Church of Greece under Axis Occupation A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Panteleymon E Anastasakis IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Adviser: Theofanis G. Stavrou August 2009 © Panteleymon E Anastasakis, August 2009 Acknowledgements Completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the constant support of teachers, family, and friends, and I am pleased to have the opportunity to thank them all. Among the several teachers who have contributed substantially to my “paedeia,” I would like first to thank members of my dissertation committee. My adviser Professor Theofanis G. Stavrou played a central role in this learning process from the moment I expressed interest in working with him at the University of Minnesota until I defended my dissertation. Among other things, it was he who suggested the dissertation topic of the role of the Church of Greece during the Axis occupation of the country. Throughout my years at Minnesota, he provided valuable advice and encouragement, and continued to have faith in me even when I wavered. Professor John Kim Munholland maintained a deep interest in my work at all times. He encouraged me to view the Greek experience in the broader European context of the Second World War, occupation, and resistance. From our first seminar until my dissertation defense, his insightful comments played a crucial role in shaping me as a scholar. Similarly, Professor Sarah Chambers, a Latin America expert, contributed her own useful comparative insights to the project. I especially appreciated her suggestion to explore in greater detail society’s expectations from institutions like the church as opposed to expectations from state institutions. Professors Gary Jahn and Ronald Walter advised me wisely on matters of mechanics and writing style. Two other individuals at Minnesota that I would like to thank are Professor Eric Weitz and Soterios Stavrou. Through his course on Weimar Germany and many discussions, Professor Weitz offered many suggestions to improve conceptualization of the dissertation. Soterios Stavrou’s contribution to my knowledge of the modern Greek i language and literature has been of inestimable value. His method of teaching and his patience helped me appreciate the fascinating nuances of language beyond my fondest dreams. He and I spent many hours in his crowded office discussing questions about translation of the sources which formed the backbone of the dissertation. As an undergraduate and graduate student at Florida State University, I had the pleasure of taking courses from several remarkable individuals who contributed substantially to my intellectual development. This group of individuals includes professors Mark O’Neill, Edward Wynot, Robin Sellers, and Jonathan Grant. Courses I took from Professor O’Neill during my first year at Florida State compelled me to choose history as a profession. Professor Sellers always demonstrated a genuine interest in my studies, as well as my professional and personal life. Professor Wynot’s infectious passion for Eastern European history left its indelible mark on me. He always encouraged his students to consider history as a life-long profession. So, when I decided to focus on modern Greek history, it was he who suggested that I contact Professor Stavrou at the University of Minnesota. Professor Jonathan Grant, a dear friend and mentor, epitomizes the finest of qualities expected from a university professor. Even after I began the program at Minnesota, he maintained his interest in my development as a person and scholar. Frequently, he called me to inquire about my progress and to offer encouragement. While researching the dissertation, I was fortunate to enjoy the friendship and assistance of a number of individuals in Greece. First and foremost, I want to thank Professor Efthymios Soulogiannis, who proved to be my right-hand person, and indeed acted as an unofficial adviser. Specifically, he helped me gain access to archives and ii took time to meet and discuss my project with me on numerous occasions over lunch. In short, he helped me adjust to the pace of Athenian life. I also want to express my appreciation to the staff at the Academy of Athens, the Archive of the Holy Synod, the Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Hellenic Literary and Historical Archive, the Library of the Parliament, the National Library of Greece, the Gennadius Library, and the Library of the Holy Synod for their splendid cooperation. Throughout my career at Minnesota, I was fortunate enough to receive a number of teaching and research appointments. Professor Andrew Odlyzko, the director of the Digital Technology Center at the Walter Library, kindly selected me to work with him as a research assistant on several occasions from 2006 to 2008. In addition to the financial support, Professor Odlyzko’s enthusiasm for his work was most inspiring. The Department of History provided me with numerous teaching opportunities as a teaching assistant and instructor. The European Studies Consortium made it possible for me to continue my study of modern Greek in Thessaloniki with the help of two Summer FLAS fellowships. The Graduate School International Thesis Research Grant allowed me to conduct my research in Greece in the fall of 2004. I am especially grateful that twice I was the recipient of the Basil Laourdas Fellowship, earmarked for graduate students in European history with an emphasis on modern Greece. The Laourdas Fellowship allowed me to complete my research in Greece in the spring of 2005 and to write a substantial part of the dissertation in the fall of 2007. Finally, I want to thank my friends and family for all of their support over the years. At the University of Minnesota, I enjoyed the intellectual stimulation and social interaction of an unusual group of fellow graduate students, among them Angelo iii Georgakis, Erich Lippman, Denis Vovchenko, Thomas Farmer, Christopher Rene, Çiğdem Çıdam, and Yu Jiang. Two childhood friends, Daniel Ortiz and Ed Sheehy, continue to provide meaningful support. My wonderful fiancé Ayten Gundogdu has offered her love and support since becoming part of my life six years ago. She has also helped me sharpen my understanding of several problems and ideas discussed in the dissertation. During my numerous trips to Greece, family and friends opened their home and offered warm hospitality. Uncle Vassili and Aunt Sofia encouraged me to stay with them in Crete whenever I had a chance. In fact, their house became a second home to me. Aunt Maria, Uncle Nikos, and Cousin Aris provided a wonderful family atmosphere during my Sunday visits with them. Special thanks go to two dear friends of my parents, George Daskal and his wife Romani, for inviting me to stay with them and for their hospitality in general. Finally, I want to thank my amazing parents Helen and George Anastasakis and my brother Nick for their endless love and support. This dissertation is a token of my appreciation for all their sacrifices and abiding faith in me. iv Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my parents Helen and George Anastasakis. v Abstract This dissertation examines the response of the Church of Greece to enemy occupation during the Second World War. Historically, in periods of crisis, especially during Ottoman rule (1453–1821) and the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830), the Greek people looked to the church to help them preserve faith and culture. In some cases, church policy played an important role in the very physical survival of the Greek nation. In the period under consideration, the leadership of Archbishop Damaskinos helped the Greek church rise to the occasion once more. Education, training, ability, perseverance, and political acumen made Damaskinos the ideal prelate to lead the nation. In essence he became an ethnarch, a phenomenon with which Greek society was thoroughly familiar. Drawing upon contemporary official sources from the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the British Foreign Office, the US State Department, and the Archive of the Greek Holy Synod, as well as pertinent published primary and secondary literature, the dissertation explores attempts by the church leadership to maintain a precarious balance between capitalizing on opportunistic moments to gain concessions from the enemy occupiers and opposing the latter’s policies deemed detrimental to the wellbeing of state and society. For example, Damaskinos and his colleagues used skillful diplomacy with the Axis and Greek political power groups ranging from the extreme left to the extreme right to wrench important concessions for the benefit of the beleaguered population ravaged by a nationwide famine. Church leadership also utilized more imaginative forms of passive or active resistance against Axis policies on vital issues such as the Holocaust and ethnic policies in the Bulgarian-occupied territories of the country. Despite significant differences between the Greek case and those of other territories in Axis- vi occupied Europe, the response of Damaskinos and his colleagues is instructive in helping us understand how and why traditional institutions such as the church provide indispensible service, guidance, and protection in moments of social upheaval and distress. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i-iv Introduction 1-15 Chapter I: Historical Background: Church-State Relations from the Ottoman Period to the Eve of World War II (1453–1939) 16-64