.” have eventually ended up being utilized by 7. Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of the the British. The loss of industry to the French North (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), 94. coupled with the benefits that would have been 8. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The Illustrated reaped by the British would have changed Magazine of Art 2(1853): 59, accessed 07 December, the course of history. There is a pretty strong 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20538054. argument to be made that without the French 9. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The and Indian War, the American Revolution never Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 59 would have occurred. If Cartier did not explore 10. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyage of 1535-1536.” Canada, the French would not have been there Last modified September 14, 2009. https://jacquescartier1534. for the British to fight. In this case the British wordpress.com/the-journal-of-the-voyage-from-1535-1536/. colonists would not have been taxed and would 11. “The Diary of Jacques Cartier from the Voyages of 1535-1536.” have no reason to rise up against the British. 12. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 59 Jacques Cartier is not as famous of an explorer as someone like Christopher 13. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 60 Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, or Francis Magellan, but he played a very important role 14. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 62 in the development of the colonial world and as a result the world today. He deserves more 15. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The recognition than he is given for his daring Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 62 willingness to interact with the natives even 16. John Bonner, “Jacques Cartier in Canada,” The when he was suspicious of them and being Illustrated Magazine of Art 2(1853): 62 the leader of the first European expedition to 17. Arthur Tilley, “Rabelais and Geographical Discovery. II,” endure in the harsh Canadian winter. He did The Modern Language Review 3(1908): 210, accessed 07 that twice. Cartier should not be overlooked December, 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3713709. for his adventurous and bold exploration.
14 The Gold Star Journal 2016
18. Arthur Tilley, “Rabelais and Geographical Discovery. 20. https://jacquescartier1534.files.wordpress. II,” The Modern Language Review 3(1908): 210 com/2009/09/map1.gif?w=500
19. Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of the 21. http://www.pc.gc.ca/~/media/lhn-nhs/ North (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), 100. qc/cartierbrebeuf/map3.ashx
Morning Run Sunrise by Joseph Federico
15 The Gold Star Journal 2016 The relationship between homo- Homosexuality and sexuality and religion has varied greatly over time and place. Members of sexual Religion: minority groups are often discriminated Can Jewish and Christian against and oppressed as a result of their sexual orientation. These minority groups Dogma Reconcile the can be defined by, but not limited to, the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) Actions of the LGBT community. Given certain biological attributes, Community? Western culture predominately subsumes there are two dichotomous sexes each By Matthew Scalise possessing distinct traits and features that follow anatomical norms when having intimate, Matthew C. Scalise, sexual relationships. Humans are expected to class of 2016, is follow these orientations and expectations as a biology major/ a result of certain forms of social engineering, Spanish minor within such as religion. The advent and subsequent The Citadel’s Honors spread of the “Abrahamic religions” around Program. Actively 600-700BCE brought with it a set of values involved on campus, and customs that predominate within much of Western society to this day. Nevertheless, Scalise serves as present day doctrine within the world’s major president of the Pre- religions—namely Judaism and Christianity— Health Society. After vary greatly with regard to attitudes graduation, Matthew will attend medical school toward these divergent sexual orientations. at the Univervisty of South Carolina’s School of Medicine in Greenville. Those that oppose harmonizing religion with homosexual activity share their views in a variety of ways: from implicit opposition of homosexual activity to explicit condemnation Abstract of same-sex practices. Many argue that such Until recently, condemnation of actions constitute an affront to their deity and homosexuality was sanctioned by religious are inherently sinful1. Although this issue has and social institutions. Today, many of these raged for millennia, the human rights violations same groups have instead either adopted against the homosexual community in Russia more lenient views on homosexuals or and Uganda as well as the recent legalization have completely changed their view on of gay marriage in the United States make this the subject. This paper seeks to determine a pertinent issue today. Regardless of one’s if Judaism and Christianity, the two major position on the issue, much of the Western religions in the United States, can reconcile world looks to Judeo-Christian religious their religious dogma with homosexuality tradition or scriptural passages for authority. through an analysis of religious text, scientific evidence, and social change. First, however, the term “homosexuality” must be defined. Homosexuality is a fairly
16 The Gold Star Journal 2016 modern term with no Hebrew or ancient of Israel, nor a sodomite of the sons Greek equivalents. In fact, it was coined by a of Israel.” Deuteronomy 23:17 KJV2) Hungarian writer during the second half of the nineteenth century and was not incorporated The first two verses from the book of Leviticus into the English Bible until 1946.1 The term is express unequivocal condemnation of male applied to a person whose sexual orientation homosexual intercourse. The majority of is toward another of his or her own gender Orthodox and conservative Jews refer to these and, in this paper, will refer to members of verses when rejecting LGBT members from the LGBT community as well (albeit an unfair their religious community.1 They believe the characterization). All quotations and their Torah is the literal word of God and, therefore, analysis in relation to homosexuality should these verses carry with them divine authority. be understood in this light. Strangely, however, this prohibition does not extend to female homosexual acts and does A. Judaism and Homosexuality not clarify if all sexual acts between men are prohibited or solely homosexual intercourse. Homosexual activity and Judaism have Biblical scholar, Michael England, asserts been, for the most part, mutually exclusive that this is a result of the Jewish patriarchal since the writing of the Torah, the primary culture at the time the Torah was written: source of Jewish “males embodied the tradition and law, image of God… the 1 around 1300BCE. Present day doctrine within the male sex was believed The text mentions world’s major religions-namely to have an absolute homosexuality Judaism and Christianity-vary and inviolable several times: dignity. To treat a greatly with regard to attitudes man as one would a ב ּ ַכ ׁ ְשִת אֹל ,רָכָז-תֶאְו .1 toward these divergent sexual woman, then, was to הָבֵעֹוּת — ה ּׁ ָש ִא י ֵב ּ ְכ ׁ ְש ִמ orientations. violate the image of אוִה (“Thou shalt God by reducing the not lie with man to the status mankind, as with womankind: it is an of property.”3 In fact, many surrounding 2 abomination.” Leviticus 18:22 KJV ) cultures emphasized the status of their conquered enemies by subjecting them to anal penetration, an aggressive act meant הָבֵעֹוּת — ה ּׁ ָש ִא י ֵב ּ ְכ ׁ ְשִמ רָכָז-תֶא ב ַּכ ׁ ְשִי ר ׁ ֶש ֲא ׁש י ִא ו .2 .to denigrate them to the status of property ם ָּב םֶהיֵמ ְד ּ;ּותָמּוי תֹומ .םֶהיֵנׁ ְש ּוׂשָע (“If a man also lie with mankind, as he In the modern context, no person—male or lieth with a woman, both of them have female, heterosexual or homosexual—should committed an abomination: they shall be considered property, especially through surely be put to death; their blood shall means of sexual assault and rape.3,4 Therefore, 2 be upon them.” Leviticus 20:13 KJV ) this interpretation suggests that Judeo- Christian abhorrence to this concept was not דַחַא ְּב רַחְבִי-ר ֶׁשֲא םֹוקָּמ ַּב , ָך ְ ּב ְ ר ִק ְ ּב ב ֵׁש ֵי ָךְּמִע זי .3 ,necessarily about the homosexual act itself ָ .but of defacing God’s image and his primacy {ס} .ּוּנֶנֹוּת ,אֹל ֹול בֹוּט ַּב-- ך י ֶ ר ָע ְׁש (“There shall be no whore of the daughters
17 The Gold Star Journal 2016 Moreover, the two verses imply that which those versions are based.”3 The Torah the homosexual act of intercourse rather does not attack male prostitutes because than the homosexual individual is seen as an they engage in sexual intercourse with other “abomination.” Although this terminology men but, like their female counterparts, are seems to be a direct and unrelenting attacked because they serve alien gods. Thus, condemnation of the homosexual lifestyle, the words “whore” and “sodomite” are simply the word “to’avah” (abomination) is also the masculine and feminine forms of the same used in Deuteronomy 14:3 when referencing lewd profession.7 In recent years, there have animals that are forbidden to be consumed, been new interpretations claiming the Torah in Deuteronomy 17:1 when referring to ritual only dictates that the sexual act of anal sex is imperfection, in Deuteronomy 24:4 when forbidden, and thus considered an abomination discussing remarriage, as well as an additional by the Torah, while sexual orientation and 111 trivial times in the Bible.5 A closer reading even other sexual activities are not considered of the term reveals that a sin. to’avah characterizes a specific cultural offense Since the 1990s, or transgression rather Conservative Judaism has than the unnatural been engaged in an in-depth perversion with which study of homosexuality the word “abomination” in relation to Halakhah connotes. Moreover, it (Jewish religious law) and seems the Judeo-Christian presented a number of legal/ rejection of homosexuality theological arguments for may be centered on communal consideration.8 practical purposes, namely Gay Pride and American Flags 36 Ultimately, they condemn homosexuality’s lack of procreative homosexual intercourse but potential. This tenet was especially important do not condemn the homosexual individual, in early Judaism because procreation was believing that homosexual attraction is not essential for the growth and expansion of its inherently sinful but homosexual intercourse burgeoning religious views, unique culture, should be prohibited.3 As a result, the and ethnic heritage.6 Therefore, homosexual majority of conservative and Orthodox couples undermined the Jewish ideal of Jews welcome homosexual Jews into their marriage and family in relation to fulfilling God’s community and campaign against their command to procreate as defined in the Torah.28 discrimination but, nevertheless, uphold a ban on anal sex.9,10 Although those within the The third verse condemning Jewish Orthodox tradition are taught that homosexuality in the Torah which comes from law does not change, the Talmud and Jewish Deuteronomy 23:17 asserts that no Jewish history show that while principles remain men should serve as a temple prostitute. firm, rulings are often amended to support While the word “sodomite” has the modern new interpretations of old religious laws. This connotation of anal sex, “no Hebrew or can be applied to modern cultural/social shifts Greek word formed on the name ‘Sodom’ regarding society’s better understanding ever appears in the Biblical manuscripts on of human sexuality. While efforts must
18 The Gold Star Journal 2016 be made to prevent the dilution of Jewish among others.11 Just as within the Jewish tradition and culture, the “reapplication” of faith, Christians of these denominations point the Torah’s original purposes must reflect to the same scripture contained in the first pragmatic responses to changing situations. five books of the Bible (the Torah in Jewish tradition) that claim homosexuality is an 12 Despite the fact that conservative “abomination” and punishable by death. Jewish groups have liberalized much of Since most conservative Christians believe their views on homosexuality in the past that every “sexual act must be open to several decades, Reform Judaism, including procreation and expressive of a love union,” Reconstructionist Judaism in North America this criterion precludes homosexuality.13 and Liberal Judaism in the United Kingdom, Moreover, these opponents point to early have adopted much more accepting views Biblical verses that denote sexual relations with regard to this issue.29 Reform Jews view of human beings: Genesis 2:18-22 in which homosexuality to be an acceptable orientation God specifically delineates the appearance equitable to that of heterosexuality, believing and role of men and women; Genesis 1:17- that traditional Jewish laws concerning 18 in which God suggests the purpose of homosexuality are outdated and, thus, subject marriage is procreation; Deuteronomy 23:1- to changes that reflect modern understanding 2/22:5 in which it is stated that men and of sexuality.5 They point to their belief that women should not alter their bodies or act all human beings are created in the Divine in alternate roles (against trans-sexualism); Image (Genesis 1:27), so all share in His grace. and Romans 1:26-27 in which homosexuality In addition, Reform Jews cite Leviticus 19:18 is related to damnation.12,14,15 What’s more, (“You shall love your neighbor as yourself.”) some conservative biblical scholars interpret in contrast to Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13.5 Genesis 19:5 as indicating that homosexuality Ultimately, they point to their ethnic and led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. religious acquaintance with bigotry and Others, however, interpret these same verses violence throughout recorded history and, very differently and offer a line of thought therefore, endeavor to be open to all members more aligned with the LGBT community. of the community. For example, many progressive, liberal B. Christianity and Christians believe that Genesis 19 is completely Homosexuality unrelated to consensual homosexual behavior. According to scripture, Lot wanted to protect In comparison, Christian the Lord’s angels from the city’s mob and their denominations have a number of views “wicked” intentions.2 If most of the city of regarding homosexual activity. The majority Sodom were gay, as conservative interpreters believes that homosexuals should be welcomed suggest, Lot would have most likely offered up into the Church but that homosexuality his future son-in-laws as opposed to his virgin is inherently sinful. These denominations daughters for the mob to rape and abuse.3,12 include: the Roman Catholic Church, the Scripture suggests that the mob wanted United Methodist Church, the Eastern to humiliate the angelic strangers with Orthodox Church, the American Baptist homosexual rape, an abhorrent act considered Church, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Mormons, on par with that of heterosexual rape. In fact,
19 The Gold Star Journal 2016 this was a common method of humiliating men The apostle Paul, author of the book during this era and culture.3 Christian pastor, of Romans, affirms a theological declaration D. Bartlett, adds, “many of the Bible’s stories that mankind is falling into a false reality don’t mean what they seem on their face. away from God. Contrary to their conservative Many mainstream scholars say the Genesis counterparts, progressive Christians claim passage is about hospitality and how to deal that these verses do not necessarily condemn with the messengers of God. If it does refer to homosexuality but unnatural love.3,17 That is, homosexual behavior, it’s homosexual rape. the verses condemn the act of going against a They don’t just want to lie down with them person’s natural sexual orientation. Moreover, voluntarily; they want to rape the angels.”16 Rape Biblical scholars point out that the concept of is not to be condoned, whether heterosexual “natural” is a common Greco-Roman argument or homosexual. God had the destruction of and that Paul seems to solely be arguing the cities in mind before the incident with against pederasty, homosexual relations the angels took place; between an adult and a therefore, the minute child, when the context details are irrelevant ...homosexuality may be of the passage is taken 18 in relation to the either founded in genetics, into consideration. over-arching message In fact, many of the passage. a result of various scientists consider Because of this, some conditions during pregancy, homosexuality to be a scholars propose that natural phenomenon, the story of Sodom environemntally driven, or occurring in a wide and Gomorrah is a a combination of all these variety of species.30 fictional tale meant factors. One study, for example, to relay important noted that homosexual themes to the mounting is “common Jewish community and not necessarily in monkeys” and has been described in detail a recount of homosexual violence.16 when studying rhesus monkeys, stumptail macaques, Japanese macaques, and others.31, Furthermore, liberal Christians dismiss 32, 33 Fu r t h e r m o r e , growing scientific their conservative counterpart’s assertion evidence suggests human homosexuality that Romans 1:26-27 provides evidence of may be either founded in genetics, a result God’s repugnance of homosexuality. The verse of various conditions during pregnancy, reads as follows: environmentally driven, or a combination “For this reason God gave them up to of all these factors.7 Thus, it is difficult to degrading passions. Their women exchanged agree with Paul’s claim that homosexuality natural intercourse for unnatural, and in the is the result of disbelief in God and idolatry. same way also the men, giving up natural intercourse with women, were consumed In addition, Romans 1:26-27 is the only with passion for one another. Men committed passage in the entire Bible that explicitly shameless acts with men and received in references sex between women. Although their own persons the due penalty for their there are thousands of passages in the Bible, error.” (Romans 1:26-27 KJV2) only a few condemn homosexuality. Jesus and
20 The Gold Star Journal 2016 the prophets said nothing at all on the subject Spirit.”2 If all Christians are “discharg[ed] of same-sex relations.2,7 Likewise, there is not from the law,” acts and/or lifestyles formerly one mention of same-gender sexual relations considered an “abomination” should be in any of the gospels. If lesbianism and nullified. Homosexuality cannot be considered homosexuality are heinous affronts to God an exception or it negates Jesus’ sacrifice and and punishable by death, one would think His fulfillment of prophecy. there would be more scriptural evidence to bolster this claim. When interpreting Paul’s C. Modern Views on admonishment of Christians living in Rome as Homosexuality well as in any biblical passage, it is important to note the culture and context of the story. When Within much of Jewish and Christian taking this into account, the verses in the book society, homosexuality is seen as a voluntary of Romans make the point that Gentiles and sinful behavior that assaults the foundation Jews need the Gospel of society. Religious fundamentalist and because they all are in extremist groups, need of God’s saving such as the Westboro grace;14 Paul does not Baptist Church, have condemn homosexuals, garnered much of but idolatrous cults the media’s attention who practice temple but are certainly not prostitution—both representative of their male and female— group’s belief as a as a religious act. whole. In fact, growing Therefore, this numbers of staunch scripture does not seem Fred Phelps, founder of Westboro Baptist Church37 religious conservatives to speak only about sexual are developing progressive orientation, but also the importance of ideas with regard to how they pursuing faithful, monogamous relationships. view members of the LGBT community in both social and religious contexts. These liberal In relation to Old Testament scripture, Jews and Christians view homosexuality as a the bulk of anti-homosexual rhetoric, “fixed and involuntary psychological type” and progressive Christians claim that the laws that homosexuals belong to an “identity group that govern social life and interactions are in need of civil rights protection.”1 In contrast invalidated after Jesus’ death on the cross. to the United States, most of Europe embraces Old Testament law was given to the nation a more liberal and psychological model in of Israel, not to Christians; therefore, Jesus’ regard to homosexuality. Same sex marriage sacrifice replaced Old Testament law with the became legal in the Netherlands in 2001, in law of Christ (Galatians 6:2; Matthew 22:37- Belgium in 2002, and in Spain in 2005.19 Civil 39).2 This is explicitly noted in Romans 7:6 union laws, under which homosexual couples which states: “But now we are discharged share many of the same rights inherent in from the law, dead to that which held us marriage, now exist in the United Kingdom, captive, so that we are slaves not under the Germany, France, Switzerland, Denmark, old written code but in the new life of the Finland, Norway, Croatia, Iceland, and
21 The Gold Star Journal 2016 Sweden.19 In Latin America, conservative Both religious and secular leaders must Christianity, namely under the auspices of adapt their views regarding homosexuality to the Catholic Church, have lagged behind fit within the modern, scientific understanding Europe in terms of equal rights for the of the human body. Where previously it was LGBT community. Elsewhere, such as considered a psychological dysfunction imbued Uganda and several other African nations, by some maleficent being, homosexuality is homosexual acts are considered illegal now regarded as a natural behavior, common with convicted offenders being imprisoned among a number of species. Growing scientific from five years to life. In spite of the latter evidence has shown that true homosexual countries’ position on LGBT rights, much of orientation is established at an early stage the world, including the United States, has of development as opposed to a lifestyle implemented political, social, and economic choice in later life.23 No evidence exists that conditions that allow homosexuality suggests, “that the sexuality of the majority to harmonize with modern culture. of people, homosexual or heterosexual, is a result of a conscious choice on their part”34. Furthermore, many mainline Christian Statistical information gathered from surveys and Jewish denominations are seeking better and interviews from American homosexuals ways to respond to the religious needs of indicate that they never chose to become their gay and lesbian members who still homosexual; the children “who mature into retain a degree of denominational affiliation. adult homosexuals are behaviorally different The Catechism of the Catholic Church, for from their pre-heterosexual counterparts “ and example, states “men and women who have exhibit “a refusal to act out traditional roles.”34 deep-seated homosexual tendencies ... must Similarly, a study published in the Journal of be accepted with respect, compassion, and Psychological Medicine, found that gay men sensitivity” and that “every sign of unjust shared certain unique markers on their eighth discrimination in their regard should be chromosome.24 This revelation suggests avoided.”20 Although this sentiment is that genetic factors may predispose one to expressed in the majority of Orthodox Jewish homosexuality. Likewise, other researchers and conservative Christian denominations, it studying genetic factors within twins found does not mention or include acceptance of the that genes play an integral part in sexual homosexual lifestyle and its implicit actions. orientation; identical twins raised in separate Because conservative dogma requires homes, for example, are more likely “to both homosexuals to remain chaste, members of be homosexual as adults (if one is homosexual) the LGBT community are unable to manifest than fraternal twins, and both are more likely their own sexuality. For example, a survey to share sexual orientation than genetically on the Italian homosexual population by unrelated siblings raised together.23, 25, 26, 27, 34 Barbagli and Colombo (2007) observed, “the In fact, some studies have shown concordance Catholic religion delays the achievement rates among twins to be 100% in regard to of a full self-awareness and hinders the sexual orientation.35 Therefore, many argue development of a positive sexual identity.”21 that such scientific evidence compels society As a result of this contradiction, homosexuals to educate its members on how to be oneself often develop significant emotional stress and as opposed to whether to be gay or straight resentment toward their religious affiliation.22 when understanding sexual orientation.
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While debate on the interpretation 6. Amsel, Nachum. "Homosexuality in Orthodox Judaism." (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 18 Nov. 2015.
2. Siker, Jeffrey S. Homosexuality and Religion: An 14. Cannon, Justin R. The Bible, Christianity, & Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007. Print. Homosexuality. Lexington, KY: Author, 2009. Print.
3. The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments 15. Ishak, Mohd Shuhaimi Bin Haji, and Sayed Sikandar with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: King Shah Haneef. "Sex Reassignment Technology: The James Version. New York: Oxford UP, 1989. Print. Dilemma of Transsexuals in Islam and Christianity." Journal of religion and health 53.2 (2014): 520-537. 4. Hasbany, Richard. Homosexuality and Religion. New York: Harrington Park, 1989. Print. 16. D. Bartlett. "About the Biblical Story of Sodom & Gomorrah." Homosexuality in the Biblical 5. Appell, Victor. "What Does Reform Judaism Say about Book of Genesis: Sodom and Gomorrah:. N.p., Homosexuality? | ReformJudaism.org." Reform 29 Feb. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2015.
23 The Gold Star Journal 2016 17. Anderson, John. "Conservative Christianity, the Global South and the battle over sexual orientation." 27. Hu, Stella, et al. "Linkage between sexual orientation Third World Quarterly 32.9 (2011): 1589-1605. and chromosome Xq28 in males but not in females." Nature genetics 11.3 (1995): 248-256. 18. Haas, Guenther. "Hermeneutical Issues in the Use of the Bible to Justify the Acceptance of Homosexual 28. Michaelson, Jay. "Does the Bible Really Call Practice.” Redeemer College, n.d. Web. 7 Dec. Homosexuality an "Abomination"?" Religiondispatches. 2015.
22. National Research Council (US) Panel on Monitoring 32. Edwards, Anna-Marie A. R. and John D. Todd. the Social Impact of the AIDS Epidemic. "The "Homosexual Behaviour in Wild White- Social Impact Of AIDS In The United States." handed Gibbons (Hylobates lar )." Primates. Religion and Religious Groups. U.S. National Vol. 32 (2), April 1987, 231-236. Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2015. http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234566/ 33. Mehlman, Patrick T. and Bernard Chapais. "Differential Effects of Kinship, Dominance, and the Mating Season 23. Rahman, Qazi. "'Gay Genes': Science Is on the Right on Female Allogrooming in a Captive Group of Macaca Track, We're Born This Way. Let’s Deal with It." fuscata ." Primates. Vol. 29 (2), April 1988, 195-217. The Guardian. The Guardian, 24 July 2015. Web. 2 Dec. 2015.
26. Alanko, Katarina, et al. "Common genetic effects of 37. http://www.thewrap.com/wp-content/uploads/2014 gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual /03/FRED-PHELPS-DEAD-618.jpg orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins." Archives of Sexual Behavior 39.1 (2010): 81-92.
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Bound by Gold by Matthew Ellis
Surfing Sergeant Major by Ashley Williams
25 The Gold Star Journal 2016 “The difference between a good speech A Call to Arms: Oratory as a and a great speech is the energy with which the audience comes to their feet at the end. Is Leadership Tool in the Case it polite? Is it a chore? Are they standing up of Marc Antony because their boss just stood up? No. We want it to come from their socks.” Though Sam Seaborn, the White House speech writer in By Grant Miller the famous series The West Wing, is fictional, he evokes a sentiment all too real(. Oratory Grant, class of 2018, is should raise your heart rate, emblazon a a member of Palmetto message in the audience’s minds, and in the Battery who comes from case of instances such as Shakespeare, oratory Roswell, GA. He is an should powerfully affect the future events of a narrative. In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, English and Spanish Marc Antony harnesses his oratorical prowess major, and a member of the towards achieving his ambitions with an almost Honors Program. Grant supernatural talent and ease, exhibiting is also an active member oratory’s unfathomable level of effectiveness and officer of both the as a tool for leaders to govern outcomes. Citadel Inn of Court and Republican Society. He is In Rome, there was never a shortage of currently studying abroad in Quito, Ecuador. Grant great orators. Amongst the likes of Cicero and Cato, it is hard to find the rarity of one who can is an Army Contract. He is pursuing an education ascend from Rome’s already vast collection of delay to attend law school in order to become a JAG good orators into the exclusive company of Corps officer. the great ones. Marc Antony (83 – 30 BC) did Abstract just that, and his place in history is amplified and construed into greatness in Shakespeare’s Human nature is innately attracted, interpretation of the events immediately almost magnetized, to strong oratory following the assassination of Roman Emperor and the credibility cemented by personal Julius Caesar. Brutus, Shakespeare’s chief charisma and verbal acumen. This paper assassin and former disciple, believes his cause explores the methodology and impact which a just one as it was “for the good of Rome” that Marc Antony’s famous speech has on oratory he ensures Caesar’s “death for his ambition” and argumentative structure, past and (3.2 Ll 26, 41). As Brutus is speaking, Antony present, from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. enters bearing Caesar’s still bloodied body in a Shakespeare’s wit on the written stage as coffin, automatically usurping the stupor that witnessed in Antony’s speech provides a Brutus has over the masses gathered to hear penetrating insight into why the gift of him and directing their eyes onto Caesar’s gab and the exercise of a silver tongue will body and Antony himself. Even before Antony always prove paramount to aiding leaders begins to speak, his dominance over the as a means of shaping the events around situation is evident to the reader, albeit not them, rather than simply being shaped. the plebeians themselves. Brutus tells Antony
26 The Gold Star Journal 2016 to speak, and contrast, begins Antony only goes with friends up “for Brutus’ first, furthering sake, [finding his portrayal of himself] beholden an everyman to [the crowd] (Ll personality 62 – 5). Antony as well as is an unmatched establishing a orator, a proven foundation of battlefield general, ethos with the a Consul of Rome, audience, and and a dogmatic ends with lend disciple of Caesar, me your ears, a yet even he cannot humble request outright attack the to listen. Brutus’ Liberators of Rome hear me for my and avenge his Marc Antony1 cause not only mentor’s death. Antony, hiding comes off as more condescending, daggers behind a smile, channels his white- from an aristocrat to a plebeian, but also hot rage into the masterful work of oratorical contains my cause: it’s not the country’s revenge that single-handedly changes the cause, it’s his; it’s not a message, it’s a higher, course of Roman history. By portraying his more unrelatable cause. Brutus’ haughtiness speech as a reluctant gives a sharp contrast chore only done for Marc Antony has done the unimaginable, to Antony’s humility. the people of Rome, he the incredible, he draws revelation from These subtleties not only humbles himself and the cloak of a man! He has completely help us grasp Antony’s wins the hearts of the changed the course of what will adroitness in reversing his plebeians—before he transpire, and completely given life to a enemies’ words to benefit has even truly begun. blood-stained garment, all through the his own, but also subtly power of oratory. exhibit to the audience “Friends, Antony’s beginning Romans, countrymen, foundations of creating lend me your ears” (L 70). This line has found an ‘everyman persona’ that he’ll tap into its way into the deific eternity of rhetoric, again and again as the speech progresses. and yet its significance goes beyond merely a call to listen. It is the beginning of a call to Besides his attention to detail in the arms. Brutus begins his speech by stating crafting of his speech, Antony also finds utility “Romans, countrymen, lovers, hear me for my in even the inanimate in making his speech cause” (L 13). Digest that for a moment, now not only heard but his words absorbed by the dissect it. Brutus pretentiously begins with plebeians. Taking hold of Caesar’s bloodied the overarching, impersonal Romans first, cloak (mantle), Antony hoists it up as a and ends with lovers, as if they all love him soldier would a tattered battle flag, making and will cling to his every word. Antony, in an exhibition which, accompanied by fine
27 The Gold Star Journal 2016 oratory, will change the hearts and minds of Caesar saw him stab, it burst his mighty heart the plebeians from supporting Brutus and […] at the base of Pompey’s statue” (Ll 175-82). the ‘Liberators’ to clamoring for their violent Continuing to mourn Caesar and denounce deaths. Holding the cloak, Antony reflects the assassins as traitors, Antony swiftly “The first time Caesar put it on, was the day plucks the blanket covering Caesar’s body for he overcame the Nervii” (Ll 164 – 167). The the crowd to see. Horror. Weeping. Outrage. Nervii were a Gallic tribe Caesar conquered Antony’s speech must now contend with the which was a vital screams of plebeians and “extravagantly decrying “Revenge! celebrated” Roman Seek! Burn! Fire! victory, a reminder Slay! Let not a traitor that Antony subtly live! (L196). Other slips into his speech citizens cry in woe of to remind the “noble Caesar” and Romans of Caesar’s call for the death incredible military of the “traitors, the efforts in service villains” (Ll 193- of the republic 950). Antony has (3.2 L 167, fn 6.). successfully stirred Exploring the cloak up the crowd, riling with a distraught Antony speaks to the crowds2 their emotions into a wonderment, he observes mob that even he struggles to aloud “Look, [here is] where Cassius’ dagger effectively control. The ensuing chaos is only ran through…what the envious Casca did… quieted by Antony’s speech resuming amidst through this is where the well-beloved Brutus the now thunderous din of emotional plebeians. stabbed” as the onlookers presumably crowd around, heartbroken and transfixed by the Antony has successfully named the cloak and the storyteller (Ll 168 – 70). Not only murderers responsible for Caesar’s death, is Antony practically incontrovertibly listing the names of the The gleam in his (Antony’s) vanquished all murderers knowing full credibility and favor eye and the devil’s grin he well that he is bringing Brutus had with the almost certain death must be harboring on the plebeians only minutes to those whose names inside reveal that he wants to prior, and insighted a he utters, but he is stoke his captive audience to near riot at the sight enlivening the moment the edge of sanity. of Caesar’s body. His with his imagery when reference to Pompey Caesar was ambushed, brings a statesman stabbed, betrayed. He like aura to Caesar, meets the crowds’ distraught looks with this elevating a man who was moments ago crescendo: “For Brutus, as you know, was a dictator to now a legend, a god. More Caesar’s angel/how dearly Caesar loved him! importantly than all of this however, Marc This was the most unkindest cut of all, for when Antony has done the unimaginable, the
28 The Gold Star Journal 2016 incredible, he draws revelation from the to leave Brutus and the conspirators alone, cloak of a man! He has completely changed when the gleam in his eye and the devil’s grin the course of what will transpire with the he must be harboring on the inside reveal that ‘Liberators’ and with those who supports he wants to stoke his captive audience to the Caesar, completely exposed those who plot edge of sanity, he wants them to murder the against him and his now-deceased mentor, vile, cowardly assassins, his enemies (Ll 203). and completely given life to a blood-stained Marc Antony has single-handedly redefined garment, all through the power of oratory. the word and meaning of ‘honorable’ with a poise and grace that borders on a twisted Antony’s perhaps most ingenious divinity. He has said a word only eight times, strategy throughout his delivery to the but he successfully turns the word from an plebeians assembled in the square isn’t his implication of honor, credibility, and virtue, reversal of Brutus’ phrasing and wordplay, nor into one of cowardice, of murder, of evil. his inciting of emotion through the use of the cloak, but his manipulation of ‘honorable’ and In Shakespeare’s Richard III, Richard turning it’s connotation from a complimentary implores Lady Anne to stab him to take him epithet into a weapon of malice. At the onset out of his misery without her love (knowing of his eulogy of Caesar, Antony implores the he risks his own life for the hubristic pursuit plebeians to heed the words of the conspirators of total psychological control), using reverse and Brutus, “For Brutus is an honorable man” psychology to reap the massive benefit of and continues to name all the such a dangerous conspirators “honorable men”, gamble. In similar supposedly legitimizing their Every word seems to have Shakespearian actions in Caesar’s assassination a sense of cold, cunning fashion, Marc (Ll 82-83). Antony goes to calculation to it. Antony implores the make rhetorical questions and citizens of Rome to statements in favor of Caesar heed his words that and reminiscent of Caesar’s Brutus and his co- charitable deeds, but immediately follows conspirators are ‘honorable’ and shouldn’t his statements with unsupported qualifiers be harmed, when he really desires the exact that Brutus in particular was right to target opposite; he wants the dishonor to burn itself Caesar to be killed, “for Brutus is an honorable into the plebeians minds to the point they man”. In fact, Antony repeats the phrase four turn into a murderous rage against Brutus times throughout his opening few sentences and the ‘Liberators’. The precarious hubris to the crowd, and the plebeians immediately with which Antony plays is accentuated and take notice and begin to doubt their own magnified by his use of the word ‘honorable’, previously concrete convictions on Brutus’ and by successfully twisting and wholly credibility as well as the ‘justice’ surrounding distorting a new meaning from it. Antony Caesar’s slaying. The death blow is delivered demonstrates the captivatingly dangerous immediately following Antony’s quelling of the ability one has with rhetoric as a weapon. furor that ensues when he removes Caesar’s cloak for all to gaze upon his lifeless, bloodied Twain once said “To get the right body. He states twice that these men are wise word in the right place is a rare achievement. and honorable and seemingly implores them Anybody can have ideas…the difficulty is
29 The Gold Star Journal 2016 expressing them without squandering a quire ANTONY of paper on an idea that ought to be reduced Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. to a glimmering paragraph.” Shakespeare, The evil that men do lives after them; 75 in a speech that would go on to make Samuel The good is oft interred with their bones; Clemens himself proud, solidifies Marc So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Antony’s place in the sands of time as one of Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, the greatest speakers of the world, modern or And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it. 80 ancient. Every word seems to have a sense of Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest-- cold, cunning calculation to it. Through his For Brutus is an honourable man; attention to minute details, his redefining of So are they all, all honourable men-- Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral. words to evoke emotion (appealing to logos), He was my friend, faithful and just to me: 85 and his ability to bring to life an inanimate But Brutus says he was ambitious; object in his quest for revenge (pathos), Marc And Brutus is an honourable man. Antony is the epitome of effective rhetoric in He hath brought many captives home to Rome Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: terms of leadership and influencing decisions. Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? 90 Every phrase and action supports an ulterior When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: motive disguised by simple, yet elegant, Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: rhetoric. Without an army, without force, Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. without the hateful vitriol all too common in a You all did see that on the Lupercal 95 speech asking the masses to turn against their I thrice presented him a kingly crown, rulers, Antony single-handedly harnesses Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition? oratorical skill in a spellbinding display of Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honourable man. what powers in our lives words really do hold, I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 100 for those who strife to apply them. But here I am to speak what I do know. You all did love him once, not without cause: What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him? Works Cited O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; 105 My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, Sorkin, Aaron, and Lawrence O’Donnell, Jr. “The Drop- And I must pause till it come back to me. In.” The West Wing. Dir. Lou Antonio. NBC. FIRST CITIZEN Burbank, CA, 24 Jan. 2001. Television. Transcript. Methinks there is much reason in his sayings. SECOND CITIZEN Shakespeare, William, Stephen Greenblatt, Walter Cohen, If thou consider rightly of the matter,Caesar has had great Jean E. Howard, Katharine Eisaman Maus, and Andrew Gurr. The Norton Shakespeare, Based on the Oxford wrong. Edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997. Print. THIRD CITIZEN Has he, masters? 110 “Writing in Mark Twain’s Library.” Welcome to the Mark Twain I fear there will a worse come in his place. House & Museum -. Web. 20 Feb. 2016. FOURTH CITIZEN Mark’d ye his words? He would not take the crown; 1. http://skepticism-images.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws. Therefore ‘tis certain he was not ambitious. com/images/jreviews/Mark-Antony.jpg FIRST CITIZEN If it be found so, some will dear abide it. 2. https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/a9/93/ de/a993deac17a62d3931c73a934afc81ae.jpg SECOND CITIZEN Poor soul! his eyes are red as fire with weeping. THIRD CITIZEN There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony. 116
30 The Gold Star Journal 2016 FOURTH CITIZEN SEVERAL CITIZENS Now mark him, he begins again to speak. Come down. ANTONY SECOND CITIZEN But yesterday the word of Caesar might Descend. Have stood against the world; now lies he there. THIRD CITIZEN And none so poor to do him reverence. 120 You shall have leave. O masters, if I were disposed to stir FOURTH CITIZEN Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, A ring; stand round. I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong, FIRST CITIZEN Who, you all know, are honourable men: Stand from the hearse, stand from the body. I will not do them wrong; I rather choose 125 SECOND CITIZEN To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you, Room for Antony, most noble Antony. 166 Than I will wrong such honourable men. ANTONY But here’s a parchment with the seal of Caesar; Nay, press not so upon me; stand far off. I found it in his closet, ‘tis his will: SEVERAL CITIZENS Let but the commons hear this testament-- 130 Stand back; room; bear back. Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read-- ANTONY And they would go and kiss dead Caesar’s wounds If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. And dip their napkins in his sacred blood, You all do know this mantle: I remember 170 Yea, beg a hair of him for memory, The first time ever Caesar put it on; And, dying, mention it within their wills, 135 ‘Twas on a summer’s evening, in his tent, Bequeathing it as a rich legacy That day he overcame the Nervii: Unto their issue. Look, in this place ran Cassius’ dagger through: FOURTH CITIZEN See what a rent the envious Casca made: 175 We’ll hear the will: read it, Mark Antony. Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb’d; ALL And as he pluck’d his cursed steel away, The will, the will! we will hear Caesar’s will. Mark how the blood of Caesar follow’d it, ANTONY As rushing out of doors, to be resolved Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it; If Brutus so unkindly knock’d, or no; 180 It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. 141 For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar’s angel: You are not wood, you are not stones, but men; Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him! And, being men, bearing the will of Caesar, This was the most unkindest cut of all; It will inflame you, it will make you mad: For when the noble Caesar saw him stab, ‘Tis good you know not that you are his heirs; 145 Ingratitude, more strong than traitors’ arms, 185 For, if you should, O, what would come of it! Quite vanquish’d him: then burst his mighty heart; FOURTH CITIZEN And, in his mantle muffling up his face, Read the will; we’ll hear it, Antony; Even at the base of Pompey’s statua, You shall read us the will, Caesar’s will. Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. ANTONY O, what a fall was there, my countrymen! 190 Will you be patient? will you stay awhile? Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, I have o’ershot myself to tell you of it: 150 Whilst bloody treason flourish’d over us. I fear I wrong the honourable men O, now you weep; and, I perceive, you feel Whose daggers have stabb’d Caesar; I do fear it. The dint of pity: these are gracious drops. FOURTH CITIZEN Kind souls, what, weep you when you but behold 195 They were traitors: honourable men! Our Caesar’s vesture wounded? Look you here, ALL Here is himself, marr’d, as you see, with traitors. The will! the testament! SECOND CITIZEN They were villains, murderers: the will! read the will. 155 ANTONY You will compel me, then, to read the will? Source: http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/julius_3_2. Then make a ring about the corpse of Caesar, html And let me show you him that made the will. Shall I descend? and will you give me leave? 160
31 The Gold Star Journal 2016
‘Tis the Season by James McManus
32 The Gold Star Journal 2016 The American Revolution was a Espionage During the time where conventional warfare met an unconventional adversary on the battlefield. American Revolution The use of guerilla tactics by the Americans changed the way wars were fought for ByMichael Holmes centuries, especially in Europe. What was also unconventional was the use of espionage by both sides. The Americans and the Michael Holmes, Class of British saw the advantages that could be 2016, is a Criminal Justice gained through spy craft and other means of major who also has a double intelligence gathering. Sun Tzu, the great minor in U.S. History and Chinese military general and philosopher, Intelligence and Homeland believed that knowledge “can only be obtained Security. He is on 3rd from other men.”1 Chin Lin said that “an Battalion Staff . He comes Army without spies is like a man without 2 from Jacksonville, Florida. ears or eyes.” Through means of invisible ink, ciphers, codes and many other forms of He has received Dean’s List communications, spies were able to pass on seven semesters and Gold Stars six semesters. He information that would lead to significant will commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Marine outcomes in battles and the war effort as a Corps upon graduation in May. whole. Among the most notable spies were Dr. Church, Benedict Arnold and John André, the Culper Spy Ring, and Nathan Hale. These Abstract spies were able to change many outcomes Espionage and spycraft have been during the American Revolution, which in synonymous with warfare since the turn helped change the course of history. beginning of civilization. During the American Revolution, gathering intelligence During the American Revolution, there through these means was not neglected in the were two types of spies. The plain clothed slightest. Through the use of codes, ciphers, person who went behind enemy lines to gather invisible ink and many other techniques, intelligence to report back to their side is the those who were willing to sacrifice their pure definition of what espionage was during safety for the survival of their country went this time. The other form of spying was to great lengths to make sure they succeeded. activities conducted on the front lines, which Espionage was not a poor man’s tool; it was included scouts and forward reconnaissance patrols, as well as those who were sent ahead skillfully used throughout the ranks all the 3 way up to the highest commander. If these to destroy bridges or other key assets. daring attempts to gain an advantage over Information was collected by whatever means the enemy had failed, America’s dream of it could be obtained. Other than spying, there independence could have come to a halt was a great deal of gathering intelligence after the “shot heard round the world.” through captured mail, deserters, runaway slaves, loyalists and revolutionaries.4 These methods were more conventional for gaining
33 The Gold Star Journal 2016 the upper hand over the enemy, but it often led gallo-tannic acid and lead. Combined with to much less detailed information. This is why reagents, these formulas would make the ink both sides resorted to the art of espionage. visible and the message could be read.8 The British used a code system to identify how Cryptology has been used for centuries the hidden messages could be classified. by many civilizations. Sparta was the first to They were identified by the letters A, B, C, use cryptology, and it is also seen throughout and F. “The letter ‘A’ stands for acid, ‘B’ for Egypt and Asia. Ciphers and codes are the burn or heat, ‘C’ for code or cipher, and ‘F’ most common type of cryptology. In codes, for fire.”9 The Americans also used invisible numbers or characters are used to represent ink, as George Washington supplied Major entire words or phrases. The Benjamin Tallmadge with sender and receiver of the ink and a reagent when he message are both required was working the Culper to have identical numerical Spy Ring.10 Some critiques listings to read the message. of using invisible ink were 5 Ciphers use one letter to that since it was invisible represent another letter. A when writing the message, codebook is also requirerd for there were areas where the ciphers. Codes and ciphers ink ran into the original, allowed for communication unhidden message, or the of intelligence through invisible lines ran into each the use of a messenger. As other. The use of fire or heat long as both sides had the as a reagent also made the codebook, the message message very fragile and could be easily transferred. brittle, to where the message could be lost entirely. 11 Although codes and ciphers were easy to manage, To supplement the they were also more obvious. hidden messages, the spies Steganography allowed for A Masked Letter 1 also had ways to conceal the message to be hidden within their identity. Fictitious names, the text.6 Only the sender and the receiver code names, and backwards initials were of the message would know that the hidden ways to identify the sender and the receiver.12 message is there. This reduces the amount of If the spies were caught, the punishment for suspicion and attention is not brought to these espionage and treason was death by hanging. messages. Benjamin Thompson, who was a suspected Loyalist, used invisible ink for the Early on in the war, British intelligence first in the American Revolution. He provided was developing in the Americas. There was information to the British in Boston about much trial and error before a sturdy base of the situation in his area of Massachusetts. 7 reliable intelligence could be gathered. General Sir Henry Clinton, the third Commander of There were three types of sympathetic the Royal Army, was tasked with establising a ink formulas used during this time: bismuth, large enough base to make a significant impact
34 The Gold Star Journal 2016 against the enemy. This task proved difficult Church reported his findings, but they were for him in early 1776 as he planned on taking the intercepted along the way. He was unable to city of Charleston, South Carolina. He received explain the message to the court-martial, and numerous reports from agents working within was imprisoned and later released on parole. 18 the city that showed a large defensive battery on the coast. Along with high morale from the Arguably one of the most notorious Americans, taking the city would prove very spies and traitors in American history, difficult. General Clinton eventually attacked Benedict Arnold committed himself to the Charleston, but a failed bombardment and British war effort. Known as the “traitor of overconfidence led to his defeat.13 After his the blackest dye”, Arnold claimed that he failure in Charleston, Clinton sailed north to was “outraged by the French Alliance and in Rhode Island and established a spy network. despair over the American cause.”19 However, He was tasked with locating Washington’s there are many reasons behind his treason. Army, as well as coordinating General Howe’s The fact that he was blocked from further and General Burgoyne’s Armies. This task promotion in the Continental Army no matter proved difficult for Clinton, what he did certainly led to and it ultimately led to great resentment.20 He was him failing to reinforce the also accused of mishandling two armies.14 Washington An Army without and not properly documenting was then able to gain an spies is like a man the funds that were given advantage in New England. without ears or to him by Congress for his The beginning proved difficult expedition into Canada.21 for British intelligence, eyes. Charges were brought against but as time elapsed, their Arnold such that he was intelligence network required to appear before a gained significant control in many areas. Court Martial. These dealings led to talks with the British. As commander of West Dr. Benjamin Church was a Point, Arnold negotiated and agreed to hand political leader for the revolutionaries in over the fortification through surrender to Massachusetts. He was appointed to the First General Clinton. The sum of money offered Continental Congress and was then made by Clinton was substantial, which was director and chief physician to the American one of the reasons for Arnold’s betrayal.22 army outside of Boston.15 Being short on money, he betrayed his fellow revolutionaries Correspondence began between Arnold as Thomas Hutchinson, the royal governor and Major John André, a spy for the British of Massachusetts, bought his services for the Army and aide-de-camp to Clinton.23 The Crown. Dr. Church became a paid informant method used to deliver messages between for General Gage.16 Through his betrayal, Dr. the two was through ciphers. First using Sir Church reported activity of thirty Whigs who William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the formed a committee who were set on reporting Laws of England, a series of three number movements of British soldiers and gathering codes would reveal the message in the cipher. intelligence on the activities of Tories in The numbers represented the volume, line, the area.17 Through the use of ciphers, Dr. and word that was to be used to create the message.24 Other books were used for later
35 The Gold Star Journal 2016 communications. When the time finally came indicated that a message was ready to be to relay the plans to take West Point, André picked up and in which cove along the coast.28 decided to carry the message in plain clothes, as Through these messages, it became known he was behind enemy lines. He was captured by that the British were planning on fortifying American militiamen and sentenced to death Long Island with warships and troops. This as a spy by a board of inquiry headed by General message was relayed to Benjamin Tallmadge Nathanael Greene. Once Arnold heard of this and then on to Washington. Hearing of the news, he fled to the protection of the British. news, Washington sent a fake message to be 25 Benedict Arnold was commissioned into the intercepted by the British that the Americans British Army as a Brigadier General in 1780. were going to attack New York City. In response, the British moved their ships and In 1778, New York City was under British troops to counter this, which allowed for the control at the height French fleet to arrive of British occupation. safely with 6,000 Under the command men and artillery. 29 of Washington, Major Benjamin Tallmadge Early on in the was tasked with war when New York overseeing spies east of was first occupied in the Hudson River. The 1776, Nathan Hale, a chief opponent in Long Connecticut Yankee, Island was Lieutenant fled the controlled Colonel John Graves area and joined the Simcoe and the Queen’s Continental Army. Rangers led by Robert He then volunteered Rogers. 26 The Culper to go on intelligence- Spy Ring, made up gathering missions mainly by Abraham back into New York Woodhull and Robert Nathan Hale2 City. Robert Roger’s Townsend, with the fictitious names gained notice of rebel ships, and of Samuel Culper Sr. and Jr. respectively, were only suspected that they were there to the ones tasked with passing on information transport someone into the area.30 Hale on British activity in New York. 27 They heard news that General Howe was planning relayed messages through codes, face-to- on taking Manhattan and that Washington face meetings, invisible ink and symbols and was abandoning New York. This prompted markings left behind to notify others. Based him to gather whatever information he could out of Setauket, Long Island, the Culper Spy and head back to Washington.31 He became Ring aided the French arrival into New York, careless in his expedition and Rogers was using deception as the key to its success. able to catch up with him, where he would be captured and charged with spying on the Caleb Brewster, part of the spy ring, British Army. At his execution, William Hull announced his arrival to Woodhull through cites Hale’s last words, “I only regret that I the use of a black petticoat and handkerchiefs have but one life to lose for my country” 32, but hanging on a laundry line. This method there is no proof of him uttering this phrase.
36 The Gold Star Journal 2016 in gaining the upper hand over the British. Espionage and the art of spying dates Through these methods and deception, he was back to the beginning of civilization, where able to exploit the British, which was pivotal leaders would use people to gather information to the American victory. on their enemies. As time elapsed, spying became vital to fighting an unconventional Bibliography style of warfare. Deceiving the enemy proved to be one of the greatest advantages on the Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard B. Morris. The Spirit of battlefield. During the American Revolution, ‘seventy-six: The Story of the American Revolution as Told by both the British and the Americans took part Participants. New York, New York: Harper & Row, 1967. in deploying spies to gather intelligence on the Kaplan, Roger. “The Hidden War: British Intelligence Operations enemy. The use of codes, ciphers, and invisible during the American Revolution.” The William and Mary Quarterly 4, no. 7, 115-38. Accessed April 26, ink were only a few of the methods that were 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2938043. used to send and to receive information. Early Nagy, John A. Invisible Ink: Spycraft of the American trials were seen as failures, as each side was Revolution. Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme, 2010. experimenting with new styles. Seen as a Civil War, the Revolution made it even more Rose, Alexander. Washington’s Spies: The Story of America’s First Spy Ring. New York, New York: Bantam Books, 2006. difficult to gather information, but it also led to advantages within the Loyalist and 1. http://clements.umich.edu/exhibits/online/ revolutionary groups. The use of spies by spies/a-10aug1777-3.jpg George Washington played a critical part 2. http://www.earlyamerica.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/06/nathan.jpg
Awakening by James McManus
37 The Gold Star Journal 2016
Cadre at Work by Ashley Williams
Remember Thy Creator by Ashley Williams
38 The Gold Star Journal 2016 the ground; the balls of the feet, the lateral Mechanics of a Parachute aspect of the calf, the lateral aspect of the thigh, the buttocks, and finally the lateral Landing Fall aspect of the back (Ellitsgaard, 14). The sources discussed in this paper address how body orientation affects rapid deceleration of By Joshua Hamilton the human body, how this deceleration can cause injuries, and the specific effects that a Josh Hamilton, Class of parachute has on the landing of an individual. 2017, is an Exercise Science major. He is a member of Before a biomechanical analysis can Palmetto Battery. He comes be made regarding a PLF, it is important to understand how it is actually executed. The from Charleston, SC. He U.S. Army Airborne School teaches that during has received Dean’s List and a parachutist’s descent, they will determine Gold Stars five semesters, which direction they are drifting, pull a slip in as well as the Superior the opposite direction (attempting to change Cadet Achievement, Society of the War of 1812 the direction of drift to minimize lateral movement), and assume a proper prepare- Award, and the Cadre Leadership Award. As a to-land body position. This position includes member of The Citadel’s Army ROTC program, getting a slight bend in the knees, slight he was able to attend the United States Army dorsiflexion of the ankles (to avoid pointing Airborne School the summer of 2015. He hopes the toes downward), while simultaneously to become an Armor Officer in the Army upon squeezing the knees and ankles together to avoid separation and allowing one limb to graduation. absorb the majority of the force. Finally, they Abstract will keep their head and eyes on the horizon, in order to avoid “reaching out” for the ground The paper discusses the importance as they approach it, which would lock out the of the parachute landing fall, which is the knees and inhibit proper force distribution. technique used by parachutists to have a Upon contact with the ground, the jumper safe landing with minimal injury. then begins the execution of the PLF (Figure A). When the balls of the feet make contact The parachute landing fall (PLF) is with the ground, the jumper rotates his torso the primary method that recreational and and bends at the waist until he is in a position military parachutists use to safely land on that he can look directly at his trailing heel; the ground following the deployment of their if the jumper is drifting to the right, he will parachute. The PLF is different from most rotate to the left and look at the left heel. Next, other performance skills, because rather he will execute a synergistic motion which will than having a measureable skill to compete form the contact side of the body into a convex with other athletes, the performance level of surface, in order to more effectively distribute a PLF is based on whether or not the subject the ground reaction forces (GRFs) across a avoided injury. The primary focus of the PLF greater surface area. The jumper will flex and is making five distinct points of contact with
39 The Gold Star Journal 2016 horizontally abduct the shoulder joint, holding of motion of the knee joint, as well as the the forearms in front of the face. This action increased skill level of the participants of their performs two functions; first, it allows the face study (Norcross et al, e170). By the time they to stay relatively protected from any debris on had completed all of their tests, Norcross et al the ground. Second, it abducts the scapula, was left with subjects who were more fit and which turns the posterior surface of the athletic than their counterparts who were thorax into a generally round, flat shape, with not able to complete the study, meaning they no projections exposed to take the majority had skillsets better adept at actually landing. of the impact. Simultaneously, the jumper However, this attrition helps the application will adduct his trail knee of their study to the to the point that it forces context of parachuting, the lead knee to abduct. as it is assumed that The lead knee should be both recreational and forced into a varus or military jumpers will “bow legged” position have a relatively high while the trail knee is in a baseline level of fitness. valgus or “knock knee’d” position. When executed One of the most at full speed, the jumper important aspects of will form the length of landing addressed by the body into the convex both of these sources position by executing all is the importance of of those movements, and ankle dorsiflexion. Not transferring the impact only was it important force from the balls of to have good range of the feet all the way to the motion, the level of ankle lateral aspect of the back. dorsiflexion during the landing was also shown to Review of the Figure A: The PLF Sequence1 affect the amount of force Literature transference. Begalle et al. were able to show that “both [have Although the entire body is affected by been] associated with larger vertical ground the impact with the ground, the majority of reaction forces, known to increase knee joint the force absorption occurs in the lower body. loading” (Begalle et al., 205). This is important Even while using different landing strategies because not only will poor dorsiflexion risk “whether soft or stiff, [they will] lead to varied a knee injury due to the joint loading, but contributions from the hip, knee, and ankle” also it puts the tibia and fibula at risk for (Begalle, 1). In particular, landing places high fractures due to the inability to disperse demand on the ankle joint due to the relatively force, combined with the 19 feet per second low stability of the joint compared to the descent rate of modern military parachutes. knee and hip joints. According to Norcross et al, “significantly more energy was absorbed The article “Does Foot Pitch at Ground at knee than at the ankle and hip”, however, Contact Affect Parachute Landing Technique” this can be attributed to the higher range
40 The Gold Star Journal 2016 by Whitting et al, describes in depth the actual execution of it. This means that slight relationship between parachuting and lower leg flexion of the knee and slight dorsi flexion of injuries. It is important to note that although the ankle were seen to be the primary causes the knee receives more GRFs during a landing, of a safe landing, rather than the PLF itself. the ankle typically receives more attention during PLF analysis because it makes up 80% The importance of ankle dorsiflexion of all injuries during parachuting (Whitting during landing has been established; however, et al., 832). One of the key findings that they many athletes and parachutists alike may made is that depending opt to use a brace on the pitch of the foot which limits ankle during landing, there dorsiflexion and will be different range plantar flexion, of motion (ROM) in with the idea that the ankle and knee. removing the ROM Those who landed flat will eliminate any footed had lower ROM injury potential. in both the ankle and However, a recent the knee (49˚ in the study by Mackay et knee, 8˚ in the ankle) al has found evidence compared to those that limiting ankle who landed on the ball dorsiflexion using of the foot (55˚ in the a brace increases knee, 26˚ in the ankle) injury potential. (Whitting et al, 834). They theorize that “dorsiflexion Ellitsgaard’s restriction limits study, which looked the ability to pass at over 110,000 the leg forwards sports jumps found Figure B: Swing Landing Trainer1 over the foot, and to information to support lower the centre of Whitting’s study about the importance of mass during squatting movements” (Mackay). joint angles during landing. Of 176 injuries Restricting the dorsiflexion of the ankle not sustained during his study, 65 of them were in only inhibits the body’s ability to disseminate the anatomical region of the ankle. Of those force, but also increases the chance that the 65, 44 of the ankle injuries were fractures force will be transferred laterally or medially, (Ellitsgaard, 14). In addition to this, 23% of all leading to eversion or inversion of the injuries sustained were due to improper body ankle, which are both movements that can position, with the next highest cause being withstand much less force than dorsiflexion. disregard of proper procedure with 14.9% of injuries (Ellitsgaard, 15). Improper PLF was Discussion only responsible for 9.3% of injuries, which suggests that positioning the body prior to My own experiences in performing the PLF may be more important than the PLFs support this theory regarding body
41 The Gold Star Journal 2016 position. At the US Army Basic Airborne it is more difficult to successfully execute Course, the proper execution of a PLF is drilled without hyperextending the ankle. Due to into the students, with so much repetition the limited training time at airborne school, that it becomes second nature. However, it is and the high number of students who receive instructed in simulated conditions, such as instruction at any one time, the FF technique jumping off a ledge as in Figure A. Students is taught in order to improve safety and are taught and critiqued on their rotation, decrease the rate of injury. As the jumpers gain spine flexion, and general smoothness of experience, they will likely begin to critique landing. Once the students are placed into and personalize their own landing technique, more realistic conditions, such as the Swing and the adoption of the BF landing is likely Landing Trainer (Figure B), or actually in order to have more comfortable landings. jumping, they are typically told the “no flair” way to perform a PLF; Keep the feet and knees In any movement which involves rapid together as tight as possible, with a slight bend force loading across multiple joints, there will in the knees. This is necessary due to the faster be issues in assessing the specific causes and descent rate achieved, as well as the stress and mechanisms of injuries. Based on the studies anticipation that landing with a parachute can discussed as well as personal experience, the cause. When the students are practicing their conclusion can be made that body position PLFs in gravel pits, they know when to expect prior to landing is more important and the impact and to begin their PLF sequence. indicative than the actual PLF sequence with However, when they are actually jumping, they regard to a safe and efficient landing. There do not have an accurate idea of when they will should be changes made to the instruction make their landing. They assume the prepare at the U.S. Army Airborne School in order to land attitude with approximately 20 seconds to better prepare students for the hazards of of descent left, at which point their eyes will jumping. One issue in particular that most remain on the horizon, and not focused on the novice jumpers have is accurately determining ground, in order to avoid attempting to catch and reacting to their direction of drift. Often, the ground. the jumper will pull their slip in one direction, prepare to land with that direction of PLF, More discrepancies that occur between and by the time they have reached the ground the “ideal” PLF and those which actually are (after descending another 250 feet) their performed develop as the jumper increases their direction has changed and disrupted their experience. Whitting et al’s study found that planned PLF. As a result, proper body position GRFs were reduced by landing on the balls of should be the primary teaching point so that the feet, rather than flat footed. This coincided students can prepare themselves best for their with their observation that as a jumper gained landing, with relatively simple procedures. experience, they were more likely to utilize the When body position is the primary focus, it ball of the foot (BF) landing technique. One does not matter when or in which direction reason for this delay in the adoption of the the jumper lands; they will still be prepared BF landing technique is that the flat foot (FF) for the landing, and avoid the risk of injury technique is taught at airborne school because due to poor body position including incorrect it has a lower relative risk of the FF technique. levels of ankle flexion, knee flexion, and body Although the BF landing produces less GRFs, stiffness.
42 The Gold Star Journal 2016
Norcross, M. F., Shultz, S. J., Weinhold, P. S., Lewek, M. D., Padua, Bibliography D. A., & Blackburn, J. T. (2015). The influences of sex posture on joint energetics during drop landings. Scandina Begalle, R. L., Walsh, M. C., McGrath, M. L., Boling, M. C., Black vian Journal Of Medicine & Science In Sports, 25(2), e166 burn, J. T., & Padua, D. A. (2015). Ankle Dorsiflexion Dis placement During Landing is Associated With Initial Con Whitting, John W, Julie R Steele, Mark Jaffrey, and Bridget J Munro. tact Kinematics but not Joint Displacement. Journal Of Ap 2009. “Does foot pitch at ground contact affect parachute plied Biomechanics, 31(4), 205-210 6p. doi:10.1123/ landing technique?.” Military Medicine 174, no. 8: 832- jab.2013-0233 837. MEDLINE with Full Text, EBSCOhost (accessed No vember 10, 2015). Ellitsgaard, N. (1987). Parachuting injuries: a study of 110,000 sports jumps. British Journal Of Sports Medicine, 21(1), 1. http://relaxes.in/txt/pqdt-static-line/chap4.htm#fig4-1 13-17. 2. http://relaxes.in/txt/pqdt-static-line/chap4.htm#fig4-3 FM 3-21.220 Chapter 4. (n.d.). Retrieved November 13, 2015, from http://relaxes.in/txt/pqdt-static-line/chap4.htm
Mason-Mackay, A., Whatman, C., & Reid, D. (2015). The effect of ankle bracing on lower extremity biomechanics during landing: A systematic review. Journal Of Science And Medi cine In Sport, doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2015.07.014
Change by James McManus
43 The Gold Star Journal 2016 The U.N and NATO must support the Al-shabaab: Its Threat to the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) in order to control and weaken the influence International Community of the terrorist group Al-Shabaab, ultimately and East Africa and the destroying it and bringing stability to Somalia. AMISOM already has some support from Need for More Support for these international organizations, but more is needed in order for the mission in Somalia the Mission in Somalia to succeed. AMISOM was mandated by the African Union Security and Peace Council on 19 By Bret Seidler January 2007, and was later endorsed by the U.N Security Council (Williams 2013). Its Bret Seidler, Class of overall goal is to bring stability to the state 2017, is majoring in of Somalia. It does this through security and Political Science and humanitarian operations. Al-Shabaab is an French. He has received Islamist extremist group based in Somalia Gold Stars and Dean’s that is linked to Al-Qaeda. The group was list each semester at The designated a terrorist organization by the U.S. Department of State on 1 February 2008 Citadel. He is a member (Masters 2014). The group’s overall objective is of the French and Political to establish a Somalia under Islamic rule. They Science Honor Societies use terrorist tactics in and outside of Somalia and is also a member of the Phi Kappa Phi and have a very large influence there as well. Al- National Honors Society. He is currently an Shabaab has maintained a significant foothold Army ROTC cadet and will be commisioned in Somalia despite efforts from AMISOM to upon graduation in 2017. Bret hopes to work control it. The mission for stability in Somalia in the field of intelligence or international needs more support from the international community in order to be successful. relations in the future. Abstract Al-Shabaab and its International Threat The world today is faced with many complicated issues. A country’s stability Al-Shabaab poses a threat to Somalia, its and safety are threatened by many different neighboring countries, and the international factors. In this complex world global community as a whole. Al-Shabaab, despite terrorism has been one of these factors. AMISOM’s efforts, still controls the majority Al-Shabaab poses the largest threat to the of the central and southern regions of Somalia stability and prosperity of countries in east (Masters 2014). Al-Shabaab’s control of these Africa. They control a significant portion regions is a very serious issue because the of Somalia even today despite continuous terrorist organization is able to thrive by taking efforts from the U.N to destroy them. This advantage of the weak central government in paper examines Al-Shabaab’s threat to the Somalia, which was recognized in 2013. Al- stability of Somalia and east Africa. Shabaab seeks to destroy this government
44 The Gold Star Journal 2016 in order to take control of the country and veteran Somali fighters who were trained by accomplish their goal of creating an Islamic Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan (Shinn 2011). These Somali state. They assassinate and kidnap fighters are their main link to Al-Qaeda, who members of the government as well as commit supplies them with experienced fighters suicide bombings in the capital of Mogadishu who can train younger and less experienced (Shinn 2011) (Figure 1). They still have a lot recruits. The Jihad in Kenya and Ethiopia has of influence in Somalia despite the fact that resulted in several terrorist attacks targeting they no longer control Mogadishu and have civilians in these neighboring countries. They lost several of their key strongholds. “State also recruit heavily from these countries in the collapse in Somalia has created opportunities their ethnic Somali communities. Any country for Al-Shabaab to adopt strategies aimed at that is involved in sending troops to Somalia is seeking community support and legitimizing at risk of being targeted. itself” (Mwangi 2012). They continue Al-Shabaab is in to recruit members fact a part of the of the civilian global terrorist population who are network and as of desperate and very 2012 has officially impoverished. To declared allegiance the destitute it is a to Al-Qaeda. The way out, but many current estimates are also forced to of Al-Shabaab’s fight for Al-Shabaab armed fighters and are killed if they are as low as refuse to do so. Al- 3,000 and as high Shabaab poses a very as 7,000 (Shinn serious threat to the 2011). There are stability of Somalia Figure 1: Areas Controlled by Al-Shabaab1 also an estimated and to the Somali Government, 800 to 1,100 members of which wishes to bring order to Somalia. Al-Shabaab who have foreign passports. A majority of their foreign fighters come from Al-Shabaab also poses a very serious Northern Africa, Southwest Asia, and the threat to its neighboring countries such as Middle East. They get members from Western Ethiopia and Kenya. Ethiopia invaded Somalia countries such as the U.S and Europe as well. in 2006 and took back the capital from the Americans have been recruited by Al-Shabaab Islamic Courts Union (ICU) who at the time was despite efforts from the FBI to stop them. partnered with Al-Shabaab. This partnership The first known American suicide bomber led to a Jihad declared by Al-Shabaab against was named Shirwa Ahmed, who lived in a Kenya and Ethiopia. Al-Qaeda then officially Somali community in Minnesota. There have recognized Al-Shabaab and gave them their been several other Somali-American diaspora full support. Many fighters from Africa and that have either joined Al-Shabaab or have the Middle East came to Somalia to join the tried. There are Somali communities all over ranks of Al-Shabaab. They were able to acquire the world giving Al-Shabaab recruiters an
45 The Gold Star Journal 2016 enormous pool for potential recruits. “The possess, this terrorist organization is able Times of London reports that the British to carry out effective attacks on civilians in security services believe that dozens of Islamic both Somalia and its neighboring countries. extremists have returned to Britain from They also use terrorist tactics against Somali terror training camps in Somalia” (Gartenstein government officials and AMISOM. “A Somali- 2008). This problem is especially large for American from Seattle was one of two suicide the international community and can lead to bombers who drove vehicles bearing UN logos terrorist cells within western countries. The into the African Union force headquarters growing influence of Al-Shabaab continues in Mogadishu, killing 21 peacekeepers. In to pose a greater and greater threat to the December of 2009, a Dane of Somali descent international community. They have a broad blew himself up at a hotel in Mogadishu during influence and even recruit from western a college graduation ceremony, killing 24 countries. The territory they hold in Somalia people including three government ministers” helps fund the organization and allows them to (Shinn 2011). These are some examples expand their capabilities. of suicide bombings Not addressing this issue committed by Somali could eventually lead Al-Shabaab seeks to diaspora from the west. to large-scale terrorist destroy the government Along with assassinations attacks all over the world. in order to take control and kidnapping of government officials Al- Terrorism and of the country and Shabaab has caused many International accomplish their goal problems for the Somali Crimes of creating an Islamic government and AMISOM. Al-Shabaab has Somali state Al-Shabaab has also already gathered enough committed several crimes power to cause damage against humanity, and to the civilian population in Somalia and has created harsh laws within the territory neighboring countries. They have used they control in Somalia, in order to maintain terrorist attacks against several African its power (Gartenstein 2008). Laws include countries that currently participate in the limiting outside influence as much as possible security and peacekeeping mission in Somalia. in order to influence the ideology of the A well-known attack was the Nairobi Mall raid population. Children have been kidnapped in which several Al-Shabaab militants killed and forced to fight for Al-Shabaab. Women dozens of civilians in an attempt to seize control have been forced to marry fighters and have of a mall in Nairobi, Kenya. Their first foreign been raped as well and individuals’ limbs have suicide bombing was in Kampala, Kenya in been mutilated as punishment for breaking 2010 (Masters 2014), where several suicide their strict Sharia law. “Amnesty International bombings led the death of 74 civilians. There claims that a 13-year-old rape victim was have also been suicide bombings in Ethiopia stoned to death in Kismayo” (Gartenstein and Uganda. They have used these tactics 2008). Punishments such as this occur often against countries that have sent security in Al-Shabaab controlled territories. These forces into Somalia. Using the resources they crimes still do not deter people from the
46 The Gold Star Journal 2016 organization. Al-Shabaab fuels its power from Somalia, but can be hard to execute due to the the desperation of the impoverished people many destabilizing factors in Somalia as well of Somalia. When there is no other form of as the limited available resources to AMISOM. authority, the people turn to what order there is and for a significant part of Somalia that is The Somali government is constantly Al-Shabaab. The destabilization of Somalia under threat from non-state actors trying has led to the rise of Al-Shabaab and they to destroy it. The most prominent actor is continue to maintain power using strict laws Al-Shabaab. After the pullout of Ethiopian with harsh punishments committing human troops in 2009 AMISOM became the only rights violations. line of defense for the Transitional Federal Government. They are tasked with protecting AMISOM and its Complicated government officials from Al-Shabaab attacks Mission and assassinations. The Somali security forces are not strong enough to provide security for AMISOM has been an extremely the country or the government. Al-Shabaab is important tool in the crisis in Somalia. Although a hard enemy to combat, as they use guerilla Al-Shabaab still has a very strong presence in tactics to strike at AMISOM and hide among Somalia, AMISOM has been able to take back the civilian population. Al-Shabaab utilizes Mogadishu, and implement the Transitional tactics from insurgents in Iraq and Afghanistan Federal Government, which is now the Somali to good effect and regularly causes casualties Federal Government. It took four years to among the Somali and AMISOM troops finally take back the capital, from their arrival through the use of IEDs, suicide bombings, in 2007 to the final takeover in 2011. This force snipers and the occasional ambush (Williams consists of personnel primarily from Uganda, 2013). After the Kampala bombings in 2010, Burundi, and Kenya with smaller contingents Kenya sent troops to Somalia, and AMISOM from Djibouti, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria increased its amount of troops it already had. (Williams 2013). These countries provide Since then these different forces have been personnel from soldiers to humanitarian aid executing major offensives on Al-Shabaab workers in order to help stabilize Somalia and strongholds. Kismayo (Figure 1), a port city, oust extremist groups such as Al-Shabaab. was their largest stronghold and source of AMISOM is responsible for several key tasks revenue after being removed from Mogadishu. in order to achieve its goal of stabilizing AMISOM and Somali forces occupied the Somalia. The first is to assist and to provide city forcing them out. Although this was a security for the Somali government, as well as major blow to Al-Shabaab, AMISOM is now support and train the government’s security dealing with a scattered force in the Golis forces (Williams 2013). AMISOM conducts Mountains. Although AMISOM has in fact enforcement campaigns against Al-Shabaab made some progress in Somalia it still faces and other actors determined to destroy the a powerful enemy, which uses guerilla tactics. Somali government (Williams 2013). They This has led to a slow campaign and has provide logistical support and humanitarian caused many problems for the security forces aid to the local population, as well as act as a in Somalia. Terrorist attacks also continue in police force for civilians. These tasks are being countries such as Kenya despite continuous done in order to help stabilize the state of gains made by AMISOM and its partners.
47 The Gold Star Journal 2016 AMISOM plays a huge role as a provider on peacekeeping. The goal of this is to win for humanitarian aid as well as a policing force over the population by protecting them for Somalia. They provide basic sources such from destructive actors such as Al-Shabaab. as food, water, and medical care for the people. This is an effort backed by the U.N in order The Need FOR More Direct to help the vast impoverished population of Support Somalia. It is important to conduct operations like this in order to win over the peoples’ Although the U.N and other countries approval. The very poor and desperate Somali support AMISOM (Williams 2009), it is population fuels Al-Shabaab with potential imperative that even more support be given. recruits, but by Clearly Al-Shabaab trying to develop is a large threat to these communities the international the terrorist community, Somalia’s organization is less neighboring countries, likely to thrive. and Somalia itself. AMISOM is also It is evident that Al- a peacekeeping Shabaab is a significant force. Not only threat with the power do they provide and influence it has humanitarian as well as its many aid, but they also connections with Al- are tasked with Al-Shabaab Militants2 Qaeda and the global protecting the citizens terrorist network. It also has of Somalia. This has been controversial diaspora in many countries including the U.S. during the time that they have been present. They have conducted many terrorist attacks There have been incidents reported of the in Somalia and its neighboring countries, mistreatment and killing of civilians. Usually and seek to destroy the Somali government. this occurs because the civilians are mistaken AMISOM’s mission is to destroy Al-Shabaab, to be Al-Shabaab fighters (Williams 2013). and to promote a stable government in There have been many mixed messages on Somalia. It is tasked with providing security these cases, and the African Union (AU) has for the new government, combating against conducted investigations on them. “Despite destructive non-state actors such as Al- some ambiguous documentation, AMISOM Shabaab, humanitarian aid, and acting as a chose not to adopt an explicit mission-wide police force for Somalia. These are important PoC [Protection-of-Civilians] strategy until May tasks that need to be executed in order to 2013” (Williams 2013). Once this was put into stabilize Somalia. The only way that Al- place there was much less miscommunication Shabaab will be defeated is by creating a on what the role of AMISOM was with regard stable nation where terrorism cannot thrive to protection of civilians. The doctrine said and the people have trust in their government. that it was their responsibility to protect AMISOM is experiencing issues executing civilians, not just avoid harming them. This these tasks in order to complete their mission. made the operation in Somalia more focused They have a lack of resources and capability
48 The Gold Star Journal 2016 gaps (Williams 2013). These are found in the U.N, AMISOM, and other countries the lack of manpower and organization. involved should form an organized coalition They are experiencing logistical problems capable of overcoming the hardships that within the organization in terms of getting AMISOM currently faces. Once Al-Shabaab supplies and aid to everywhere it needs to be. controlled areas are free, U.N peacekeepers They also do not have the most experience would be able to start operations in the area in counter insurgency warfare, which has and help maintain stability in the region. led to several cases of civilian deaths and a challenging fight for the security forces. The most complicated part of the situation in Somalia is how unstable it is. The U.N. already provides money, Humanitarian aid must be provided and the equipment, and welfare of the people other resources to must be addressed AMISOM. In order In order for the mission in in order to abolish to accomplish the Somalia to succeed the UN terrorism in this mission of a stable and NATO must suppply region. International Somali state, the organizations and U.N. and other more direct support to non-governmetnal international AMISOM. organizations (NGOs) organizations must are needed to help be more actively the people of Somalia involved. Security and humanitarian aid are develop schools, hospitals, and other important needed. A small coalition of NATO forces institutions. The U.N and other organizations should be put together to assist AMISOM in Somalia could actively participate in the in its goal of destroying Al-Shabaab. This protection of the security forces there. Al- would consist of a small number of troops, Shabaab is too radical to reason with, but but would mainly be present to supervise and there are other Islamist actors who are much to assist the AMISOM and Somali security less radical and can be compromised with. forces in counter insurgency tactics. This Although Somalia has a federal government, would drastically help campaigns against a moderate Muslim faction could potentially Al-Shabaab’s fighters in Somalia. Ethiopia participate in the political system and be and Kenya must also continue to help fight the compromise for the influence of Islam against the organization both in their own in government affairs much like Tunisia’s countries, and Somalia. This would include inclusion of an Islamist party in their political making efforts to stop the recruiting of Al- system in the post Arab Spring. The many Shabaab fighters from their countries. warlords of Somalia also pose a threat to AMISOM and Somali forces must take back its stability. In order to appease them they control of Al-Shabaab’s held territories in could receive some sort of role in the Somali order to cut their funding, destroy their government or get paid off. The goal would be safe haven, and bring stability to the for the Somali government to become powerful Somali people in the region. NATO forces enough to diminish the influence of these could assist by training and supervising warlords. As these operations take place the the peacekeeping force in Somalia. NATO, role of international organizations will become
49 The Gold Star Journal 2016 smaller and will eventually end. AMISOM will Works Cited than continue its operations as needed until the Gartenstein-Ross, D. (2008). The Strategic Challenge Somali government is strong enough to work of Somalia’s Al-Shabaab. Middle on its own. This operation will take time and the state of Somalia will not be stable for years, East Quarterly, Vol. 16(4), P25-36. but with more direct support for AMISOM it Masters, J. (2014, September 5). Backgrounders: Al- is possible, and Al-Shabaab can be destroyed. Shabaab. Retrieved November 6,
2014, from http://www.cfr.org/somalia/al-shabab/p18650 In order for the mission in Somalia to succeed, the U.N and NATO must supply Mwangi, O. (2012). State Collapse, Al-Shabaab, Islamism, and Legitimacy in Somalia. more direct support to AMISOM. This is the only way Al-Shabaab can be destroyed and Politics, Religion & Ideology, Vol. 13(4), P513-527.
Somalia can become a stable country. The Shinn, D. (2011). Al Shabaab’s Foreign Threat situation in Somalia is extremely complicated, To Somalia. Orbis, 55(2), 203-215. but it starts with a significant presence of Retrieved November 6, 2014, from Orbis. security and peacekeeping forces. Both are extremely necessary and AMISOM would Williams, P. (2009). The African Union Mission be spearheading the entire operation. Al- in Somalia and Civilian Protection Shabaab is clearly a threat to the international Challenges. Stability: International Journal of Security community and must be destroyed. Their vast and Development, 16(4), 514-530. presence in Somalia must be put to an end. By 1. http://ichef-1.bbci.co.uk/news/560/media/mages/82089000/ supporting AMISOM, Somalia can begin its gif/_82089152somalia_control_624_v2.gif transition into a stable country that has an 2. http://www.cfr.org/somalia/al-shabab/p18650 active role in the international community.
At Ease by Matthew Ellis
50 The Gold Star Journal 2016 staff might point to the enduring traditions A History of among our favorite aspects of working on the Journal—Juicy Juice, anyone? —these The Gold Star Journal traditions developed through a system of trial and error over time. For example, though By Ryan Leach current staff members generally serve three- Since its inception in 1996, The Gold Star year terms, it was several years before this was Journal has distinguished itself among the the case. Indeed, many early editors worked most prestigious student publications at on the publication one year. Even methods The Citadel. The GSJ prides itself on being of production have changed dramatically. a testament to the academic achievements Gone are the days of sending accepted papers of students at The Citadel by featuring the to the print shop for publication. Editors very best scholarly papers from across the now receive training on the use of InDesign campus. Now, in its 20th year, the student- publication software. Though editors each run publication preserves its traditions and year have struggled to overcome the inherent develops new ones. Here we will take a brief obstacles of producing a high quality annual look at the history of our publication—for publication, we have continually looked to our guidance—as we push forward towards many predecessors for guidance. more years of academic excellence here at The Citadel. Over the course of our publication history the Journal has continually evolved In May of 1996, while taking a graduate as the editorial staff has striven to produce course on responding to student writing at the highest quality publication we could. The Citadel, Dr. Suzanne Mabrouk was struck Our mission has always been to push the by the amount of time students spend working journal towards greater levels of legitimacy, on papers, which were ultimately destined refinement, and professionalism. Each year for the file drawer or trash. The course was we have used the resources at our disposal an intensive writing clinic focused on the to invest back into the Journal, and thus the production of a single paper over the span of students whose work it features. For our 10th three weeks. Dr. Mabrouk explained her own Anniversary we were able to print completely feelings after receiving her final graded paper: in color for the first time, giving student “I was walking out of Capers Hall thinking, photography a greater ability to stand out. ‘Well, now the paper is going in a file; I’ll use In 2011, we were able to start offering awards the content of it, but now its done…I think our for best paper, which expanded into awards students need some additional recognition for for best photograph and best graduate and their papers.’” Shortly after, the idea for The undergraduate papers in following years. Gold Star Journal was born. With each milestone we have made every effort to make The Gold Star Journal the finest After pitching the idea to Vice reflection of student work possible. President for Academic Affairs Major General Roger C. Poole, Class of 1959, the Journal was One enduring figure has been central to given a budget, and the work of production the continuing success of the Journal—though began. Though many of us on the editorial she would likely downplay her significance—
51 The Gold Star Journal 2016 Dr. Suzanne Mabrouk. For the past 20 years Twenty years ago, we began a project Dr. Mabrouk has been singularly dedicated to to highlight the academic achievements of our giving students around The Citadel a chance student body, that project became The Gold to showcase their academic achievement. Star Journal. Today we can say that we have Though she is quick to point out the Journal met our goals and are proudly continuing to is, in fact, a wholly student-run publication, build on the legacy of our past. As we move her presence is unmistakable. It is true, as forward, we hope that we continue to have editors we put an extraordinary amount the guidance and support of those authors, of work in over the course of a publication editors, photographers, faculty, and staff year from personally soliciting for donations who have made The Gold Star Journal such and submissions, to the actual design and an important institution on campus. If our publication of a finished journal. However, it publication has, in any way, been as important is Dr. Mabrouk’s guiding concept, vision, and to you as it has to us, please feel free to reach support that make the editors successful year out and support the mission of highlighting after year. Our success is truly a byproduct of the rigorous academic achievements of The her passion for academics at The Citadel. Citadel students.
Standing: Ryan Leach, Lauren Seedor, John Clark Sitting: Jennifer Burch, Miguel Parrado, Dr. Suzanne Mabrouk
52 The Gold Star Journal 1997-2001 2016
1998
1997
The 1997 issue is the only one to have had a handrawn cover.
1999
2001 2000
53 The Gold Star Journal 2002-2006 2016
2005
2006
The 2006 issue was the first of three journals published in color.
2004
2002 2003
54 The Gold Star Journal 2007-2011 2016
2009
2008
The 2008 issue featured the newly designed Gold Star Journal Seal.
2010
2007 2011
55 The Gold Star Journal 2012-2016 2016
2014
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In 2015, the editors redesigned the seal by removing the feather pen and flipping the crescent. 2013
2016 2012
56 The Gold Star Journal 2016 Fire Those Cannons! by Jaylin Miller Jaylin by Those Cannons! Fire
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