Volume 25, Issue 2 August 2018
JIAEE Journal of International Agricultural & Extension Education
AIAEE
A publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education ISSN 1077-0755 DOI Prefix 10.5191 aiaee.org
The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education (JIAEE) is the official refereed publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE). The purpose of the JIAEE is to enhance the research and knowledge base of agricultural and extension education from an international perspective. Acceptance rates for the past five volumes are: Volume 20 = 21%. Volume 21 = 13%. Volume 22 = 18%. Volume 23 = 12%. Volume 24 = 27%.
Articles intended for publication should focus on international agricultural education and/or international extension education. Articles should relate to current or emerging issues, cite appropriate literature, and develop implications for international agricultural and extension education. Manuscripts, or portions of manuscripts, must not have been published or be under consideration for publication by another journal.
For publication in the JIAEE, manuscripts must pass the JIAEE’s double blind, referee process, where peer reviewers evaluate manuscript content and ensure readability. Reviewers are selected from the AIAEE membership. In the double blind, referee process, all references to authors are removed before the manuscript is sent to reviewers. Articles may be submitted for peer review a total of three times before they are no longer acceptable for publication in the JIAEE. Failure to meet the submission formatting guidelines will result in an automatic first rejection.
Two different types of articles are solicited for the JIAEE: Feature Articles and Research Notes.
Feature Article A Feature Article should focus on philosophy, current or emerging issues, and the methodology and practical application of specific research and appropriate technologies, which have implications for developed and developing countries. Conceptual/Theoretical and Methodological manuscripts are also encouraged as submission for feature articles. If applicable, a feature article should report the findings from a fully investigated study. Feature articles are no longer than 20 double-spaced pages, excluding references.
Research Note A Research Note is a concise but complete description of a limited investigation that will not be included in a later manuscript. It serves one of the following purposes: (1) presents initial proof- of-concept results on new ideas or program evaluations, timely issues, or innovative approaches; (2) reports replications or extensions of previously published research that does not merit another full-length manuscript yet provides results that contribute to a greater understanding of the phenomena under study. Research Notes are no longer than 10 double-spaced pages, excluding references.
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Editorial Board and Leadership Team ...... 4
From the Executive Editor ...... 5
Tools for the Trade Barrier Analysis as a Tool to Inform Extension Activity Planning: Insights from Guatemala ...... 7 Alene Seiler-Martinez, Peace Corps Guatemala Theresa Pesl Murphrey, Texan A&M University Gary Wingenbach, Texas A&M University Leonardo Lombardini, Texas A&M University
Feature Articles U.S. International Agricultural Development: What Events, Forces, Actors, and Philosophical Perspectives Presaged Its Approach? ...... 11 Brandon M. Raczkoski, Oklahoma State University M. Craig Edwards, Oklahoma State University
Social Capital of Faculty within Haiti’s Agricultural Education and Training System ...... 29 Bertrhude Albert, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida Amy Harder, University of Florida
Effective Advocacy for Extension Networks: An Evaluation of Critical Capacities ...... 43 Kevan W. Lamm, University of Georgia Alexa J. Lamm, University of Georgia Kristin Davis, International Food Policy Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa B. Jyothi Swaroop, University of Florida
Filling in the Gap: A Hermeneutic Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Agricultural Change Agents in Northern Haiti...... 57 Priscilla Zelaya, P4H Global, Fort Lauderdale, Florida Amy Harder, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida
Evaluating Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services through a Governance Lens...... 71 Cristina Álvarez-Mingote, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Paul E. McNamara, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
A Narrative Review of the Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services on an Agricultural Development Project in North-West Province, South Africa ...... 87 Ijatuyi Enioluwa Jonathan, North West University, Mafikeng, South Africa Mokone Bontle, North West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
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Determinants of Student Persistence in Completing BS Agricultural Degrees in the University of the Philippines ...... 102 Ruth A. Ortega-Dela Cruz, University of the Philippines Los Baños Maria Ana T. Quimbo, University of the Philippines Los Baños
Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Change: Employing the Livelihood Vulnerability Index in Bluefields, Jamaica...... 115 Kevin Lee Rath, Bureau for Food Security, Washington, D.C. Taniya Jayani Koswatta, Texas A&M University Gary Wingenbach, Texas A&M University
Extension Agents’ Use and Acceptance of Social Media: The Case of the Department of Agricultural Extension in Bangladesh ...... 132 Md. Kamruzzaman, Sylhet Agricultural University, Bangladesh Ataharul Chowdhury, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada Annemarie van Paassen, Wageningen University, Netherlands Wayne Ganpat, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine
Manuscript Submission Guidelines ...... 150
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Editorial Board
The editorial board consists of the editors, the past editor and other members representing regions of the world.
Editors
Kristina Hains, Executive Editor University of Kentucky Alexa Lamm, Managing Editor 314 Garrigus Building University of Florida Lexington, KY 40546-0215 121E Bryant Hall [email protected] Gainesville, FL 32611-2060 [email protected] Robert Strong Jr., Past Editor Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2116 [email protected]
Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education Officers
Robert Strong Jr., President Mary Rodriguez, Secretary Texas A&M University The Ohio State University 2116 TAMU 314 Ag Administration Building College Station, TX 77843-2116 Columbus, OH 43210
Kim Dooley, Past President Roger Hanagriff, Treasurer Texas A&M University Texas A&M University - Kingsville 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Ste 515 Kleberg Ag Building, Rm. 119 College Station, TX 77843-2402 Kingsville, TX 78363-8202
Wayne Ganpat, President-Elect Mercy Akeredolu, Member-at-Large Dean, Faculty of Food and Agriculture UWI Director Circular Rd., St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I. Winrock International Ghan Carla Millares Forno Graduate Student Representative Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX
U.S./World Representatives
Kristin Davis M. Craig Edwards International Food Policy Research Institute Oklahoma State University Pretoria, South Africa Stillwater, OK, USA
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Wayne Ganpat, Mike McGirr University of West Indies USDA-CSREES St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I. Washington, DC, USA
Adewale J. Alonge Martin Mulder ADPED, Inc. Wageningen UR Palmetto Bay, FL, USA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tim Kock T. Grady Roberts Northern Marianas College University of Florida Saipan, MP Gainesville, FL, USA
From the Executive Editor
The importance of education around the world cannot be overstated. Education comes in a variety of forms – structured classroom based to “hands-on” experiential education to place- based community education to unstructured learning that begins as soon as we take our first breath. The process of education permeates any context and plays a significant role in concert with other processes such as communication and leadership.
There is an inherent value to education; one that can be felt by learners and is celebrated within communities. The benefits of education are substantial. Historically, education has served as a catalyst to move society forward; education has been credited with encouraging higher rates of societal production, quicker adoption of technological change, development of government and business leaders and empowering women and minorities. From the opposite perspective, the absence of education (or access to it) has been cited as a primary reason for a lack of progress in developing countries. Education, it seems, can be found at the crossroads of good and evil.
Within this issue of JIAEE, you will see the process of education presented in a variety of contexts. From a more domestic perspective, dig into the philosophical perspectives, significant events and forces that have been responsible for forging the United States’ approach to international agricultural development, or read about evaluating agricultural extension and advisory services through a governance lens to see the effect these extension services had on local farmers.
Taking a more international route, we find the topics varied and diverse. Learn about the benefits of Barrier Analysis within the communities of Guatemala; look into how faculty in the Haitian Agricultural Education and Training (AET) system build social capital among themselves; delve into the capacities needed for rural advisory service (RAS) networks to advocate effectively; or perhaps take a trip into the lives of BS Agriculture (BSA) students at the University of the Philippines and learn what explains their persistence of seeking education. Taking diversity even further, you will find articles addressing extension agents’ use of social media in Bangladesh, the utilization of the Livelihood Vulnerability Index in Jamaica, a narrative assessment of extension and advisory services in South Africa and a hermeneutical phenomenological study of the lived
5 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 1 experiences of change agents in Haiti. Each of these articles continues to illustrate the importance of creating a space for effective education, no matter the context.
Within the JIAEE we have the luxury of looking at education and learning within a variety of cultures and from a variety of contexts. But one thing remains the same - the irrepressible need for effective education the world over. As educational reformer and philosopher John Dewey once said: Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.
From one lifelong learner to another, I hope that you thoroughly enjoy the collection of manuscripts we have within this issue of the JIAEE. I hope they stretch how you think about learning and education a little bit, as much as I hope you glean a nugget of two of knowledge to implement in your everyday life. Whatever your application, use it well.
Warm Regards,
Kristina D. Hains
Kristina D. Hains Executive Editor, JIAEE
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25201
Tools of the Profession
Barrier Analysis as a Tool to Inform Extension Activity Planning: Insights from Guatemala
Alene Seiler-Martinez Peace Corps Guatemala Santa Lucia Milpas Altas, Sacatepequez, Guatemala
Theresa Pesl Murphrey Gary Wingenbach Leonardo Lombardini Texas A&M University
Abstract Over the past decade, renewed emphasis has been placed on extension services in developing countries to reduce rural poverty and improve food security. Despite this emphasis, complex physical, political, and socioeconomic environments in developing countries pose significant difficulties to extension agents’ success rates of adoption of new practices and/or behavior change among rural populations. In addition, agents have meager resources at their dis- posal. Development programs in the health sector have had success with employing behavior change theories for program design, driven by the Barrier Analysis as a method for gather- ing data about target populations. Theory and research suggest this method provides key in- formation about why a target population might adopt new practices. If extension agents in developing countries such as Guatemala had access to such information, they might inten- tionally design interventions that lead to adoption. This paper provides an examination of ex- amples from the field in Guatemala that illuminate ways in which extension agents can gain formative data that when analyzed, may shape how they encourage adoption of new prac- tices. The implications of this paper suggest that using formative data gathering for planning interventions can lead to the behavior change extension agents and their governments seek.
Keywords: program planning, formative research, Barrier Analysis, behavior change, extension, international development, Guatemala
Introduction tool for gathering data about target Research on the factors influencing populations, used in conjunction with the adoption of new agricultural practices or Design for Behavior Change Framework behavior change in developing countries (DBCF) for program design, holds typically takes place after intervention and promising possibilities to inform extension adoption have occurred. However, activity planning. Development programs extension agents would be better served by in the health sector have had significant identifying factors that influence adoption success with this tool and research prior to interventions being implemented. suggests adapting it for use in the Barrier Analysis (BA) (Kittle, 2017), as a agriculture sector (Davis, 2012). Further,
7 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 implementation examples from Cognitive Theory; and, Prochaska, Guatemalan projects reveal positive DiClemente, and Norcross’ (1992) Stages results. The use of BA as a tool for of Change Model. The DBCF guides the planning agriculture projects in developing organization of existing information and countries has great potential. gathering new information needed to design more effective behavior change Determinants of Adoption in Developing strategies. Implementers conduct a BA to Countries measure the strength of association Various studies identified between the determinants of behavior and determinants (also known as barriers and the behavior to be adopted. The enablers) of the adoption of new practices determinants found to be significant from in agriculture within the context of the BA can then be used to design developing countries such as Haiti, activities for the priority group to reach a Uganda, Thailand, Indonesia, Zimbabwe change in behavior. and India (Albert, Roberts, & Harder, 2017; Moyo & Salawu, 2017). These Examples from Guatemala studies support utilization of strategic Non-Government Organizations planning through the identification of (NGOs) have utilized the BA since 2013 determinants for impactful interventions and some of those projects are now and program investments; however, in reporting higher behavior change results. each example, the factors affecting One evaluation conducted by the CORE adoption were identified after Group’s Social and Behavior Change interventions had been implemented and working group (2010) compared projects adoption occurred. It would be more that successfully boosted behavior change valuable to identify factors before program for different practices (e.g., exclusive implementation. Formative research can be breastfeeding) with those that did not. The used during the intervention-planning results of this evaluation concluded that phase to understand the attributes of a projects with the highest levels of behavior target audience that may determine their change had relied on formative research potential behavior with an intervention. tools such as the BA in developing The information gained would aid in the interventions (CORE, 2010). In 2012, a strategic development of culturally Catholic Relief Services soil conservation acceptable and effective activities to project was administered differently in two change behavior. departments in Guatemala, one that used BA and one that did not. The use of BA Design for Behavior Change saw significant adoption of the desired Framework and the Barrier Analysis practices compared to the sites that did not Adapted from the Academy of use BA (Davis, 2012). More recently, Educational Development’s BEHAVE tool Mercy Corps Guatemala approached the and refined by professionals in study of determinants for adoption of international development, the DBCF agricultural practices that would reduce combines four complementary risk of mycotoxin contamination in corn psychological theories involved in the with the BA Survey. They found that they behavior change process to inform could target low-cost practices to gain program design processes (Food Security higher adoption of improved practices and Nutrition Network Social and (Jackson, Ramirez, Janssen, & Lorenzana, Behavioral Change Task Force, 2016): 2015). Drawing on the success of these Health Belief Model (Hochbaum, 1958); studies, in 2015 Peace Corps Guatemala Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned and the Guatemalan Ministry of Behavior; Bandura’s (1986) Social Agriculture designed the “Rural Extension
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Project,” a partnership that includes the CORE Group. (2010). Finding and DBCF with an adapted version of BA that recommendations from a review of accommodates the diverse contexts of CORE group members’ efforts to local extension agents. improve exclusive breastfeeding coverage. Washington, DC. Implications Retrieved from The “Rural Extension Project” has http://coregroup.secure.nonprofitsoa implications beyond Guatemala. Using pbox.com formative data gathering for planning Davis, T. (2012). Evidence for barrier interventions can address the various analysis/ doer-nondoer studies. difficulties agricultural extension agents [Video] Caregroups. Retrieved from face and lead to desired behavior changes. http://caregroupinfo.org/vids/BAEv Research indicates there are opportunities id/story_html5.html to increase success of extension services Food Security and Nutrition Network by focusing on formative research, similar Social and Behavioral Change to BA, to inform planning. The theory, Task Force. (2016). Designing for methods, and research presented here behavior change for agriculture, suggest the BA may be a significant tool in natural resource management, and initial formative research for planning gender. Washington, DC: effective projects and interventions by Technical and Operational extension agents. Equipping extension Performance Support. agents with the BA as a means to predict Hochbaum, G. M. (1958). Public the intent to adopt specific agricultural participation in medical screening innovations will ground practice in data. programs: A socio-psychological Research shows this would lead to higher study. (Public Health Service rates of behavior change, and thus, greater Publication No. 572.) Washington, potential for food security. DC. Jackson, J., Ramirez, C. L., Janssen, M., & References Lorenzana, O. M. (2015). Barrier Ajzen, I. (1991). Theories of cognitive analysis on maize harvest and self-regulation the theory of post-harvest practices. (Fixed planned behavior. Organizational Obligation Grant No. 999000518). Behavior and Human Decision Guatemala: Mercy Corps Processes, 50(2), 179—211. Guatemala. Retrieved from doi:http://dx.doi.org.lib- https://www.fsnnetwork.org/resour ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/10.1016/07 ce-library/download-all/2199 49-5978(91)90020-T Kittle, B. (2017). A practical guide to Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. conducting a barrier analysis (2nd (2017). Barriers faced by small ed.). New York, NY: Helen Keller scale farmers in the north International. department of Haiti. Journal of Moyo, R. & Salawu, A. (2017). An International Agricultural and appraisal of factors influencing Extension Education, 24(2), 22— adoption of agricultural 34. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2017.24302 innovations: Insights from selected Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of developing countries. Journal of thought and action: A social International Agricultural and cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, Extension Education, 24(1), 7—9. N.J.: Prentice-Hall. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2016.24102 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033- 295X.84.2.191
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Prochaska, J., DiClemente, C., & Norcross, J. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to the addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47, 1102— 1114. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.47.9.1102.
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25202
U.S. International Agricultural Development: What Events, Forces, Actors, and Philosophical Perspectives Presaged Its Approach?
Brandon M. Raczkoski Center for Veterinary Health Sciences Oklahoma State University
M. Craig Edwards Oklahoma State University
Abstract The philosophical perspectives, including significant actors, events, and forces, that influenced and presaged the United States’ approach to international agricultural development are somewhat unclear. The purpose of this historical narrative, therefore, was to understand the key drivers responsible for forging the U.S. framework for technical agricultural assistance abroad, especially in its formative years. The study’s findings were reported by answering two questions. The first question explored historical events, including federal legislative acts and statutes, which precipitated the U.S. approach to international agricultural development. The second research question addressed the philosophical primers imbued in the U.S. approach to international agricultural development, including significant actors responsible for championing it. We assert the environmental pragmatism of Liberty Hyde Bailey and its other proponents was the philosophical foundation and worldview that informed many of the pioneers who guided the U.S. approach to offering agricultural assistance as part of the nation’s international development efforts. As such, we recommend the inclusion of certain aspects of environmentalism in agricultural and extension educator preparation with implications for international and domestic development, including long-term sustainability initiatives.
Keywords: environmentalism; Extension; international agricultural development (IAD); sustainable agriculture; United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
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Introduction the significant factors influencing the U.S. Foreign assistance is viewed as a approach to IAD and, thereby, provide fundamental instrument of U.S. foreign additional clarity for its practitioners and policy and supports many objectives their counterparts in many of the least (Tarnoff & Lawson, 2016). Three key developed countries (LDCs) impacted by rationales supporting the U.S. approach to such. foreign assistance have been proffered: LDCs are defined as “low-income national security, commercial, and countries confronting severe structural humanitarian (Tarnoff & Lawson, 2016). impediments to sustainable development” National security has been the foremost (United Nations [UN], 2017, para. 1). They concern of U.S. assistance programs. For are extremely vulnerable to economic and example, following World War II, U.S. aid environmental shock and characterized as programs primarily addressed the incursion having inadequate levels of human capital of communist influence around the globe. (UN, 2017). According to the UN, LDCs Next, commercial interests have long been receive exclusive access to “certain viewed as a mechanism for promoting U.S. international support measures” (UN, 2017, exports. Foreign assistance always has been para. 3) in particular areas, such as a way to create new customers for U.S. international trade and development products and to improve the global assistance. Over time, this included various competitive environment for U.S. forms of assistance from the United States. companies. Third, humanitarian concerns have driven both short- and long-term U.S. Purpose and Research Questions assistance programs in response to disasters This study’s purpose was to examine and crises as well as long-term development the historical events, forces, and actors that assistance programs aimed at eradicating influenced and thereafter guided the U.S. and reducing food insecurity and poverty, to government’s approach to offering name a few of its objectives (Tarnoff & agricultural technical assistance to other Lawson, 2016). nations, including LDCs. Two research To these aims, U.S. technical questions guided this inquiry: assistance abroad has received generally 1. What significant historical events, widespread support from the American including interagency federal public and policymakers alike. However, legislative acts and statutes, codified little is known about the origins of U.S. the U.S. government’s approach to technical assistance as a form of advisory services in international agricultural offering technical agricultural development (IAD), including its assistance in its international historically significant actors, events, and development efforts? forces. It was the intention of the authors, 2. What philosophical forces, including therefore, to understand more fully the basis historically significant actors, for and evolution of the U.S. government’s influenced the U.S. government’s approach to providing technical assistance approach to offering technical abroad to support IAD. To understand the role of U.S. technical assistance in IAD, it agricultural assistance in its was necessary to examine the historical international development efforts? evidence regarding its origins. This study aimed to present a historical perspective on
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Methods and Procedures authenticity (Johnson & Christensen, 2010; In 2002, McDowell published a McDowell, 2002). In all, evidentiary comprehensive guide for conducting documents were sources as identified in the historical investigations. He suggested that manuscript’s references section. examining the past could illuminate the Triangulating multiple sources supported the similarities between conditions governing study’s credibility and validity, as both past and present with implications for recommended by Tracy (2010). the future. Therefore, historical research methods were used to answer this study’s Findings research questions. According to Camp and Crunkilton (1985), “[t]wo things emerge as Research Question #1: What significant the central foci in all such historical works: historical events, including interagency people who have made a difference and federal legislative acts and statutes, events that signal major accomplishments or codified the U.S. government’s approach turning points in the profession’s to offering technical agricultural development” (p. 57). “[Having a] better assistance in its international understanding of the past places us in a more development efforts? advantageous position to appreciate change The provision of technical in the present and to try and learn from past assistance, including programs involving mistakes” (McDowell, 2002, p. 5). agriculture, is not a concept first dawned by McDowell (2002) added: “Historical the U.S. government (American Council of research does not consist in the mere Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service collection of ‘facts,’ but rather in the [ACVAFS], 1953). For example, according interrelationship between factual evidence to the Near East Foundation [NEF], “the and the interpretation of this evidence by practice NEF established of working in historians” (p. 4). His recommendations tandem with foreign governments and local were followed in conducting this study. organizations . . . provided a model for Historical data were derived from many of today’s most well-known primary and secondary sources, including development organizations – including U.S. legislative acts, reports, and statutes; USAID and the Peace Corps” (“History,” peer-refereed journal articles; and books. In 2016, para. 7). addition, official U.S. government websites The U.S. Congress authorized the were examined for relevant content. The Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) Act (46 information was accessed and collected Stat. 497) in 1930. This act assigned the using online search engines provided by the FAS to lead USDA’s efforts in improving main library at Oklahoma State University. the agricultural systems of LDCs, including Key search terms included agricultural their international trade capacity, a precursor development, environmentalism, to its present-day objectives of partnering international agricultural and extension with USAID to deliver high-impact food aid education, sustainability, sustainable programs and support for agricultural agriculture, United States Department of development initiatives (FAS, 2015). The Agriculture (USDA), and United States FAS mission reads “linking U.S. agriculture Agency for International Development to the world to enhance export opportunities (USAID). The study’s sources of data were and global food security”; its motto is subjected to internal and external criticism simply “linking U.S. Agriculture to the by the authors to ensure their accuracy and World” (FAS, 2015, para. 6).
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) decentralized administration through local inherited immense challenges during his farmer committees; 2) referenda to presidency beginning in 1933, especially the determine administrative policies such as Great Depression – a singularly dark period quotas and penalties; 3) group discussion in American history (McCalla, 1969). By the and adult education to promote ‘intelligent 1930s, persistent drought was evident participation’; and, 4) cooperative planning throughout the Great Plains region, which in policy formulation and localization of manifested crop failures, soil erosion, and programs” (p. 15). As part of the New Deal, large dust storms (Schubert, Suarez, Pegion, the Emergency Conservation Work Program Koster, & Bacmeister, 2004). According to (P. L. 73-5), popularized as the Civilian Lal, Reicosky, and Hanson (2007), the U.S. Conservation Corps (CCC), was a public agricultural revolution, especially escalating works relief program for youth and the use of the plow, which occurred over many unemployed during the Great Depression generations, invariably transformed the (Maher, 2007). American landscape. They noted the “[u]se The framework for the CCC was of the plow expanded rapidly with the largely influenced by the emergence of introduction of the ‘steam horse’ [, i.e., service-learning as a method of instruction tractor,] in 1910 that led to widespread and success of another service-learning severe soil erosion and environmental program, i.e., the National Youth degradation culminating in the Dust Bowl of Administration [NYA] (Roberts & Edwards, the 1930s” (p. 1). Beginning in the late 2015). Similar to the NYA, the CCC 1800s, however, strong agrarian movements provided employment opportunities to youth in rural America, e.g., emergence of the and unskilled workers. It paid these Grange and Farmers’ movement, sought individuals to engage in civic activities advanced methods of agriculture that would directly related to conservation and effectively reduce the negative management of natural resources on federal environmental, social, and economic and state lands (Williams, 2005). CCC impacts of prolonged intensive tillage, such activities related to agricultural conservation as water, wind, and soil erosion. Later, were also widespread; for example, Corps “Hugh Hammond Bennett led the soil members built terraces for farmers and dug conservation movement in the U.S. in the farm ponds (Urban & Wagoner, 2014). 1920s and 1930s, and urged the nation to The National Industrial Recovery address the ‘national menace’ of soil Act of 1933 (P. L. 73-67) codified erosion” (Lal et al., 2007, p. 5). Bennett’s conservation of soil and water as a national zeal for conservation stemmed from his priority, including funding to fight soil experience “studying soils and agriculture erosion as the result of a combination of nationally and internationally” (Lal et al., drought and poor agricultural practices 2007, p. 5). (NRCS, 2016). Excessive use of the The Roosevelt Administration moldboard plow on the nation’s prairies had famously instituted its New Deal, i.e., the marginalized ecological stability and soil National Industrial Recovery Act, focused health in favor of mechanized production on relief, recovery, and reform in 1933 agriculture to meet both domestic and (Fraser & Gerstle, 1989), which included international demand for food and fiber programs to assist U.S. farmers. Gilbert products (Lal et al., 2007). Moreover, a (2015) noted the New Deal exemplified four wind-break program, the Shelterbelt Project principles of agricultural democracy: “1) of 1934, was also implemented by FDR’s
14 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 administration in response to the widespread undersecretary of agriculture and wind and soil erosion, which required director of federal Extension; extensive interagency cooperation between Howard R. Tolley, chief of the BAE the USDA’s Soil Conservation Service, [Bureau of Agricultural Economics]; state, county, and other local agencies, and Lewis C. Gracy, premier land farmers (Williams, 2005). The shelterbelt planner, Bushrod W. Allin, top project integrated environmentalism and planning official; and Carl C. Taylor, conservation concepts frequently used in leading rural sociologist. (Gilbert, forestry with novel farming practices and 2015, p. 13) traditional approaches that reduced water, soil, and wind erosion, such as planting “Half organic intellectual and half windrows (Lal et al., 2007). During this low modernist as the agrarian intellectuals period, the Soil Conservation Act of 1935 were, the tradition they created was short- (P. L. 74-46) established the Soil lived” (Stock & Johnston, 2001, p. 238). Conservation Service, renamed the Natural Many agriculturally focused New Dealers, Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in however, pursued international careers 1994, as a permanent agency within the following the end of WWII (Gilbert, 2015). USDA (Lal et al., 2007). As a consequence, For example, Tolley served as chief USDA managers explored ways to extend economist to the United Nations Food and conservation assistance to farmers for the Agriculture Organization (Gilbert, 2015), first time (“A Brief History,” 2018; Lal et and others demonstrated an IAD focus al., 2007). earlier in their careers. According to Gilbert In 1938, Dr. M. L. Wilson, director (2015), “Henry Wallace always stood as an of federal Extension in the USDA, visited internationalist” (p. 259). He added: “As the Macedonian Project in Greece (Allen, vice president during most of America’s 1953). He observed the NEF had participation in World War II, he took it as successfully adapted the methods of U.S. his mission to internationalize the New county agents and other extension personnel Deal, . . . [while Dr. Wilson] pushed the to a culture very different from that of the globalization of the 4-H youth program” United States (Curti, 1988). However, his (Gilbert, 2015, p. 259). Wallace began his tenure abroad did not begin there. In the late intellectual life as a “Jeffersonian and 1920s and early 1930s, the Soviets hired participant in the Country Life Movement. . select U.S. agriculturists to help establish . . His point of view, and that of his father improved farming systems in the Soviet and grandfather, Henry C. and ‘Uncle Union (Stock & Johnston, 2001). Among Henry’ Wallace, had been expressed, he those selected, Wilson traveled to the Soviet recalled, by Liberty Hyde Bailey” Union with highly detailed plans for (Kirkendall, 1997, para. 3). These agrarian establishing integrated farming systems New Dealers “ended their long careers (Stock & Johnston, 2001). Dr. Wilson abroad, working on land reform, rural belonged to an elite group of agrarian development, and community development intellectuals, including five economists and projects in places far removed from their a sociologist, “who led the USDA during the native Midwest” (Gilbert, 2015, p. xv), New Deal” (Gilbert, 2015, p. 13): including, in some cases, countries with government’s more receptive to their Henry A. Wallace, secretary of pragmatic approaches to participatory rural agriculture; M. L. Wilson, development.
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As U.S. president, FDR had a resources” (Jundt, 2014, p. 44). This was not reputation for reorganizing governmental the only initiative in regard to the United operations with the intention of increasing States’ forthcoming role in integrating their efficiency (Olson, 2001). The conservation and sustainability concepts in Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1939 (53 Stat. its IAD efforts. Inspired by the success of 1431) instigated the regrouping of federal the NEF, as observed by M. L. Wilson in agencies to reduce costs and eliminate Greece (Allen, 1953), the Truman duplicitous programs (Roosevelt, 1939, administration received approval from para. 4). One result was the brief disbanding Congress in 1947 to offer technical of the FAS and renaming it The Office of assistance to Turkey and Greece (USAID, Foreign Agricultural Relations [OFAR] 1999). Paterson (1972) noted the “Truman (ACVAFS, 1953). OFAR “[provided] Doctrine[’s] assistance to Greece and technical knowledge and personnel, on a Turkey was part of America’s postwar governmental level” (ACVAFS, 1953, p. economic offensive” (p. 119) in regard to 21). During this period, U.S. IAD policies mitigating the rise of communism. were heavily reliant on national economic In a speech at Harvard University, goals (McCalla, 1969), i.e., “imports of Truman’s Secretary of State George C. strategic raw materials,” and less, as some Marshall proposed an outline for the critics have argued, on offering technical European Recovery Plan, better known as assistance to developing nations (Paterson, the Marshall Plan (McCalla, 1969; USAID, 1972, p. 126). Gifford Pinchot, first chief of 1999). The 4-year Marshall Plan was the U.S. Forest Service and an early authorized by the Foreign Assistance Act of champion of international conservation 1948, which established the Economic efforts, held correspondence with the Cooperation Agency [ECA] (USAID, 1999). president (Miller, 2013). In his September 8, McCalla (1969) concluded the United States 1944 letter, Pinchot urged FDR to convene a seemed ready to assume the mantle of world global summit on conservation with the leadership at the end of World War II, and United Nations (Miller, 2013). This was not further stated: “The postwar period was the first time Pinchot had pushed for this marked by efforts led by the United States to kind of international conference. As early as reconstruct Europe and to rationalize 1909, he made his original request to international trade” (p. 337). President Theodore Roosevelt, but President To that aim, President Truman William Howard Taft put an end to such an announced during his January 20, 1949 initiative on his ascension to office (Jundt, inaugural address: 2014). FDR died in the final year of WWII, and his successor, Harry S. Truman, became [C]ontinued support of the United president on April 12, 1945. Nations, the Marshall Plan, and After attempting to convene a global military agreements such as the summit on conservation with three different North Atlantic Treaty Organization U.S. presidents, Pinchot finally succeeded (NATO) and the Rio Pact. [And] when he presented his plan to President [w]ith relish, he moved beyond these Truman (Jundt, 2014). “In 1946, at the three points to announce a fourth behest of President Truman, the United point, a ‘bold new program’ of Nations (UN) announced that it would hold technical assistance to a conference to consider the conservation ‘underdeveloped’ areas [of the and effective utilization of natural world]. (Paterson, 1972, p. 120)
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200), i.e., an allusion to the forthcoming As a result, the Point 4 Program was Peace Corps. established in May of 1950 as Title IV of the During the period after Foreign Economic Assistance Act (Paterson, Representative Kennedy’s speech, the 1972). Its objective was to approach Mutual Security Act abolished the ECA and international development not through aid replaced it with the Mutual Security Agency alone, but rather by facilitating technical (MSA), which launched major U.S. foreign assistance and private investment (Paterson, assistance programs (Morgner, 1967). The 1972). Some observers, however, took a agency’s main goal was to empower contrarian viewpoint and saw the program as developing countries while containing the a “[m]eans for the United States to manage spread of communism by providing the postcolonial world while keeping less technical foreign assistance, including developed countries out of the Soviet military and economic support (Morgner, [Union’s] fold” (Jundt, 2014, p. 47). 1967). To assess the impact and efficacy of Moreover, “[i]n this neocolonial system the U.S. foreign assistance programs, the United States sold former colonies the ACVAFS published a study made possible American way of modern industrial and by support from the Ford Foundation. The consumer life while collecting payment in council’s report assessed The Role of the form of their natural resources” (Jundt, Voluntary Agencies in Technical Assistance, 2014, p. 47). Nevertheless, the Technical which stated: “[T]echnical aid proposed by Cooperation Administration (TCA) was government and intergovernmental groups established within the U.S. Department of must of course extend far beyond the State to implement the Point 4 Program limitations of non-tax supported agencies” (Erb, 1985). (ACVAFS, 1953, p. vii). The Point 4 Program was a series of In one of Dwight D. Eisenhower’s bilateral agreements and contracts pertaining first acts as president in 1953, he renamed to “agriculture and rural programs” the Point 4 Program the Technical (ACVAFS, 1953, p. 33) between non- Assistance Program, and reorganized the governmental organizations, foreign TCA and MSA into the Foreign Operations governments, and the U.S. government Administration (FOA) to harmonize their (ACVAFS, 1953). Henry G. Bennett, the efforts (USAID, 1999). Later, in 1955, the first TCA administrator, led the Point 4 International Cooperation Administration Program; Bennett also served as president of (ICA) replaced the FOA (Morgner, 1967). Oklahoma A&M College, now Oklahoma Even though USDA’s technical agricultural State University (Clark, Davis, & Simon, expertise was in high demand in many 2008), a land-grant institution. LDCs at that time (USAID, 1999), two Unfortunately, Bennett died in an airplane studies were implemented by the Foreign crash in Iran while on assignment for the Relations Committee of the U.S. Senate to Program (Clark et al., 2008). The mission assess the nation’s international and vision of the Point 4 Program persisted, development efforts due to increasing however, and in 1951 then U.S. pressure from the legislators’ constituents: Representative John F. Kennedy suggested Administrative Aspects of the U.S. Foreign “[y]oung college graduates would find a full Assistance Programs and Agricultural life in bringing technical advice and Surplus Disposal and Foreign Aid (USAID, assistance to the underprivileged and 1999). Findings of the two studies stoked backward Middle East” (Maier, 2009, p. political uncertainties regarding further
17 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 adherence to the international development understanding better the origins and framework manifested by the Marshall Plan precursors of U.S. technical agricultural (USAID, 1999). development assistance to other nations To “expand and unify American aid includes the need to examine the actors and operations and strengthen the economic philosophical influences that manifested its development component” (Morgner, 1967, emergence, evolution, and status. p. 66), major policy reforms occurred in U.S. aid agencies offering technical Research Question #2: What agricultural expertise to LDCs (Morgner, philosophical forces, including 1967) during the 1960s. In 1961, President historically significant actors, John F. Kennedy launched the United States influenced the U.S. government’s Peace Corps, and the ICA was renamed the approach to offering technical United States Agency for International agricultural assistance in Development (USAID), as arranged under its international development efforts? the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 By examining the individuals (Morgner, 1967). The reorganization responsible for developing the notion of occurred because of increased dissatisfaction conservation of natural resources in the with the existing foreign aid program, and it United States, including the intersection of combined already existing U.S. assistance anthropocentrism, i.e., dominated by efforts abroad (Morgner, 1967). Moreover, humankind, and its antithesis, in 1959, the economist Walt Whitman nonanthropocentrism, their influence on Rostow published his economic model traditional agricultural practices becomes Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth. The observable (Minteer, 2006), especially model posited that economic growth occurs differing philosophical positions. In the in five basic stages, including traditional decades after the USDA’s incorporation into society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, the presidential cabinet in 1889, two drive to maturity, and age of high mass preeminent environmental ethicists and consumption (Rostow, 1959). This longtime allies experienced a philosophical “economic development theory . . . provided schism (Williams, 2005). Gifford Pinchot, the premise for much of the development first chief of the U.S. Forest Service and planning in the . . . U.S. Agency for credited with establishing the definition for International Development” (USAID, 1999, conservation of natural resources, and John para. 16). The approach was not without Muir. Muir was founder of the Sierra Club, a critics; for example, pushback arose against naturalist, an eloquent spokesperson for the the position held by USAID and endorsed environmental movement, and author of by the Washington Consensus on many articles in national publications on Agriculture, i.e., a growing point of view nature (Williams, 2005). casting international aid as a business (Kydd Considered leaders of the United & Dorward, 2001). States’ nascent environmental movement, Nonetheless, USAID is the modern Pinchot and Muir fomented the notion that standard for international and differences existed in American intergovernmental cooperation through its conservation. Further, they argued the development projects and humanitarian aid, movement could be conceptualized as two relief, and recovery programs (USAID, distinct camps: conservationists and 1999), including efforts devoted to preservationists (Minteer, 2006). Pinchot agricultural development. However, and Muir are largely credited with creating
18 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 the dialogue on how we as a nation should conservationist (and Mumford’s manage and preserve our natural resources RPAA colleague) who proposed the (Minteer, 2006). Their relationships with Appalachian Trail in the 1920s; and, Presidents, both Muir and Pinchot with finally, Aldo Leopold, the forester- Theodore Roosevelt and in regard to FDR philosopher and author of the and Harry Truman only Pinchot, influenced environmentalist classic A Sand the passage of significant federal legislation County Almanac. (Minteer, 2006, p. protecting and preserving natural resources 2) in the United States (Minteer, 2006). Such impact included formation of the Soil The third-way tradition offered an Conservation Service and other agencies integrated and progressive view on land within the USDA (Minteer, 2006). For stewardship, traditional U.S. production example, the CCC was modeled after work agriculture, and the intersection between camps established by Pinchot in human ideals, interests, and non-material Pennsylvania “in an attempt to relieve values. Beeman (1994) acknowledged unemployment” (Pinchot, 1998, p. xv) Bailey and Leopold as major contributors to during the Great Depression. the third-way tradition, better known to Bailey as the Nature Study Movement Other Historically Significant Actors (Connors, 2012). Jane Addams of Hull Minteer (2006), however, noted the House also held similar views on using competing narratives created by agriculture as an avenue for achieving social conservationist Gifford Pinchot and justice. Further, Beeman (1994) identified preservationist John Muir were Edward Faulkner as a catalyst for this oversimplifications of the rich and moral movement, and cited him as an antagonist tradition of environmental thinking in the for many scholars and practitioners of the United States. In his book, The Landscape of period. His approach, however, was rejected Reform: Civic Pragmatism and because Environmental Thought in America, Minteer (2006) suggested the existence of a “third . . . doing the opposite of what way tradition to the intellectual landscape of Faulkner preached was easier, more American environmentalism, a philosophical economical in the short-term, and path that has been almost completely was supported by the agricultural obscured . . .” (p. 2). He perceived this path establishment, including the land- to environmentalism was advanced by grant college scientists, the experiment stations, the Farm Liberty Hyde Bailey, a horticultural Bureau, the USDA, and especially scientist and rural reformer who was those vested interests in agribusiness a leading figure in the agrarian wing who had little to gain from the of Theodore Roosevelt’s wholesale rejection of agricultural conservation movement; Lewis chemicals. (Beeman, 1994, p. 99) Mumford, an urban theorist, cultural critic, and regional planner-thinker Nevertheless, Beeman (1994) concluded active in the Regional Planning Faulkner’s message was well-received by Association of America (RPAA) Hugh H. Bennett, the father of soil during the interwar period; Benton conservation and first head of the U.S. Soil MacKaye, a forester and Conservation Service (Nelson, 1997).
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Foor and Connors (2010) examined group (Ellsworth, 1960). Bailey relented and the historical backgrounds and impacts of accepted the appointment after Roosevelt several early agricultural educators, appealed to him with a “mixture of praise including Liberty Hyde Bailey. Moreover, and reproach” (Ellsworth, 1960, p. 162). as Connors (2012) pointed out, researchers Roosevelt admonished Bailey’s refusal and and practitioners should revisit Bailey’s idea said that he “would not have created the of nature study. He recommended Bailey be commission unless he had assumed that “remembered along with other noted Bailey would accept the chairmanship; that individuals, as one of the pioneers of Bailey’s refusal would jeopardize the agricultural education” (p. 51). Peters (2006) greatest opportunity which had yet presented concluded Bailey viewed agriculture as a itself to influence country life conditions . . means for awakening farmers during the .” (Ellsworth, 1960, p. 162). Other formative years of Cooperative Extension. commission members included Kenyon Speaking to Bailey’s vision, Peters (2006) Butterfield, Walter H. Page, Pinchot, and wrote: “[T]he main purpose of awakening “Uncle Henry” Wallace (Connors, 2012; farmers to this point of view was not to Peters & Morgan, 2004), Henry A. develop a more efficient, productive, and Wallace’s grandfather and editor of profitable agriculture, but to advance the Wallace’s Farmer (Shoemaker, 2010). larger cultural ideals of a ‘self-sustaining’ Ellsworth (1960) further noted: agriculture and personal happiness” (p. 190). “Bailey and Pinchot proved to be To this point, we assert recognition of Roosevelt’s most influential advisors in Bailey’s influence should be extended agricultural matters” (p. 157). The Report of further and credit him with laying much of the Country Life Commission, as authored the philosophical foundation of the modern by Bailey and colleagues, showed the third-way environmentalism movement, “general condition of farming life in the which, in no small part, presaged the early open country, and point[ed] out its larger approaches imbued in the U.S. problems” (Commission on Country Life, government’s aims regarding IAD for 1911, p. 3), but such was met with LDCs. ambivalence from some stakeholders (Ellsworth, 1960). However, despite the Historically Significant Events indifference of some, the commission’s It was Bailey’s Nature Study report ultimately provided stimulus for Movement that garnered the attention of passage of the Smith-Lever Act (Ellsworth, Gifford Pinchot and President Theodore 1960). Roosevelt (Ellsworth, 1960). Pinchot and Sir The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 was Horace Plunkett, Theodore Roosevelt’s premised on the need to fund a Cooperative second tutor on agriculture and founder of Extension Service (CES) with the purpose to the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society, diffuse “among the people of the United “created the memorable, working States useful and practical information, on partnership of the colorful Roosevelt and the subjects relating to agriculture and home talented Bailey” (Ellsworth, 1960, p. 159). economics, and to encourage application of Bailey was eventually appointed by the same” (Pope, 1958, p. 270). The CES Roosevelt as chairman of the Commission has long embraced the strategy in which on Country Life (Peters & Morgan, 2004) at programming matched the needs of its the behest of Pinchot after Bailey had beneficiaries. Other initiatives to improve initially rejected an invitation to chair the rural life were realized in 1919 with creation
20 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 of the Division of Farm Population and study for school children and an argument Rural Life, and emergence of the National for its significance in creating an Country Life Association (Ellsworth, 1960). environmental ethic among country Moreover, “[r]ural sociology became a dwellers, especially farmers” (Minteer, separate and thriving academic discipline as 2006, p. 21). a result of the prestige given to it by the Country Life Commission” (Ellsworth, Discussion and Conclusions 1960, p. 172). The U.S. approach to IAD was Bailey’s point of view makes it modeled after the work of organizations difficult to cast him in one philosophical such as the NEF (“History,” 2016). Gifford tradition over another. Bailey (1893) wrote: Pinchot, first head of the U.S. Forest Service and a confidant to several U.S. presidents, I am not pleading for mere numbers led a decades-long crusade to globalize of students; of those we shall have conservation and introduce an international enough. But I am urging those audience to the use of natural resources as principles which, more than any guided by sustainable and economically other movement, must carry the viable practices. The Shelterbelt Project of university mission and influence to 1934 was the first evidence of interagency the homes of the people. I am cooperation and the use of multidisciplinary pleading for the education of the teams to integrate environmentalism and farmer in those special occupations traditional agriculture concepts in the United which the major part of our States (Williams, 2005). Moreover, key population must always follow, and political and governmental figures not alone because it makes him a advocated for legislation promulgating IAD better farmer, but because, as well, it by agencies of the U.S. Government makes him a better citizen. All (Gilbert, 2015). prosperity rests ultimately upon the Minteer (2006) proposed that a third- land, and no higher institution of way tradition was embodied within learning can serve the best interests American environmentalism. He concluded of philanthropy and patriotism until the third-way tradition was advanced by it plants itself firmly in the soil Liberty Hyde Bailey, Aldo Leopold, Lewis which gave it birth! (p. 12) Mumford, and Benton MacKaye, among other proponents. Bailey initially declined a Minteer (2006) referred to Bailey as an position with the Country Life Commission, idealist and a pragmatist – a man who and if not for Theodore Roosevelt’s, transcended philosophical boundaries and Pinchot’s, and Plunkett’s efforts to secure concerned with the nexus of “intellectual, his leadership as its chair, the commission’s aesthetic, and social character of rural life” success was considered uncertain (p. 21). Such appears compatible with the (Ellsworth, 1960). Beeman (1994) also third-way tradition as a strand within alluded to the existence of a third-way to environmentalism that should not be deemed modern environmentalism, i.e., the precepts entirely anthropocentric or for a paradigm of sustainable agriculture nonanthropocentric, preservationist or practices, which were often diffused as part conservationist, nor aesthetic or utilitarian of U.S. IAD efforts. Based on his work with (Minteer, 2006). These dispositions were sustainable agriculture and the traditional manifested by Bailey’s “promotion of nature American agriculture paradigm, Beeman
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(1994) concluded Edward Faulkner, in federal authority should decentralize to addition to Bailey, Lewis, Leopold, and citizens. They sought both to merge science MacKaye, was responsible for popularizing with citizen knowledge and to integrate the notion of sustainability and conservation, government action with local participation” including select preservationist concepts, (Gilbert, 2015, p. 21). It is likely Dewey among the general U.S. populace. Aspects would have supported such an approach to of this philosophy were manifested during governance, including the stewardship of the New Deal and led by champions that natural resources. Their philosophy, Gilbert (2015) described as agrarian however, failed to promulgate in rural intellectuals. Although their influence was America to the extent they had hoped it short-lived domestically, many of these would (Gilbert, 2015). Nevertheless, the individuals migrated to working in agrarian New Dealers did take aspects of international settings, including early post- their third-way tradition of decentralized, World War II projects featuring agriculture participatory rural development abroad: and rural development (Gilbert, 2015). Their “[L]ocal social change bore fruit globally efforts presaged the U.S. Government-led before coming home to help shape major initiatives that would become USAID social reforms in poor rural and urban (Gilbert, 2015). neighborhoods throughout the United In regard to participatory-democratic States” (Gilbert, 2015, p. 260). culture, the American education philosopher In addition, the crucial role of and reformer, John Dewey, (1939) stated: indigenous knowledge in the U.S. approach “An immense difference divides the planned to domestic and IAD efforts should not be society from a continuously planning understated. For example, the issue of society” (p. 321). In what he called the equality (Rogers, 2003), in both formal and Great Community, Dewey asserted that non-formal teaching and learning “practical experience and experimentation in environments, is important domestically and problem solving could teach communities internationally. In international and societies how to become more development, agricultural extension agents democratic” (as cited in Gilbert, 2015, p. have a tendency to engage with farmers 256). The notions of civic pragmatism and more similar to themselves, i.e., the environmental ethics introduced significant principle of homophily and related implications imbuing the philosophical communication behaviors (Rogers, 2003). underpinnings of the U.S. approach to As a consequence, knowledge transfer providing agricultural technical expertise as between agents and farmers is likely to foreign assistance (Gilbert, 2015; Minteer, expand the knowledge gap between the 2006). These worldviews, however, also different groups comprising a social system, suggest a philosophical chasm that grew to especially those less similar to change be deeply embedded in the U.S. approach to agents and early adopters (Rogers, 2003). It environmentalism, including social, is prudent, therefore, that international political, economic, and cultural extension professionals are sensitive to the manifestations (Reid & Taylor, 2003) with potential pitfalls associated with widening ramifications for agriculture. Yet, we know inequalities stemming from adoption this to be only a partial account of the larger behaviors favoring the already advantaged phenomenon. To that end, agrarian New in a society (Rogers, 2003). Dealers “believed that expertise must join Moreover, in developing countries, with the local knowledge of farmers and that these systems are often only linked to
22 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 national governments instead of coordinated with it, at least, regarding agrarian reforms with and implemented through decentralized (Gilbert, 2015). As such, partners in U.S. agencies, as organized in the United States IAD efforts ought to learn from past (Swanson & Claar, 1984). In describing the mistakes while emphasizing the value of national agricultural extension systems local knowledge and the exchange of (NAES) of such nations, Swanson (2006) information and ideas among wrote: extension/advisory service providers, other educators, researchers, and host-country In examining trends to date, it seems nationals through participatory-democratic clear that public agricultural research collaborations. Navarro (2008) called such and extension systems cannot efforts the co-creation of knowledge by and compete effectively with major for agricultural extension agents, multi-national life-science researchers, and farmers such that we move companies that are supplying large- “toward a vision of agricultural extension as scale commercial farmers with an interactive and integrative model of highly productive, proprietary shared knowledge and joint discovery” (p. technologies. If national extension 75). Such practice could address the leaders continue to pursue this admonitions of Rogers (2003) and others strategy, these national extension regarding pro-innovation bias and issues of systems will likely follow the pattern equality that so often accompany the of agricultural extension systems in introduction of new technologies and Europe, North America and Oceania, practices, including those having either in being progressively significance for the agricultural sector. downsized or disbanded altogether. (p. 15) Implications and Recommendations A number of countries have Most NAES in developing countries developed deeply rooted and philosophically perpetuate the notion that adoption of moored environmental traditions and, in sustainable agriculture techniques and many cases, adopted principles espoused by modern technology will increase yields (Van the U.S. Government and other nations’ den Ban & Hawkins, 1996), i.e., practices development agencies (Minteer, 2006). This diffused commonly in more developed study shone some light on the philosophical nations such as the United States. As a foundations of agricultural and extension counterfactual, a move toward participatory, education in regard to IAD, with a view decentralized extension systems has been toward influencing contemporary policies successful in China and India (Swanson, intertwining with environmentalism and 2006). In participatory extension, “[t]he traditional agricultural production practices focus is less on what we learn, and more on in the United States and abroad (Brosnan, how we learn and with whom” (Röling & 2007). We recommend strengthening cross- Pretty, 1997, para. 27). cultural understanding and communication In the United States, the social between academic traditions and with global science tradition of participatory- partners by contextualizing environmental democratic, rural agrarian reform had a brief and agricultural ethics within their historical, life span (Gilbert, 2015). This aspect of the intellectual, and geographical settings while New Deal was defeated by old-fashioned “deemphasiz[ing] the most radical aspects” power politics, and many of its ideals ended (Chamberlain, 2010, p. 90) of
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Environmentalism ideology. Instead, we American Council of Voluntary Agencies urge development specialists to embrace the for Foreign Service (ACVAFS). earlier version, i.e., Bailey’s Nature Study (1953). The role of voluntary Movement (Connors, 2012), and later agencies in technical assistance: [A understood as the third-way tradition taken reference volume on technical abroad by Gilbert’s (2015) agrarian assistance programs with particular intellectuals. emphasis on the work and The actors illuminated in this study responsibilities of voluntary that argued philosophical perspectives on agencies. Based on a study participatory development and conservation sponsored by the American Council of natural resources while calling for of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign sustainable use of the same should be Service, inc., through its Committee studied by all students in colleges of on Technical Assistance and agriculture. For example, Pinchot’s works Projects, New York, NY.] Retrieved on conservation ethic and Leopold’s from writings concerning land ethic have long https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id= been studied and recognized in the field of mdp.39015063777778;view=1up;seq forestry; however, they are not as well =7 known in other allied disciplines, including Bailey, L. H. (1893). Agricultural education agricultural and extension education. It is and its place in the university also important for these concepts to curriculum. Ithaca, NY: Andrus & complement the more sustainable traditions Church. Retrieved from of production agriculture in the United https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bits States. We further recommend exploring tream/handle/2152/25663/05917166 foreign influences on American agriculture 0753701.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowe and environmentalism, including their d=y philosophical primers. In addition, attention Beeman, R. (1994). The trash farmer: and clarity concerning high and low Edward Faulkner and the origins of modernism as well as the relation of such to sustainable agriculture in the United agriculture and an educated citizenry is States, 1943-1953. Journal of warranted, including the period following Sustainable Agriculture, 4(1), 91- the New Deal era and the technocratization 102. doi:10.1300/J064v04n01_07 of federal agencies advising and regulating Brosnan, K. A. (2007). [Review of the book U.S. agriculture. Inquiries could include the The landscape of reform: Civic period beginning with the Green Revolution pragmatism and environmental and move forward to more recent thought in America by B. A. approaches to IAD and the longstanding Minteer]. The American Historical involvement of U.S. agricultural and Review, 112(3), 864-864. extension educators. doi:10.1086/ahr.112.3.864 Camp, W. G., & Crunkilton, J. R. (1985). References History of agricultural education in Allen, H. B. (1953). Rural reconstruction in America: The great individuals and action: Experience in the Near East events. Journal of the American and Middle East. New York, NY: Association of Teacher Educators in Cornell University Press. Agriculture, 26(1), 57-63. doi:10.5032/jaatea.1985.01057
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Chamberlain, D. M. (2010). [Review of the Education, 51(3) 23-31. doi:10. book The landscape of reform: Civic 5032/jae.2010.03023 pragmatism and environmental Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS). (2015). thought in America, by B. A. U.S. Department of Agriculture Minteer]. Environmental Foreign Agricultural Service Practice, 12(01), 90-91. Strategic Plan: FY 2015-2018. doi:10.1017/S1466046609990536 Retrieved from Clark, D., Davis, J., & Simon, S. (2008). https://www.fas.usda.gov/sites/defau Henry G. Bennett papers, Truman lt/files/2015- Library. Retrieved from 07/administaror_approved_fas_2015 http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpap -2018_strategic_plan_150128.pdf er/bennett.htm Fraser, S., & Gerstle, G. (1989). The rise Commission on Country Life. (1911). and fall of the New Deal order, Report of the commission on country 1930-1980. Princeton, NJ: Princeton life. New York, NY: Sturgis and University Press. Walton Company. Gilbert, J. (2015). Planning democracy: Connors, J. J. (2012). Liberty Hyde Bailey: Agrarian intellectuals and the Agricultural educator and intended New Deal. Danbury, CT: philosopher. NACTA Journal, 56(4), Yale University Press. 44-51. Retrieved from History. (2016, September 12). Retrieved http://search.proquest.com/docview/ from http://www.neareast.org/who- 1268138493 we-are/ /fulltextPDF/1C7BE5B6914A4D51P Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2010). Q/1?accountid=4117 Educational research: Quantitative, Curti, M. (1988). American philanthropy qualitative, and mixed approaches abroad. New Brunswick, NJ: (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Transaction Publishers. Publications. Dewey, J. (1939). The economic basis of a Jundt, T. (2014). Dueling visions for the new society. In L. A. Boydston (Ed.), postwar world: The UN and The later works of John Dewey (13), UNESCO 1949 conferences on 309-322. Carbondale: Southern resources and nature, and the origins Illinois University Press. of environmentalism. Journal of Ellsworth, C. S. (1960). Theodore American History, 101(1), 44-70. Roosevelt’s Country Life doi:10.1093/jahist/jau246 Commission. Agricultural History, Kirkendall, R. S. (1997, March 13). Second 34(4), 155-172. Retrieved from thoughts on the agricultural http://www.jstor.org/stable/3741109 revolution: Henry A. Wallace in his Erb, C. C. (1985). Prelude to point four: The last years. Greenbelt, MD: Henry A. Institute of Inter-American Wallace Institute for Alternative Affairs. Diplomatic History, 9(3), Agriculture. Retrieved from 249-269. doi:10.1111/j.1467- http://www1.american.edu/epiphany/ 7709.1985.tb00535.x WL97.htm Foor, R. M., & Connors, J. J. (2010). Kydd, J., & Dorward, A. (2001). The Pioneers in an emerging field: Who Washington consensus on poor were the early agricultural country agriculture: Analysis, educators? Journal of Agricultural prescription and institutional
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gaps. Development Policy Retrieved from Review, 19(4), 467-478. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/porta doi:10.1111/1467-7679.00145 l/nrcs/detail/national/about/ history Lal, R., Reicosky, D. C., & Hanson, J. D. /?cid=nrcs143_021392 (2007). Evolution of the plow over Morgner, A. (1967). The American foreign 10,000 years and the rationale for aid program: Costs, no-till farming. Soil and Tillage accomplishments, alternatives? The Research, 93(1), 1-12. Review of Politics, 29(01), 65-75. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.11.004 Retrieved from Maher, N. M. (2007). Natures New Deal: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405813 The Civilian Conservation Corps Navarro, M. (2008). On the path to and the roots of the American sustainable agricultural development: environmental movement. Oxford Enhancing extension agents’ University Press, USA. contribution. The International Maier, T. (2009). The Kennedys: America's Journal of Environmental, Cultural, emerald kings: A five-generation Economic and Social Sustainability, history of the ultimate Irish-Catholic 4(3), 71-78. family. New York, NY: Basic Books. Nelson, P. J. (1997). To hold the land: Soil McCalla, A. F. (1969). Protectionism in erosion, agricultural scientists, and international agricultural trade, 1850- the development of conservation 1968. Agricultural History, 43(3), tillage techniques. Agricultural 329-344. Retrieved from History, 71(1), 71-90. Retrieved http://www.jstor.org/stable/4617690 from McDowell, W. H. (2002). Historical http://www.jstor.org/stable/3744686 research: A guide. New York, NY: Olson, J. S. (2001). Historical dictionary of Longman. the Great Depression, 1929-1940. Miller, C. (2013). Gifford Pinchot and the Westport, CT: Greenwood making of modern environmentalism. Publishing Group. Washington, DC: Island Press. Paterson, T. G. (1972). Foreign aid under Minteer, B. A. (2006). The landscape of wraps: The point four program. The reform: Civic pragmatism and Wisconsin Magazine of History, 119- environmental thought in America. 126. Retrieved from Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4634774 Minteer, B. A., & Pyne, S. J. (2013). Peters, S. J. (2006). Every farmer should be Restoring the narrative of American awakened: Liberty Hyde Bailey’s environmentalism. Restoration vision of agricultural extension Ecology, 21(1), 6-11. work. Agricultural History, doi:10.1111/j.1526- 80(2),190-219. Retrieved from 100X.2012.00909.x http://argo.library.okstate.edu/login? National Resources Conservation Service url=https://search-proquest- (NRCS). (2016, September 13). com.argo.library.okstate.edu/docvie More than 80 Years of helping w/198218355?accountid=4117 people help the land: A brief history Peters, S. J., & Morgan, P. A. (2004). The of NRCS. Natural Resources Country Life Commission: Conservation Service, United States Reconsidering a milestone in Department of Agriculture. American agricultural history.
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Agricultural History, 78(3), 289-316. Peters & J. T. Woolley, The Retrieved from American Presidency Project. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/374 Retrieved from 4708.pdf http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ Pinchot, G. (1998). Breaking new ground. ?pid=15760 Washington, DC: Island Press. Rostow, W. W. (1959). The stages of Pope, E. V. (1958). Extension service economic growth. The Economic programs affecting American History Review, 12(1), 1-16. families. Marriage and Family doi:10.1111/j.1468- Living, 270-277. doi:10.2307/348465 0289.1959.tb01829.x Rasmussen, W. D. (1989). Taking the Schubert, S. D., Suarez, M. J., Pegion, P. J., university to the people: Seventy-five Koster, R. D., & Bacmeister, J. T. years of cooperative extension. (2004). On the cause of the 1930s Ames: Iowa State University Press. Dust Bowl. Science, 303(5665), Reid, H. G., & Taylor, B. (2003). John 1855-1859. Dewey's aesthetic ecology of public doi:10.1126/science.1095048 intelligence and the grounding of Shoemaker, A. R. (2010). The beginnings of civic environmentalism. Ethics & the agricultural education in Midwestern Environment, 8(1), 74-92. Retrieved rural schools, 1895-1915. Graduate from Theses and Dissertations. (Paper http://www.jstor.org/stable/4033905 11437) Retrieved from 3. http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/11437 Roberts, R., & Edwards, M. C. (2015). Stock, C. M., & Johnston, R. D. (2001). The Service-learning’s ongoing journey countryside in the age of the modern as a method of instruction: state: Political histories of rural Implications for school-based, America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell agricultural education. Journal of University Press. Agricultural Education, 56(2), 217- Swanson, B. E. (2006). The changing role of 233. doi:10.5032/jae.2015.02217 agricultural extension in a global Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of economy. Urbana, 51, 61801. innovations (5th ed.). New York, doi:10.5191/jiaee.2006.13301 NY: Free Press. Swanson, B. E., & Claar, B. J. (1984). The Röling, N., & Pretty, J. N. (1997). history and development of Extension’s role in sustainable agricultural extension. In B. E. agricultural development. In B.E. Swanson (Ed.). Agricultural Swanson, R. P. Bentz, & A. J. extension: A reference manual (2nd Sofranko (Eds.), Improving ed.). Rome, Italy: Food and agricultural extension: A reference Agriculture Organization. manual (chap. 20). Rome, Italy: Tarnoff, C. & Lawson, M. L. (2016). Food and Agriculture Organization. Foreign Aid: An introduction to U.S. Retrieved from programs and policy. Congressional http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/ Research Service Report R40213. w5830e00.htm#Contents Washington, DC: USPGO. Retrieved Roosevelt, F. D. (1939). Message to from Congress on plan II to implement the https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40213.p reorganization act. Online by G. df
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Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnacg5 Eight “big-tent” criteria for excellent 28.pdf qualitative research. Qualitative Urban, W. J., & Wagoner, J. L., Jr. (2014). Inquiry, 16(10), 837-851. American education: A history. doi:10.1177/1077800410383121 Lewiston, NY: Routledge. United Nations (UN). (2017). Least Van den Ban, A. W., & Hawkins, H. S. developed countries. Retrieved from (1996). Agricultural extension (2nd https://www.un.org/development/des ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell a/dpad/least-developed-country- Science. category.html Williams, G. W. (2005). The USDA Forest United States Agency for International Service - The first century. Development (USAID). (1999). A Washington, DC: USDA, Forest brief history of foreign assistance. Service, Office of Communication. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1957/47272
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25203
Social Capital of Faculty within Haiti’s Agricultural Education and Training System
Bertrhude Albert T. Grady Roberts Amy Harder University of Florida
Abstract The purpose of this research was to identify how teaching at multiple institutions impacts social capital of faculty within the Haitian AET system. Putnam’s social capital framework was used in the current study. Social capital is developed based on relationships with others. Bonding social capital is homogenous; bridging social capital is heterogonous; linking social capital connects an individual with external resources. A mixed methods approach was used in order to accomplish the study’s objectives. Results from the quantitative portion of this research showed a low positive association between teaching at multiple institutions and bonding social capital. Similarly, a moderate positive association between teaching at multiple institutions and linking social capital was found. Conversely, data showed a negligible negative association between linking social capital and teaching at multiple institutions. The qualitative portion of this research showed that most educators were optimistic about teaching at various institutions; however, faculty indicated teaching at multiple institutions did not translate directly into an increase in their social capital. In fact, teaching at multiple institutions only increased the demands on their time caused by having multiple appointments. It is recommended that universities invest in platforms and strategies to increase faculty’s social capital. From a theoretical perspective, this research applies social capital theory in a new context. This research may also have value to development researchers working with higher education faculty in other countries.
Keywords: Haiti; agricultural education; Caribbean; social capital; university
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Introduction formal education and training within the Agricultural development is a agricultural sector (InnovATE, 2016). necessary prerequisite to securing economic Haitian agricultural faculty are growth and a prosperous future for many prominent figures offering training and developing countries (United States Agency education to future leaders within the for International Development [USAID], Haitian agricultural sector, agricultural 2015; World Bank, 2015a). Diamond and students (Interuniversity Institute for Ordunio (2005) attributed societal success to Research and Development [INURED], countries’ agricultural development 2010). Not only do Haitian faculty need to throughout the centuries. Because be effective for their students, but there is Agricultural Education and Training (AET) also a need to meet the high demands of systems are an integral part of strengthening their job tasks (INURED, 2010). The higher the agricultural sector, they have become a education environment calls for faculty focal point for many international research members to be innovative and responsive to projects and investments (USAID, 2016). It complexities and challenges in order to be is nearly impossible for a country to develop successful (Carpenter, Coughlin, Morgan, & without these systems, which makes a strong Price, 2010). Specifically, in the case of AET system a vital prerequisite for securing Haiti, higher education faces challenges a country’s economic growth and prosperity such as: (a) lack of research priorities and (Moore, Mutaleb, & Baharanyi, 2014). funding, (b) minimal faculty training, (c) Haiti is known as the economically insufficient libraries, (d) outdated poorest country in the western hemisphere curriculum, and (e) and absence of and one of the poorest in the world (Arias, overarching governance and regulation Leguia, & Sy, 2013). In 2015, Haiti’s per (INURED, 2010). capita income was only one-tenth the Latin Faculty in Haiti may have limited American average (World Bank, 2015b). access to a variety of resources but they do Along with high levels of poverty, a lack of have access to each other. The relationships food security has continued to be rampant and networks formed between faculty are throughout the land (Arias et al., 2013). potential assets despite other resource Food security can be defined as “when all deficiencies in the system. Putnam (1995) people at all times have access to sufficient, used the term social capital to describe the safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy networks and relationships shared between and active life” (World Health Organization people which allow them to more effectively [WHO], 2012, para. 1). Approximately 3.3 reach their goals. Accordingly, higher social million Haitians are food insecure, which capital could mean faculty have access to prohibits them from maintaining a healthy information, resources and networks that can and active life (World Food Program help them increase their effectiveness as [WFP], n.d.). educators. A unique situation in Haiti is that Agricultural higher education many faculty hold part-time appointments at institutions help to fight against food multiple institutions, sometimes teaching at insecurity through their vital role within three or more universities. The present AET systems (USAID, 2011). Along with research investigated levels of social capital, other institutions such as secondary and or personal connections, among faculty vocational schools, higher education within Haiti’s AET system based on the provides an avenue for individuals to receive number of universities in which they teach (Putnam, 1995).
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Review of Literature and Theoretical (Putnam, 2000). Bonding social capital Framework tends to “reinforce exclusive identities and The concept of social capital dates homogeneous groups” (Putnam, 2000, p. 3). back to Durkheim’s (1893) work. Durkheim Bonding social capital connects individuals wrote about the positive impact that group who are similar to each other. This type of life had on an individual’s life and the social capital is the “sociological superglue” society as a whole (Portes, 1998). Social (Putnam, 2000, p. 3) of society as it works to capital represented the advantages that came strengthen social reciprocity and solidarity. due to an individual’s social networks. In contrast, bridging social capital “connects Durkheim (1893) believed that social capital individuals who are diverse” (Putnam, 2000, was an example of a nonmonetary form of p. 3). According to Putnam (2000), bridging capital that was an important source of capital can be compared to a “sociological power and influence in societies (Portes, WD-40 lubricant” (p. 3). Bridging social 1998). capital works to link communities and About 100 years after Durkheim individuals to resources, information, and (1893), Bourdieu (1986) became one of the connections. Community members can have first scholars to methodically analyze social both of the aforementioned social capitals, capital. Bourdieu defined social capital in but they usually do in varying amounts terms of the advantages that membership in (Putnam, 2000). a specific network offer individuals. Larsen et al. (2004) commented on Specifically, Bourdieu (1986) said that the differences between bridging and social capital is “the aggregate of the actual bonding social capital when they said that or potential resources which are linked to “all forms of social capital are not equal and possession of a durable network of more or important differences exist between bonding less institutionalized relationships of mutual social capital and bridging social capital” (p. acquaintance or recognition” (p. 248). 65). For example, bridging social capital can Bourdieu believed the advantages offered to be a more powerful form of social capital an individual through social networks are because it provides individuals with the tied to economic capital and other privileges opportunity to connect with heterogeneous of the group. groups that may have more access to Building off the work of Durkheim resources, information, and connections that (1893) and Bourdieu (1986), political close family and friends may not have. scientist Putnam (1995) offered a definition Although bonding social capital may not of social capital that serves as the provide similar access it is a necessary operational definition for the present study. prerequisite to developing bridging social Social capital is the “networks, norms, and capital (Larsen at al., 2004). trust that enables participants to act together The final type of social capital is more effectively to pursue shared linking social capital (Grootaert & van objectives” (Putnam, 1995, p. 665). This Bastelaer, 2001). This describes an definition focuses on the social connections, individual’s ability to engage with external norms, and trust that lead to benefits for an agencies or groups to influence their policies individual. or obtain useful resources (Pretty, 2003). In order to measure social capital, it Linking social capital is often seen as an is necessary to understand the differences extension of bridging social capital, except between the three types of social capital: (a) instead of being horizontal connections with bonding, (b) bridging, and (c) linking heterogeneous groups, it is a vertical
31 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 connection (Grootaert & van Bastelaer, engage in professional development but 2001). Linking provides an individual the reported variable support from their opportunity to connect with organizations or institutions for professional development. groups that can provide many resources that they would not have otherwise had. Purpose Social capital was the variable of The purpose of the present study was interest for this research because despite to identify how teaching at multiple how one measures or categorizes it, institutions impacted the social capital of academics agree that it can result in benefits faculty within the Haitian AET system. The for individuals and institutions both objectives of this research were as follows: (Carpenter et al., 2010; Ferren, Kennan, & 1. Determine if an association exists Lerch, 2001; Putnam, 1995; Woolcock & between bonding, bridging, and Narayan, 2000). Ferren et al. (2001) argued linking social capital and the number that social capital is equal to other assets of institutions faculty work at. If so, such as financial and human capital in describe the association. higher education, a particularly promising 2. Explore faculty reasons for teaching concept within the Haitian context. In its and perception of how the number of best form social capital is a beneficial institutions they teach at impacts component of higher education institutions their social capital. because it contributes to economic, social, and political development. Social capital is Methodology able to contribute to society by: (a) This research took a mixed methods encouraging the sharing of information, (b) approach (Creswell, 2013). Data were discouraging opportunistic mindsets and collected face-to-face by the lead researcher behaviors, and (c) facilitating collective using a paper questionnaire. The quantitative decision making (Woolcock &Narayan, portion of instrument was adapted from the 2000). World Bank’s Measuring Social Capital Literature examining the social Integrated Questionnaire (SC-IQ) capital of university faculty in agriculture (Grootaert, Narayan, Jones, & Woolcock, could not be found after an exhaustive 2003). This instrument operationalized review of the literature. Other research in bonding social capital as membership in international agricultural and extension groups, participation in group activities, and education has examined how a leadership number of close friends. Bridging social development program impacted farmer capital was operationalized as membership social capital in Morocco (Rasmussen, in heterogeneous groups (based on religion, Pardello, Vreyens, Chazdon, Teng, & gender, race, education, and occupation), Liepold, 2017) and confirmed the phone calls made, and phone calls received. importance of social capital in rural advisory Linking social capital was operationalized as service networks (Lamm, Lamm, Davis, & trust in the national and local governments. Swaroop, 2017). Recent research on Haitian The 33-item instrument was translated to agriculture faculty explored their French, the official language of Haiti, and perceptions of how prepared they were for modified to make it appropriate for a higher their teaching roles (Pierre et al., 2018). education context in Haiti (Grootaert et al., Faculty generally believed they were 2003). Researcher-developed open-ended prepared for their academic roles. Faculty questions were added to the instrument to were mostly intrinsically motivated to achieve the second research objective.
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An expert panel of Haitian faculty This distribution confirms that most Haitian members, U.S. university faculty members, agriculture faculty teach at multiple and Haitian researchers examined the institutions. instrument for content validity. Based on Quantitative data analysis included that feedback, several questions were frequencies and percentages to describe the reworded. Next, the instrument was piloted sample (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). Cross by Haitian faculty and researchers. After tabulation was then used to describe the piloting the instrument, it was estimated that association between bonding, bridging, and faculty members would take between 15-30 linking social capital and the number of minutes to complete the survey. institutions faculty work at. Kendall’s tau-c The target population was teaching (rt) and Cramer’s V (FCramer ) were used to faculty at Haitian agricultural universities. describe associations. Strengths of Membership in the Caribbean Council of associations were interpreted using Davis Higher Education in Agriculture (CACHE) (1971) for Kendall’s tau-c and Rea and was used to identify the six major Parker (1992) for Cramer’s V. agricultural universities in Haiti (CACHE, Qualitative data analysis consisted of n.d.). This included the Université d'Etat a thematic analysis using open coding to d'Haiti (UEH), Université Quisqueya identify emergent themes (Merriam, 2009). (UNIQ), Université Caraïbe (UC), Data were translated from French to English Université Episcopale d'Haiti (UNEPH), and the analysis was completed in English Université Notre Dame d’Haïti (UNDH), by the lead researcher. Participants were and American University of the Caribbean given a code based on their primary (AUC). Of these six institutions, four are institution and the order in which their data located in the nation’s capital, Port-au- was collected. Representative quotes were Prince, including; UEH, UNIQ, UC, and provided in the findings to give a voice to UNEPH. The remaining two institutions are participants. The rigor of this research was located in Les Cayes, a city in southwest established using Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) Haiti. UEH is the only public university of concept of trustworthiness, which includes these institutions while the other five are four elements: credibility, transferability, private. The dean at each university was dependability, and confirmability. To contacted and asked to identify faculty and establish credibility, the lead researcher used to help facilitate the distribution of the final triangulation of the information, and of the questionnaire. investigator. There was regular Overall, 78 faculty were invited to communication between the lead researcher, participate in this study. A total of 65 faculty research team, and experts in the field. provided data for an 83.33% response rate. Member checking was also used to ensure Data were collected face-to-face by the that the data collected accurately depicted leader researcher, a Haitian American who the thoughts and reflections of the speaks Creole, French, and English. An informants. In order to establish important feature of this sample lies within transferability, the lead researcher provided the distribution of faculty who taught at thick descriptions of the methodological multiple institutions. Of the sample, 33.85% process and used purposive sampling in (n = 22) taught at one institution. Another selecting the informants. To establish 29.23% (n = 19) taught at two institutions. dependability, the lead researcher kept an Finally, the largest group of faculty taught at audit trail that included the raw data, notes, three or more institutions, 36.92% (n = 24). and drafts of findings of this study. The lead
33 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 researcher also used a code-recode strategy friends. A summary of the relationships to ensure dependability (Ary, Jacobs, between the number of institutions worked Sorensen, & Walker, 2013). Finally, at and these three variables is provided in confirmability was established through the Table 1. There was a low positive use of a reflexive journal, which included association between teaching at multiple the weekly reasoning behind all institutions and group membership (rt= methodological decisions made by the lead .178). There was a negligible negative researcher. association between teaching at multiple institutions and participation in group Results activities (rt= -.021). There was a low positive association between teaching at Bonding Social Capital multiple institutions and number of close As mentioned previously, bonding friends (rt= .127). social capital was determined based on membership in groups, participation in group activities, and number of close
Table 1 Bonding Social Capital Summary Number of Institutions Bonding Social Capital Variable 1 2 3+ Frequencies of Faculty Membership in Groups (rt= .178) 0 groups 2 2 4 1 group 4 6 3 2 groups 13 5 3 3+ groups 3 6 14
Participation in Group Activities (rt= -.021) 0 groups 2 2 5 1 group 7 5 3 2 groups 4 4 7 3+ groups 9 8 9
Number of Close Friends (rt=.127) 1-2 friends 3 6 4 3-4 friends 10 5 5 5-6 friends 7 6 10 7+ friends 2 2 5
Bridging Social Capital and number of institutions are summarized Bridging social capital was determined by in Table 2. Moderate positive associations membership in heterogeneous groups, phone were observed for religion (c2= 10.017, 2 calls made, and phone calls received. FCramer= .393), race (c = 5.614, FCramer= 2 Relationships between group memberships .294), and education (c = 5.562, FCramer=
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2 .293). Weak positive associations were .144) and occupation (c = 0.149, FCramer= 2 observed for gender (c = 1.346, FCramer= .048).
Table 2 Membership in Heterogeneous Groups Number of Institutions Were you a member of a group with people who differed from you based on ______? 1 2 3+ Frequencies of Faculty 2 Religion (c = 10.017, FCramer= .393) Yes 12 10 22 No 10 9 3
2 Gender (c = 1.346, FCramer= .144) Yes 18 14 21 No 4 5 3
2 Race (c = 5.614, FCramer= .294) Yes 7 9 16 No 15 10 8
2 Occupation (c = 0.149, FCramer= .048) Yes 15 14 17 No 7 5 7
2 Education (c = 5.562, FCramer= .293) Yes 14 13 22 No 8 6 2
Results show that faculty who taught taught at two or three or more institutions at two and three or more institutions made a received the most phone calls per week. higher number of phone calls made per There was a moderate positive association week (Table 3). There was a moderate between calls made and number institutions positive association between calls made and (rt=.329). number institutions (rt= .302). Faculty who
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Table 3 Phone Calls Made and Received Number of Institutions 1 2 3+ Frequencies of Faculty Phone Calls Made Per Week (rt= .302) Less than 11 8 4 0 11-20 6 3 9 21-30 2 2 3 31+ 6 10 12
Phone Calls Received Per Week (rt=.329) Less than 11 9 4 2 11-20 5 4 3 21-30 2 1 2 31+ 6 10 17
Linking Social Capital 57.89% (n = 11) teaching at two institutions, Trust in the national government was and 91.67% (n = 22) teaching at three or overwhelmingly low for all faculty more institutions had small or very small regardless of the number of institutions trust in the government. There was a taught at (see Table 4). No faculty member negligible positive association between trusted the national government to a very institutions worked at and trust in the great or great extent. In fact, 81.82% (n = national government (rt= .052). 18) of faculty teaching at one institution,
Table 4 Trust in Governments Number of Institutions How much trust do you have in the ______? 1 2 3+ Frequencies of Faculty National Government (rt= .052) Very Small 14 2 15 Small 4 9 7 Neither 4 8 2 Great 0 0 0 Very Great 0 0 0
Local Government (rt= -.127) Very Small 12 2 11 Small 5 12 5 Neither 3 4 6 Great 1 0 2 Very Great 0 1 0
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The lack of trust faculty had towards When asked about the impact of the national government was similar to the working at multiple institutions on their lack of trust that faculty had in the local social capital, every faculty member government (see Table 4). A total of 77.27% mentioned that he or she is able to meet new (n = 17) of faculty who taught at one students and colleagues. F11 mentioned, “I institution, 73.68% (n = 14) teaching at two get to broaden my horizons and meet new institutions, and 66.67% (n = 16) who taught people, mainly colleagues and students, at three or more institutions trusted the local when I teach at various universities. It’s government to a small or very small extent. really good for me.” C5 also said, “it puts There was a low negative association me in in contact with groups that are very between institutions and trust in the local different from me.” This was echoed by U2 government (rt= -.127). who wrote, “I get in touch with a large amount of young people that can make an Qualitative Responses impact on the world.” When asked about why they teach at Although faculty commented on the multiple institutions, faculty members gave benefit of meeting new people as they work one of five reasons: (a) filling the need for at multiple institution, some faculty believed qualified educators, (b) love for his or her that meeting new people did not translate subject area, (c) love for the students, (d) directly into social capital. F22 mentioned, need for more financial income, or (e) love “I meet many new people, but I don’t for Haiti. The two most common reasons for engage with most of them. I don’t have the teaching at multiple institutions was a love pleasure of getting to know the many people for the subject and filling the need for I meet.” Another informant mentioned, qualified educators. “there is no impact on my social networks, I The most common reason for see many people but it does not benefit me teaching at multiple institutions was that in any way” (F14). Another informant faculty members felt as if they needed to fill stated, the need for qualified educators. E3 stated, “there lacks good teachers in entomology so, Teaching at four institutions does not I must teach at various schools.” This is impact my social networks, my echoed by E5 who wrote, “there lacks contracting work does that. If I qualified individuals in human resources, so lecture at [university], I meet new I must travel and teach.” N4 stated, “I travel people but I wouldn’t necessarily in order for me to share with the students network at the school since I have quality information that will help them and obligations at many other our agriculture sector.” institutions. (N6) The next most common reason for teaching at multiple institutions was a love Finally, one informant stated, “Sometimes for the subject area. Examples of having a less is more. If I worked at less institutions, I love for the subject include F13 who said, would have more time to invest in and “my love for teaching agronomy compels benefit from encountering people” (E4). me to teach at as many institutions as I can.” And F21, who said, “there is no special reason for me teaching at multiple schools, I just really love my subject.”
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Conclusions, Recommendations, and Bridging social capital. Faculty Implications who taught at more institutions were more likely to demonstrate indicators of bridging Bonding, Bridging, and Linking Social social capital, as based on membership in Capital heterogenous groups. In particular, they were more likely to be members of groups in Bonding social capital. Teaching at which they interacted with people of multiple institutions was found to positively differing religious, racial, and educational contribute to bonding social capital, but the backgrounds. This was true to a lesser extent low strength of the association suggests that for gender and occupation, suggesting there although some faculty were exposed to more may cultural norms restricting interaction students, faculty, and communities through with the opposite gender and/or interacting their multiple teaching duties, they had not with those above or below the faculty been reaping the full benefits of having member in the academic hierarchy. many opportunities increased bonding social The data for bridging social capital capital. ought to be understood in light of faculty’s Bonding social capital can provide need to teach at multiple institutions, which significant benefits to faculty members, like at times is caused because of a lack of strong support groups with faculty who personal financial capital (Dumay, 2010). teach similar subjects, which would Networking with heterogeneous groups can ultimately benefit students (Aldridge, be greatly beneficial for faculty when Halpern, &Fitzpatrick, 2002; Ferren et al., bridging social capital is transformed into 2001; Putnam, 1995; Woolcock & Narayan, other forms of capital allowing the faculty 2000). Although there is a positive member to be more productive (Aldridge et association between teaching at multiple al., 2002; Ferren et al., 2001; Portes, 1998; institutions and bonding social capital, Putnam, 1995; Woolcock & Narayan, 2000). faculty and higher education institutions are Linking social capital. Faculty who not maximizing on the opportunity to taught at more institutions had a slightly increase faculty resources through increased higher association with trusting the national bonding social capital. (Aldridge et al., government but distrusting the local 2002). A lack of resources is one of the government. Overall, regardless of the greatest challenges to the higher education number of institutions faculty taught at, system. The ability of social capital to there was a culture of distrust towards the change into other forms of capital can be a government. This distrust is the summation used as a tool that mitigates the severe lack of a long history of political and social of resources within higher education (Portes, instability within the country (Arias et al., 1998). For example, social capital can 2013). These findings are understood in transform into financial capital when a light of historical turmoil Haitians have faculty uses his or her networks to locate faced by those in power, specifically by the and borrow a $300 textbook that is needed government. for curriculum and content design of his or The distrust that faculty have her course (Portes, 1998). This, in turn, towards the government poses a problem for would be expected to yield benefits for higher education institutions in Haiti. students. Because Haiti lacks financial Although five of the six leading institutions capital, it is even more important for Haitian are private institutions, the government still faculty to maximize on social capital. oversees all higher education policy and
38 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 activities throughout the country. due to the fact that in depth research on Furthermore, agricultural students often end Haitian higher education faculty has not up working for the Haitian Ministry of been conducted and parts of their stories Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural have not been captured, but there is also the Development (MARNDR). Despite faculty’s possibility that the faculty’s responses in this distrust towards the government there is a study were influenced by a desire to provide necessary connection between higher responses believed to be socially acceptable. education and government in Haiti. A lack The lack of comparable scholarly research of linking social capital between faculty and focused on higher education in Haiti government would mean that faculty would hampers efforts to confidently develop be less likely to be included in dialogue that conclusions. directly impacts them and their students. Although faculty are eager to Furthermore, agricultural students would not continue supporting agricultural benefit from social networks faculty could development through teaching at various have with the government. institutions, many are only reaping basic Because of the importance of social benefits to their social capital through their capital, it would behoove institutions to multiple teaching appointments. Institutions invest in initiatives that would increase and faculty both are not tapping into the full social capital among their faculty. To benefits of being able to be exposed to increase social capital agricultural various colleagues, students, and institutions should build an academic culture communities. On the contrary, faculty which encourages a culture of togetherness mentioned that their social capital is not beyond staff meetings by creating increasing because of the number of opportunities for faculty interactions built institutions at which they teach. The around faculty interests and needs. One such increased demands on time created by example would be routine opportunities for employment at multiple institutions professional development. This would prevented the faculty studied from require better institutional support for developing meaningful relationships, faculty development, which faculty had although they had access to larger networks. previously identified as inconsistent but These missed opportunities represent a real desired (Pierre et al., 2018). cost in terms of the lost potential for developing social capital, but the lack of Faculty’s Perception of Social Capital qualified educators to fill Haiti’s teaching The qualitative portion of this needs means faculty are likely to continue research showed that overall, faculty taught having multiple jobs for the foreseeable at multiple institutions for different reasons future. and most of the reasons were positive. Dumay (2010) stated that faculty teach at Recommendations for Additional multiple institutions because of a desire to Research enjoy a decent standard of living, but this This study examined social capital at research showed that faculty taught at a single point in time. Each day faculty have multiple institutions because of a sense of the potential to meet new people and build responsibility, patriotism, and love for new relationships. The authors are also students and the subject area. The aware of a faculty development program discrepancy between Dumay (2010) sponsored by USAID that was open to research and this present research is perhaps faculty from all these universities that was
39 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 implemented just after this data was development (pp. 201-215). San collected, which may have influenced the Francisco: Jossey-Bass. findings of this research. A re-examination Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry of the social capital of Haitian faculty would & research design: Choosing among be warranted to see how it may be different. five approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Social capital is a complex SAGE Publications. phenomenon. The current study only begins Davis, J. A. (1971). Elementary survey to explore it in the context of Haitian analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: agricultural universities. A more in-depth Prentice–Hall. methodology like ethnography or case study Diamond, J. M., & Ordunio, D. (2005). research within the academic community at Guns, germs, and steel. New York, each university could really help advance NY: Norton & Company, Inc. the understanding of how social capital Dumay, H. E. (2010). Can Haitian higher impacts the university, faculty performance, education rise from the rubble? and ultimately student success. International Higher Education, 59, 2-3. doi: 10.6017/ihe.2010.59.8484 References Durkheim, E. (1893). The division of labour Aldridge, S., Halpern, D., & Fitzpatrick, S. in society. New York, NY: Free (2002). Social capital. London, Press. England: Performance and Ferren, A. S., Kennan, W. R., & Lerch, S. H. Innovation Publication. (2001). Reconciling corporate and Arias, D., Leguía, J. J., & Sy, A. (2013). academic cultures. Peer Review, Determinants of agricultural 3(3). Retrieved from extension services: The case of Haiti. http://www.aacu.org/publications- Retrieved from research/periodicals/reconciling- http://documents.worldbank.org/cura corporate-and-academic-cultures ted/en/2013/05/18170053/determina Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. nts-agricultural-extension-services- (2007). Educational research: An case-haiti introduction. Boston, MA: Pearson Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Education. Walker, D. (2013). Introduction to Grootaert, C., & van Bastelaer, T. (2001). A research in education. Boston, MA: synthesis of findings and Cengage Learning. recommendations from the social Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. capital initiative. New York, NY: New York, NY: Greenwood Press. World Bank. Retrieved from Caribbean Council for Higher Education in http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN Agriculture. (n.d.). Caribbean TSOCIALCAPITAL/Resources/Soci Council for Higher Education in al-Capital-Initiative-Working-Paper- Agriculture. Retrieved from Series/SCI-WPS-24.pdf http://cache-caribbean.org Grootaert, C., Narayan, D., Jones, V. N., & Carpenter, A. N., Coughlin, L., Morgan, S., Woolcock, M. (2003). Integrated & Price, C. (2010). Social Capital questionnaire for the measurement of and the Campus Community. In J. E. social capital. New York, NY: Miller (Ed.), To improve the World Bank. Retrieved from academy: Resources for faculty, https://openknowledge.worldbank.or instructional, and organizational g/bitstream/handle/10986/15033/281
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100PAPER0Measuring0social0capit for AET in post-conflict Sub-Saharan al.pdf?sequence=1 Africa. Blacksburg, VA: InnovATE. Innovation for Agricultural Education and Retrieved from Training. (2016). Applying systems http://innovate.oired.vt.edu//wp- thinking to ag education and content/uploads/2015/09/InnovATE_ training. thematicstudy_postconflictAfrica_92 https://agrilinks.org/blog/applying- 514_FINAL.pdf systems-thinking-ag-education-and- Pierre, A., Calixte, M. C., Moore, K., training Bunch, J. C., Koenig, R., Delva, L., Interuniversity Institute for Research and & Roberts, T. G. (2018). Haitian Development [INURED]. (2010). agricultural faculty preparation for The challenge for Haitian higher their academic roles. Journal of education: A post-earthquake International Agricultural and assessment of higher education Extension Education, 25(1), 24-38. institutions in the Port-au-Prince doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25103 metropolitan area. Port-au-Prince, Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins Haiti: INURED. Retrieved from and applications in modern http://www.inured.org/uploads/2/5/2/ sociology. Annual Review of 6/25266591/the_challenge_for_haitia Sociology, 24, 1-24. n_higher_education.pdf Pretty, J. (2003). Social capital and Lamm, K. W., Lamm, A. J., Davis, K., & connectedness: Issues and Swaroop, B. J. (2017). Identifying implications for agriculture, rural knowledge management capacity development and natural resource needs of rural advisory service management in ACP countries. networks. Journal of International Retrieved from Agricultural and Extension https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/ha Education, 24(2), 93-106. doi: ndle/10568/63614/social%20capital 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24207 %20wd8032.pdf?sequence=1 Larson, L., Harlan, S. L., Bolin, B., Hackett, Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: E. J., Hope, D., Kirby, A., Nelson, America's declining social capital. A., Rex, T. R., & Wolf, S. (2004). Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65-78. Bonding and bridging: Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The Understanding the relationship collapse and revival of American between social capital and civic community. New York: Simon and action. Journal of Planning Schuster. Education and Research, 24(5), 64- Rasmussen, C. M., Pardello, R. M., 77. Vreyens, J. R., Chazdon, S., Teng, Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). S., & Liepold, M. (2017). Building Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, social capital and leadership skills Calif: Sage Publications. for sustainable farmer associations in Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: Morocco. Journal of International A guide to design and Agricultural and Extension implementation. San Francisco, CA: Education, 24(2), 35-49. doi: Jossey-Bass, 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24203 Moore, A., Mutaleb, M. D., & Baharanyi, N. (2014). Challenges and opportunities
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Rea, L. M., & Parker, R. A. (1992). World Food Program. (n.d.) 10 facts about Designing and conducting survey hunger in Haiti. Retrieved from research. San Francisco, CA: http://www.wfp.org/stories/10-facts- Jossey– Bass. about-hunger-haiti United States Agency for International Development. (2011). Haiti FY 2011-2015 multi year strategy. Retrieved from http://www.feedthefuture.gov/sites/d efault/files/country/strategies/files/H aitiFeedtheFutureMultiYearStrategy _Public_FINAL.pdf United States Agency for International Development. (2015). Agricultural capacity development. Retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/what- we-do/agriculture-and-food- security/supporting-agricultural- capacity-development Woolcock, M., & Narayan, D. (2000). Social capital: implications for development theory, research, and policy. The World Bank Research Observer, 15(2), 225-249. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/cura ted/en/961231468336675195/Social- capital-implications-for- development-theory-research-and- policy World Bank. (2015a). Agriculture overview. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/a griculture/overview World Bank. (2015b). The challenges of poverty reduction. Retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVER TY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:202075 90~menuPK:435735~pagePK:14895 6~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,0 0.html World Health Organization. (2012). Food security. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/st ory028/en/
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25204
Effective Advocacy for Extension Networks: An Evaluation of Critical Capacities
Kevan W. Lamm Alexa J. Lamm University of Georgia
Kristin Davis International Food Policy Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
B. Jyothi Swaroop University of Florida
Abstract Across the globe extension or rural advisory service (RAS) networks are experiencing dramatic changes. Rural to urban population shifts, climate variability, and increased competition for limited resources have created a challenging environment. When done effectively, advocacy is one of the most successful tool extensionists possess to increase understanding and visibility for the value and impacts RAS networks can have. Despite the importance of advocacy there has not been any research into the capacities necessary for RAS networks to advocate effectively. To address the gap researchers conducted a three-round Delphi process with an expert panel of 31 individuals from 24 different countries. The panel achieved consensus on 39 specific capacities necessary for RAS networks to advocate effectively. Additional recommendations are provided for RAS networks to develop capacities accordingly.
Keywords: Advocacy, Delphi, evaluation, capacity assessment
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Introduction climates and market situations (Anderson, A rapidly-growing global population 2008). is leading to environmental change that RAS providers needed to be trained impacts agriculture around the world to address issues beyond their local areas (Godfray & Garnett, 2014; Kitinoja, Saran, (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). The training Roy, & Kader, 2011). There is a need for an and expansion of RAS required funding agricultural systems transformation to meet beyond that provided by public sources the increasing demands on food resources leading to a pluralistic system (World Bank, that will be necessary to obtain sustainable 2012). However, the defined functions of the production (Özerdem & Roberts, 2016). public and private contributors to RAS were Farmers need to be able to adapt to changing not delineated and led to a complex system situations so they are capable of working in where many competing demands were agricultural systems necessary to achieve placed on RAS providers (World Bank, higher level of productivity (Anderson & 2012). The increasingly diverse nature of Feder, 2004). Accessing updated advisory services, due to changes in funding information available on production and as well as leadership, resulted in a distribution technologies is an important fragmented global system (Swanson & factor in reaching sustainable productivity Rajalahti, 2010). Given the intricate nature within the agricultural realm (Beckford & of agricultural production, evaluating the Barker, 2007). In order to achieve impact of either form, public and private sustainable productivity, farmers and other advisory services, became difficult agricultural stakeholders must have access (Anderson, 2008). to proper information sources (Okwoche, Trends including declining support Asogwa, & Obinne, 2012). Access to for publicly-funded programs, criticism of information sources can be made possible by inefficient models of publicly-funded enhancing human capital that establishes programs, and an enhanced focus on and maintains strong connections (Cawein et accountability for publicly-funded programs al., 2017). represent a challenging context for RAS Rural advisory services (RAS), networks (Faure, Huamanyauri, Salazar, otherwise known as extension services, Gómez, De Nys, & Dulcire, 2017; Lamm, around the globe have a goal of enabling Israel, & Diehl, 2013). The lack of proven stakeholders by developing human capital impact made it even more difficult for and assisting in technology transfer from policy makers to support RAS and a decline research-based institutions to the end user in recognition and attention has been felt on (Anderson & Feder, 2004). RAS operate as a global scale (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). networks at the country, region, continental These trends led to reforms in RAS along and global level with multiple actors with calls to be more accountable to working collaboratively (Davis & Sulaiman, clientele and funders (Rivera & Alex, 2005). 2014). Initially RAS were top-down, RAS along with other public or donor- publicly funded, services confined to a funded institutions are thus eager to geographical location (Swanson & Rajalahti, advocate regarding their important role in 2010). While local application methods sustainable production (Huffman, 2016). In improved production in the short term, the order to secure sustained funding for RAS limited reach and applicability restricted the there is a need for advocacy, at multiple ability of RAS providers when assisting the levels, that focus on why RAS should be agricultural industry in adapting to changing supported.
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There are different types of advocacy obtaining, by applying this concept of based on the type of population served aggregating resources and voices to have (Brandon, Brandon, & Brandon, 1995). greater impact through advocacy efforts Advocacy is broadly defined as a process of (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). pleading for support of a certain cause or proposal (Lee, 1998; Merriam-Webster, Theoretical Framework 2017). Advocacy related to knowledge Social capital enables connections transfer is known to have a high amount of between individuals through strong or weak influence on global networks (Stone, 2002). ties (Lin 2008). Social capital is comprised In the field of counseling, Myers and of norms within networks that equip Sweeney (2004) identified advocacy as an individuals to work cooperatively important factor for the advancement of a (Woolcock & Narayana, 2000). The network profession. In many professions, being perspective of social capital helps us observe skilled in advocacy is recognized as a and understand patterns within a network responsibility rather than an add-on (Allen, (Lin, 2008). This view advocates that strong 2017; Almog-Bar & Schmid, 2014; Taylor, ties (intra-community) and weak ties (extra- 1987). As an illustration, an inclination to community) are both equally beneficial for rely on government funds was observed to acquiring or sharing information be an issue with various nonprofit service (Granovetter, 1995). This is due to the fact organizations (Smith & Lipsky, 1993). Thus, that networks are flexible and dynamic, with obtained funding was primarily invested in the ability to expand by forming new carrying out direct program services and less connections with different networks that for advocacy (Kimberlin, 2010). However, share common values (Hudson, 2001). advocacy has been recognized as an Fischer and Jasny (2017) identified that important aspect of organization to promote organizations are more likely to collaborate welfare and proper allocation of different with their parallels to obtain relevant resources within the organization (Snow, information and resources if they feel 2013). connected. With the global urban population Social capital is known to play a growing every year (World Health major role in human capital development Organization, 2017), one of the prominent (Coleman, 1988). This is possible as social characteristics of globalization is capital comprises both networks and assets, considerable growth in extent, intensity and which can be utilized individually or in velocity of social interactions (Held, combination (Burt, 2009). Davis and McGrew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 2000). Sulaiman (2014) identified advocacy as one Raynor, York, and Sim (2009) found that of the primary areas of strategic advisory organizations operating by management functioning required for networking with other organizations can be capacity development. A high level of more efficient by utilizing collective advocacy capacity can be achieved by resources and complementing assets. RAS employing social capital to access networks providers, who currently operate and identifying essential capacities to be individually, with low cooperation and a developed in the area of advocacy (Nahapiet lack of common standards (Anderson & & Ghoshal, 1998). Advocacy is a Feder, 2004), might be able to increase challenging activity to understand and apply funding support globally, and reach the full as it is influenced by various factors like potential of what RAS is capable of aims, timeframe and power structures within
45 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 an organization (Coates & David, 2002). The study was driven by the following The scope of networks working on RAS research objectives: advocacy efforts goes beyond domestic 1. Create a comprehensive list of boundaries, extending into global potential capacities a network may conversations with funding agencies and need to effectively advocate for networks (Keck & Sikkink, 1999). RAS RAS. networks identified this and began to pay 2. Arrive at a global consensus on the attention to the need for advocacy at the specific capacities necessary for a global level (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). RAS network to effectively Unfortunately, knowledge about the advocate for RAS. level and nature of advocacy practices in different fields, including RAS, is limited Methods within the literature (Pardeck, 1996; Sosin & The methods associated with this Caulum, 1983). As previously identified, research are identical with those described in higher density ties would enhance resource detail in Lamm, Lamm, Davis, and Swaroop sharing among members of a network (Lin, (2017). Data were collected simultaneously 2008); however, a great number of ties also across multiple thematic areas as part of a results in increased complexity of a network larger project (Lamm & Lamm, 2017). and research has found that networks that Based on recommendations in the literature build too many ties too quickly have trouble (Zhang, Jia, Lin, & Tan, 2013) a summary handling them effectively due to centrality of the involved methods is included; (Bodin & Crona, 2009). For example, in a however, readers are strongly encouraged to patient advocacy organization a conflict of review the aforementioned manuscript for a interest was observed within the more detailed description. organization among individuals over A modified Delphi method research decision making (Rose, 2013). It was design was employed to address the research recommended that policy development be objectives. Through the Delphi process directed toward fostering trustworthiness experts’ opinions of the capacities needed within and among the organizations prior to for a RAS network to be effective in collective decision making (Rose, 2013). In advocacy were collected and analyzed until the context of RAS, trust must be built consensus on the final list of capacities was locally in order to be effective in global achieved (Dalkey & Helmer, 1963; Garson, settings (Anderson, 2008). This can be 2014; Ziglio, 1996). achieved by advocating for RAS networks The expert panel was composed of collectively at the regional level and then individuals actively engaged in RAS coming together at the global level (Davis & representing different geographies, levels of Sulaiman, 2014). Social capital has the experience, and organizational structures. potential to assist the advocacy capacity Specifically, panelists were nominated by identification process by enabling the Global Forum for Rural Advisory interactions within RAS networks (Bodin & Services organization (Garson, 2014, Okoli Crona, 2009). & Pawlowski, 2004). The expert panel was composed of a purposive sample of 31 RAS Purpose and Research Objectives professionals. Specifically, the expert panel The purpose of this study was to was composed of the following (Lamm et identify the capacities needed for a RAS al., 2017): network to effectively advocate for RAS.
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The 31 experts that participated in Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = the panel represented RAS Strongly Agree). Scores for each item were practitioners, funding organizations, then averaged with only those items with a farmer and advocacy groups, mean score greater than 3.25 retained for academic institutions, research round three (Garson, 2014). institutes, policy makers, and other Round three of the process was used affiliated RAS support organizations to establish respondents’ consensus with the (for example consultants and capacities retained from round two. agricultural supply companies). Respondents were asked to “Please indicate Panelists had a range of experience whether or not the following knowledge with RAS exposure ranging from management items should be kept or four to 45 years, with an average removed as it relates to the following tenure of 18 years. Panelists statement. A country fora or regional RAS represented the following countries: network should…”. Items that at least 75% Bangladesh, Belgium, Bulgaria, of respondents agreed should be kept were Ecuador, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, retained (Garson, 2014). Guyana, India, Ireland, Italy, Lao The research was conducted based People's Democratic Republic, on a procedure approved by the University Malawi, Nicaragua, Nigeria, of Florida Internal Review Board. The Pakistan, Philippines, Samoa, Delphi process was completed using the Solomon Islands, South Africa, Qualtrics online survey tool and was Switzerland, Uganda, United States administered using the Tailored Design of America, and Uzbekistan. (p. 97) Method (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2008). Data collected online were There were three rounds of the downloaded and analyzed using the Delphi method used to reach consensus Statistical Package for the Social Sciences using tools and instrumentation (SPSS) version 21. Qualitative responses recommendations from the literature (e.g. were analyzed and coded using the Dedoose Delbecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1975; qualitative analysis software (Dedoose, Nistler, Lamm, & Stedman, 2011). In round 2016). one of the process, respondents listed up to Based on a panel of 31 experts, the five (5) of the most important capacities a first round of the Delphi process had a RAS network should possess to be effective response rate of 94%, the second round of in advocacy (Gliddon, 2006). Responses the Delphi process had a response rate of from round one were analyzed and used to 87%, and the third and final round of the develop round two of the process (Garson, Delphi process had a response rate of 94%. 2014; Gliddon, 2006). Previously, Keeney, Hasson, and McKenna, In round two of the process (2011) established that response rates respondents indicated their level of greater than 70% per round in a Delphi agreement with the capacities identified in process were acceptable. the first round. Specifically, respondents were asked to indicate their level of Results agreement or disagreement that each item Following the first round of the was an important capacity for RAS networks Delphi, including consolidation of items, to have on a five point Likert-type scale (1 = there were 44 capacities identified by the Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = expert panel (Table 1). The panelists were
47 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 then asked to indicate the level of final round. When analyzed, the mean importance they associated with each values for the capacities ranged from 4.30 to capacity in Round Two of the Delphi. Of the 3.41 (Table 1). Experts associated the 44 capacities from the first round, all of the highest level of importance with the items achieved the post hoc threshold with a statement “A country fora or regional RAS mean score greater than or equal to 3.25 to network should…maintain strong be retained in Round Two; therefore all 44 partnerships with those involved in policy capacities were included in the third and making to ensure RAS is visible.”
Table 1 Delphi Round One and Two Results: Level of Importance for Advocacy Capacities (n = 44) Capacity M SD Maintain strong partnerships with those involved in policy making to 4.30 0.82 ensure RAS is visible Be able to clearly identify/define RAS stakeholders 4.22 0.70 Exhibit strong communication skills with policy/decision makers at 4.19 0.88 all levels Be able to articulate RAS stakeholder needs 4.19 0.68 Articulate key advocacy messages 4.19 0.74 Link RAS with ongoing priority government and private sector 4.19 0.88 programs Develop relationships with stakeholders 4.19 0.88 Have representation on national platforms/events 4.19 0.92 Show the role/potential role of RAS in addressing priority concerns 4.11 0.75 (e.g. poverty alleviation, food security) Be perceived as a positive influence on the decision making/policy 4.11 0.85 process Provide information in support of RAS efforts to policy/decision 4.07 0.83 makers at all levels Use creative ways to reach new and old audiences 4.07 0.87 Be recognized as a relevant/important actor 4.07 0.68 Exhibit strong communication skills with the public 4.04 0.94 Develop relationships with community partners 4.04 0.98 Effectively use social media to advocate for RAS 4.00 0.96 Have representation on international platforms/events 4.00 1.00 Provide a deep knowledge of RAS including the impact of RAS 4.00 0.83 initiatives and programs Make advocacy materials available 4.00 0.88 Collaborate effectively to create liaisons and linkages externally in 3.96 0.76 support of advocacy efforts Develop public/private partnerships 3.96 0.94 Have stakeholders that hold RAS in high regard 3.96 0.87 Exhibit strong communication skills (e.g. presentation skills, writing 3.93 0.96 skills, public relations skills) Have beneficiaries that hold RAS in high regard 3.93 0.87 Articulate global trends and context in RAS 3.93 1.00
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Collaborate effectively to create liaisons and linkages internally in 3.93 0.78 support of advocacy efforts Articulate an established advocacy strategy 3.89 0.89 Engage in discussions surrounding current policy trends 3.88 0.86 Use success stories when advocating for RAS 3.85 0.91 Develop relationships with universities 3.85 0.95 Organize support to create a common voice in support of RAS 3.81 0.79 Have network officers that are seen as credible sources 3.81 0.92 Identify champions for RAS 3.81 1.00 Have evidence of strong government support 3.78 1.15 Articulate global trends in agricultural innovation 3.74 0.98 Develop advocacy materials 3.74 0.94 Have evidence of strong grassroots support 3.74 0.98 Have representation on local platforms/events 3.67 1.00 Exhibit strong negotiation skills 3.63 0.88 Articulate the role of women extension workers in RAS 3.63 0.88 Effectively use traditional media to advocate for RAS 3.59 1.01 Conduct policy analysis 3.56 1.01 Have RAS network officers that are invited to be a part of the 3.48 1.09 decision making process at all levels Conduct RAS impact studies 3.41 1.34
For the third and final round of the from Round Two of the Delphi there were Delphi, the panelists were asked whether 39 capacities that received a level of each of the capacities should be kept or consensus greater than the post hoc removed with the intended outcome to threshold of 75% (Table 2). establish consensus. Across the 44 capacities
Table 2 Delphi Round Three Results: Level of Consensus with Advocacy Capacities (n = 44) Capacity Consensus % Have representation on national platforms/events 96.6 Maintain strong partnerships with those involved in policy making to ensure 96.6 RAS is visible Be able to articulate RAS stakeholder needs 96.6 Develop relationships with stakeholders 93.1 Effectively use social media to advocate for RAS 93.1 Show the role/potential role of RAS in addressing priority concerns (e.g. 93.1 poverty alleviation, food security) Organize support to create a common voice in support of RAS 93.1 Articulate key advocacy messages 93.1 Make advocacy materials available 93.1 Exhibit strong communication skills (e.g. presentation skills, writing skills, 92.9 public relations skills) Link RAS with ongoing priority government and private sector programs 89.7
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Have stakeholders that hold RAS in high regard 89.7 Articulate the role of women extension workers in RAS 89.7 Collaborate effectively to create liaisons and linkages internally in support of 89.7 advocacy efforts Be able to clearly identify/define RAS stakeholders 89.7 Be perceived as a positive influence on the decision making/policy process 89.7 Exhibit strong communication skills with the public 89.7 Engage in discussions surrounding current policy trends 89.3 Collaborate effectively to create liaisons and linkages externally in support 86.2 of advocacy efforts Exhibit strong communication skills with policy/decision makers at all levels 86.2 Articulate global trends and context in RAS 86.2 Use success stories when advocating for RAS 85.7 Have representation on international platforms/events 82.8 Have representation on local platforms/events 82.8 Develop relationships with community partners 82.8 Effectively use traditional media to advocate for RAS 82.8 Develop relationships with universities 82.8 Articulate an established advocacy strategy 82.8 Be recognized as a relevant/important actor 82.8 Have network officers that are seen as credible sources 82.8 Provide a deep knowledge of RAS including the impact of RAS initiatives 79.3 and programs Have evidence of strong grassroots support 79.3 Develop advocacy materials 79.3 Use creative ways to reach new and old audiences 79.3 Have beneficiaries that hold RAS in high regard 79.3 Develop public/private partnerships 78.6 Have RAS network officers that are invited to be a part of the decision 75.9 making process at all levels Provide information in support of RAS efforts to policy/decision makers at 75.9 all levels Identify champions for RAS 75.9 Have evidence of strong government support 72.4 Conduct policy analysis 69.0 Articulate global trends in agricultural innovation 69.0 Exhibit strong negotiation skills 65.5 Conduct RAS impact studies 62.1
Conclusions, Implications, and changes to the delivery of extension services Recommendations (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010), and an The challenges facing RAS networks increase in competing demands for limited are well established. Shifts in global resources from other institutions (World population (Godfray & Garnett, 2014), Bank, 2012) all contribute to a challenging
50 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 environment. However, when institutions, engage with the findings and to begin to such as RAS networks, use advocacy develop a common language around effectively they can greatly improve their advocacy. When networks and organizations potential for visibility and support (Allen, have a common language and understanding 2017). Despite the challenging environment, around a particular topic, including specific and the known value advocacy can provide, capacities that constitute the foundation of there had been very limited research into an otherwise abstract concept, they can be what capacities are necessary for RAS more effective in communicating, networks to advocate effectively. The supporting, and sharing best practices. purpose of this research was to address this (OECD, 2006). deficiency and to provide RAS networks a After analyzing the results of the very concrete set of capacities upon which study, there were three capacity items that to develop (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014; Lamm the expert panel almost unanimously agreed et al., 2017). were necessary for RAS networks to be Consistent with previous capacity effective at advocacy. The first capacity is to focused research within a RAS context (e.g. have representation on national Lamm et al., 2017), the results of this study platforms/events. The second capacity is to indicate that a Delphi panel composed of maintain strong partnerships with those RAS experts is an effective way to identify involved in policy making to ensure RAS is the most important capacities for a RAS visible. The third capacity is to be able to network to be effective at advocacy (Bodin articulate RAS stakeholder needs. These & Crona, 2009). Specifically, an expert results imply that the most critical capacities panel composed of individuals representing that RAS networks need to advocate a diverse set of RAS environments from effectively is to be present, be known, and around the globe helps to ensure the findings be clear. These fundamental capacities are are not limited to a specific context where necessary to ensure RAS networks have a environmental conditions may drastically platform to work from, an audience that is impact the utility of the results when applied receptive, and a message that is compelling. in practice (Lamm et al., 2017). These are the fundamental criteria for Nevertheless, the use of a purposively effective advocacy and a recommendation is selected panel of experts must also be for RAS networks to ensure they have these acknowledged as a potential limitation. three capacities well established. If any of Although steps were taken to mitigate bias these capacities are absent, developing the by inviting a diverse panel of experts to capacity should be a priority. Although there participate (Garson, 2014), the results of the were 36 other advocacy capacities that study are limited to the knowledge and reached an acceptable level of consensus, insights of the participating experts (Bodin these were the top three and should receive & Crona, 2009). particular attention. Thematically, RAS networks and Interestingly, when the remaining individual providers tend to share many capacities are reviewed there were three similar characteristics (Davis & Sulaiman, primary thematic areas that emerged that 2014); however, prior to this study there has were very consistent with the three specific not been a common definition or capacity items. The first theme that emerged understanding of advocacy capacities for was that the network should be a visible these groups. A recommendation from this actor for RAS. From an advocacy research is for RAS networks to actively perspective one of the requirements for
51 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 success is to be recognized as institution, impact or that are most closely aligned to and more importantly to be recognized as a political and funding priorities. A second representative of the institution (Allen, recommendation is to develop succinct and 2017). Without acknowledgement from memorable communication plans and others, it will be very difficult for a RAS actions associated with the most impactful network to advocate effectively. A items. As an added benefit, compelling preliminary recommendation is for RAS communication plans that are clear and networks to examine whether they are consistent can be shared with the RAS participating in events where stakeholders network to help ensure messaging are present. For example, if there are consistency and effectiveness. opportunities to connect with policy makers In addition to the specific capacity at conferences, meetings, or events RAS related results associated with this study an networks are strongly encouraged to attend additional recommendation is to extend the and to work on increasing their visibility. results and to develop a scale appropriate for The second thematic area that assessing advocacy capacity across RAS emerged among the identified capacities is networks. This recommendation is that the network should understand RAS consistent with suggestions within the clientele. Although the practical functioning literature to use Delphi process results as a of RAS is important to understand, from an baseline for new scale development (Cheng, advocacy perspective being able to articulate Kuo, Lin, & Lee-Hsieh, 2001). A the impacts of RAS on clientele is generally standardized scale should help to provide a much more compelling. Therefore, a common measure of capacity among RAS recommendation is for RAS networks to networks and to facilitate knowledge sharing understand the impacts and outcomes using a standard set of capacity items. associated with their activities. A further recommendation is to collect not only References quantitative results, but also qualitative case Merriam Webster’s collegiate dictionary. studies and anecdotes. (2017). In Merriam-Webster.com. The third thematic area that emerged Retrieved from is that advocacy messages should be https://www.merriam- communicated effectively. This theme is webster.com/dictionary/advocacy closely related to the preceding two because Allen, T.C. (2017). Twenty-first century it represents the packaging and messaging pathologists’ advocacy. Archives of that is ultimately shared. Specifically, Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. understanding RAS clientele is necessary 141(7), 940-943. but not sufficient for effective advocacy. https://doi.org/10.5858/arpa.2017- Effective advocacy includes the 0105-SA development of compelling narratives and Almog-Bar, M., & Schmid, H. (2014). impact statements and are intended to Advocacy activities of nonprofit command the attention from the audience. A human service organizations: A recommendation is for RAS networks to critical review. Nonprofit and work on aggregating and reviewing clientele Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(1), insights and then identify the most 11-35. doi: compelling items or case studies. Only the 10.1177/0899764013483212 most compelling information should be shared, those situations with the largest
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Anderson, J. R. (2008). Agricultural Studies, 47(9), 1152-1158. advisory services. Washington, DC: doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2001.02.002 Work Bank. Coates, B., & David, R. (2002). Learning for Anderson, J. R., & Feder, G. (2004). change: The art of assessing the Agricultural extension: Good impact of advocacy intentions and hard realities. The work. Development in World Bank Research Practice, 12(3-4), 530-541. Observer, 19(1), 41-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/096145022 https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkh013 0149870 Beckford, C., & Barker, D. (2007). The role Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the and value of local knowledge in creation of human capital. American Jamaican agriculture: Adaptation and Journal of Sociology, 94, 95-120. change in small-scale farming. The https://doi.org/10.1086/228943 Geographical Journal, 173(2), 118- Dalkey, N., & Helmer, O. (1963). An 128. doi: 10.1111/j.1475- experimental application of the 4959.2007.00238.x Delphi method to the use of Bodin, Ö., & Crona, B. I. (2009). The role of experts. Management Science, 9(3), social networks in natural resource 458-467. governance: What relational patterns Davis, K., & Sulaiman, R.V. (2014). The make a difference? Global “new extensionist”: Roles and Environmental Change, 19(3), 366- capacities to strengthen extension 374. doi: and advisory services. Journal of 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.05.002 International Agricultural and Brandon, D., Brandon, A., & Brandon, T. Extension Education, 21(3): 6-18. (1995). Advocacy: power to people doi:10.5191/jiaee.2014.21301 with disabilities. Oxford, England: Dedoose Version 7.0.23, web application for Oxford University Press. managing, analyzing, and presenting Burt, R. S. (2009). Structural holes: The qualitative and mixed method social structure of competition. research data (2016). Los Angeles, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University CA: SocioCultural Research Press. Consultants, LLC.. Cawein, A., Emini, E., Watson, M., Dailey, Delbecq, A. L., Van de Ven, A. H., & J., Donnelly, J., Tresnan, D., Evans, Gustafson, D. H. (1975). Group T., Plotkin, S., & Gruber, W. (2017). techniques for program planning: A Human capital gaps in vaccine guide to nominal group and Delphi development: An issue for global processes. Glenview, IL: Scott, vaccine development and global Foresman. health. Annals of the New York Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. Academy of Sciences, 1395(1), 3-11. M. (Eds.). (2008). Internet, mail, and doi: 10.1111/nyas.13316 mixed-mode surveys: The tailored Cheng, S., Kuo, C., Lin, K., & Lee-Hsieh, J. design method (2nd ed.). Hoboken, (2001). Development and N.J.: Wiley & Sons, Inc. preliminary testing of a self-rating Faure, G., Huamanyauri, M. K., Salazar, I., instrument to measure self-directed Gómez, C., De Nys, E., & Dulcire, learning ability of nursing students. M. (2017). Privatisation of International Journal of Nursing agricultural advisory services and
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consequences for the dairy farmers ‘legitimacy’ to ‘political in the Mantaro Valley, Peru. The responsibility’?. Global Journal of Agricultural Education networks, 1(4), 331-352. doi: and Extension, 23(3), 197-211. doi: 10.1111/1471-0374.00019 10.1080/1389224X.2017.1320639 Huffman, W. E. (2016). New insights on the Fischer, A., & Jasny, L. (2017). Capacity to impacts of public agricultural adapt to environmental change: research and extension. Choices, evidence from a network of 31(2), 1-6. organizations concerned with Keck, M. E., & Sikkink, K. (1999). increasing wildfire risk. Ecology and Transnational advocacy networks in Society, 22(1), 23. international and regional https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08867- politics. International Social Science 220123 Journal, 51(159), 89-101. doi: Garson, G. D. (2014). The Delphi method in 10.1111/1468-2451.00179 quantitative research. Asheboro, Keeney, S., Hasson, F., & McKenna, H. NC: Statistical Associated (2011). The Delphi technique in Publishing. nursing and health research. Gliddon, D. G. (2006). Forecasting a Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. competency model for innovation Kimberlin, S. E. (2010). Advocacy by leaders using a modified Delphi nonprofits: Roles and practices of technique (Doctoral dissertation). core advocacy organizations and Available from ProQuest direct service agencies. Journal of Dissertations & Theses Full Text. Policy Practice, 9(3-4), 164-182. (3292523). doi: 10.1080/15588742.2010.487249 Godfray, H. C. J., & Garnett, T. (2014). Kitinoja, L., Saran, S., Roy, S. K., & Kader, Food security and sustainable A. A. (2011). Postharvest technology intensification. Proceedings of the for developing countries: Challenges Philosophical Transactions of the and opportunities in research, Royal Society B, 369, 20120273. outreach and advocacy. Journal of doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0273. the Science of Food and Granovetter, M. (1995). The economic Agriculture, 91(4), 597-603. doi: sociology of firms and entrepreneurs. 10.1002/jsfa.4295 In Alejandro Portes (Ed.), The Lamm, A. J., Israel, G. D., & Diehl, D. Economic Sociology of Immigration: (2013). A national perspective on the Essays on Networks, Ethnicity, and current evaluation activities in Entrepreneurship (pp. 128-165). extension. Journal of New York, NY: Russell Sage Extension, 51(1). Retrieved from Foundation. http://www.joe.org/joe/2013february Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & /a1.php Perraton, J. (2000). Global Lamm, K., & Lamm, A. (2017). Capacity transformations: Politics, economics Assessment of Regional Networks: and culture. In Politics at the Synthesis Report. GFRAS: Edge (pp. 14-28). London, UK: Lausanne, Switzerland. Palgrave Macmillan. Lamm, K. W., Lamm, A. J., Davis, K., & Hudson, A. (2001). NGOs’ transnational Swaroop, B. J. (2017). Identifying advocacy networks: From knowledge management capacity
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needs of rural advisory service Management, 42(1), 15-29. networks. Journal of International doi:10.1016/j.im.2003.11.002 Agricultural and Extension Okwoche, V. A., Asogwa, B. C., & Obinne, Education 24(2), 93-106. doi: P. C. (2012). Agricultural 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24207 information utilization among rural Lee, C. C. (1998). Counselors as agents of sorghum farmers in Benue State of social change. In C.C. Lee & G.R. Nigeria. European Journal of Walz (Eds.), Social action: A Scientific Research, 76(2), 198-207. mandate for counselors (pp. 3-14). Retrieved from Alexandria, VA: American http://eprints.icrisat.ac.in/id/eprint/59 Counselling Association. 23 Lin, N. (2008). A network theory of social Özerdem, A., & Roberts, R. (2016). capital. In Dario Castiglione, Jan W. Challenging post-conflict van Deth, & Guglielmo Wolleb environments: Sustainable (Eds.), The handbook of social agriculture. New York, NY: capital (pp. 50-69). New York, NY: Routledge. Oxford University Press. Pardeck, J. T. (1996). Advocacy and parents Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2004). of special needs children. Early Advocacy for the counseling Child Development and profession: Results of a national Care, 120(1), 45-53. survey. Journal of Counseling & http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/030044396 Development, 82(4), 466-471. doi: 1200105 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00335.x Raynor, J., York, P., & Sim, S. C. (2009). Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social What makes an effective advocacy capital, intellectual capital, and the organization. Retrieved from TCC organizational advantage. The Group website: Academy of Management http://www.tccgrp.com/pdfs/Effectiv Review, 23(2), 242-266. Retrieved eAdvocacy_final.pdf from Rivera, W., & Alex, G. (2005.) National http://www.jstor.org/stable/259373 Strategy and Reform Process: Case Nistler, D. L., Lamm, A. J., & Stedman, N. Studies of International Initiatives. (2011). Evaluating the influences on Agriculture and Rural Development extension professionals' engagement (Discussion Paper No. 12) Extension in leadership roles. Journal of Reform for Rural Development. Agricultural Education, 52(3), 110- Washington, DC: World Bank. 121. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.03110 Rose, S. L. (2013). Patient advocacy OECD. (2006). The challenge of capacity organizations: institutional conflicts development: working towards good of interest, trust, and trustworthiness. practice. Paris: Organisation for The Journal of Law, Medicine & Economic Cooperation and Ethics, 41(3), 680-687. doi: Development https://doi.org/10.1111/jlme.12078 Okoli, C., & Pawlowski, S. D. (2004). The Smith, S. R., & Lipsky, M. (1993). Delphi method as a research tool: An Nonprofits for hire: The welfare example, design considerations and state in the age of contracting. applications. Information & Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Snow, K. C. (2013). The importance of Zhang, Y. H., Jia, X. Y., Lin, H. F., & Tan, advocacy and advocacy X. F. (2013). Be careful! Avoiding competencies in human service duplication: A case study. Journal of professions. Journal of Human Zhejiang University-Science B, Services, 33(1), 5-16. doi: 14(4), 355–358. 10.1155/2012/490647 Stone, D. (2002). Introduction: Global knowledge and advocacy networks. Global networks, 2(1), 1- 12. doi: 10.1111/1471-0374.00023 Sosin, M., & Caulum, S. (1983). Advocacy: A conceptualization for social work practice. Social Work, 28(1), 12-17. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/28.1.12 Swanson, B. E., & Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory systems (Discussion Paper No. 45). Washington. DC: World Bank. Taylor, E. D. (1987). From issue to action: An advocacy program model. Lancaster, PA: Family and Children's Service. Woolcock, M., & Narayan, D. (2000). Social capital: Implications for development theory, research, and policy. The World Bank Research Observer, 15(2), 225-249. doi: 10.1093/wbro/15.2.225 World Bank. (2012). Agricultural innovation systems: An investment sourcebook. Washington. DC: World Bank. World Health Organization (2017, August 9). Global health observatory (GHO) data. Social Media Today RSS. Retrieved from http://socialmediatoday.com Ziglio, E. (1996). The delphi method and its contribution to decision-making. In M. Adler, & E. Ziglio (Eds.), Gazing into the oracle: The delphi method and its application to social policy and public health (pp. 3-33). Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25205
Filling in the Gap: A Hermeneutic Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experiences of Agricultural Change Agents in Northern Haiti
Priscilla Zelaya P4H Global Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
Amy Harder T. Grady Roberts University of Florida
Abstract In order to better understand the lived experiences of change agents in the North Department of Haiti, a hermeneutical phenomenological study was conducted. Change agents must work against a variety of barriers in order to help influence change within their spheres of influence in rural Haiti. The change agent experience in this study is collaborative, mutually benefitting, deeply cultural, and built out of necessity. Change agents in this study have found that by working together, they are able to fill in the gaps left by unequal distributions of resources within their communities such as tools, money, advisory services, or even basic agricultural knowledge. Despite holes within the agricultural support services in their areas, the change agents have mobilized community members to work together to move their communities forward. Understanding the lived experiences of change agents will help inform ongoing and future agricultural development efforts in the North Department of Haiti.
Keywords: community-based organizations, perspectives, capacity-building, sustainable development
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Introduction/Review of Literature unique situation for change agents located in Change agents immerse themselves the North of Haiti. Change agents within the within the social system they aim to North are closely associated with grassroots influence by bridging gaps between the organizations (Smith, 2001), which are proposed change and the individuals they created by community members for their hope will adopt the innovation. A change particular community (Uphoff, 1993). agent “is an individual who influences Grassroots organizations are typically client’s innovation-decisions in a direction smaller in scope of mission and more deemed desirable by a change agency” targeted in population served as compared to (Rogers, 2003, p. 27). Haiti is a target for larger international nonprofit organizations. foreign change agents who wish to impact The presence of grassroots organizations in the country and essentially lift its people out Haiti has grown significantly since the 2010 of poverty (Smith, 2001). The effect of these earthquake (Edmonds, 2012) as a result of a foreign change agents has not been without need to fill in the gaps left by governmental controversy (Katz, 2013). Corruption, agencies. The leaders of grassroots misuses of donor money, and inappropriate organizations are motivated to be self- actions within local communities are some sufficient and desire to bring much needed of the controversies surrounding resources to their communities (Edmonds, international NGOs (Spencer, 2012; 2012). Themudo, 2014). Despite the overwhelming Change agents in rural communities influx of aid within the poverty-stricken engage in formal, informal, or voluntary country, little change has been seen in the roles (Rogers & Bhowmik, 1970). In some economic status of its population (Katz, communities, change agents can be seen as 2013). As an alternative to foreign community organizers pushing for social assistance, Smith (2001) argued that reform (Pearce, 1993). Change agents within effective change agents already reside in the grassroots organizations can act as links to rural areas of Haiti. Similarly, Trouillot support in areas with little access to outside (1990) claimed “any solution to the Haitian resources (Mazzeo & Chierici, 2013). crisis must find its roots in the resources of Additionally, change agents can act as links the peasantry” (p. 229). between local communities and larger Over 80% of the country’s poorest change agencies (Rogers, 2003). The individuals reside in rural Haiti and many of varying roles change agents play within the Haitians in these regions are involved in rural communities are cohesively linked agriculture (Philius, 2013). The North together by the desire to elicit change, but Department of Haiti provides a snapshot of change agents can run into difficulties when the agricultural divide within the country of faced with cultural barriers inhibiting Haiti. Located in the northernmost region of acceptance within local communities the country, the North Department is (DeYoung, 1995). Change agents can also separated by six to eight hours of travel by be impacted by limited resources to make land to the capital. The majority of lasting impacts in rural communities government and aid agencies have their (Mazzeo & Chierici, 2013). A hermeneutical headquarters in and around the capital phenomenological study was conducted in (Dubois, 2012), rather than in the rural order to better understand the lived Departments. experiences (van Manen, 1997) of Haitian The lack of resources and physical change agents in the North Department. distance from larger agencies creates a Exploring the lived experiences of Haitian
58 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 change agents will help inform ongoing and gain meaning from these experiences future agricultural development efforts. (Hennon, 2012; McInnes, 2013). Analyzing lived experiences allows unearthing the Theoretical Framework nuances of a person’s experience and Phenomenology’s aim is to describe deriving meaning from these moments in a phenomenon (Kafle, 2011). time. Studies on the lived experiences of Phenomenology focuses on the way others using hermeneutical phenomenology meaning is constructed through experience. can also be used to influence practices Therefore, phenomenology is concerned which may help those in similar situations. with how individuals interpret their lives and In a study by Joshi, Chelliah, and “what it means to them” (Landridge, 2007, Ramanathan (2015), researchers explored p. 4). Heidegger (1996) argued the lived experience of a grassroots consciousness was not able to be separated innovator in India. The findings of this study from other facets of life. Since individuals could “serve as an aid for future research” cannot separate their interpretations from (Joshi, Chelliah, & Ramanathan, 2015, p. their history and experiences, Heidegger 27). The lives of change agents have been (1996) moved to combine the thought- documented using various methodologies processes of hermeneutics with (van Manen, 1997), but the use of phenomenology. Hermeneutics is a process hermeneutic phenomenology is little to be that takes human experiences and views the seen. experiences through language as text (Laverty, 2003). The experiences are texts Purpose and Objectives which can be examined to derive deeper The purpose of this study was to meaning. Hermeneutic phenomenology is explore the lived experiences of change then a practice in which the researcher’s and agents in the North Department of Haiti. The subject’s interpretation is combined to following research objectives guided the generate meaning. study: (a) identify the self-perceived The foundation of phenomenological experiences of change agents, and (b) studies is grounded in the exploration of describe the manner in which the lived experiences (van Manen, 1997). Lived experiences of change agents were experiences are unique in nature and must influenced by governmental assistance. be defined. As van Manen (1997) noted, “lived experience first of all has a temporal Methods structure: it can never be grasped in its This descriptive study was immediate manifestation but only qualitative in nature since hermeneutic reflectively as past presence” (p. 36). Lived phenomenology places importance on experiences are therefore the materialization analyzing lived experiences as text, spoken of past experiences as an individual has by individuals (Merriam, 2009). lived through them, whether aware or Hermeneutic phenomenology “avoids unaware of their significance. methods for method’s sake and does not Studies of lived experiences have have a step by step method” (Kafle, 2011, p. been used to gain deeper understanding of 191) for data collection or analysis. The aim individuals. Studies of the practices of of hermeneutic phenomenology, therefore, is indigenous educators and the exploration of to produce “rich textual descriptions of the the perceptions of entrepreneurship among experiencing of selected phenomena in the farmers use hermeneutic phenomenology to life world of individuals that are able to
59 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 connect with the experience of all of us informal sources of advice within their collectively” (Smith, 1997, p. 80). The communities and offered their services to methods were drawn from the objectives of neighboring farmers. One participant the study in order to keep the organized trainings for farmers within his phenomenological essence. Within this area several times a year. The leader of the framework, the lead researcher played a key larger grassroots organization was in charge role in producing the meaning from the lived of overseeing the training of extension experiences. service providers in his organization, providing oversight to agricultural programs Participants in the region, and creating partnerships with A combination of purposive and other in-country organizations. snowball sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, The participants in this study 2016) was used to recruit 16 participants represented four different arrondissements, who actively worked within grassroots or districts, within the North Department. In change agencies in the North Department of total, there are seven arrondissements in the Haiti. Each individual in this study was North. The zones represented in this study identified as a change agent by self- were Acul-du-Nord, Cap-Haïtien, Grand- identification or peer identification. The Riviere du Nord, and Limbé. These specific individuals in this study worked directly zones were selected based off of the with small-scale farmers in the North accessibility to change agent populations Department in various capacities. Twelve of and the willingness of change agents to be a the participants worked with konbits, part of this study. The majority of this cooperative agricultural organizations based study’s participants were male with only one in their relative communities. Three of the female in the population. The ages of the participants were local agronomists working individuals ranged from 29-85 years of age, within their home communities, with no with 8 individuals over the age of 50. formal affiliation with the government. One participant was the regional leader of a Sampling Methods large-scale agricultural grassroots For this study, it was imperative to organization with offices throughout the find change agents within the North country. Participants who were involved in Department. In order to achieve this konbits held informal positions within the purposive sample, a native-born Haitian konbits. The agronomists were voluntary research assistant was employed to gain service providers within their communities. access to the population of interest. The The participant who was involved in the research assistant used a key informant in large-scale grassroots organization was a the specified regions to identify potential paid change agent. participants who fit the criteria of a change Change agent responsibilities for the agent. The process of identifying a key participants in this study varied. Those who informant varied by region. For two regions worked with konbits focused on organizing (Cap-Haïtien, Grand-Riviere-du-Nord), the group members to assist specific farms on key informants were previous classmates of certain days of the week. They were also the research assistant. The classmates were responsible for recruiting members, asked to identify agricultural change agents resolving conflicts within their konbits, and within their communities. In one region offering advice and assistance to their group (Limbé), the key informant was identified members. Agronomists in this study were by asking the farmers in the area who is
60 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 actively involved in grassroots conversation were posed by the lead organizations. The individual was then researcher. During the interviews, the lead asked to help introduce the researchers to researcher took field notes. change agents within these organizations. In Hermeneutic interview reflection. the final region (Acul-du-Nord), the change Once the interviews concluded, the lead agent was identified by an acquaintance of researcher summarized the contents of the the lead researcher. conversation with the participant. This allowed the lead researcher to ask “is this Data Collection Procedures what the experience is really like?” (van Data collection occurred June - July Manen, 1997, p. 99). The conversation 2016. The research process involved allowed the lead researcher to ensure a level individual interviews, hermeneutical of confidence with the emerging themes in interviews with the participants, and the interview. The contents of these reflective journaling by the lead researcher. conversations were also audio-recorded with The research process in hermeneutical participants’ permission to ensure that text phenomenology is a longitudinal process was available to analyze, which is consistent which begins prior to the participant with hermeneutic orientations (van Manen, interviews (McInnes, 2013). Pre-reflection is 1997). helpful in identifying the biases and Reflective journal. The lead historical experiences of the researcher prior researcher kept a reflective journal to interacting with the participants in the throughout the data collection process to study (Kafle, 2011). document emerging interpretations, Interviews. Interviews consisted of perspectives, and biases during the data open-ended questions which aimed to collection process. The reflective journal explore the ways in which change agents was handwritten within the field notes of the work with small-scale farmers, describe study. There is no fixed amount of their experiences with small-scale farmers, reflections recommended by hermeneutical and explore change agents’ view of phenomenology practitioners, therefore, the resources available for the communities they lead researcher used a total of three journal assisted. The aim of the conversations was entries throughout the data collection “not to understand individual people, but to process. understand that about which they speak” (Wilke, 2002, para. 19). Data Analysis and Interpretation The individual interviews were While there is no delineated step-by- conducted by both the research assistant and step process to follow when analyzing data the lead researcher in Haitian-Creole. collected using hermeneutic Although the lead researcher has worked phenomenology, van Manen (1997) extensively in Haiti, the lead researcher is identified six research activities which can not a native Haitian, which presented be used as guidelines when conducting this difficulties in reaching the desired type of research. The guidelines are as populations. By interviewing the follows: (a) turn to the phenomenon of participants together, the lead researcher was interest within the study, (b) investigate the able to gain legitimacy within the change phenomenon as it is lived not as it is agent population. The initial questions were understood, (c) reflect on the emerging asked by the research assistant and themes which help to describe the clarifying questions which emerged from the phenomenon, (d) describe the phenomenon
61 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 through writing and rewriting, (e) remain during the interpreting phase of connected to the phenomenon as a hermeneutical analysis by following the pedagogical source, and (f) balance the guidelines of the hermeneutic circle. The research context by analyzing individual process of data analysis, therefore, took on experiences and relating them back to the the following process: (a) read the text, (b), entire picture. highlight selected text which relate back to Preparation for analysis. The the phenomenon, (c) reflectively write about interviews were transcribed into Haitian- the text, and (d) interpret the lived Creole by a native-born educator in Haiti. experiences using imaginative variation. The interviews were kept in their original This process was repeated continuously language to uphold the integrity of the lived throughout data analysis. experiences. The lead researcher, who speaks Haitian-Creole, analyzed the data in Trustworthiness their original language. Translation of the Lincoln and Guba (1985) addressed quotes into English was completed by the trustworthiness when conducting qualitative lead researcher. Interpretations from the research. Credibility and dependability were texts as well as translations were then established through triangulation of the data confirmed with the individual who and peer debriefing with the research transcribed the data to confirm accuracy of assistant as well as the other researchers. the interpretations. Participants were given Transferability was established through pseudonyms to protect their identities. thick description and confirmability was Thematic analysis. Data is established through an audit trail. recommended to be analyzed using thematic Additionally, van Manen (1997) suggested analysis (van Manen, 1997). van Manen using orientation, strength, richness, and (1997) suggested identifying themes by depth as quality markers for conducting using a sentence approach, selective hermeneutic phenomenology. When approach, or line-by-line approach. For the referring to orientation, the researcher purposes of this study selective highlighting should be involved in the participant’s world of key elements which related to the focal and stories. Strength refers to the ability of phenomenon were pulled and categorized. the text to represent the intended meanings Themes which emerged from the data were of the participants. Richness refers to the categorized by commonalities and then text which describes the meaning of the overarching themes and sub-themes were participants and depth refers to how the selected (Merriam, 2009). interpretation accurately matches the Merriam (2009) addressed the need intention of the participant. The four criteria for imaginative variation within outlined by van Manen (1997) were phenomenological studies. Imaginative achieved through reflective practices, variation “has to do with trying to see the hermeneutic interviews with the participants object of the study - the phenomenon- from at the conclusion of the interview, and the several different angels or perspectives” use of the hermeneutic circle during data (Merriam, 2009, p. 158). Similarly, the analysis. hermeneutic circle as proposed by Gadamer (1997) allows for a continual movement Subjectivity Statement from interpreting, reflective writing, and The lead researcher has extensive reading of the text. The lead researcher was experience in Haiti through involvement in also able to implement imaginative variation an NGO which works to provide educational
62 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 and vocational experiences to both youth mentioned, “when you’re alone you cannot and adults in the Cap-Haitien area in the do anything, but when you work together North Department of Haiti. Through these everything goes well.” Similarly, David experiences, the lead researcher perceived stated, “You do not have the government unequal distributions of aid between that is your parent, you need to find help.” different socio-economic classes, many The necessity he saw drove him to create his caused by governmental policies or konbit. disorganized NGO work. Dialogue with the Emiles, the leader of a larger research team throughout the analysis and grassroots organization, was led into his interpretation process was used as a tool for position from the needs he saw within his limiting the influence of personal bias. community. The injustices moved him to help found the organization he helped lead. Findings/Results Emiles shared the following anecdote: Data collected from the interviews, hermeneutic interviews, and lead researcher Well ever since my youth, I’ve been reflective journal were analyzed using in the community. I was a poor child, thematic analysis. From the data sources, 24 needy poor, a peasant. When we initial themes emerged and were observed an injustice occurring summarized to create four essential themes. during the time of Duvalier in 1984, The themes will be further explained we saw a lack of solidarity. They through anecdotes and significant statements considered peasants like animals. We in the following sections. gathered together and created a movement, we did not realize the Necessity Breeds Collective Action dimension of how it would grow. Throughout the interviews, change agents in the study made mention to the path The perceived needs of the peasant class which led them to their current positions within Emiles’ community caused him to within their organizations. A common theme act. It is important to note that the logical throughout these narratives was how change steps for the change agents were to work agents perceived a need and desired to fill together to address the needs they perceived. the need through a collaborative manner. In a final reflection, the lead researcher Ermano described his path to becoming a noted, “their instincts led these individuals change agent as a logical next step. He to work together rather than try to stated, “I finished school recently and we accomplish anything individually.” found that we were not doing anything even though there were a lot of needs within our Collaborative and Mutually Beneficial community, we decided to form a group, a Environments small collaboration.” Ermano continued to Change agents within this study describe how this organization was created identified various experiences which to bring other men together to mete tet described collaborative and mutually ansanm, a popular Haitian-Creole saying beneficial environments. Participants meaning to work together. continually made reference to a well-known Other change agents were motivated proverb, “men anpil chay pa lou” or many to engage in their current positions since no hands make light work. As change agents one else was going to step in and help them within grassroots organizations, the and they recognized the need for help. Isaac participants were well acquainted with the
63 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 difficulties of poverty. The participants all because we know we are making had their own lands to tend to and through money, for everyone in the group. their involvement as change agents, the ……. Everyone takes part. We feel participants were able to share in the more relaxed because we know we benefits of working in konbits. are working faster when we work The konbit system which a majority together. of the participants were involved with was described as a process where “everyone in Change agents within the study also the group gathers to help one farmer on the took on the role of creating these farmer’s land” (Marc) each designated day. collaborative environments even in the The change agents were responsible for midst of problems. Change agents recruiting members to the konbits and mentioned moments of discord between orchestrating the organization for tending to members in their organizations. These each other’s lands. Change agents were able moments of discord were addressed through to themselves benefit from the group’s dialogue and parties were allowed to share work. When commenting on the mutually their grievances. Jean mentioned how it was beneficial nature of his work, Marc stated “important to appreciate every person” in “what we do is something that makes a their konbit. One participant, Ronald, round trip, you come help me, we help recollected an instance between two someone else.” Another change agent, Jean, members of his organization and stated the commented, “well, [konbits] allows you to following: work faster and work more. You, yourself with your parcel of land cannot do a lot of Well, for example, there was this one work, but when you have a konbit, you work time, one person was upset about the more.” lack of members present for the day In addition, change agents when they were going to help him on commented on the emotional benefits of his farm. He was angry at everyone working with small scale farmers in the and it made it difficult to work. I had grassroots environments. Working together to stop everyone and bring them afforded the change agents an opportunity to together to talk about it. When we benefit from help and also to enjoy the finished talking about it everyone company of like-minded individuals from was calm and went back to work. their communities. These experiences were That’s how I solve the problems in accented with music, jokes, and singing. our group – talking. Participants noted that gathering together to eat added to their experiences. The resulting The hope for the future of Haiti feeling was one of “happiness” (Jean). through collaborative processes reflects the Jenny, the only female in the study, said it cultural ideals even found on the Haitian was a “beautiful thing” when her konbit flag, which states unity creates strength. The worked together. Participants spoke about experiences of change agents within the light-hearted environment when they grassroots organizations allowed for a worked together in the fields with the other glimpse into what could be possible for the farmers. Wilner stated: country as a whole. As Michel stated, “if Haitians become conscious and we return to We will talk, we will eat together, the affairs of working in konbits, that could we will tell jokes, we sing. It’s good
64 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 help organize the country in order to not have any effect on me, it is primarily advance.” God that we have.” Other organizations, which include Lack of Appropriate Support large international NGOs, are among those The difficulties faced by change offering help in the region. These NGOs agents ranged from lack of resources, no have not yet reached many change agents in educational support, lack of infrastructure this study. Luckson mentioned, “I am for agricultural services, inadequate tools to always looking for NGOs to come help, but deal with weather, and unequal distributions I do not find them.” Another change agent, of services within their communities. The Jacques, explained: overarching theme pulled from these experiences is the lack of support for change There are some NGOs that I know of agents. The common thread throughout the that work in the area. I do not see interviews was an absence of governmental what good they do, instead all I see services. Change agents in this study used is negative effects for the country. phrases such as “they do not care for us They make the peasants neglect their here” (Samson), “they do not see us” work and give peasants money, they (Emiles), and “you try to find someone to [the peasants] begin to think that if come, but you cannot find them” (Pierre). they do not work, they will always Change agents in this study were touch money. These organizations also aware of the resources they were have a negative effect. lacking in order to complete their tasks within their organizations. Some participants From this statement it is apparent that even were aware of help happening within their if some organizations are providing financial community, but felt slighted by the way they resources, it is not what the change agents were treated. Participants felt ignored by perceive as helpful to their roles in their larger organizations and even the organizations. government. Many participants desired to have support through agricultural knowledge Family History as they were farming. Yvenel mentioned the Past familial experiences losing following instance when describing how he loved ones, influences to pursue agriculture, felt towards government workers: educational pursuits, and poverty. These experiences had an impact on the role There is this man who is responsible change agents played in their communities, for giving advice. When he walks were shared by all participants, and were everywhere in every area, he gives included in narratives outlining paths to great advice. I know this. One day I current roles as change agents. encountered him at my church and The hardships faced by many change he didn’t look at me at all. I said to agents while growing up led them to choose myself, why don’t you look at me? agricultural paths. For example, Pierre stated (Yvenel). expressed his desire to attend school but lack of funds kept him from pursuing his Yvenel described how the government does education. He instead went to work on his the same to the peyizan, the peasant. grandfather’s land: According to Ronald, “the government does
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When I came to [location], I started educational pursuits, Michel stated, “I to work on the small piece of land learned I loved agriculture from working because I was my mother’s firstborn. with my parents on our land everyday.” His We went through a lot of hardship current pursuit to become an agronomist can and could not attend school. I be traced back to his family’s influence. continued to work the land even until Similarly, Ermano noted how his father’s this day I still desire to go to school involvement in a konbit system led him to (Pierre). start his own:
Lack of resources to attend school was a My integration into this system came past struggle for many change agents within while I grew up and saw our parents the study. Ronald similarly stated, “when I in the same activity. It is now also couldn’t continue school, I entered into my own necessity. Agriculture is an agriculture.” Yvenel reflected a positive activity that I love very much. I outlook on his life in spite of the absence of remember since I was a child thorough schooling: working with my father and this is why I love agriculture. My parents did not teach me how to write well, but they did teach me Similarly, Samson noted that his something. They taught me how to current role in agriculture came from his watch, they taught me how to farm, parents’ influence but is now a journey of how to be a farmer. The money I necessity. Samson said, “I followed my have now is because of what they parents, but now I am obligated to taught me. That is what I have seen. continue.” The role of parental influence in current change agency positions of the Not all change agents in this study participants, as displayed in these examples, lacked education. Some change agents reveals that although some participants attributed the opportunities they had to chose their role as a desire, others came into attend school as assisting them in their their role out of necessity. current roles. Jonny was able to attribute his education to allowing him to view small- Conclusion, Recommendations, and scale farmer practices in a new light. Jonny Implications noted, “I now see how the traditional The change agent experience in this behaviors of farmers in the community need study is collaborative, mutually benefitting, to change.” deeply cultural, and built out of necessity. Education was not the only past The difficulties experienced by the change experience which impacted the current roles agents served to create a foundation for of change agents within this study. In collaborative action to impact the lives of addition to educational levels, family those in their communities. The lived involvement in agriculture was a constant experiences of the individuals in this study presence throughout the interviews. Many reveal strength and resilience in the face of participants grew up working the land with difficult situations. Despite their lack of their parents. The influence of agriculture in resources or support, the change agents in their youth had lasting effects on their this study work together to improve current role as a change agent in their livelihoods. Change agents in this study community. When referring to his current have found that by working together, they
66 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 are able to fill in the gaps left by unequal their communities. Change agent distributions of resources within their perceptions of being less worthy of communities such as tools, money, advisory extension services creates a potential barrier services, or even basic agricultural for change agent work. If change agents in knowledge. Despite holes within the community-based organizations continually agricultural support services in their areas, feel as though they are not integrated within the change agents have mobilized the larger NGO community, their motivation community members to work together to may begin to wane (Ford, Ford, & move their communities forward. D'Amelio, 2008). Additionally, feelings of The findings from this study affirm mistrust towards governmental various research studies surrounding the organizations and NGOs may continue to function of grassroots organization within grow. Feelings of mistrust towards NGOs rural communities. Uphoff (1993) found that and governmental agencies are already high grassroots organizations filled in within rural Haitian communities (Schuller, governmental service gaps. Although the 2007). Growing mistrust will only increase government did provide some resources to the divide between community organizations address the needs of agricultural workers in and large-scale organization. Haiti, these services were not reaching all The study also confirmed previously members of this population. Change agents stated assertions of NGOs as organizations within this study collaborated with other that cause negative effects within small-scale farmers in order to provide communities (Spencer, 2012; Themudo, services for each other and meet their needs 2014). Participants in this study felt as as a collective, community-based group. The though NGOs added more difficulties to actions of the change agents in this study their positions as change agents due to the affirm the conclusions of Smith (2001) reinforcement of learned helplessness where community-based groups in Haiti through handouts. Handouts were seen as a formed on the basis on collaboration and deterrent from work within the communities mutual help while providing a needed in this study. In opposition to these negative service within the community. Although the effects, change agents in this study focused grassroots organizations were meeting needs on mobilizing local members to work for within their communities, change agents still themselves instead of becoming reliant on experienced lack of resources to adequately outside assistance. In a sense, the negative provide needed assistance. The lack of presence of NGOs acted as catalyst toward resources experienced by the change agents community organization (Smith, 2001). in this study affirms the findings of Mazzeo This study also exemplifies how and Chierici (2013), where grassroots change agents who share similar attributes to organizations in Haiti experienced lack of the communities they work in can have money and access to tools as a barrier. positive impacts within their communities. The perception of change agents as The similarity among change agents and being ignored or forgotten by NGOs and their constituents is an example of change governmental agencies found in this study is agents as localites within their communities notable. Although change agents had (Rogers, 2003). All of the participants in this knowledge of organizations offering support study had been in their working to farmers in communities in the North communities for an extended period of time. Department, they felt as though these Their connections within the community organizations did not want to interact with allowed them to create collaborative groups
67 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 which benefitted multiple members in their 192. doi: communities. 10.1525/aeq.1995.26.2.05x1253e The needs of change agents within Dubois, L. (2012). Haiti: The aftershocks of the North Department of Haiti should be history. New York, NY: Macmillan. taken into account when planning for the Edmonds, K. (2012). Beyond good allocation of services and resources. Change intentions: The structural limitations agents in any community are better equipped of NGOs in Haiti. Critical Sociology, to meet the needs of community members (1), 1-14. when given appropriate resources (Rogers, doi: 10.1177/0896920512437053. 2003). The negative perception of NGO Ford, J. D., Ford, L. W., & D'Amelio, A. impacts within the region is also an (2008). Resistance to change: The important aspect to address. Trust needs to rest of the story. Academy of be established in order for future Management Review, 33(2), 362- partnerships to emerge between agencies 377. doi: and change agents in community-based 10.5465/AMR.2008.31193235 organizations. Partnering with change agents Gadamer, H. G. (1976). Philosophical within the North Department of Haiti would Hermeneutics. Berkley: University provide motivated individuals with the of California Press. knowledge and resources to impact more Heidegger, M. (1996). Being and time: A lives and, ultimately, improve the translation of Sein and Zeit (J. livelihoods of rural Haitians. Stambaugh, Trans.). New York: The use of hermeneutic State University of New York Press. phenomenology was helpful in gaining a Hennon, C. B. (2012). Entrepreneurship, deeper understanding of the lived farming, and identity: A experiences of change agents in the North phenomenological inquiry. In Department. Further use of hermeneutic Burger-Helmchen, T. (Ed.), phenomenology to understand the lived Entrepreneurship–Gender, experiences of small-scale farmers in the Geographies and Social Context, North Department may add to the research 249-294. Retrieved from presented in this study. Additionally, further http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs- research can be done with small-scale wm/31900.pdf farmers in different departments throughout Husserl, E. (1970). The idea of Haiti in order to address similarities and phenomenology. The Hague, differences among the regions within Haiti. Netherlands: Nijhoff. Replication of this study can also provide Joshi, R. G., Chelliah, J., & Ramanathan, V. for greater understanding of the attitudes, (2015). Exploring grassroots perspectives, and experiences of small-scale innovation phenomenon through the farmers in the North Department of Haiti. lived experience of an Indian grassroots innovator. South Asian References Journal of Global Business DeYoung, A. J. (1995). Constructing and Research, 4(1), 27-44. doi: staffing the cultural bridge: The 10.1108/SAJGBR-01-2014-0003 school as change agent in rural Appalachia. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 26(2), 168-
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Kafle, N. P. (2013). Hermeneutic Philius, R. (2013, June). The census of phenomenological research method agriculture in Haiti: Overview. simplified. Bodhi: An Paper session presented at the Interdisciplinary Journal, 5(1), 181- meeting of Workshop for the 200. doi: 10.3126/bodhi.v5i1.8053 Caribbean by the FAO/ UNFPA, Katz, J. M. (2013). The big truck that went Trinidad & Tobago. Retrieved from by: How the world came to save http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templa Haiti and left behind a disaster. New tes/ess/documents/meetings_and_wo York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. rkshops/IICA_2013/Linkages_TT_1 Landridge, D. (2007). Phenomenological 0- psychology: Theory, research and 12June2013/Presentations/Haiti_10- practice. London: Pearson. 12_June_2013_Integrated_Censuses. Laverty, S. M. (2003). Hermeneutic pdf phenomenology and Rogers, E. M., & Bhowmik, D. K. (1970). phenomenology: A comparison of Homophily-heterophily: Relational historical and methodological concepts for communication considerations. International Journal research. Public opinion of Qualitative Methods, 2(3), 21-35. quarterly, 34(4), 523-538. doi: doi: 10.1177/160940690300200303 10.1086/267838 Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, innovations (5th ed.). New York, CA: Sage. NY: Free Press. Mazzeo, J., & Chierici, R. M. (2013). Social Schuller, M. (2007). Invasion or infusion? foundations for a community-based Understanding the role of NGOs in public health Cholera campaign in contemporary Haiti. Journal of Borgne, Haiti. Human Haitian Studies, 96-119. Retrieved Organization, 72(4), 312-322. doi: from 10.17730/humo.72.4.j76p2p466m28 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4171535 7806 9 Merriam, S. B. (2009) Qualitative research: Smith, J. M. (2001). When the hands are A guide to design and many: Community organization and implementation. San Francisco, CA: social change in rural Haiti. Ithaca, Jossey-Bass. NY: Cornell University Press. McInnes, B. D. (2013). Saving culture Smith, S. J. (1997). The phenomenology of through language: A hermeneutic educating physically. In D. phenomenological study of Ojibwe Vandenburg (Ed.), Phenomenology language immersion educator and educational discourse (pp. 119- experience. Journal of Applied 144). Durban: Heinemann. Hermeneutics, (2). Retrieved from Spencer, M. (2012). When power does not http://jah.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/ corrupt: NGO vulnerability and jah/index.php/jah/article/view/47 political corruption. Sigma: Journal Pearce, J. (1993). NGOs and social change: of Political and International Agents or facilitators? Development Studies, 29(1), 42-55. Retrieved from in Practice, 3(3), 222-227. doi: http://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sigma/ 10.1080/096145249100077381 vol29/iss1/4
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Themudo, N. S. (2014). Government size, nonprofit sector strength, and corruption: A cross-national examination. The American Review of Public Administration, 44(3), 309- 323. doi: 10.1177/0275074012465791 Trouillot, M. R. (1990). Haiti: State against nation. NewYork, NY: Monthly Review Press. Uphoff, N. (1993). Grassroots organizations and NGOs in rural development: Opportunities with diminishing states and expanding markets. World Development, 21(4), 607-622. doi: 10.1016/0305-750X(93)90113-N van Manen, M. (1997). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy (2nd ed.). Canada: The Althouse Press. Wilke, M. M. (2002). Hermeneutic phenomenology as a research method in social work. New Scholarship in the Human Services. 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.ucalgary.ca/currents/files /currents/v1n1_wilcke.pdf
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25206
Evaluating Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services through a Governance Lens
Cristina Álvarez-Mingote Paul E. McNamara University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Abstract Demand-driven extension services have been promoted as a potential mechanism to improve governance quality and lead to better-served farmers. In this paper, we evaluate i) the extent to which demand-driven elements are present in extension services in developing countries, and ii) whether governance problems persist and why. We accomplish so by performing a qualitative analysis of the Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) country assessments, and find that, despite the adoption of demand-driven features, extension services are not fully participatory, transparent, accountable, equitable and responsive to needed farmers.
Keywords: extension and advisory services; demand-driven, good governance
Note: We are grateful to all the authors of the Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) country assessments for their insightful contributions. We thank all the respondents and participants in these studies as well as Austen Moore and Matthew Winters for helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. We also gratefully acknowledge the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) for support. This work was supported by the USAID through the Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) under grant No. AID-OAA- L-10-00003, and the Feed the Future Malawi Strengthening Agricultural and Nutrition Extension Services Activity (SANE) under grant No. AID-612-LA-15-00003 programs at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.
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Introduction and Review of Literature feed their families and what extension According to international services deliver. organizations such as the World Bank and The reasons behind poor governance the United Nations, governance refers to the in extension services are multiple and process by which state and non-state actors largely related to the inherent characteristics interact to design and implement (or not of extension service provision, the implement) policies (United Nations, 2009; incentives of decision makers and the World Bank, 2017). Moreover, good absence of farmers’ coordination. For governance exists when these processes are example, the scale and complexity of “participatory, consensus oriented, reaching numerous farmers with varying accountable, transparent, responsive, agricultural needs and across a wide territory effective and efficient, equitable and explain in part the lack of responsiveness inclusive and follow the rule of law” (United and effectiveness in service provision Nations, 2009, p. 1). In other words, when (Feder, Willet, & Zijp, 2001; Anderson & the interaction between state and non-state Feder, 2004). Of course, this high actors presents these characteristics, we have dimensionality of extension services also good governance. raises issues around how to monitor and Agricultural extension services, evaluate the performance of extension nonetheless, typically face numerous workers and establish accountable governance challenges, especially in relationships between these workers and developing countries. Feder, Willet, and Zijp their farmers (Feder et al., 2001; Anderson (2001), Anderson and Feder (2004), and & Feder, 2004). Additionally, the difficulty Birner and Anderson (2007) claim that of connecting extension input (cause) with extension is frequently characterized by low agricultural productivity and outcomes political support, persistent funding (effect) also hinders the emergence of difficulties, political capture by influential political support and funding commitment farmers and extension workers’ involvement towards these services (Feder et al., 2001; in non-agricultural activities that hardly Anderson & Feder, 2004). Instead, benefit farmers. Similarly, Birner and politicians looking for electorally profitable Anderson (2007) emphasize failures at the activities often invest in more tangible goods community level, which relate to farmers’ such as seeds and fertilizer (Anderson & lack of collective action as well as to Non- Feder, 2004; Chinsinga & Poulton, 2014). Governmental Organizations’ (NGOs) Relatedly, the fact that extension accountable relations to funding services frequently fail to be equitable and organizations as opposed to farmers. These inclusive to all kinds of farmers relies not works, therefore, reflect that extension only on the preferential treatment given services are plagued with instances of weak sometimes to rural elites and wealthier accountability, lack of transparency on farmers, but also on the challenge of funding allocations, unequal treatment of all smallholders to act collectively to demand types of farmers and, generally, poor these services. This reasoning is present in governance. Put differently, the interaction Bates’ (1981) seminal piece where he between state and non-state actors in explains that, after independence, African extension services typically lacks good politicians implemented policies (for governance. As a result, a mismatch often example, distorted exchange rates, low exists between what many farmers need to prices for agricultural products) that favored urban dwellers and rural elites at the
72 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 expense of demobilized rural workers. impacted agricultural extension in Moreover, as Olson (1965, 1985) explains, developing countries. More because smallholder farmers spread across specifically, we evaluate i) the extent large areas, the costs of coordination, to which demand-driven elements are coalition formation and communication are present in extension services in hard to overcome. Consequently, developing countries, and ii) whether smallholder farmers often lack bargaining or not governance problems still power and the capacity to advocate for persist. Then, we explore why, despite much-needed policies, while large-scale and the adoption of demand-driven influential farmers end up benefiting from elements, extension services are still policy interventions and extension service facing governance challenges. We set provision. these goals because international In response to some of these donors and organizations have challenges, scholars, development promoted the adoption of demand- practitioners and policymakers have driven approaches as a potential advocated for making extension services solution to improve governance and more bottom-up and demand-driven. bring better extension services to Demand-driven extension services are those farmers. that respond to the expressed needs of various stakeholders and different farmers, Conceptual Framework including those who typically receive little We rely on Birner et al. (2006, attention such as women, poor and 2009) to build our conceptual marginalized farmers (Rivera & Alex, 2005; framework. These authors propose a Neuchatel Group, 2006; Birner & Anderson, framework for analyzing the 2007). More precisely, according to the performance and impact of pluralistic Neuchatel Initiative (an international donor agricultural advisory services by community for extension services), demand distinguishing between contextual in the context of agricultural extension can factors and the characteristics of be defined as: “what people ask for, need extension services. Contextual factors and value so much that they are willing to are those that are beyond the direct invest their resources, such as time and influence of policymakers and money, in order to receive the services” extension managers (frame conditions) (Neuchatel Group, 2006, p. 3). Furthermore, such as the political environment, the defenders of this approach expect that by community aspects and the becoming more demand-driven and agricultural system, while the participatory and by giving “clients” a voice, characteristics of extension services extension services can improve governance are those factors that policymakers and aspects such as responsiveness, extension managers can directly accountability and transparency and hence influenced (choice variables) and lead to better-served farmers (Rivera & include: institutional structures, Alex, 2005; Neuchatel Group, 2006; Birner capacity and management, and & Anderson, 2007). advisory methods. Institutional structures refer to the Purpose and Objectives set-up for extension service provision and This study aims to understand financing and relate to the level of how the demand-driven concept has decentralization and partnerships. The
73 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 capacity and management of extension financial performance (Swanson & Samy, services include human and financial 2003; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). By resources (e.g., staff, training, skills), transferring the decision-making process to infrastructure, and organizational style (e.g., the local level, farmers can have a say in the planning processes, monitoring and planning, priority setting and monitoring of evaluation mechanisms). Advisory methods services. This potentially leads to not only pertain to how extension services interact extension messages that adapt to local agro- with farmers such as the number of clients ecological conditions, but also to a closer (e.g., individuals, groups), the type of inspection in the use of funds (Swanson & engagement (e.g., top-down vs. Samy, 2003; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). participatory), the content specificity (e.g., Furthermore, decentralization can increase specific crop), and the technologies used political commitment toward extension (e.g., ICTs). because of the higher proximity between the Other authors have previously used users and the decision-makers (Anderson & this conceptual framework. Faure, Rebuffel, Feder, 2004). Certainly, this is not to say and Violas (2011), for instance, analyze that decentralizion delivers all these Advisory Services for Family Farms benefits, but that at least the possibility for (ASFFs) in West Africa and conclude that them to materialize exists. the interaction of the different components is We define the capacity and essential to understanding the functioning of management of demand-driven extension ASFFs. Prager, Creaney, and Lorenzo- services in terms of i) these services Arribas (2017) use the framework to reaching farmers and being responsive to establish evaluation criteria for functional farmers, and ii) farmers being able to advisory services and then assess these articulate their demands (Biner et al., 2006; services in the UK. Although we follow a 2009; Neuchatel Group, 2006). We argue similar approach, our paper differs because that for extension services to be demand- we use this framework to identify elements driven it is necessary to have not only that help make extension services demand- extension services capable of reaching driven. As the previous studies, we focus on farmers, but also farmers capable of the characteristics of advisory services requesting needed advice and training. (choice variables), but acknowledge that Moreover, while extension services need to contextual factors are also relevant and thus manage requests responsively, farmers discuss some of them in the findings section. should effectively organize and aggregate With respect to the institutional set- varied demands. Importantly, understanding up, we identify decentralization as the this capacity and management requires condition to give farmers the opportunity to looking into funding streams and farmer express their voices and demands. That is, organizations. decentralization, or “the transfer of power Funding affects the number of and resources from higher tiers to lower tiers extension workers available as well as the of government” (Jutting et al., 2005, p. 629), number of farmers reached by these could be an important element in making workers. For example, resources to cover extension services demand-driven by transportation costs are key to serve farmers bringing the government closer to the across the territory. Funding for farmer people. Moreover, decentralized approaches organizations also plays a crucial role in can increase the capacity to serve local these groups’ formation as well as in their farmers and improve management and capacity to negotiate better services. Farmer
74 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 organizations give farmers a voice, increase participatory committees can help farmers their bargaining power and decrease the find the best provider (e.g., NGO, public, costs of communicating extension agents private) to satisfy certain needs, encourage their needs (Neuchatel Group, 2006; coordination in service provision and Poulton, Kydd, & Dorward, 2006; identify unattended geographic areas. Table Kruijssen, Keizes, & Giuliani, 2009; 1 provides a summary of our conceptual Thompson, Teshome, Hughes, Chirwa, & network. Omiti, 2009). That is, acting collectively Methodology helps farmers co-ordinate their demands and We rely on the Modernizing perform an advocacy role that facilitates Extension and Advisory Services influencing extension processes and (MEAS) country assessments to improving service quality. conduct this paper’s analysis since We capture the last characteristic of they provide thorough descriptions on extension, advisory methods, by looking at how pluralistic extension services the adoption of bottom-up approaches that operated in a variety of developing incorporate farmers’ voice, input and countries between 2010 and 2014. feedback into extension service provision. Briefly, the USAID-funded MEAS We refer not only to methodologies that use project ran between 2010 and 2016 farmers’ participation such as Participatory and aimed to define and disseminate Rural Appraisals (PRAs) and Farmer Field good extension management strategies Schools (FFSs), but also to the presence of as well as to establish efficient, other approaches that get farmers involved effective and financially sustainable in decision-making processes such as extension systems in developing participatory committees, stakeholder countries (for more information: panels, and extension platforms. As the www.meas.illinois.edu). As part of Neuchatel Group (2006, p. 4) claims when this project, the MEAS reports referring to PRAs and FFS: “the tools in analyzed pluralistic extension systems themselves do not solve the major in the following 11 diverse countries: constraints that farmers face in becoming the Bangladesh, Egypt, Ghana, India, ‘drivers’ of these services.” Hence, the need Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Nepal, to consider a broader notion of bottom-up Rwanda, Tajikistan and Zambia. extension approaches. In each assessed country, the MEAS Through the adoption of teams evaluated the roles and capacities of participatory frameworks, farmers can extension service institutions and examined comment on extension workers’ the strengths and weaknesses of the performance and question the use of public pluralistic system. While the composition funds and service quality, which potentially varied slightly by country, international improves responsiveness and accountability development and extension specialists such (Speer, 2012). Put differently, bottom-up as academics from different disciplines, mechanisms can create empowerment from consultants and NGOs’ professionals formed below and serve as a forum for farmers to the assessment teams. These experts met talk to extension workers and other with, for example, ministries and stakeholders about agricultural priorities, departments of agriculture, extension changing needs, market access and actions education institutions, major international plans for the different agricultural seasons. and national NGOs and private firms to Within a pluralistic extension environment, discuss topics that ranged from funding,
75 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 extension models and training to the use of stakeholders and recommended measures to ICTs and the relevance of nutrition and address main deficiencies. women farmers. Subsequently, these teams presented their findings to relevant
Table 1. Conceptual Framework for the analysis of Demand-Driven Services Characteristics of Extension Demand-Driven Elements Brief Justification Services
Institutional Set-up Decentralization Brings extension services closer to farmers
Capacity and Management of Extension workers reach and Based on funding and farmer Extension Services are responsive to farmers organization, responsiveness to and articulation of demands Capacity and Management of Farmers are able to are essential for demand- Farmers formulate and aggregate driven extension. demands
Advisory Methods Bottom-up approaches and Via these methods, farmers’ methods voice, input and feedback is part of extension service provision
Note: Authors’ contribution based on the framework of Birner et al. (2006; 2009).
Although these assessments provide in terms of the interviewed stakeholders and valuable information, some shortcomings the topics described. Consequently, it is are worth mentioning. First, they reflect the difficult to analyze the same factors in every reality of extension in a given country at a country and perform systematic cross- particular time. Thus, some aspects of these country comparisons that would lead to, for services could be different now due to, for example, a typology of extension services or example, the MEAS recommendations or a ranking of countries in terms of demand- other changes in that country. Second, these driven characteristics and governance data do not provide a representative sample. quality. That is, the MEAS teams assessed those Nonetheless, none of these concerns countries, in most cases, upon requests by presents a major drawback for this paper’s the USAID missions, and so, given this self- objectives. Our methodology consisted in, selection, these sources share insights that first, analyzing the content of the MEAS might not apply across the developing assessments to identify the extent to which world. Finally, although the MEAS teams demand-driven elements existed in the shared the same objectives, the fact that their assessed countries. Across the reports, we members varied led to personal influences did so by narrowing down the information to on the writing and the emphasis on different those themes that refer to elements of our extension aspects. Varying circumstances in conceptual framework, including the assessed countries also added disparities decentralization (institutional set-up),
76 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 responsiveness to farmers, articulation of be minimal and not affect our evaluations. demands, farmer organization/s (capacity These authors were extension and and management) and bottom-up approaches development professionals who shared the (extension methods). Related terms and common interest of conducting an concepts for these elements were also assessment that would help improve considered such as local government extension in the analyzed countries. institutions, capacity to reach farmers, Providing an accurate and truthful analysis farmer involvement, and participatory was the best way to accomplish so. The processes. Second, we followed the same objective of such reports was also different approach to identify governance challenges. from this paper’s purpose, which makes it Building on the definition of good difficult for the authors to exert influence on governance described in the introduction, we this paper’s evaluations. analyzed the content of MEAS assessments to find instances where the elements of our Findings: Demand-Driven Elements conceptual framework illustrated, were and Governance Challenges connected or explained aspect of poor governance (e.g., lack of transparency, no Institutional Set-Up: accountability, and irresponsiveness to Decentralization farmers’ needs). The process of analyzing The adoption of decentralized the content was repeated multiple times to services that incorporate farmers’ guarantee that no important part was missing input is not widespread. At the time of as well as to ensure meaning, fit to key the MEAS assessments, extension themes, relevance and accuracy of results systems in, for instance, Bangladesh, and conclusions drawn. Throughout the Liberia and Tajikistan were findings section, we also present quotations dominantly top-down (McNamara, from the MEAS reports in order to give Swanson, & Simpson, 2011; Swanson, voice to the authors. Presenting verbatim 2011; Swanson, Meyer, & Weperen, quotations from research participants is 2011b). Yet, some countries such as common in qualitative research about Ghana, Nepal and Rwanda have taken agricultural issues (see, for example, steps toward decentralization. In Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2017). Moreover, this Ghana, the goal of increasing approach brings transparency and credibility accountability between the to the data analysis since it allows the government and local residents led to readers not only to follow the authors’ decentralization and the allocation of interpretations of the data (Morrow, 2005), funding to district offices (McNamara, but also to make their own judgements on Dale, Keane, & Fergurson, 2014). the presented findings. According to this report: Undoubtedly, this analysis does not exhaust all the potential demand-driven The Government of Ghana (GoG) is features nor addresses all the possible in the middle of a drive to governance issues that might emerge in decentralize government services extension. Yet, guided by our framework, and channel funds directly through we underscore those present in our data. District Assemblies and link staff Additionally, although our study could be directly to Districts. The overall goal subject to bias via the influence of the of this program is to create a greater reports’ authors. We anticipate this bias to level of accountability of
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government officers in line roles to interaction with farmers and their the local people they serve. (p. 5) responsiveness to local agricultural priorities. Similarly, the Rwandan government These findings are not surprising decentralized extension activities to the local given that decentralized extension could still government to better address diverging be subject to political influences (Anderson farmers’ needs and make these services & Feder, 2004, Birner et al. 2007) and fit “more participatory and farmer-driven” with the motivation of controlling power. (Swanson, Mutimba, Remington, Adedze, & That is, governments might transfer power Hixson, 2011a, p. 20). In addition, Nepal’s and resources to lower levels when it is in decentralization measures included the their best interest (Crook, 2003). Put planning and implementation of differently, decision-makers invest in development programs at the local decentralization if they benefit from government level by Village Development empowering local extension agents and Committees and District Development farmers. Unfortunately, this is not always Committees (Suvedi & McNamara, 2012) the case. In Africa, decentralization has While decentralization could make often been a mechanism to challenge extension more responsive to farmers’ political competitors and extend the power needs, the MEAS assessments find of the ruling groups to widespread localities significant deficiencies in some of the (Cabral, 2011). Electoral reasons also affect decentralized countries. In Ghana, although fund distribution from the central decentralization aimed to increase government to other offices by favoring key accountability, the promised funds for voters and certain ethnicities (Crook, 2003; extension had difficulties reaching the Devas & Grant, 2003; Ahmad, Devarajan, districts and farmers (McNamara et al., Stuti, & Shekhar, 2005). As a result, and as 2014). That is: the MEAS assessments illustrate, despite decentralizing measures, extension services in District Offices we spoke with in still lack transparency (in terms of where the Northern Region, MoFA resources go) and effectiveness in [Ministry of Food and Agriculture] addressing varying farmers’ needs. staff reported that while their salaries had been paid and were current, Capacity and Management: Extension funds that were supposed to have Services been received at the District level to Although reaching and responding to support transportation and farmers’ needs is crucial for demand-driven programmatic costs had not been extension, the MEAS reports indicate received. (p. 3) numerous instances of limited capacity and deficient management. In other words, the In Rwanda, despite the move toward data show low demand-driven aspects in this decentralization and the emphasis on dimension of our framework. In connection addressing farmers’ needs, local extension with funding, the MEAS reports find workers lacked adequate training and extension services having low operational needed operating expenses and some of funds, high vacancy rates, and high farmer- these district agronomists also had to to-extension officer ratios in, for example, perform non-agricultural assignments India (Bihar state), Malawi, Mali and (Swanson et al. 2011a), which limited their Zambia (Simpson & Singh, 2013; Simpson
78 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 et al., 2012; Simpson & Dembélé, 2011; could be one reason behind this poor Tucker, Dolly, Phiri, & Chisi, 2015). In governance. Either because of an Malawi, for instance: underestimation of extension’s development impact or the desire to invest in more Staffing levels within DAES electorally profitable activities such as seed [Department of Agricultural and fertilizer (Chinsinga & Poulton, 2014), Extension Services], across all the reality is that funding extension services levels, were reported to be and investing in performance measures are approximately 70 percent of the frequently not top priorities for decision- established positions, or a 30 percent makers in developing countries, which then vacancy rate (Simpson et al, 2012, p. results in poor governance. 5) Capacity and Management: Farmers The high vacancy rates at the EPA Farmers’ capacity and management [Extension Planning Area] level of ability to aggregate demands and request DAES result in reporting of skewed needed advise is a critical component of staff/farmer ratios - in some cases, demand-driven services, yet the presence of more than 2,700 per frontline well-functioning farmer organization and worker. (Simpson et al, 2012, p. 20) groups is not a given. In fact, the MEAS assessments show not only substantial In relation to management, the variation on the extent to which organized MEAS reports point out how the absence of farmers exist, but also on the reasons behind performance measures (quality audits, the presence of this demand-driven reward schemes, evaluations) leads to component. For example, the factors that unmotivated and non-committed extension facilitate group formation are sometimes agents that undermine responsiveness to inherent to group members and internal to farmers in, for example, Ghana, Nepal and organizations such as individual leadership Zambia (McNamara et al., 2014; Suvedi & in Egypt (Christiansen, Swelam, Hill, McNamara, 2012; Tucker et al., 2015). In Gasteyer, & Swanson, 2011) and traditional Nepal: “33% of the JTs [Junior Technicians] authorities in Malawi (Simpson, Heinrich, & and JTAs [Junior Technical Assistants] Malindi, 2012). For instance, in Egypt: work hard and are well motivated, while the rest are low productivity employees who are While the associations do provide protected by political allies within the technical assistance for agriculture agricultural bureaucracy” (Suvedi & and rural development, delivery is McNamara, 2012, p. 26). variable, fragmented and inconsistent Given these circumstances, it is not … We often found that a key surprising that extension fails to reach component in association success different types of farmers and respond to was the leadership of a strong diverse agricultural needs in a demand- individual. In some cases, this person driven fashion. Moreover, it is possible to was an extension agent, a recently claim that these services present poor retired extension agent, an governance around the lack of accountant or a teacher. The accountability, responsiveness and association provided a venue for that inclusiveness of varying farmers’ needs. Of person to genuinely help farmers and course, the lack of political commitment others in the community. The key
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was that this person had capacity and for electoral purposes and voter mobilization connections that s/he built upon in (Birner & Anderson, 2007). In such cases, delivering services. (p. 7-8) farmer associations serve primarily a political purpose, while helping poor Other farmers start cooperating farmers becomes mostly secondary. Also, because of the external influence of when farmer groups depend on governments, NGOs and donors. That is, governmental resources, they might be funding for farmer organizations plays a reluctant to raise criticism about how crucial role in the existence of groups and in extension is run and public finances used. their capacity to advocate for better services. The MEAS team actually emphasized that, According to the MEAS reports, in in Malawi, the funds for farmer Bangladesh, the Danish International organizations’ attendance to stakeholder Development Agency (DANIDA) organized panels had to be separated from the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and government so that these farmers could have Integrated Crop Management (ICM) clubs a “truly independent voice” (Simpson et al., (Swanson, 2011), and in Nepal and 2012, p. 18). That is, expressing an Bangladesh, NGOs were the driving force independent opinion is key to holding behind the various groups representing politicians accountable for the provision of farmers’ interests (Swanson, 2011; Suvedi & quality extension services. McNamara, 2012). In Malawi, the National Similarly, donors and NGOs’ Small Holder Farmers’ Association of interventions to make extension more Malawi (NASFAM) emerged out of an responsive to farmers’ needs via the initially USAID-funded project and later financing of farmer groups can also be benefited from multiple donor-financed detrimental to establishing accountable projects (Simpson et al., 2012). services. Essentially, the fact that NGOs and Nonetheless, funding sources raise donors are primarily responding to their questions about governance since the funding agencies weakens overall involvement of governments, NGOs and accountability (Feder et al., 2001, Birner & donors to promote and finance farmer Anderson, 2007). For example, the MEAS groups can limit these groups’ advocacy assessment from Bangladesh indicates the impact, political relevance, and ultimately incentives of working with progressive the establishment of accountable extension farmers because of the easiness of showing services. Governments’ motivation to create impact (Swanson, 2011): these groups can range from the sincere attempt to improve farmers’ lives to the There was limited time … to actually more self-interest reasons of pushing their assess the effectiveness and impact agendas and serving influential people of the different USAID projects … through these organizations (Agrawal & However, based on conversations Gupta, 2005; Poulton et al., 2006). This with the leaders of each project and second option is a reality in contexts where after making limited observations in farmer associations are useful to connect the field, there seemed to be more with rural elites, exert political control focus on small and medium-scale across the territory and silence critical progressive farmers who are already opinions toward the government. When marketing their products, rather than farmer groups become sufficiently large, focusing on the rural poor (i.e. the politicians might also use these associations small and marginal men and women
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farmers with <0.5 acres). The Agriculture and Livestock, with the initial obvious reason is that these USAID support of the Swedish International projects must empirically document Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), specific outputs and impacts of these adopted Camp Agricultural Committees as a projects; therefore, they are able to strategy for local coordination, planning and achieve and measure more rapid and monitoring of camp activities (Tucker et al., significant impacts by focusing on 2015). these more progressive farmers, most Importantly, this evidence does not of whom seem to be male farmers. mean that extension services in Malawi and (p. 8) Zambia have local ownership and are fully responsive to farmers’ needs since, for Relatedly, the geographic focus and example, participatory committees might timing of projects also follow donors and exist in paper but not in practice and poor NGOs’ goals and do not incorporate farmers might lack the time, funds and farmers’ input. The MEAS team in fact transport necessary to attend. Furthermore, identified Ghana as a clear example of this elite capture is another reason why so-called ‘projectization’ (McNamara et al., participatory approaches might not always 2014). Consequently, if farmers have limited promote everyone’s interests. Simply, elite input in designing and evaluating projects, capture means that the interests of the extension remains irresponsive and overall community are secondary to those of unaccountable to their primary users and a powerful group. For example, politicians thus subject to poor governance might fill meetings with supporters and set characteristics. policies based on their own priorities (Sheely, 2015). In extension, while Advisory Methods: Bottom-up participatory committees can help farmers Approaches have their needs heard, these panels can be When looking at bottom-up subject to elite capture and political approaches that incorporate farmers’ voice, influences. In Malawi, the MEAS report input and feedback, the MEAS reports find indicated that “for the panels to fully serve the use of PRAs and FFSs (with a greater or their purpose, smallholder participation in lesser success) in a multitude of countries. these panels needs to be financially Interestingly, these assessments also suggest separated from government to establish a that the adoption of participatory truly independent voice” (Simpson et al., committees is not a common practice and 2012, p.18). In Mali, the MEAS report signal that governance issues are present in points toward some farmers being more the few cases that have ventured into such relevant than others in certain participatory forms of participation from below. processes (Simpson & Dembélé, 2011), Malawi and Zambia are two which preserves existing hierarchies and examples of countries adopting participatory discourages open participation from below. committees. In Malawi, the Department of Specifically: Agricultural Extension Services created local stakeholder panels (or extension The DNA [Direction Nationale de platforms) to enable collaboration between l’Agriculture] maintains that it farmers and front line extension staff collaborates with the Institut (Simpson et al., 2012; Sigman, Rhoe, & d’Economie Rurale (IER) through an Peters, 2014). In Zambia, the Ministry of annual bottom-up planning process
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starting at the commune level Finally, donors and NGOs (annual plan de commune), which sometimes give away attendance handouts involves representative farmers. (e.g., free inputs and tools) to farmers, as the Interviews with the IER, on the other MEAS teams reported in Liberia and Nepal hand, provided a contrary view that (McNamara et al., 2011; Suvedi & extension representatives do not McNamara, 2012). These practices, driven participate in these bottom-up by donors and NGOs’ incentives to planning sessions, and that the accomplish key goals, foster an environment “representative farmers” involved where farmers’ participation is conditional tend to represent their own interests on receiving something in return, which is in these sessions. (p. 3) something that public finances in most developing countries can barely afford. Most In addition to elite capture and importantly, promoting a culture and political influences affecting governance expectations of ‘free gifts’ hinders an active quality, donors and NGOs’ promotion of civil society that mobilizes to demand good bottom-up approaches can also hinder the quality public extension services and builds emergence of transparent, participatory and governance processes around participation accountable extension services. First, if and transparency. NGOs and donors become the main extension providers (as in many needed Conclusion, Recommendations and countries), farmers might not demand these Implications services from elected representatives. Yet, This paper has identified that control having high expectations about public for power, elite capture, low political services is essential for organizing relevant commitment, varying external funding elections and establishing well-functioning sources, deficient farmers’ advocacy, and democracies. In other words, good quality inadequate expectations hinder the institutions rely on taxpayers that hold emergence of good governance in extension politicians accountable for providing services. As a result, extension services in valuable public services. When this developing countries are characterized for connection is missing, political development not being fully participatory, transparent, is at risk. accountable, equitable and responsive to all Second, NGOs occasionally take farmers, including marginalized ones. Thus, extension workers away from their public this paper emphasizes the relevance of using jobs to employ them in their projects, as governance lens to understand extension observed by the Liberian MEAS team services quality. (McNamara et al., 2011). In contexts with Nonetheless, further research is limited funding and deficient staffing, this necessary. To start, while the MEAS reports practice has a significant impact on public provide valuable information, analyzing the extension quality since it takes away the connection between demand-driven most experienced and capable agents. Thus, elements and governance quality would farmers might develop low expectations benefit from more detailed measures of the about public extension quality relative to key elements in our conceptual framework. those of NGOs. Yet again, holding public In other words, exploring different features extension to high standards is the essence around decentralization, capacity to reach behind farmers’ mobilization to demand farmers and participatory processes could robust extension systems. explain what works and does not work to
82 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 improve governance. For instance, future No. 3603). Washington, DC: World research could explore how the design of Bank. participatory committees (e.g., location, Anderson, J. R., & Feder, G. (2004). participation rules and funding rules) Agricultural extension: Good intentions influences farmers’ attendance and affects and hard realities. World Bank transparency and accountability in extension Research Observer, 19(1), 41-60. service provision. Bates, R. (1981). Markets and states in Similarly, when exploring why tropical Africa: The political basis for governance challenges persist, it is agricultural policy. Berkeley, CA: necessary to conceptualize key ideas such as University of California Press. elite capture, lack of political commitment, Birner, R., & Anderson, J. R. (2007). How and farmers’ advocacy. Once these concepts to make agricultural extension demand- are clearly operationalized, research could, driven? The case of India’s agricultural for example, explore how politicians, extension policy (Discussion Paper No. wealthier farmers or even the connection 00729). Washington, DC: International between the two cause elite capture in Food Policy Research Institute. participatory platforms. Importantly, these Birner, R., Davis, K., Pender, J., Nkonya, E., key concepts might vary from country to Anandajayasekeram, P., Ekboir, J., … country and be subject to context-specific Cohen, M. (2006). From best practice attributes. Moreover, the context might to best fit. A framework for analyzing influence certain demand-driven elements pluralistic agricultural advisory being successful in bringing good services worldwide (ISNAR Discussion governance to extension services. Hence, paper No 5). Washington, DC: exploring cross-country variation would be International Food Policy Research an important contribution to this research Institute. Retrieved from agenda. Undoubtedly, future research also http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/p requires identification strategies able to ublications/dsgdp37.pdf establish causal relationships that relate the Birner, R., Davis, K., Pender, J., Nkonya, E., presence of demand-driven features with Anandajayasekeram, P., Ekboir, J., … improvements in the identified governance Cohen, M. (2009). From best practice to outcomes. This research agenda will best fit: A framework for designing and eventually help draw lessons on how to analyzing pluralistic agricultural strengthen extension services worldwide. advisory services worldwide. Journal of This strengthening work is necessary to Agricultural Education and Extension, improving food security and reducing rural 15(4), 341–355. poverty across the developing world. Cabral, L. (2011). Decentralisation in Africa: Scope, motivations and impact References on service, delivery and poverty Agrawal, A., & Gupta, K. (2005). (Working Paper No.020). Brighton: Decentralization and participation: The Future Agricultures Consortium. governance of common pool resources Chinsinga, B., & Poulton, C. (2014). in Nepal’s Terai. World Development, Beyond technocratic debates: The 33(7), 1101-14. significance and transience of political Ahmad, J., Devarajan, S., Stuti, K., & incentives in the Malawi farm input Shekhar, S. (2005). Decentralization subsidy programme (FISP). and service delivery (Working Paper
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Development Policy Review, 32(S2), Liberia (Modernizing Extension and 123-50. Advisory Services Assessment Report). Christiansen, S., Swelam, A., Hill, J., Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Gasteyer, S., & Swanson, B. (2011). Illinois. Scoping mission: Assessment of McNamara, P., Dale, J., Keane, J., & agricultural advisory services in Upper Ferguson, O. (2014). Strengthening Egypt (Modernizing Extension and pluralistic agricultural extension in Advisory Services Assessment Report). Ghana (Modernizing Extension and Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Advisory Services Assessment Report). Illinois. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Crook, R.C. (2003). Decentralisation and Illinois. poverty reduction in Africa: The Morrow, S. (2005). Quality and politics of local-central relations. Public trustworthiness in qualitative research Administration Development, 23, 77-88. in Counseling Psychology. Journal of Devas, N., & Grant, U. (2003). Local Counselling Psychology, 52 (2), 250- government decision-making—citizen 260. participation and local accountability: Neuchâtel Group. (2006). Demand-driven Some evidence from Kenya and agricultural advisory services. Lindau: Uganda. Public Administration and Neuchâtel Group. Retrieved from Development, 23, 307-16. http://www.rgvi.gtk.szie.hu/system/files Faure, G., Rebuffel, P., & Violas, D. (2011). /upload/course_material/6._demand- Systemic evaluation of advisory driven-agricultural-advisory- services to family farms in West Africa. services.pdf Journal of Agricultural Education and Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H. (2017). Extension, 17(4), 325–339. Agricultural diversification and dietary Feder, G., Willet, A., & Zijp, W. (2001). diversity: A feminist political ecology Agricultural extension: Generic of the everyday experiences of landless challenges and the ingredients for and smallholder households in northern solutions. In S.A.Wolf & D. Zilberman Ghana. Geoforum, 86, 63-75. (Eds.), Knowledge Generation and Olson, M. (1965). The Logic of collective Technical Change (pp. 313-359). action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic University Press. Publishers. Olson, M. (1985). Space, agriculture, and Jutting, J., Corsi, E., Kauffmann, C., organization. American Agricultural McDonnell, I., Osterrieder, H., Pinaud, Economics Association, 67(5), 928-937. N., & Wegner, L. (2005). What makes Poulton, C., Kydd, J., & Dorward, A. decentralisation in developing countries (2006). Overcoming market constraints pro-poor? The European Journal of on pro-poor agricultural growth in Sub- Development Research, 17(4), 626-48. Saharan Africa. Development Policy Kruijssen, K., Keizer, M., & Giuliani, A. Review, 24(3), 243-77. (2009). Collective action for small-scale Prager, K., Creaney, R., & Lorenzo-Arribas, producers of agricultural biodiversity A. (2017). Criteria for a system level products. Food Policy, 34, 46-52. evaluation of farm advisory services. McNamara, P., Swanson, B., & Simpson, B. Land Use Policy, 61, 86-98. (2011). Rebuilding and strengthening Rivera, W.M. & Alex, G. (2005). Extension the pluralistic extension system in reform for rural development, Vol. 1-5:
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Case Studies of International Services Assessment Report). Urbana- Initiatives. Washington, DC: World Champaign, IL: University of Illinois. Bank and USAID. Swanson, B. E. (2011). Assessment of Sheely, R. (2015). Mobilization, Bangladesh’s pluralistic extension participatory planning institutions, and system (Modernizing Extension and elite capture: Evidence from a field Advisory Services Assessment Report). experiment in rural Kenya. World Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Development, 67, 251-66. Illinois. Sigman, V., Rhoe, V., & Peters, J. (2014). Swanson, B. E., Mutimba, J., Remington, T., Assessment of agricultural extension, Adedze, P., & Hixson, P. (2011a). nutrition education, and integrated Comprehensive assessment of extension agriculture-nutrition extension services services in Rwanda (Modernizing in the Feed the Future focus districts in Extension and Advisory Services Malawi (Modernizing Extension and Assessment Report). Urbana- Advisory Services Assessment Report). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Swanson, B. E., Meyer, E., & van Weperen, Illinois. W. (2011b). Strengthening the Simpson, B., & Dembélé, K. (2011). pluralistic extension system in Assessment of Mali’s agricultural Tajikistan (Modernizing Extension and extension and advisory services Advisory Services Assessment Report). (Modernizing Extension and Advisory Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Services Assessment Report). Urbana- Illinois. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois. Swanson, B. E., & Samy, M.M. (2003). Simpson, B. M., Heinrich, G., & Malindi, G. Decentralization of agricultural (2012). Strengthening pluralistic extension systems key elements for agricultural extension in Malawi success (Unpublished Manuscript). (Modernizing Extension and Advisory Washington, DC: World Bank. Services Assessment Report). Urbana- Retrieved from Champaign, IL: University of Illinois. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/li Simpson, B., & Singh, K. (2013). brary/51025/ZipAgExtension1/ag_exte Strengthening the pluralistic nsion1/Materials/May6Session1/Decent agricultural extension system in Bihar ralization-India4-18-03_paper.pdf. State, India (Modernizing Extension Swanson, B.E., & Rajalahti, R. (2010). and Advisory Services Assessment Strengthening agricultural extension Report). Urbana-Champaign, IL: and advisory systems: Procedures for University of Illinois. assessing, transforming, and evaluating Speer, J. (2012). Participatory governance extension systems. Washington, DC: reform: A good strategy for increasing World Bank. government responsiveness and Thompson, J., Teshome, A., Hughes, D., improving public services?. World Chirwa, E., & Omiti, J. (2009). Development 40(12), 2379-98. Challenges and opportunities for Suvedi, M., & McNamara, P. (2012). strengthening farmers organisations in Strengthening the pluralistic Africa: Lessons from Ethiopia, Kenya agricultural extension system in Nepal and Malawi (Policy Brief No. 031). (Modernizing Extension and Advisory Brighton: Future Agricultures Consortium.
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Tucker, T., Dolly, D., Phiri, M., & Chisi, M. (2015). Assessment of and recommendations for strengthening the pluralistic agricultural extension system in Eastern Province, Zambia (Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services Assessment Report). Urbana- Champaign, IL: University of Illinois. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (2009). What is good governance? Bangkok: The United Nations. World Bank. (2017). World development report 2017: Governance and the law. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25207
A Narrative Review of the Assessment of Extension and Advisory Services on an Agricultural Development Project in North-West Province, South Africa
Ijatuyi Enioluwa Jonathan Mokone Bontle North West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa
Abstract The effectiveness of agricultural extension work relies upon the accessibility of staffs that are qualified, roused, conferred and receptive to the consistently evolving social, financial and political condition. This narrative seeks to highlight the role that extension and advisory services play on a specific Agricultural Development Programme Project in North-West Province of South Africa. It also explores how best the provincial government can ensure that policies are developed and timely interventions are delivered with the needs of the farmers being considered first. Recommendations for rapid growth in the cattle and livestock industry in the province were also suggested.
Keywords: Advisory services, Assessment, Extension services, Nguni Cattle Development Project
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Introduction and livelihood of farmers by introducing The agricultural area is integral to appropriate technology and the use of proper rural improvement and can contribute and effective communication and essentially to activities to mitigate information channels. David and Samuel neediness. Strong extension and advisory (2014) highlighted that in South Africa, gaps services are therefore needed, these being in the extension and advisory services were led by the government in collaboration with evident in a number of provinces. In the relevant role players. McCole et al. addressing the gaps, measures and (2014) stated that the knowledge of regulations for extension and advisory agriculture is vital for food security. In many services were developed by the government. developing countries (South Africa as a case It is largely the responsibility of the South study), farmers still don't have approaches African government to deliver extension by growth and warning administrations services to farmers through the provincial because there still exist poor agricultural departments. practices. The Department of Agriculture However, such services are also (2005) stated that "during the past ten years, provided through the private sector and agricultural extension in South Africa has NGO's such as LIMA to farmers to improve undergone a fundamental change from a production. It can likewise be noticed that dualistic service (separate services for the extension and the advisory delivery commercial and small-scale farmers) to a system is essential towards changing the single amalgamated service, focusing on the little scale burdened agricultural division of needs of both the previously disadvantaged South Africa, and legitimate guidance must small-scale farmers and the large-scale be offered to farmers productively and commercial farmers". The Department of routinely. Agholar et al. (2012) expressed Agriculture (2005) expressed that amid the that the utilization of expansion training in previous ten years, rural development in decreasing neediness in South Africa is vital South Africa has encountered a noteworthy given the vast assets accessible in the change from a dualistic organization agricultural area. Moreover, the arrangement (disengage organizations for business and of advisory administrations increases little scale farmers) to a singular agricultural production and the utilization of amalgamated organization, focusing on the appropriate correspondence through necessities of both the as of now prevented extension administrations impacts the little scale agriculturists and the huge scale selection of new or enhanced innovation. business agriculturists. It is, in this way, Agholar et al. (2012) noted that the vital to separate amongst expansion and provision of reliable and timely advisory warning administrations. The most widely services is particularly advantageous for the recognized definition utilized for livestock and cattle sector. Agholar (2012) "agricultural extension" alludes to a contended this sector has been neglected by 'procedure that enables farmers to end up policymakers and researchers, despite its mindful of enhanced advancements and growing importance in the economy through embrace them with a specific end goal to addressing poverty alleviation, land enhance their productivity, wage, and redistribution and so on. South Africa has welfare' (Purcell & Anderson, 1997). different cultivating regions, extending from Extension and advisory serious harvest generation in winter administrations are intended to improve the precipitation and high summer precipitation living standards, agricultural productivity, regions to steers farming in the bushveld,
88 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 much of the land surface being suitable for extension and advisory services play on a grazing, which is the main farming specific Agricultural Development technique for cattle rearing and farming. The Programme in North-West Province of arrangement of dairy cattle raising has South Africa, and also communicate through contributed around 25-30 percent of the its recommendations, improved policies to aggregate cultivating yield per annum assist both extension agents and farmers. (Ijatuyi, 2016). The Agricultural Development Study Context Project (Nguni Cattle Development Project) The theoretical background on was introduced and funded by the agricultural extension approaches and a government and has been placed in the description of the agricultural development hands of the Department of Agriculture to programme is provided to contextualize the render extension administrations to study followed by extension being a agriculturists, helping them turn out to be development concept, the support which more production inclined in order to extension and advisory services rendered to increase their income. However, barriers to agriculture together with its challenges. improved productivity such as poor funding, The theoretical framework on Agricultural lack of technical expertise and proper Extension Approaches as indicated by infrastructure have been identified as Akpalu (2013), Bergevoet and van weaknesses in the agricultural extension and Woerkum (2006), the diverse methodologies advisory services. These services should be utilized as a part of rural expansion benefit affordable, if not free, easy to access and conveyance have been characterized under readily available for farmers, but in the four ideal models, to be specific, the absence of the extension officers being exchange of innovation, critical thinking, properly trained or even, farmers seek learning and adult education, and human advice and services from private development. organizations or NGO's. Extension services are generally more expensive in the private Exchange of Innovation Approach sector but are provided on time due to the (Transfer of Technology) availability of adequate infrastructure, The Exchange of Innovation resources, and trained personnel. However, approach has been portrayed as a restricted very few farmers and farming communities model, from science to home, in which the can access them due to the need to pay for client is the inactive recipient, subsequently; their services, the absence of access to any information is viewed as a thing that streams support services putting these farmers at a from science to the custormer. Bergevoet clear disadvantage. Those farmers who are and van Woerkum (2006) talked about that able to pay for the private services are the exchange of innovation demonstrate has generally in a position of benefiting more as been scrutinized on the grounds that the a result of the services afforded to them, innovation prescribed isn't really adjusted to leaving out the majority of the poor cattle or reasonable for the particular circumstance rearers with no access to agricultural advice, that an individual farmer is stood up to with. marketing opportunities, general herd Regardless of every one of these reactions, management and other information sources exchange of innovation is as yet a usually related or relevant to livestock farming due utilized expansion worldview (Coutts, to their financial disadvantage. This 1994). narrative seeks to highlight the role that
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Critical Thinking Methodology including openings (Ijatuyi, 2016). This Critical thinking is a fundamental extension worldview comprises of piece of extension benefits, the design being participatory methodologies that are to help farmers to discover answers for received because of the expanding innovative or administration issues. In multifaceted nature of agricultural and farmers' training, critical thinking is a environmental issues. These methodologies regularly utilized configuration to exchange have merits, including: guaranteeing the learning, with skill being given to farmers acknowledgment of neighborhood methods by people or a gathering of counselors for knowing; supporting nearby (Hogeveen et al., 1992). development and adjustment; including partners in investigations that has a financial Learning and Adult Education and moreover social impact on the Methodology developing group; perceiving the advantage Madukwe (2006) communicated that of sharing information and considerations learning in an investigation bunch is a among farmers; enabling maker ownership proactive easygoing technique for preparing both of issues and replies, and making that urges individuals to better appreciate utilization of the group for learning. Akpalu their condition. To have the ability to get (2013) featured that these methodologies information into the learning technique that have been censured, as farmers may not happens, grown-up learning theories may be perceive issues (for instance, environmental of help, with learning cycles and styles issues), in which case non-participatory having been used to delineate the methodologies might be added to their examination gather learning forms. In any human development. Besides, Black (2000) case, while in the meantime being used as a expressed that "there may likewise be the hypothetical framework for adult taking in, predominance of circumstances that may the strategy for learning cycles and styles make thoughts be rejected, and the spread of has not been used as a piece of agribusiness. information created in gatherings might be The learning strategy has been viewed as a restricted to the gathering itself". reliably rehashing process that is managed by one's needs and destinations, with Methodology individuals developing their own particular This paper was developed using learning cycles. Four learning styles, information from published and unpublished specifically, unique, assimilation, centered primary, secondary and tertiary sources. and accommodative learning have been recognized as identified with the Study Area unmistakable periods of the learning cycle The North-West Province (NWP) is (Kolb, 1984). the fourth-smallest province in the Republic of South Africa. Nationally, the province Human Improvement Approach borders the Northern Cape, Free State, In human improvement, Coutts Gauteng and Limpopo Provinces with the (1994) and Madukwe (2006) all talked about Republic of Botswana in the North-east. that extension and advisory system is a way With a total area of 106 512 square to encourage and empower people or kilometers and a mid-2010 population of gatherings to step up with regards to 3.2-million (7.1%), it is mostly rural in characterizing issues and looking for nature. The Province is divided into four answers for individual and societal concerns, districts, namely, Ngaka Modiri Molema,
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Bojanala Platinum, Dr. Kenneth Kaunda and David and Samuel (2014) further Dr. Ruth Segomotso Mompati with stated that agricultural extension and Mahikeng (previously Mafiking) as the advisory services confront various capital (Statistics South Africa, 2010). The difficulties in adequately responding to and dominance and locality of agricultural achieving their objectives. The key activities were the main reasons for the challenge remains how to develop and selecting the study area. implement strategies and approaches to ensure the optimum participation of farmers. Results & Discussion According to Oladele et al. (2004), A number of themes emerged from agricultural advisory and extension services reviewing the literature regarding the role have been changing over the past few that extension and advisory services play on decades. These changes are attributed to a specific Agricultural Development many factors that include policy and Programme in North-West Province of political changes, and more recently, the South Africa. The study showed the participation of the non-governmental relationship between the ADP, the organizations (NGOs) in farmer support description of the breed, and the importance services. of the livestock to the environment. Despite the fact that as a formative Furthermore, extension as a function, idea extension is in wide utilize particularly development, and concept was discussed in the rural and rural advancement sectors, together with its challenges to agriculture. extension benefit means diverse things to various individuals. Agricultural extension Extension as a Function and Development is intended to enhance farm efficiency in Concept order to empower individuals to enhance The Ethical Tea Partnership (2014) their way of life and personal satisfaction. stated that "agricultural extension is the Extension can, thus, be an education; its function of providing need and demand- point being to realize positive behavioral based knowledge in agronomic techniques changes among farmers. In this way, and skills to rural communities in a extension administrations are characterized systematic and participatory manner, with in this investigation as an administration of the objective of improving their production, information, information and expertise income and, by implication, quality of life". advancement to upgrade the selection of as Extension can be sub-divided into three good as ever agricultural advances, and to groups: the public, the private profit and the encourage linkages with other institutional non-profit sector. The need for agricultural help administrations (input) supply, yield extension was addressed in studies by showcasing, and credit those farmers can Picciotto and Anderson (1997), Anderson profit by. (2007), Ngomane (2006), Eicher (2003), The Department of Agriculture, World Bank report (2000), Zwane (2012) South Africa (2008) demonstrates that rural and David and Samuel (2014), in which they extension and advisory administrations are all featured the fundamental focal point of occupations that adjustment because of the extension work as being expanded food earth in which they work, and their customer sustenance and spreading the advantages of base needs and prerequisites. Extension and enhanced cultivating methods. advisory services hence require a workforce that is prepared, devoted, and gifted. Figure 1 delineates that Agricultural Information
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System (AIS) for rural advancement ought learning, and information to the best- to interface individuals and associations to preferred standpoint. advance learning and create, offer and utilize agriculture-related innovation,
Education
Farmers
Researcher Extension
Figure 1. Agricultural extension as part of Agricultural Knowledge System/Agricultural Knowledge Information System (AKS/AKIS) Source: Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (2008/9-2010/11)
Extension and Advisory Services' trained workers are a major challenge to the Support and Challenges to Nguni Cattle extension and advisory service system. Farmers When there are workers, lack of proper According to Ijatuyi et al. (2017), the infrastructure and enabling the environment place of extension and advisory to mitigate against the will to work. administrations in improving farmer's Extension workers are not fully equipped the learning, aptitudes and in addition advances technical know-how, proper efficient can't be overemphasized. Extension and training, and infrastructure. If extension advisory services encourage word of mouth workers are well empowered, the passage of information, physical expectation would be that each and every demonstrations of innovations and improved extension agent who benefited from this methods. Extension helps in the passage of empowerment would be a specialist in no information and innovations from the less than one field of specialized agriculture scientist to the farmers, thereby assisting in order to be fruitful in conveying farmers in taking decisions, as well as extraordinary administrations to the farmers setting and clarifying their goals. Rivera et with every one of its obligations which are al. (2001) stated that "agricultural extension altogether capsulated in correspondence. also is concerned with providing Extension is regarded as a bridge information on other crucial issues, such as between farmers and researchers; one of the food storage development, processing, farm purposes is to transfer information. management and marketing". Insufficiently According to Mbo'o-Tchouawm and
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Colverson (2014), many factors have services delivery perform a vital part in contributed to the challenges of extension agricultural advancement and it decreases and advisory services to be rendered. These hunger and poverty. incorporate deficient assets for supporting According to Cwale et al. (2012), extension endeavors, poor resourcing, participants of the ADP indicated an upward confused structures bringing about the poor growth since they started accepting foundation for drawing in agricultural extension and advisory service that was organizations, the constrained inclusion of being rendered. The majority (67%) of rural farmers in the extension processes, and participants in their study area has recorded the absence of fitting techniques for increase in financial, physical, natural, and powerful research and sufficient extension social capital. In a study by Gwala (2013), strategies. The impact of the extension and most of the farmers that were interviewed advisory service to the Nguni project has showed extension services had more been minimal due to the limited extension relationship with the male farmers instead of service provided to the farmers since the the service cutting across all gender equally. project inception. Additional challenges Nguni Cattle, Description and the project include: poor road infrastructure, the According to FAO (2006), livestock distances extension agents need to cover, generates and contribute approximately 18% limited training centres that are adequately of greenhouse gas emission (CO2) into the equipped, the high proportion of extension environment, equivalent to more than the workers to farmers, the level of commitment transport system. The FAO (2006) featured to the programme by the extension agents, that the expanded flourishing in the the salary package, lack of the basic livestock area has prompted individuals amenities in the society, and poor extension devouring more meat and dairy items programme funding. consistently anticipating the generation of Gwala (2013) highlighted that overall meat from 229 million tons in extension services failed to tackle challenges 1999/2001 to 465 million tons in 2050, such as cattle production in general with while milk yield is set to move from 580 only about 37.8% and 32.1% of the farmers million tons to 1043 million tons in the in his study area having access to extension midst of a comparative period. The effect of services. In which case, the services the livestock division on the economy is rendered were of low quality because of the becoming quicker than some other correspondence systems used to give these agricultural sub-area. Domesticated animals administrations. Ijatuyi et al. (2017) cultivating gives a wellspring of occupations recorded that extension and advisory to around 1.3 billion individuals services rendered to Nguni cattle farmers comprehensively and contributes around was average and contributed greatly to the 40% to the worldwide farming yield. livelihood of the farmers. But at the same Domesticated animals are likewise a time, an average service is not the target of wellspring of the sustainable power source the government on the Agricultural and a basic wellspring of natural manure for Development Project (ADP). Davis (2016) some poor farmers in creating nations for also highlighted that extension service their yields. Domesticated animals remains a critical institution for supporting cultivating involves roughly 30% of the rural livelihoods and the sustainable whole land surface, generally for the lasting development goals. Furthermore, Davis and field, 33% of the worldwide arable land Sulaiman (2014) stated that extension being utilized to deliver sustain for animals.
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Ntshepe (2013) further stated that a According to Bester et al. (2003), "it "smallholder livestock farmer in South is small to medium in size depending on the Africa is in a difficult position, not only prevailing nutritional conditions; the depth grappling with a changing global is good and is accompanied by a moderate environment but at the local front without width. Mature cows have fairly short legs access to domestic markets". Ntshepe (2013) with good feet. The dewlap is medium-sized further stated that "the lack of marketing and thin. The cervicothoracic hump is hardly information limits adequate access to noticeable in the mature cow but is fairly livestock markets by smallholder farmers well developed in the full-grown bull. The due to the very limited knowledge of buyer barrel of the Nguni cattle is of good length requirements originating". Statistics released and strength, the rump is inclined to droop by the North-West Department of towards the tail and the rear quarter is light. Agriculture (2003) demonstrates that an The head is of good size with a flattish poll. expected 1.816 million herds exist in the It has a broad dished forehead, widest North-West Province, which is around 12% between the eyes. The face is wide and of the total in the country. As developing straight to slightly convex in profile. The countries have many smallholder family muzzle is broad and the ears have a refined farmers, it is important that livestock look, being small with a sharp apex. The developments benefit these poor rural horns are usually round are noticeably lyre- families. According to Pathak (2014), shaped in mature cows. Coats are soft, fine smallholder farmers, especially the women, and glossy with the udder and teats small to stated that livestock helps them earn their moderate". In summary, the Nguni cattle has own regular income and provides food, shown that it is created through a procedure specifically protein, with the manure being of normal determination in an exceptionally used to fertilize crops. difficult condition and that it has the Nguni cattle are an indigenous hereditary potential to perform well under South-African breed and therefore suited to ideal generation situations. It is additionally various local environments, which, until a medium-outline creature with a measure of recently, faced considerable discrimination tick resilience and illness protection. of cross-breeding with the imported breed The goal of the project is to re- (Bester et al., 2003). Its adaptive traits have introduce the indigenous breed to rural more recently led to it being regarded as a community farmers in North West Province. highly suitable beef breed in both intensive The targets of the project are to empower and extensive farming systems, hence the and ensure the upliftment of emerging birth of a programme to develop it as a livestock farmers to become commercial national breeding herd. The Nguni breed Nguni cattle producers. It is furthermore was able to enter the developing business intended to transfer skills and the capacity segment, and broad research encouraged necessary to establish black commercial breeds upgrades. These occurred in the livestock farmers and, lastly, to create jobs commercial sector, which began to for the rural poor. The project envisages appreciate their resistance to disease and training beneficiaries in financial local adaptability with the benefits not being management, computer literacy, made available to community farmers who infrastructure maintenance, value adding had ensured the survival of the breed (Bester and processing. The Nguni cattle et al., 2003). development project is a collaborative initiative participatory between three
94 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 organizations, these being the North-West Hare as a team with a few NGOs who are Department of Agriculture and Rural knowledgeable about communal farmers Development, the Industrial Development (Mapiye et al., 2007). The bulls were Corporation (IDC) and the North-West intended to bring new genetic stock to the University (Mafikeng Campus). The aim is cowherds to enhance livestock production, to re-introduce the indigenous Nguni cattle while the extension support was intended to to the mainstream of the livestock Industry develop community institutions, and (SA News, 2013), these farmers assuming a farming opportunities in rural areas (Bester noteworthy part in economic development, et al., 2003). To enhance the introduction of work creation, sustenance security and the cattle in rural zones, sustainable models change in the industry. need to be developed to boost their A grant of around R 45 million was productivity, improve the productivity of made accessible by the IDC to actualize the communal areas, and assess the quality of Nguni cattle venture, which included setting the existing stock (Bester et al., 2003). up the core of enlisted Nguni herds in shared Nguni cattle development has the potential towns over a time of five years. The project to create economic growth in rural areas, brought together traditional farmers who generate job opportunities in adding value to rear, breed and have conserved both the the food processing industry, and improves indigenous and commercial livestock in the standard of living of the farmers order to ensure the survival of this breed (Sikwela & Mushunje, 2013). (IDC, 2007). The accomplishment of this Agholar (2012) showed that a major venture depends to a great extent on giving way to develop agriculture in the livestock extension administrations, preparing sector is to provide extension services that livestock supervisors and actualizing venture will increase and improve production. administration. This is vital to guarantee that Through effective services, agriculture the unadulterated breed that were sourced extension service can assist in alleviating from community farmers retain their genetic poverty, improve the standard of living, and value. The Nguni cattle development was improve food security. They can possibly launched jointly in the North-West and diminish rural poverty, which likewise relies Limpopo Provinces in February 2006. upon education and training opportunities Certain assumptions were made, among healthcare provision in many rural areas which were that the animals produced would (Organization for Economic Co-operation be of market quality and that there would be and Development [OECD] 2006) as cited by sufficient resources on the ground to Agholar, 2012). maintain production leading to improved For the services to have an impact, meat supplies on the market. However, a they must embrace current research and number of problems were encountered; involve farmers in their extension including the lack of qualified extension programme (Agholar, 2012). Muchenje staff to monitor the project, minimal (2015) stated that the Nguni cattle infrastructural development on communal development venture has additionally lands, lack of record keeping and rights to observed branches and coordinated efforts possess or to use that is land tenure systems. rising, particularly the South African The introduction of the Nguni cattle, Research Chair Initiative (SARChi) in meat particularly the bulls, to the community science, which is bestowed to Stellenbosch farmers was an exertion by the Department University and the Technological and of agriculture and the University of Fort Human Resource for Industry Programme
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(THRIP) in animal science and meat science Access to Extension and Advisory in relationship with the Red Meat Research Services for an Agricultural Development and Development of South Africa (RMRD- Programme SA). Israel et al. (2011) defined an extension programme as, "a comprehensive Nguni Cattle as an Agricultural set of activities that are intended to bring Development Programme about a sequence of outcomes among Agricultural development targeted clients". Some of the Agricultural programmes are schemes established by the Development Projects that are overseen by government to improve farmers’ extension services in the province include productivity, environmental status, and Household Agricultural Livelihood farming skills and knowledge. Agricultural Development, People group run Indigenous development programmes are envisaged to Nurseries, Agricultural Crop production reduce poverty through rural development, Infrastructure, Fundamental administrations enhance food security, and improve access and Infrastructure, Livestock Project to both local and international markets. An Undertaking and Family unit Poultry example of the development programme is Cultivating Venture. Extension agents have the Nguni cattle project, which is intended to always engaged the community in training, improve the productivity of livestock and this is always followed up by holders and encourage those farmers who monitoring and mentoring. are yet to start and participate in the In an investigation did by Gwala et programme to learn about the advantages of al. (2016), Agricultural Development Project the Nguni development cattle programme. did not record much participation due to the The aim is to teach the Nguni cattle farmers lack of exposure. Nguni Cattle Development how to breed and maximize their returns Project had just about 17% of youth from the cattle. As a result, the North West participation. A poor youth participation provincial government, together with the record thus implies a breakdown in the Provincial Rural, Environmental and transfer of indigenous cattle rearing skills Agricultural Department (READ) from the aged populates to the young and introduced the North-West Nguni Cattle able youth as suggested by Lesoli (2011). Development Project. Farmers who There are stages that extension programmes participated in the development programme go through before their advice are adopted were to work with extension and advisory and accepted. These include awareness stage officers in order to get the maximum output (when the innovation or technology is made from the programme. The Project started in known to the farmer); knowledge stage February 2006 as a partnership between the (when the introduced technology is Industrial Development Cooperation (IDC), understood by the farmer); adoption stage Department of Rural, Environment and (when the farmer decides to accept the Agricultural Development (READ) and the introduced innovation) and practicing stage North-West University (NWU), with the aim which is when the farmer finally put the of reintroducing Nguni cattle into the adopted technology or information to use. province by providing deserving Interest in extension administrations beneficiaries with heifers and bulls on a is an imperative instrument for enhancing grant-loan basis. rural profitability and expanding farmer's wage (Anderson, 2007). Ejembi et al. (2006) demonstrated that training and visit (T&V)
96 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 extension has been censured for being top- extension administrations must begin with down, top-overwhelming, wasteful and an examination of people's enthusiasm for insufficient. Furthermore, Ejembi et al. the cultivating creation process in regards to (2006) stated that the training and visit this components. According Nambiro et al. approach was introduced by World Bank (2006), these were the separation from Agricultural Development Programme towns and access to methods for (ADP) to understand the problems of poor communications and essentially affected organization, dilution of efforts, access to extension benefits particularly in impropriety, and untimeliness of messages rural areas. These authors additionally intrinsic in the traditional extension expressed that the nearer the client is to the framework. Mohammed et al. (2015) wellspring of extension, the more probable expressed that the training and visit he/she is to look for its services. Many other approach is more compelling than the factors have also been identified as utilization of information innovation or influencing access to extension services, media, successful and opportune such as income and literacy level, wealth conveyance of messages, regular extension status, access to media (radio, television), farmer contact, and training, these being pre- resources (including fuel) age and gender, imperatives for a viable agricultural resulting in extension agents spending time improvement programme. in locating farms. The willingness to pay for Ejembi et al. (2006) opined that services that were previously free of charge despite the fact that information diffuses is another factor that affects the access to considerably speedier among farmers extension services. through relational correspondence channels, Innovations that have been initiated their capacity to get convenient information into the extension and advisory to take care of particular creation issues administrations conveyance framework to relies upon guide access to extension help and create enhanced outcomes operators. It urges farmers to examine the incorporate farmer support groups that difficulties they experience on their farms emphasis on rural resource centers, with the extension agents amid visit and to networking and marketing frameworks, show off new or enhanced systems. volunteer advisory administration projects Agricultural education and rural and ICT-based methodologies (Mbo'o- extension have been echoed by development Tchouawm & Colverson, 2014). specialists as essential to achieving agricultural change, destitution abatement Conclusions and sustenance and food security (Ragasa et The literature reviewed indicated that al., 2013). Ragasa et al. (2013) additionally extension and advisory service comprises expressed that there is a precise and trained staffs that are required to support measurably critical gender distinction as far farmers by passing on information about as access to different channels and kinds of different parts of farming, including extension administrations. Jiggins et al. innovation, to build efficiency. Extension (1997) express that gender is a critical and advisory administrations assume an variable for investigating the roles, duties, indispensable part in guaranteeing the requirements, openings, motivations, achievement of all parts of agriculture, expenses and advantages in agriculture. empowering association amongst farmers Also, the need to improve women's and the extension and advisory specialists. entrance to agricultural research and The literature additionally uncovered that
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Agricultural Extension and Advisory local municipality (Doctoral services in the field of agricultural dissertation, University of Fort advancement have seen numerous Hare). adjustments in the previous decades. The Agholor, I. A., Monde, N., Obi, A., & main pattern is the adjustment in theory and Sunday, O. A. (2013). Quality of method of the reasoning behind extension extension services: A case study of services towards more participatory farmers in Amathole. Journal of methodologies. This paper suggested that for Agricultural Science, 5(2), 204. the success of agriculture, the government doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v5n should ensure that extension and advisory 2p204 services are readily available, accessible and Akpalu, D. A. (2013). Agriculture Extension affordable by all farmers whether rich or Service delivery in a semi-arid rural poor. area in South Africa: The case study Several aspects of improving cattle of Thorndale in the Limpopo production have been discussed including province. African Journal of Food, improving the relationship between the Agriculture, Nutrition and farmer and researcher through extension, the Development, 13(4), 8034-8057. challenges of livestock and the effect on the Anderson, J. R. (2007). Background paper environment, improving the livelihood of for the World Development Report the smallholder farmers and the access to 2008: Agricultural advisory extension and advisory services by the services. Agriculture and Rural farmers. Development Department, World Bank, Washington, DC. Retrieved Recommendations from From the reviewed articles, the http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN government should continue to provide TWDR2008/Resources/2795087191 basic training and infrastructure needed for 427986785/Anderson_AdvisoryServi the agricultural extension agents available so ces.pdf. that they can continue to disseminate timely Bergevoet, R. H. M., & Woerkum, C. V. ideas and innovations to farmers regarding (2006). Improving the the Agricultural Development Project. It is entrepreneurial competencies of also recommended that government should Dutch dairy farmers through the use subsidize the cost attached to extension and of study groups. Journal of advisory service delivery so that all farmers Agricultural Education and in the province would be able to afford this Extension, 12(1), 25-39. service from the Department of Agriculture. Bester, J., Matjuda, L. E., Rust, J. M., & Furthermore, it is recommended that better Fourie, H. J. (2003). The Nguni: A communication strategy between extension case study. Community-based officers and farmers be developed to allow Management of Animal Genetic and foster better interaction. Resources, 45-69. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-y3970e.pdf. References Black, A. W. (2000). Extension theory and Agholor, A. I. (2012). The quality of practice: A review. Australian extension education delivery among Journal of Experimental Agriculture, livestock farmers in Central Eastern 40(4), 493-502. Cape: A case study of Nkonkobe
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Coutts, J. A. (1994). Process, paper policy agriculture. Paper presented at the and practice: A case study of the InWEnt, IFPRI, NEPAD, and CTA introduction of a formal extension conference Successes in African policy in Queensland, Australia Agriculture. Pretoria, South Africa, 1987-1994. Coutts. December 1-3. Davis, K., & Sulaiman, R.V. (2014). The Ejembi, E. P., Omoregbee, F. E., & Ejembi, “new extensionist”: Roles and S. A. (2006). Farmers’ assessment of capacities to strengthen extension the training and visit extension and advisory services. Journal of system in central Nigeria: Evidence International Agricultural and from Barkin Ladi, Plateau Extension Education, 21(3): 6-18. State. Journal of Social doi:10.5191/jiaee.2014.21301 Science, 12(3), 207-212. Davis, K. (2016). How will extension Ethical Tea Partnership. (2014). Improving contribute to the sustainable the livelihood of smallholder development goals? A global farmers, Indonesia. Retrieved from strategy and operational plan. https://www.ethicalteapartnership.or Journal of International Agricultural g/wp-content/uploads/Case-Study and Extension Education, 23(1), 1-7. Improving-Smallholder-Livelihoods- doi:10.5191/jiaee.2016.23101 Indonesia.pdf. Department of Agriculture, (2005). Norms FAO. (2006). Livestock, a major threat to and standards for extension and environment: Rome: FAO. advisory services in agriculture. Gwala, L. (2013). Effect of agricultural Pretoria, South Africa: Directorate: extension services on beneficiaries of Scientific Research and the Nguni cattle project: The case of Development. Ncera and Kwezana villages, Department of Agriculture, (2008). Norms Eastern Cape Province (Doctoral and standards for extension and dissertation, University of Fort advisory services in agriculture. Hare). Pretoria, South Africa: Directorate: Gwala, L., Monde, N., & Muchenje, V. Scientific Research and (2016). Qualitative data analysis of Development. extension services for Nguni cattle Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and project beneficiaries in Nkonkobe Fisheries (2008/9-2010/11). The local municipality, South Africa. extension recovery plan: Assessment International Journal of and evaluation report. Directorate Development and Sustainability, Education, Training and Extension 5(11), 553-563. Services: Department of Agriculture, Hogeveen, H., Dykhuizen, A. A., & Sol, J. Forestry, and Fisheries. Pretoria: (1992). Short-and long-term effects South Africa. Retrieved from of a 2 year dairy herd health and http://www.nda.agric.za/doaDev/top management program. Preventive Menu/DoAProgrammes/smallholder Veterinary Medicine, 13(1), 53-58. %20evaluation/Assessment%20and Ijatuyi, E. J. (2016). Assessment of extension %20Evaluat%20Extension%20Final and advisory services on Nguni %20Report%20to%20DAFF.pdf. development project beneficiaries in Eicher, C. (2003). Flashback: Fifty years of the North-West Province. (Master's donor aid to African dissertation, North West University).
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Ijatuyi, E. J., Omotayo, A. O., & Mabe, L. Madukwe, M. C. (2006). Delivery of K. (2017). Effect of extension agricultural extension services to service(s) and socioeconomic farmers in developing countries: characteristics on the livelihood of issues for consideration. Centre for Nguni cattle development project Tropical Agriculture, CTA. beneficiaries in North West Wageningen: Netherlands. Province: A tobit-ols regression David, M. M., & Samuel, H. S. (2014). The approach. South African Journal of role of agriculture extension in the Agricultural Extension, 45(1), 64-77. 21 century: Reflections from Industrial Development Cooperation (IDC). Africa. International Journal of (2007). Rural communities benefiting Agricultural Extension, 2(1), 89-93. from Nguni cattle project. Retrieved Mapiye, C., Chimonyo, M., Muchenje, V., from Dzama, K., Marufu, M. C., & Raats, http://www.idc.co.za/access/includes J. G. (2007). Potential for value- /htmlnewsletter/cattle.html addition of Nguni cattle products in Israel, G. D., Harder, A., & Brodeur, C. W. the communal areas of South Africa: (2011). What is an Extension a review. African Journal of program? University of Florida: Agricultural Research, 2(10), 488- Gainesville. UF/IFAS. 495. doi:10.5897/AJAR Jiggins, J. R., Samanta, K., & Olawoye, J. E. Mbo’o-Tchouawou, M., & Colverson, K. E. (1997). Improving women farmers’ (2014). Increasing access to access to extension services. agricultural extension and advisory Improving Agricultural Extension a services: How effective are new Reference Manual, 73-80. approaches in reaching women Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning as farmers in rural areas? ILRI (aka the science of learning and ILCA and ILRAD). development. New Jersey: Mohammed, U., Olaleye, R. S., Umar, I. S., Englewood Cliffs Prentice Hall. Ndanitsa, M. A., & Jibrin, S. (2015). Lesoli, M. S. (2011). Characterization of Farmers Assessment of the Training communal rangeland degradation and Visit Extension System in Niger and evaluation of vegetation State: Evidence from Fadama Ii & Iii restoration techniques in the Eastern in Mokwa Local Government Area Cape, South Africa. (Master's of Niger State, Nigeria. International dissertation, University of Fort Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Hare). Research, 2(4), 111-119. McCole, D., Culbertson, M. J., Suvedi, M., doi:10.18488/journal.70/2015.2.4/70. & McNamara, P. E. (2014). 4.111.119 Addressing the challenges of Muchenje, V. (2015). Benefits of Fort Hare extension and advisory services in Nguni Cattle Project to be felt for Uganda: The Grameen Foundation’s generations to come. Development community knowledge worker Research Uptake in Sub-Saharan program. Journal of International Africa (DRUSSA). Agricultural and Extension Nambiro, E., Omiti, J., & Mugunieri, L. Education, 21(1), 6-18. (2006). Decentralization and access doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2014.20101 to agricultural extension services in Kenya. International Association of
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Agricultural Economists 2006 national systems. Washington DC: Annual Meeting (pp. 12-18). World Bank Publications. Retrieved from Ragasa, C., Berhane, G., Tadesse, F., & http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstrea Taffesse, A. S. (2013). Gender m/25246/1/pp060168.pdf differences in access to extension Ngomane, T. (2006). Research and services and agricultural extension processes and practices in productivity. The Journal of relation to smallholder agriculture in Agricultural Education and Africa: Present, past to present. Extension, 19(5), 437-468. doi: South African Journal of 10.1080/1389224X.2013.817343 Agricultural Extension, 35(2), 199- Rivera, W. M., Qamar, M. K. & Crowder, L. 220. V. (2001). Agricultural and Rural North-West Department of Agriculture, Extension Conservation and Environment, Worldwide: Options for institutional (2003). Overview of the beef reform in developing countries. production in the province. United Nations: Rome: FAO. Retrieved from SAnews: South African government news http://www.nwpg.gov.za/Agriculture agency, (2013). Nguni cattle farmers Ntshephe, L. (2013). Marketing information must aim for commercial success. needs of smallholder livestock Pretoria: South Africa. farmers in the Moretele area in the Sikwela, M. M. & Mushunje, A. (2013). The Bojanala Platinum District impact of farmer support Municipality of the North West programmes on market access of Province (Master’s dissertation, smallholder farmers in the eastern University of South Africa). Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, OECD, (2006). Organization for Economic South Africa. African Journal of Co-operation and Development. Agricultural Research, 8(21), 2502- OECD employment outlook 2006: 2511. doi: 10.5897/AJAR12.1623 Boosting jobs and incomes. Paris: Statistic South Africa, (2010). Mid-year France. population estimates. Pretoria: South Oladele, O. I., Koyoma, O., & Sakagami, J. Africa. I. (2004). Africa in search of World Bank, (2000). World development extension system: Experience from report 2000/2001: Attacking poverty. Nigeria. Journal of Food Agriculture Washington, D.C: World Bank. and Environment, 2, 276-280. Zwane, E. M. (2012). Does extension have a Pathak, K. M. L. (2014). Livestock role to play in rural development? development: How it contributes to South African Journal of smallholder farmers. Retrieved from Agricultural Extension, 40(1), 16-24. http://Foodtank.com/news/2014/03/ Picciotto, R., & Anderson, J. R. (1997). Reconsidering agricultural extension. The World Bank Research Observer, 12(2), 249-259. Purcell, D., & Anderson, J. R. (1997). Agricultural extension and research: Achievements and problems in
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25208
Determinants of Student Persistence in Completing BS Agriculture Degrees in the University of the Philippines
Ruth A. Ortega-Dela Cruz, PhD Maria Ana T. Quimbo, PhD University of the Philippines Los Baños
Abstract The study used descriptive research design to identify factors that explain persistence of BS Agriculture (BSA) students in the University of the Philippines Los Baños during their first year of college as they moved on to the next year level towards degree completion. In addition to self- administered questionnaire, Key Informant interviews were also conducted. Findings reveal that institution-related factor particularly the institution’s commitment to academic excellence constitutes most to the experiences of agriculture students. Analysis of Variance reveals a significant difference in the persistence of BS Agriculture students across year levels. The results of the study point out that, as per responses of the students as well as the faculty and administrators interviewed, the University has not gone far enough to ensure that BSA students are supported in an efficient manner. The University of the Philippines, being the National University has much opportunity to make positive changes in persistence of these special populations of agriculture students. Thus, it needs to take steps toward making more of a commitment to student success.
Keywords: agriculture education, degree completion, determinants, persistence, Philippines
Acknowledgment: This study is sponsored by the UPLB Basic Research Program of the Office of the Vice-Chancellor for Research and Extension, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
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Introduction country over the next few years and The agricultural sector plays a producing some of the renewable energy crucial role in the economic progress of the needed is quite attainable. We can do this Philippines despite the plan to make it an whilst continuing to care for the industrialized economy since year 2000. As environment and preserving our precious an agricultural country, the Filipinos cannot landscapes and wildlife. We can encourage ignore the importance of agriculture. more people to spend time and money Inasmuch as most of its citizens still live in enjoying and learning about the countryside rural areas and support themselves through and what it has to offer. But it will be a big agriculture. But sadly, agriculture is question on how to get them interested in becoming the least appealing career choice this field. We surely need the best people among young people nowadays. The managing our crops and our livestock to students want jobs that are urban in nature, achieve all this. We need fresh ideas from into information technology, arts and new generations of agricultural practitioners. science. In short, those that can land them in As what we have learned in the last few any office work. Truly they do not find months is an uncertain financial future. agricultural studies interesting. Besides, the need to cope with Agriculture education is just one of climate change, how to make certain that dozens of "undersubscribed" courses, or agriculture and its related industries attract those college programs that have low the best potential entrants out of a enrolment and graduation rates, as opposed decreasing pool of young people is more to "oversubscribed" courses such as nursing, serious problem that we need to address. business administration, and teacher How can we help this special population of education (CHED, 2016). Data from the students who find interest in the field of Commission on Higher Education (CHED) agriculture to pursue their chosen degree for school years 2001-2002 to 2013-2014 until completion? We will not succeed showed that courses on disciplines such as unless we put our best effort to explore the Agriculture and its related fields have best possible option to face up these consistently low enrolment figures. All challenges ahead of us now. consistently below 100,000 annually (CHED, 2015). Purpose and Objectives The Philippine government-hosted The purpose of this study is to Southeast Asian Regional Centre for unearth the determinants of student Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture persistence in completing their bachelor’s (SEARCA) confirmed that enrolment in degree in agriculture in a state university in agriculture and related courses has been the Philippines. It specifically determined declining by an average of 1.5 percent every the factors that explain persistence of BS year (Fernandez, 2015). For instance, the Agriculture students; identified the issues enrolment in agriculture courses at the connected to the persistence of BS University of Philippines Los Baños has Agriculture students; and analyzed the declined over the past 30 years. A decrease difference in persistence of BS Agriculture from 51% of the total student population in students across year levels. 1980 to only 4.7% in 2012 (Pedroza, 2015). How to attract the best young people Models of Student Persistence to this industry is one such challenge. In Student persistence has been the fact, increasing food production in this subject of academic investigation since
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1960s (Braxton, 2009). The following greater likelihood of retention. Tinto uses theories explain some of the factors that are the term integration to describe the extent to instrumental to student persistence: which students ‘fit’ into the institution’s Alexander Astin's input- community. As the integration increases it environment-outcomes model explains how strengthens the student’s commitment to various environmental factors influence the both their personal goals and to the student persistence that is whether their institution through which these goals may be academic aspiration increases or decreases achieved (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005 in under varying environmental conditions Reisinger, 2016). Conversely, negative (Astin 1991, in Ortega-Dela Cruz, 2015- interactions and experiences inhibit 2016). Input refers to student attributes integration and may prevent students from during the time of entering college. These becoming members of the academic or input characteristics further explain how social community. students’ attributes and backgrounds contribute to their ability to persist. Conceptual Framework Environment refers to institutional The following framework, based on interventions, including educational the work of Astin (1991), and Tinto (1993; programs and student scholastic experiences 2006-2007), provides an all-inclusive model (Astin, 1991 in Murray, 2006). for studying student persistence. Environmental variables that might Figure 1 shows the determinants of influence student success include: student persistence which comprise three institutional characteristics, type and quality categories: student-related factors, of students' peer group, faculty traits, the institution-related factors, and classroom- entire curriculum including formal and related factors. These student-related factors hidden curriculum, availability of financial including demographic characteristics, aid services, major field of choice, academic performance, as well as personal, residence, and student involvement; academic and career disposition determine whereas, outcomes are the student's students’ succeeding experiences upon characteristics after exposure to the entering the college through their environment, which in this study is referring interactions with the institution-related and to the student persistence in completing their classroom-related factors. The institution- BS Agriculture degree. related factors include the type (i.e., the Vincent Tinto's theory of student level of degree accreditation of the State departure asserts that integration into formal University as determined by the (academic performance) and informal Commission on Higher Education such as (faculty/staff interactions) academic systems Level IV) and processes being implemented and into formal (extracurricular activities) by the institution as well as academic and and informal (peer-group interactions) social co-curricular procedures. Whereas, the systems are keys to student persistence. classroom-related factors add up to the Tinto argues that the institution shares this individual student experience in relation to responsibility for helping students achieve the quality of instruction and curriculum academic and social integration (Tinto, 1993 they receive from their educational in Tinto 2006-2007). Therefore, positive institution. All of these interplay in the encounters in both formal and informal persistence of agriculture students towards academic and social settings lead to a degree completion.
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Persistence
Student- Institution- Classroom- Related Related Related Factors Factors Factors
Demographic Institutional Faculty traits Characteristics Type Curricular
Academic Institutional Experiences Performance Processes
Personal, Academic & Academic & Co-curricular Career Procedures Disposition
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the determinants of student persistence
Methodology during their first year of college as they moved on to second year, third year and Research Design fourth year by the selected demographic This study used the descriptive characteristics including age, sex, enrolment research design to address determinants that status and major. explain why agriculture students persist in pursuing their Bachelor of Science in Sampling Procedures Agriculture course towards degree The study employed the stratified completion. It utilized interviews and survey random sampling with proportional questionnaire to gather data regarding allocation of the respondents. The student students’ demographic characteristics and respondents from second year to fourth year their perceptions on the factors that relate to level represent 47.7 percent of the total their persistence. research population. This was done to give opportunity for the population considered in Study Participants the study to be selected randomly. The sample consisting of the BS Table 1 shows the proportional Agriculture students for the second semester distribution of 210 student respondents with of the academic year 2014-2015 were a total research population of 441 students randomly selected. This study seeks to from second year to fourth year level. identify determinants of student persistence
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Table 1 Distribution of Research Participants
Year Level Population of BS Respondents of the Study Agriculture
2nd 121 58 3rd 147 70 4th 173 82 Total 441 210 Source: Office of the Registrar, UPLB 2nd Semester, AY 2014-2015 (Excluding freshmen and transferees)
Data Gathering Instrument and also conducted. The interviews were based Procedure on the availability of the identified The study utilized perception survey respondents. The study include 25 program questionnaire to measure the student graduates, selected faculty members and persistence. In particular, persistence refers administrators including the course adviser, to the student aspiration to complete a four- college secretary, institute directors, dean, as year bachelor degree in agriculture. well as the office of student affairs director. Persistence factors are composed of fifteen- The interviews ask for their perspectives on item (15) student-related, seventeen- item the factors that support and hinder (17) institution-related, and eighteen-item persistence of students in completing BSA (18) classroom-related factors, a total of 50 degree. perception statements in all. These indicators were all based on the theories, Data Analysis models particularly of Astin and Tinto and The study used the Statistical other pertinent literatures that explain why Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) student persist in college. The instrument software version 16 in analysing the data. was validated by experts and was pilot This study employed descriptive statistics tested to 10 BS Agriculture students who (i.e., frequencies) to analyse the items were not part of the respondents. related to personal, academic and career Aside from the student’s self- disposition and also the perceptions of administered questionnaire, which received student-respondents regarding institutional a 100 per cent response rate, a survey was processes, academic and co-curricular also administered to the faculty, research procedures, faculty traits and curricular and extension professional staff (REPS) and experiences. The study also used the administrative staff. A total of 105 members analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyse of the academe and administration answered the differences in persistence of BS the questionnaire. The sample was based on Agriculture students across year levels. the number of respondents who actually Content analysis was done to analyse returned the questionnaire to the researcher. qualitative data gathered from the KI The survey got about 95 per cent response interviews. rate. Key informant interviews using structured open-ended questionnaires were
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Results and Discussion age. Three (3) students or 1.4 percent are This section presents the detailed specializing on Agricultural Systems, 42 or discussion of results. Quantified data were 20 percent on Agronomy, 57 or 27 percent tabulated, analysed and interpreted. For on Animal Science, 24 or 11.4 percent on better understanding, the data are presented Crop Protection and Plant Pathology, 20 or in tabular form and generalizations were 10 percent on Entomology, 32 or 15 percent developed to determine the factors that on Horticulture and another 27 students or explain persistence of BS Agriculture 13 percent on Soil Science. Only 5 students students towards degree completion. or 2 percent belong to other specialization Table 2 shows the demographic including Agricultural Extension and Weed characteristics of the student respondents in Science. In terms of college academic terms of age, sex, major, enrolment status, performance, 127 students or about 60 and self-assessment of academic percent of the respondents’ grade point performance in terms of grade point average fall on the grade range between average. There are 210 student-respondents 2.01-2.49. This means that most agriculture in all; 96 or 46 percent are male and 114 or students have good perception of their 54 percent are female. Majority of these full- academic performance. time students are between 18 to 20 years of
Table 2 Demographic Characteristics of BS Agriculture Students Age Year Level All 2nd 3rd 4th Levels 17 6 0 0 6 18 41 7 0 48 19 10 43 10 63 20 0 15 39 54 21 1 2 19 22 22 0 2 7 9 23 0 1 3 4 24 > 0 0 4 4 n 58 70 82 210 Sex M F M F M F M F 29 29 34 36 33 49 96 114 n 58 70 82 210 Major Agricultural Systems 0 2 1 3 Agronomy 5 21 16 42 Animal Science 16 15 26 57 Crop Protection and 5 10 9 24 Plant Pathology Entomology 4 9 7 20 Horticulture 16 6 10 32 Soil Science 12 6 9 27 Others 0 1 4 5 n 58 70 82 210
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Enrolment Status Full-Time 58 68 77 203 Part-Time 0 2 5 7 n 58 70 82 210 Academic Performance Grade Range 1.00-1.49 1 1 2 4 1.50-2.00 21 8 18 47 2.01-2.49 28 52 47 127 2.50-3.00 8 9 15 32 n 58 70 82 210
Table 3 presents the determinants of course advisers (C41) really help them to student persistence in completing BS perform the fundamental skills and acquire Agriculture degree in the University of the knowledge (C49). Indeed, agriculture Philippines. These persistence factors are students experience intellectual growth composed of fifteen-item (15) student- inside the classroom (C50). This supports related, seventeen- item (17) institution- findings from various studies that put related, and eighteen-item (18) classroom- emphasis on the role of student satisfaction related factors, a total of 50 perception and program relevance as a facilitator of statements in all. The results were presented persistence. Persistent students voice based on the order of overall frequencies satisfaction with the quality of the program, from the highest to lowest value/s to interactions with students and peers, the facilitate analysis and interpretation. relevancy of the course to individual needs, Findings reveal that institution- and with the learning environment itself related factor regarding institutional (Ivankova and Stick, 2007; Levy, 2007, processes, as well as academic and co- Müller, 2008, Park and Choi, 2009). Indeed curricular procedures got the highest overall life experience was identified as the frequency value among the student- most agreed motivator of agriculture respondents. In particular, the institution’s students (Bunch, et al, 2015). commitment to academic excellence (I16) Factors related to student personal, amounts most to the experiences of academic and career disposition are notable agriculture students. Their positive attitude to agriculture students. They are quite towards academic success is supported by optimistic that they would be successful some of the classroom-related factors, which (S14) in their chosen school (S6). Their according to the agriculture students and supportive family (S3) motivates them to do even program graduates are really helpful in their best to be able to complete their degree pursuing their degree. They affirmed how (S11). Though majority of them are the contents of their course are valuable and experiencing financial constraints and are sufficient for the requirements for entrance living in urban areas. Yet they never think of into the profession such as licensing or it as something that will hinder their desire certificate (C42). Having knowledgeable to complete their chosen degree.
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Table 3 Determinants of Student Persistence Statements 2nd 3rd 4th Overall ITEM# Persistence Factors Frequencies This campus has a commitment to academic I16 excellence. 41 47 62 150 S11 I am trying my best to be able to complete this degree. 35 46 60 141 I have a family who are supportive of my educational S3 goals. 38 43 57 138 S6 I am studying in the school of my choice. 36 46 56 138 S14 I think I would be successful. 34 45 49 128 The contents of the course within my major are valuable and sufficient for the requirements for entrance into the profession such as licensing or C42 certificate. 20 41 40 101 C50 I am able to experience intellectual growth here. 28 40 32 100 Faculty, particularly course advisers are knowledgeable about the program requirements for registration and C41 graduation. 21 40 38 99 The course helps me to perform the fundamental skills C49 and acquire knowledge. 21 36 34 91 I am aware that applicable jobs are present in my S12 community. 29 21 33 83 S15 I want this job for it does pay enough. 29 20 32 81 The course demonstrates the ability to anticipate and C48 adapt to changes in society and technology. 23 39 19 81 I am physically fit for the kind of job this education S5 demands. 13 24 38 75 This campus emphasizes the teaching of I25 undergraduates and undergraduate learning. 19 25 26 70 C33 Faculty have mastery of the course content. 22 12 36 70 C44 The contents of the course are applicable to the work. 22 18 29 69 S13 I am knowledgeable about career opportunities. 22 14 27 63 This campus makes every student feel welcome at all I17 times. 18 13 28 59 The contents of the course keep abreast with the latest C43 information from related field. 18 11 29 58 This campus provides opportunities for students to establish social networks (e.g. clubs, sporting activities, I29 etc.). 16 9 32 57 Faculty are approachable and available for academic C39 discussions and advising. 17 12 28 57 C40 Faculty members treat students with respect. 20 15 19 54 S7 I am taking the right courses. 17 14 22 53
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This campus has honors programs available for I32 academically advanced students. 23 10 20 53 The objectives of the course comply with the purpose for which they are intended/develop self-reliance and C45 variability in entrepreneurship. 17 13 19 49
When asked to talk about the motivation of pursuing a dream according to qualities of successful BS Agriculture Ivankova and Stick (2007) is often coupled students, interviewees cited some of the with personal challenge, an appreciation of basic skills that help agriculture students learning, and personal responsibility. succeed in this course. These include Truly, motivational orientations can planning, analytical and critical thinking influence college student ability and desire skills that will help them deal with the to stay in college. Using Deci and Ryan’s toughest situations; gather new information theory of motivational orientations, Lin and and formulate a strategic plan. For they McKeachie (1999 in Demetriou and won’t be able to solve every organic farm Schmitz-Sciborski, 2011) found that problem with just a textbook, for instance. students with a balance of both extrinsic and As explained by the Goal Setting Theory intrinsic motivation tend to perform best in (Locke, 1960s) performance is influenced by college-level coursework. In their study of the individual’s commitment to the goal college students in multiple academic (degree completion). Belief that they can domains, students who combined high accomplish the goal, and possessing the intrinsic motivation with a medium-level of requisite skills to complete the task at hand extrinsic motivation were most likely to (Demetriou and Schmitz-Sciborski, 2011). achieve academically. Allen (1999 in But along with these skills are the Demetriou and Schmitz-Sciborski, 2011) important traits of a successful student. examined whether a strong desire for Interviewers pointed out the intrinsic achievement influences student persistence motivation that drives students to succeed in in college. Allen found that background their academic endeavour. Students with variables including precollege determination, sense of purpose and have characteristics and desire to finish college the passion for what they do, in particular, influenced persistence. the love for manual labour and for the Based on the interviews, graduates of outdoors. Interviewees believe that if a the BSA program confirmed how their student loses all these three crucial family served as source of inspiration in attributes, finishing his or her degree will completing their degree despite that some become meaningless and will be “just a did not prefer agriculture education in the chore”. A person with determination can first place. They acknowledge their parents weather any challenge that is set before with inculcating in them the worth of a him/her in reaching his/her goal. The sense college education in a premier university. of purpose comes in when a student finds This supports findings from Barbatis (2010) meaning in his/her work. That is what s/he is and Ortega-Dela Cruz (2015) who have doing has a deeper purpose beyond mere discussed the influence of the study academics. Their passion for what they do participants’ cultural self-identification, will enable them to see a bigger goal in spite particularly the emphasis their families of the myriad distractions. This intrinsic placed on the importance of an education.
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Parents who are morally supportive; despite stressed out incomplete or ineffective not always able to financially support the communication as one of the barriers to students’ academic pursuits were cited as a persistence. Another study confirmed how major factor in encouraging persistence lack of information is perceived as the (Arana et al, 2011). greatest barriers among freshman agriculture While an institution-related factor students (Danjean, Bunch, Blackburn, got the highest frequency value among other 2015). For instance, communication persistence factors, but, it brought in the so- problems may stem from late, inadequate, or called demotivators or persistence barriers to lack of notification of changes to the most of the student-respondents. Students program, slow or contradictory feedback highlighted their experiences with the from faculty, and an inability to contact staff institutional procedures for regularly or support services. communicating student satisfaction and Result of Analysis of Variance in important data (I21), for internal and external Table 4 reveals a significant difference in evaluations of the student life programs and the persistence of BS Agriculture students services (I22), for students’ satisfaction across year levels (F = 4.134, p< .05). This survey (I24), as well as for ease of student implies that factors that explain why registration processes (I20) as the least students persist are quite distinct to their among persistence factors that they year level. Therefore, second year students experience in the campus. These are some of may or may not experience the same factors the issues which were also pointed out by that support their persistence as third year or the program graduates during their stay in fourth year students have. In particular the university. Ten (10) out of 25 graduates student perception rating varies in relation to who were interviewed even specified the their personal, academic and career need for gathering the students’ feedback disposition, their experiences towards concerning institutional issues on faculty traits, some institutional processes, registration processes and other services. as well as academic and co-curricular This substantiates findings from Aragon and procedures. Johnson (2008) and Bunn (2004) who
Table 4 Analysis of Difference in Student Persistence Across Year Levels Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Persistence Between .624 2 .312 4.134 .017 Groups Within Groups 15.614 207 .075 Total 16.238 209
Conclusions interviewed, the university similar to other The results of this study point out State Universities in the Philippines, such as that, as per responses of the students as well Cavite State University, Laguna State as the faculty and administrators Polytechnic University and Southern Luzon
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State University (Ortega-Dela Cruz, 2015) realized without well-trained and equipped has not gone far enough to ensure that BS agriculture graduates. Thus, it needs to take Agriculture students are supported in an concrete steps toward making more of a efficient manner. Efficiency speaks about commitment to student success. the need to address students’ major concern on registration processes and other services. References There has to be a way of gathering student’s Aragon, S. R., & Johnson, E. S. (2008). feedback or their satisfaction on institutions’ Factors influencing completion and educational and learning resources, noncompletion of community especially on the effectiveness of college online courses. The implementing new online platform for American Journal of Distance communication related to all institutional Education, 22(3), 146-158. procedures. Arana, R., Castañeda-Sound, C. L., Although factors crucial to student Blanchard, S., & Aguilar, T. E. persistence have been satisfied, nonetheless, (2011). Indicators of persistence for these specific concerns that students raised Hispanic undergraduate clearly indicate the areas that require prompt achievement: Toward an ecological action and aspects of the institution that model. Journal of Hispanic Higher need to be strengthened. Therefore, the Education, 10(3), 237-251. junior and senior university officials need to https://doi.org/10.1177/15381927114 become more responsive to them as 05058 Agriculture serves as the university’s major Barbatis, P. (2010). Underprepared, thrust. ethnically diverse community Students who persist beyond their college students: Factors sophomore years are often highly motivated contributing to persistence. Journal individuals with the ability to adapt to the of Developmental Education, 33(3), challenging system of the degree program. 14. The determinants that were presented in this Braxton, J. M. (2009). Catalysts and study are just few among myriad explicit constraints to college student and implicit factors that in one way or persistence: Introduction to a special another have positive or negative effects on iossue of the Journal of College the student persistence in completing their Student Retention: Research, Theory degree. For agriculture students, all possible and Practice. Journal of College effort should be made to support those who Student Retention: Research, Theory have found the right choice in an agriculture & Practice, 11(1), 1-5. field. Bunch, J.C., Blackburn, J. J., DanJean, S., The University of the Philippines, Stair, K. E., & Blanchard, L. D. being the National University has much (2015). Examining Louisiana State opportunity to make positive changes in the University College of Agriculture persistence of these exceptional groups of students’ perceived motivators and agriculture students. Like any other barriers to participation in agricultural colleges and universities around international experiences. Journal of the world, its goal towards progressive and International Agricultural and sustainable agricultural development for the Extension Education, 22(3). country is something that needs to be taken doi:10.5191/jiaee.2015.22305 seriously. For this goal will never be
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Bunn, J. (2004). Student persistence in a LIS Müller, T. (2008). Persistence of women in distance education program. online degree-completion programs. Australian Academic Research International Review of Research in Libraries, 35(3), 253-270. Open and Distance Learning, 9(2), Commission on Higher Education. (2016). 1-18. Retrieved from Murray, M. C. (2006). Reframing http://www.ched.gov.ph/central/page responsibility for academic success: /ched-statistics A causal model measuring the Danjean, S., Bunch, J. C., & Blackburn, J. impact of student attributes in the (2015). Examining the motivations first year of college (Doctoral and barriers influencing the decisions dissertation, University of of Louisiana State University Maryland). Retrieved from College of Agriculture freshmen to https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/h participate in international andle/1903/4051/umi-umd- experiences. Journal of International 3761.pdf?sequence=1 Agricultural and Extension Cruz, R. A. O. D. (2016). Persistence of BS Education, 22(1), 49-62. agro-fisheries students towards doi:10.5191/jiaee.2015.22305 degree completion. American Demetriou, C. & Schmitz-Sciborski, A. Scientific Research Journal for (2011). Integration, motivation, Engineering, Technology, and strengths and optimism: Retention Sciences (ASRJETS), 15(1), 227-239. theories past, present and future. In Ortega-Dela Cruz, R. A. (2015). Persistence R. Hayes (Ed.), Proceedings of the and retention towards degree 7th National Symposium on Student completion of BS agriculture Retention, 2011, Charleston. (pp. students in selected State 300-312). Norman, OK: The Universities in Region IV-A, University of Oklahoma. Philippines. African Journal of Fernandez, R. (2015). Declining agriculture Agricultural Research, 10(13), 1543- enrolment poses threat to food 1556. security. Retrieved from Park, J. H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors http://www.philstar.com/agriculture/ influencing adult learners' decision 2015/09/06/1496506/declining- to drop out or persist in online agriculture-enrollment-poses-threat- learning. Educational Technology & food- Society, 12(4), 207-217. security#sthash.h00w4VJO.dpuf Pedroza, S.J. (2015). IYFF marks a ‘green Ivankova, N. V., & Stick, S. L. (2007). push’ to attract youth into Collegiality and community-building agriculture. Retrieved from as a means for sustaining student http://www.xu.edu.ph/xavier- persistence in the computer-mediated news/24-2014-2015/1338-iyff- asynchronous learning environment. marks-a-green-push-to-attract-youth- Online Journal of Distance Learning into-agriculture Administration, 8(3). Reisinger, S. H. (2016). Using a revised Levy, Y. (2007).Comparing dropouts and theory of student departure to persistence in e-learning courses. understand student athlete Computers and Education, 48, 185- persistence (Doctoral dissertation, 204. The University of Iowa).
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Tinto, V. (2006-2007). Research and practice of student retention: What next? Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 8(1), 1-19.
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25209
Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Change: Employing the Livelihood Vulnerability Index in Bluefields, Jamaica
Kevin Lee Fath Bureau for Food Security Washington, DC
Taniya Jayani Koswatta Gary Wingenbach Texas A&M University
Abstract The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine agricultural livelihood vulnerability to climate change in Bluefields, Westmoreland, Jamaica based on the Livelihoods Vulnerability Index (LVI). Random sampling was used to select participants. Personal interviews were conducted with farmers using an instrument consisting of LVI components representing livelihood strategies, natural and physical assets, socio-demographic profile, social networks, water issues, food issues, natural disasters, and climate variability. LVI data were aggregated using an indexing approach to create scores for comparison across vulnerability components. The results showed farmers in Bluefields had the most amount of vulnerability in social networks and water issues. Low numbers of farmers owned their land, had contact with extension services, or used irrigation. Most farmers reported having problems with access to seeds and planting material, depended on their farms for food, and experienced frequent crop failure. Development organizations and local change agents should target the areas of greatest vulnerability illuminated by this study. Vulnerability and its contributing factors of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, should be reassessed with the LVI and other methods to monitor changes in Bluefields over time. Implications for extension educators to assist subsistence farmers in understanding better the effects of climate change are noted.
Keywords: Agricultural livelihood vulnerabilities; climate change; Jamaica
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Introduction capacity components of vulnerability such Adaptation is a response meant to as coping and adaptation strategies of reduce vulnerability (Smit & Wandel, 2006). farmers in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. Campbell Vulnerability is defined as “the degree to et al. (2011) paraphrased the coping which a system or unit (such as a human strategies identified as planting methods, group or place) is likely to experience harm moisture-loss reduction, during-drought due to exposure to perturbations or stresses” mitigation, and recovery. Farmers who (Kasperson, Kasperson, Turner, Hsieh, & employed these coping strategies were Schiller, 2005, p. 249). This definition considered more resilient. However, coping encompasses the internal and external strategies serve a specific population’s components of vulnerability expressed by response to their problems, whereas adaptive the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate capacity creates strategies and policies with Change (IPCC) and represented elsewhere the potential to address future climate in the literature (Brooks, 2003; Chambers, changes (Ebi et al., 2006). 1989; Turner et al., 2003). The IPCC Several studies assessed the definition of vulnerability includes the vulnerability of systems to climate change internal component adaptive capacity as (Füssel & Klein, 2006; McCarthy et al., well as external components exposure and 2001). These studies are important because sensitivity (McCarthy, Canziani, Leary, vulnerability must be understood before Dokken, & White, 2001). Climate change planned adaptation is undertaken (Smit & vulnerability assessments recently Wandel, 2006). Turner et al. (2003) offered incorporated these IPCC vulnerability a comprehensive framework that presented components (Hahn, Riederer, & Foster, vulnerability as a function of many human 2009; Shah, Dulal, Johnson, & Baptiste, and environmental factors in a complex 2013). system of different processes and scales. The ability of persons, regions, or Given this complexity, Smit and Wandel systems to adjust to potential disturbances, developed a participatory assessment capitalize on opportunities, or respond to approach as a mode for identifying effects of climate change defines adaptive functional adaptation strategies at the capacity (Ebi, Kovats, & Menne, 2006). community level. With this approach, Exposure and sensitivity are viewed as researchers used qualitative techniques to interrelated factors of vulnerability (Reid, identify risks, how they were managed, and Smit, Caldwell, & Belliveau, 2007; Smit & what limited participants’ abilities to choose. Wandel, 2006). Smit and Wandel posed Furthermore, effective solutions for adapting exposure and sensitivity as the “conditions to climate change must be community-based or risks a community may be facing” (p. (Beckford, Barker, & Bailey, 2007). 289). Kasperson et al. (2005) defined Another approach, implemented by Hahn et exposure as “the contact between a system al. (2009), quantified components of and a perturbation or stress” (p. 253). exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity Sensitivity is explained as “the extent to using a Livelihoods Vulnerability Index which a system or its components is likely to (LVI). Hahn et al. posited that generating experience harm, and the magnitude of that more primary vulnerability data at the harm, due to exposure to perturbations or community-level was beneficial for stresses” (Kasperson et al., 2005, p. 253). policymakers and climate change adaptation Studies by Campbell et al. (2011) research. Community level data helps and Gamble et al. (2010) explained adaptive monitor vulnerability in data-scarce regions
116 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 by introducing scenarios into the LVI model framework with the exception of food for baseline comparison. It can be used to imports. According to Campbell (personal assess program resources for assistance communication, June 3, 2014), food imports and/or evaluate potential program/policy were a vulnerability factor in St. Elizabeth, effectiveness (Hahn et al., 2009). Jamaica because farmers were largely This study employed the quantitative engaged in commercial farming. Primarily LVI approach, as adapted by Hahn et al. engaged in subsistence agriculture, farmers (2009). Many authors (Campbell, 2014; in Bluefields had minimal market Can, Tu, & Hoanh, 2013; Etwire, Al- participation where competition with Hassan, Kuwornu, & Osei-Owusu, 2013; imported food existed. Panthi et al., 2016; Shah et al., 2013) have In the LVI-IPCC framework, the adapted the LVI approach to assess primary components natural disasters and vulnerability in limited resource settings. climate variability contributed to exposure, The LVI is a pragmatic approach to monitor food issues and water issues contributed to vulnerability in data-scarce regions and sensitivity, and socio-demographic profile, provide baselines for comparison between livelihood strategies, natural and physical communities and changes over time (Hahn assets, and social networks contributed to et al., 2009). The LVI approach “uses adaptive capacity (Campbell, 2014). The multiple indicators to assess exposure to theoretical framework applied by the LVI natural disasters and climate variability, approach in this study is shown in Figure 1. social and economic characteristics of In a collaborative effort between households that affect their adaptive researchers at CARE-Mozambique and capacity, and current health, food, and water Emory University, the LVI framework was resource characteristics that determine their used to compare impacts of climate change sensitivity to climate change impacts” (Hahn on two districts in Mozambique (Hahn et al., et al., 2009, p. 75). The primary components 2009). The Campbell (2014) study also in the original LVI were (a) socio- employed the LVI framework in four demographic profile, (b) livelihood communities in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. St. strategies, (c) health, (d) social networks, (e) Elizabeth is adjacent to Westmoreland food, (f) water, and (g) natural disasters and parish, where the current study was climate variability (Hahn et al., 2009). Hahn conducted. et al. (2009) improved the LVI by Hahn et al. (2009) conceded determining which secondary components difficulty in establishing validity with an contributed to IPCC’s identified components indexing approach and varied indicators. of climate change vulnerability: exposure, Conversely, Vincent (2007) argued that sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. regardless of uncertainty in measuring In Campbell’s (2014) LVI study, vulnerability, empirical assessment is a food imports and natural and physical assets necessity for informed policymaking. The were added as additional components while LVI framework approach is one such form health factors were not assessed. The current of empirical assessment (Vincent, 2007). study was modeled after Campbell’s LVI
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LVI-IPCC Theoretical Framework
Socio-demographic Secondary Profile Components
Secondary Livelihood Strategies Components Adaptive Capacity Natural & Physical Secondary Assets Components
Secondary Social Networks Components
Natural Disasters & Secondary Exposure Climate Variability Components Vulnerability Secondary Water Issues Components Sensitivity Secondary Food Issues Components
Figure 1. The LVI-IPCC Theoretical Framework depicts how LVI secondary components (far right) relate to primary components (second from right) that determine scores for LVI-IPCC contributing factors (second from left), which make up the overall LVI-IPCC Vulnerability (left) for the study area.
Purpose asked, and increase the response rate (Ary et The study’s purpose was to examine al., 2010). Quantitative data were needed to farmer vulnerability to climate change in calculate the LVI and statistically measure Bluefields, Westmoreland, Jamaica based on relationships between variables. the LVI (Hahn et al., 2009). The research A random sample of 52 farmers was objectives were to drawn from the population (N = 112; 1. Assess factors affecting farmers in the sub-districts of Belmont, livelihood vulnerability to Bluefields, Mount Airy, Mount Edgecombe, climate; and, Robins River, and Shafston from Bluefields 2. Determine farmers’ levels of communities) to achieve a 95% confidence adaptive capacity, exposure, and interval at 10% margin of error (Dillman, sensitivity to climate change. 2007). Twelve persons were either unreachable or declined to participate, Methods producing a response rate of 77%. The This study used a quantitative design sample (n = 52) was identified using a list of with a questionnaire administered through registered producers from the Ministry of personal interview (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, Agriculture (Rural Agricultural & Razavieh, 2010). Personal administration Development Authority [RADA], 2013), of the questionnaire was an important design and with input from local farmers (i.e., feature because it allowed the researcher to snowball sampling method). Random observe respondents and surroundings, sampling techniques (Ary et al., 2010) of the control the order in which questions were master list were used to derive the sample.
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Indicators used in the LVI study, district (d) should be considered as questionnaire were predominantly theory- representing Bluefields as a whole. driven (Vincent, 2007), with the exception Variables represented as percentages had a of data-driven meteorological information, minimum value of zero and maximum value such as historical rainfall and temperature. of 100. For indicators such as the average Most questions were worded to elicit crop diversity index, a higher crude score categorical responses, including indicated less vulnerability. In these cases, Male/Female, Yes/No, or indicating a range an inverse value was calculated. of responses (e.g., 1…4). Open-ended After all secondary components were questions (i.e., types of crops grown) standardized, each were averaged with the allowed participants to list one or multiple following equation to determine the value of items. The LVI for this study employed a each primary component: balanced weighted average method (Sullivan, Meigh, & Fediw, 2002). The LVI ∑ index M = consisted of seven primary components and n 34 secondary components (Table 2). Primary and secondary components were In this equation, Md represented one of adopted from the Hahn et al. (2009) and seven primary components for the district d Campbell (2014) studies. According to the (Socio-demographic profile [SDP], Organisation for Economic Co-operation Livelihood strategies [LS], Social networks and Development (OECD, 2015) nearly 900 [SN], Water issues [W], Food issues [F], thousand Jamaicans live abroad, and Natural disasters and climate variability remittances consist of about 15% of GDP [NDCV], or Natural and physical assets (OECD, 2015). Therefore, an additional [NPA]). Secondary components were secondary component (i.e., remittances) was represented by the variable ����� , added to the social network portion of this indexed by i, which made up each of the study. listed primary components, and n was the All secondary components number of secondary components in each contributed to the overall LVI equally (Hahn primary component (Hahn et al., 2009). et al., 2009). Each secondary component After values for each of the seven was assessed on a different scale; therefore, primary components for a district were it was necessary to standardize each as an computed, they were averaged with the index (Hahn et al., 2009). The study adapted following equation to determine the district- the standardized formula from Hahn et al. level (Bluefields) LVI: (2009) without any modification. For this
[ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] LVI =
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The LVId, equals the weighted most powerful estimators of reliability, as average of the seven primary components deduced by Woodhouse and Jackson (1977), for Bluefields. The weights of primary when considering the total score on a test comprising non-homogeneous items (i.e., components, � , were determined by the number of secondary components that made dichotomous choices such as yes/no). GLB up each primary component (Hahn et al., was used to derive reliability scores for 2009). The weights were included to ensure scales measuring adaptive capacity (0.83), that all secondary components contributed exposure (0.88), and sensitivity (0.81). equally to the overall LVI (Sullivan et al., It is important to note the average 2002). To compute the LVI-IPCC score, the receive:give ratio (i.e., financial assistance primary components were categorized into to family or friends), as used by Hahn et al. the vulnerability contributing factors (2009), was modified in the current study. (exposure, sensitivity, or adaptive capacity) For cultural reasons, the researcher did not in accordance with the LVI-IPCC ask respondents about receiving or giving framework (Figure 1). The final composite financial assistance to friends or family. The LVI-IPCC score for each contributing factor researcher only asked if the respondent was calculated using the formula (Hahn et thought that he or she could receive or give al., 2009): financial assistance, rather than if they had ∑ w M done so in the past month. The average CF = ∑ w receive:give assistance was determined with scores of 0.00 to those who thought they
could both give and receive financial where CF represents one of the IPCC- d assistance to friends or family in defined contributing factors to vulnerability emergencies. A score of 0.33 was attributed for district d (Bluefields). M represented di to those who thought they could receive the primary components for the district d financial assistance, but not give. Those who indexed by i, the weight of each major thought they could not receive, but could component was w , and n was the number give financial assistance were scored 0.67. of primary components that constituted each Those who thought they could neither give contributing factor. After each contributing nor receive financial assistance in factor (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive emergencies received a vulnerability score capacity) score was calculated, it was of 1.00. combined using this equation: Unlike the Campbell (2014) study, the scope of this study precluded the LVI-IPCCd = (ed - ad) * sd researcher from conducting focus groups to assess the relevance of LVI factors because in which LVI-IPCCd was the LVI for Bluefields’ farmers were preoccupied with Bluefields, and within the IPCC framework, subsistence farming tasks during the spring e represented the score for exposure, α was of 2014. However, the researcher lived in the score for adaptive capacity, and s was Bluefields for an extended time (~20 the score for sensitivity. Before calculating months) before collecting data. This ad, the standardized scores for adaptive extended time allowed the researcher to gain capacity were inversed using (1 – n). The insights necessary to observe and understand scale for the LVI-IPCC is -1.0 to 1.0 (Hahn conditions affecting the population of et al., 2009). interest (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Sijtsma (2009) found the Greatest Guest, & Namey, 2005). Lower Bound (GLB) method was one of the
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The instrument was administered Results during May of 2014 by the researcher, who Respondents were predominantly was familiar to many Bluefields’ farmers male (80%) and averaged 52 years of age. before the data collection period. This Most (67.5%) lived in households of four or familiarity encouraged farmers to be less and had an average of 28.8 years of comfortable and provide more forthright farming experience (Table 1). Most (47.5%) answers (Rogers, 2003). The LVI survey viewed their income as below the questionnaire was administered via personal community average, while 31.5% interview. Prior to interviews, an considered their income to be average and information sheet detailing research 21% above average. Seventy percent farmed participants’ rights was read to respondents, less than 2.5 acres. Fifty percent reported signed by interviewees, and given to having access to farm credit while 35% said participants to keep. After receiving a they had no access and 15% were unsure. It participant’s verbal consent, a structured is unknown how many respondents have questionnaire was used to collect data. used credit in the past or would take out a Interviews lasted 30 to 45 minutes. loan if available. One-half of the Languages used during interviews included respondents reported zero contacts with English, Jamaican Patois, or a mixture of extension services, while others had contacts these languages. No personally identifiable less than annually (30%), annually (10%), information was collected to ensure privacy and multiple times annually (10%). The and confidentiality for participants. average distance to a permanent market was Descriptive statistics including frequencies, 4.99 miles. means, percentages, and standard deviations were used to analyze and report data.
Table 1 Demographic Profile (n = 40) of Study Participants in Bluefields, Jamaica Variable Category fa % Head of Household Gender Male 32 80.0 Female 8 20.0 Farmer Age ≤ 34 2 5.0 35-44 8 20.0 45-54 13 32.5 55+ 17 42.5 Household Size 4 or less 27 67.5 5 or more 13 32.5 Education Level None 2 5.0 All-age (1-9) 21 52.5 Secondary (10-12) 12 30.0 Tertiary (13+) 5 12.5
The first objective was to assess indexed results for primary and secondary factors affecting farmers’ vulnerability to LVI components provided insights into climate change in Bluefields, Jamaica. The Bluefields’ vulnerability context. Quartiles
121 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 were determined for secondary component = 0.66. Table 2 shows indexed scores for index scores (excluding temperature and contributing secondary components. rainfall data): Q1 = 0.32; Q2 = 0.48; and Q3
Table 2 LVI Scores for Agricultural Livelihoods in Bluefields, Jamaica Primary Index Component Secondary Component Scorea Socio- % household heads with less than 10 years of education .58 demographic Dependency ratio .54 Profile % households with more than four members .33 % households in which no member has off-farm employment .31 % female-headed households .20
Livelihood % households lacking access to assistance from outside community .68 Strategies Average agricultural livelihood diversification index (range: 0.13- .54 1.0) % farmers who operate independently .40 Income diversification index (range: 0-1) (Inverse of number of .32 alternative income sources) % households dependent solely on agriculture as a source of income .28
Social % households who do not receive remittances .70 Networks % farmers not owning farmland .70 Average receive:give ratio .64 Number of farm plots (inverse) .62 % households without any member in any community group or .53 organization
Natural & % households reporting problems with getting adequate water for .70 Physical farming Assets Farm technology usage (inverse) .50 % households that do not practice water harvesting .35 % farmers not having access to enough farmland .05
Water % households dependent on farm for food .88 Issues % farmers primarily dependent on rainfall .87 % farmers having trouble obtaining planting material .73 % households that buy water for farming .23
Food % farmers with four or more production failures in the last 10 years .62 Issues Average crop diversity index (diversity index = 1/(n+1) .47 % farmers who do not practice drought mitigation .40 % households experiencing one month or more annual food .28 insecurity % farmers who do not save seeds .13
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Table 2 (continued) LVI Scores for Agricultural Livelihoods in Bluefields, Jamaica Primary Index Component Secondary Component Scorea Natural % farmers who never received assistance from RADAb following a .88 Disasters weather-related crop failure & Climate Mean standard deviation of the daily average maximum temperature .52 Variability by month Mean standard deviation of average precipitation by month .47 % farmers taking more than six months to restore production levels .38 Mean standard deviation of the daily average minimum temperature .36 by month % farmers not receiving early warning information about drought .28 Note: aIndex Scores were on a 0.0 to 1.0 scale. A higher index score indicates a higher level of vulnerability. bRural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA), Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.
Table 3 displays indexed scores for vulnerability were Livelihood Strategies each of the three IPCC-designated (0.36) and Socio-demographic Profile components of vulnerability and the index (0.41). The overall LVI score generated score for each primary component. The from the weighted averages of each primary primary components showing the greatest component yielded 0.48, a number against amount of vulnerability were Social which future LVI studies in Bluefields can Networks (0.59) and Water Issues (0.54). be compared. The primary components showing the least
Table 3 LVI Composite Scores by Primary Component for Farmers in Bluefields, Jamaica Primary Index Component IPCC components Scorea LVI Primary Components Index Scorea Exposure .46 Natural disaster and climate variability .49
Adaptive capacity .51 Social networks .59 Natural and physical assets .47 Socio-demographic profile .41 Livelihood strategies .36
Sensitivity .49 Water issues .54 Food issues .50 Bluefields LVI score .48 Note: aIndex Scores were on a 0.0-1.0 scale. A higher index score indicates a higher level of vulnerability.
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The second objective was to (McCarthy et al., 2001). Secondary determine farmers’ level of adaptive components of the LVI contributing to each capacity, exposure, and sensitivity to climate of these factors were illustrated in Table 2. change through the LVI-IPCC method. The The weighted averages of LVI secondary IPCC identified three contributing factors to components were calculated to create LVI- climate change vulnerability: (a) exposure, IPCC scores, as listed in Table 4. (b) adaptive capacity, and (c) sensitivity
Table 4 LVI-IPCC Scores for Agricultural Livelihoods in Bluefields, Jamaica LVI-IPCC components LVI-IPCC Scorea Exposure .49 Adaptive Capacity .54b Sensitivity .51 LVI-IPCC: [(Exposure – Adaptive Capacity) x Sensitivity] -.03c Note:. aScores were on a scale of 0.0-1.0. bAn inverse of adaptive capacity is used in the calculation of overall LVI-IPCC. cLVI-IPCC Score is on a scale of -1.0 to 1.0. The closer to 1.0, the greater the vulnerability; the closer to -1.0, the greater the resiliency.
Discussion and Implications increase farm incomes and provide crop The LVI measured vulnerability insurance could reduce this risk and improve based on seven primary components. Social food security (Lotze-Campen & Networks (i = 0.59) and Water Issues (i = Schellnhuber, 2009). 0.58) were primary components with highest Water is a key component of scores for vulnerability; Livelihood productive tropical agriculture (Rockström, Strategies (i = 0.36) was the primary Barron, & Fox, 2003). However, most component with the lowest vulnerability Bluefields producers reported they depended score. Results provided insight into factors on rainfall and did not have adequate water affecting vulnerability of agricultural for farming. When rainfall creates livelihoods in Bluefields and uncovered conditions suitable to plant crops, farmers opportunities to improve the LVI for future reported they had trouble finding or research. affording planting material. Agriculture- The eight secondary components in specific financial services could allow the upper quartile for vulnerability provide farmers to invest in water harvesting focus for policies or programs to improve infrastructure, drip irrigation, and planting resiliency of agriculturists’ livelihoods in material. However, most farmers in Bluefields. Most farmers in this study were Bluefields did not own their land, which dependent on their farms for food, which could be a constraint to the use of some increased their risk from natural disasters financial services such as credit (Graham & and climate variability (Selvaraju, Trapido, AgDarroch, 2001). Farmers are more likely Santos, Del Mar Polo Lacasa, & Hayman, to invest in agriculture when they have 2013). Additional risk was demonstrated by secure tenure (Lim, Spanger-Siegfried, the finding most Bluefields farmers have Burton, Malone, & Huq, 2005). never received recovery assistance following LVI studies used different primary a weather-related crop failure. Efforts to and secondary components depending on
124 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 what is appropriate for the local collateral to invest in improved technology, vulnerability context (Campbell, 2014; Hahn and they were subject to displacement if the et al., 2009; Shah et al., 2013). The varied UDC developed the land for other purposes. use of components and the standardization The displaced farmers would have to move of scores limit the ability to compare results to more marginal lands or seek alternative across studies, unless said studies employ livelihoods. Threat of displacement caused the same methods (Hahn et al., 2009). This by man or nature was not investigated in this study used several of the same components or previous LVI studies, but may be an and methods as Campbell’s (2014) important factor for untenured farmers in investigation with a similar population in communities such as Bluefields. Jamaica, which consequently provided an Hahn et al. (2009) developed the opportunity for comparison. Bluefields LVI approach primarily for development exhibited greater vulnerability in nine of the planners to study vulnerability at the 14 secondary components that lend community level and design targeted themselves to direct comparison with programs. Areas of elevated vulnerability Campbell’s (2014) results. warranting intervention in Bluefields have Secondary components differing— been discussed in this study. This study based on non-statistical comparisons—in should be conducted in the future to measure LVI scores between Bluefields and the St. longitudinal changes in Bluefields’ Elizabeth communities studied by Campbell vulnerability. Governmental and non- (2014), were in (a) land ownership, (b) governmental organizations (NGOs) in dependence on rainfall, (c) dependence on Jamaica could also employ the LVI farm for food, and (d) receiving assistance approach before and after a developmental from RADA after a weather-related crop program to measure program impact. The failure. Bluefields’ farmers had the higher LVI is frequently applied to compare vulnerability score for each of these vulnerability between communities secondary components. St. Elizabeth parish (Campbell, 2014; Hahn et al., 2009; Shah et had high soil fertility, commercial farming, al., 2013), but because Jamaica often and was referred to as Jamaica’s breadbasket organizes its communities by sub-districts, (“St Elizabeth still the bread basket parish,” the LVI could be used to measure 2004) because of high agricultural differences within communities (Hahn et al., productivity. These characteristics may have 2009). contributed to lesser dependence on farms The lack of extension service for food, more assistance from agricultural contacts noted by Bluefields’ farmers was a extension, the ability to invest in irrigation, clear indication that extension education in and higher rates of land ownership among Jamaica may need more resources or St. Elizabeth’s farmers. improved methods to help subsistence Many of the untenured farmers in farmers prepare for and manage their Bluefields were growing crops on a large vulnerability to climate change. Oladele tract of land belonging to the Urban (2012) noted, “climate change would have Development Commission (UDC), a high impact in terms of extension services government-owned corporation that planned … [as educators] change from [a] generalist and developed urban and rural areas in approach to [more] specialist” (p. 48). The Jamaica. Many Bluefields farmers had been strategies proposed by George, Clewett, on UDC land for decades. Though farmers Wright, Birch, and Allen (2007) might be grew crops rent-free, their plots offered no applicable in the Bluefields situation.
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Factors affecting low-income factors. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) households in the developing world are techniques (Chambers, 1994) such as matrix local, complex, diverse, dynamic, and ranking and scoring (Narayanasamy, 2009) unpredictable (Chambers, 1997) and also could be used to derive empirical compound the challenges of using this type weights with community input. The use of of index approach for comparisons of PRA may be more appropriate than MCDA vulnerability across communities, regions, in areas where minimal or no baseline data or countries. In Jamaica, Campbell (2014) exists. determined 86.5% of farmers owned the A limitation of this study was a land they farm, whereas this study relatively small sample (n = 52). A larger concluded only 30% of Bluefields farmers sample size may provide the ability to owned theirs. A difference likely exists in compare results between categories such as how tenured farmers and untenured farmers gender. The LVI instrument is limited in its view availability of additional land. A ability to generate data that can be used by tenured St. Elizabeth farmer may make his other researchers for vulnerability research. or her determination based on if additional Future LVI studies should incorporate farmland is available for lease or purchase, interval, rather than dichotomous variables whereas the untenured farmer in Bluefields to improve measurement of low-income may see available land for cultivation farmers’ vulnerabilities to climate change. without considering leasing or purchasing it. For example, increased use of interval scale This difference in perception could explain variables could measure important differences in scores for access to additional differences between those who harvest farmland between farmers in this study and sufficient water to sustain full production, those in Campbell’s (2014) study. Campbell versus those who harvest inadequate or no (2014) reported 33% of St. Elizabeth’s water. farmers lacked access to enough farmland, The LVI approach is an effective compared to only 5% of Bluefields’ farmers. method to measure vulnerability in a Using qualitative methods such as focus community, but it does not assess farmers’ groups to understand farmers’ perceived attitudes, beliefs, and/or values regarding vulnerability factors, as used in other studies how they interpret vulnerability to climate (Campbell, 2014; Masere & Worth, 2015), change. It will be important for future may be an improved research design. research to identify levels of vulnerability, Studies that use index scores derived but also to study how farmers perceive their from the aggregation of equally weighted ability to respond through adaptation. factors are limited by the assumption each Through the combination of the LVI and factor is of equal importance (Eakin & qualitative assessments of vulnerability, Bojórquez-Tapia, 2008; Hahn et al., 2009; change agents will be better informed about Shah et al., 2013; Vincent, 2007). This how to assist farmers with decisions to adopt oversimplification of reality has led some to technologies for climate adaptation apply methods of research aimed at (Campbell, 2014). One possible way to determining a weight for each factor based combine the LVI with a qualitative approach on local conditions. For example, Eakin and is to incorporate Smit’s and Wandel’s Borjorquez-Tapia (2008) used a (2006) participatory vulnerability methodology involving multi-criteria assessment (PVA) framework. The LVI and decision analysis (MCDA) and fuzzy logic PVA were designed to identify areas where to determine weights for vulnerability interventions are needed to reduce
126 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 vulnerability (Hahn et al., 2009; Smit & scores between Bluefields and St. Elizabeth Wandel, 2006). Researchers could communities, it was confirmed that investigate effective ways to integrate PVA Bluefields’ farmers had higher vulnerability and LVI to generate data that provides rich scores. We assert potential solutions lie in descriptions (Creswell & Miller, 2000), creating opportunities for farmers to secure which are quantifiably measurable over land ownership or in developing financial time. This mixed-method research approach services for untenured farmers. Similar to St. could be useful to policymakers needing to Elizabeth communities, we believe measure the impact of programs and Bluefields’ farmers also need capacity- policies. building activities on adaptation options (Campbell, 2014) to reduce vulnerability. Conclusions Improving out-of-community social and The study’s results provided financial connections for farmers may be information to support the work of difficult to target through policies or agricultural development and extension programs, but are important components of personnel in Jamaica, specifically focusing vulnerability to consider in Bluefields. The on the factors affecting vulnerability of increased use of improved agricultural agricultural livelihoods in Bluefields. technology and rainwater harvesting would George et al. (2007) noted that Australian reduce the overall LVI-IPCC score farmers improved their understanding of accordingly. Development planners would climate change/risk after participating in then be able to predict the potential impact agricultural extension agents’ workshops on of their intervention on vulnerability in strategic approaches to managing climate Bluefields based on the change in the LVI- risk. Disseminating knowledge and IPCC score. However, the validity of using supporting farms with necessary skills and these data for sensitivity analysis would new technologies on land preparation degrade over time as changes occur in the methods and irrigation (Baloch & Thapa, vulnerability of farmers in Bluefields. 2016) helped reduce weather-related crop In addition to agricultural extension failure in Balochistan, Pakistan. Davis and officers, other agricultural advisory service Spielman (2017) concluded that agricultural providers assist farmers. Recognizing extension services should improve, private sector, nongovernmental, and civil strengthen, and change to accommodate society actors involved in agricultural locals’ needs. As such, we believe future extension and advisory services (Davis & extension-led efforts should include Spielman, 2017) could be a helpful resource development and enactment of localized for farmers and extension offices. A strategic plans and locally-tailored extension collaborative effort with agricultural solutions (Davis & Spielman, 2017) extension service and advisory organizations pursuant to farmers’ needs in Bluefields. could be a cost-effective strategy to address Most farmers in Bluefields did not the livelihood vulnerability of Bluefields’ own their land and depend on rainfall for farmers. farming. The primary sources of food come from their farms; however, farmers reported References they have trouble finding or affording Ary, D., Jacobs, L., Sorensen, C., & planting material. Overall, these factors Razavieh, A. (2010). Introduction to increased their risk for natural disasters and research in education. Belmont, CA: climate variability. In comparisons of LVI Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
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McCarthy, J. J., Canziani, O. F., Leary, N. Reid, S., Smit, B., Caldwell, W., & A., Dokken, D. J., & White, K. S. Belliveau, S. (2007). Vulnerability (2001). Climate change 2001: and adaptation to climate risks in Impacts, adaptation, and Ontario agriculture. Mitigation and vulnerability. New York, NY: Adaptation Strategies for Global Cambridge University Press. Change, 12(4), 609-637. Retrieved from doi:10.1007/s11027-006-9051-8 http://hcl.harvard.edu/collections/ipc Rockström, J., Barron, J., & Fox, P. (2003). c/docs/27_WGIITAR_FINAL.pdf Water productivity in rain-fed Narayanasamy, N. (2009). Participatory agriculture: Challenges and rural appraisal: Principles, methods opportunities for smallholder and application. New Delhi, India: farmers in drought-prone tropical SAGE Publications. agroecosystems, No H032640, doi:10.4135/9788132108382 IWMI Books, Reports, International Organisation for Economic Co-operation Water Management Institute. and Development. (2015). Retrieved from Connecting with emigrants: A global https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc: profile of diasporas 2015. Paris, iwt:bosers:h032640 France: OECD Publishing. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/978926423 innovations (5th ed.). New York, 9845-en NY: The Free Press. Oladele, O. I. (2012). Knowledge levels and Selvaraju, R., Trapido, P. J., Santos, N., Del perceived effect of ecosystem Mar Polo Lacasa, M., & Hayman, A. services and valuation on extension (2013). Climate change and delivery in North West Province, agriculture in Jamaica: Agricultural South Africa. Journal of sector support analysis. Rome, Italy: International Agricultural and United Nations Food and Agriculture Extension Education, 19(1), 42-53. Organization. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2012.19106 Shah, K. U., Dulal, H. B., Johnson, C., & Panthi, J., Aryal, S., Dahal, P., Bhandari, P., Baptiste, A. (2013). Understanding Krakauer, N. Y., & Pandey, V. P. livelihood vulnerability to climate (2016). Livelihood vulnerability change: Applying the livelihood approach to assessing climate change vulnerability index in Trinidad and impacts on mixed agro-livestock Tobago. Geoforum, 47, 125-137. smallholders around the Gandaki http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum. River Basin in Nepal. Regional 2013.04.004 Environmental Change, 16(4), 1121- Sijtsma, K. (2009). On the use, the misuse, 1132. and the very limited usefulness of http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10113- Cronbach’s alpha. Psychometrika 74, 015-0833-y 107–120. doi:10.1007/s11336-008- Rural Agricultural Development Authority. 9101-0 (2013). All farmers. Kingston, Smit, B., & Wandel, J. (2006). Adaptation, Jamaica: Rural Agricultural adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Development Authority. Retrieved Global Environmental Change, from https://rada.gov.jm 16(3), 282-292. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008
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St Elizabeth still the bread basket parish. (2004, June 18). Jamaica Observer. Retrieved from http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/ne ws/St-Elizabeth-still-the-bread- basket-parish_16928486 Sullivan, C. A., Meigh, J. R., & Fediw, T. S. (2002). Derivation and testing of the water poverty index phase 1. Final report. Wallingford, UK: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. Retrieved from http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/50324 6/1/WaterPovertyIndex_Phase1_200 2_Final%20Report.pdf Turner, B. L., Kasperson, R. E., Matson, P. A., McCarthy, J. J., Corell, R. W., Christensen, L., … Schiller, A. (2003). A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(14), 8074-8079. doi:10.1073/pnas.1231335100 Vincent, K. (2007). Uncertainty in adaptive capacity and the importance of scale. Global Environmental Change, 17(1), 12-24. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.11.009 Woodhouse, B., & Jackson, P. H. (1977). Lower bounds for the reliability of the total score on a test composed of non-homogeneous items: II: A search procedure to locate the greatest lower bound. Psychometrika 42, 579–591. doi:10.1007/BF02295980
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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25210
Extension Agents’ Use and Acceptance of Social Media: The Case of the Department of Agricultural Extension in Bangladesh
Md. Kamruzzaman Sylhet Agricultural University, Bangladesh
Ataharul Chowdhury University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Annemarie van Paassen Wageningen University, Netherlands
Wayne Ganpat The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine
Abstract Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have been considered as key driving forces for enabling agricultural development ‒ the sector which provides livelihoods for majority of the population in Bangladesh. The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), the largest public sector agricultural extension service provider in Bangladesh, has recently enacted a new organizational policy for its staffs to use ICTs such as social media to provide better services. However, there is little or merely anecdotal evidence about how extension agents of DAE have been accepting and using social media for their professional work. Drawing on the theoretical underpinnings of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this study is a first attempt to investigate social media use and acceptance among extension agents in Bangladesh. Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires from 140 extension agents of DAE who work in the eastern region of Bangladesh. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The findings indicate that most extension agents (51.4%) used social media for half an hour to one hour every day. Perceived ease of use (PEoU) and Perceived usefulness (PU) are the most influential elements that determine DAE staff acceptance of social media for performing professional functions. Social media was perceived by extension agents as a means for improving professional performance, such as disseminating agricultural information; garnering support for new agricultural policy; networking with clients and colleagues and enabling coordination of services provided by colleagues. Overall, the findings indicate potential uses of social media in an ICT-based agricultural development strategy in Bangladesh.
Keywords: social media, agricultural extension workers, Department of Agricultural Extension, ICTs, communications
Acknoledgements: The Anne van den Ban Fund (ABF) is acknowledged for support to the graduate study of the first author.
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Introduction The agricultural sector is also under the The revolutionary aspects of social threats of climate change (Stern, 2007). It media (SM) are apparent from the recent follows that sustaining agricultural growth is growth of 2.56 billion mobile social media extremely important for sustainable users worldwide who constitute development in Bangladesh. The approximately 68% of global internet users Department of Agricultural Extension (Kemp, 2017). Social media has become an (DAE) is one of the leading agencies that essential means of communication because implements agricultural policy in of increased use of Smartphones and mobile Bangladesh (Uddin, 2008). The mission of internet users worldwide (Stanley, 2013). As DAE is to improve the technological a parliamentary election manifesto, “Digital knowledge and skills of farmers at all levels Bangladesh” Information and by providing skilled, effective, Communication Technology (ICTs) has decentralized, region-dependent/adapted, been considered the essential development demand-based and integrated extension tool for up-scaling the economic and social services with a focus on ensuring sustainable status of the citizens of Bangladesh and profitable increase in crop production (Malone, Akbar, Bell, & Bohn, 2013). (DAEa, 2016). Emphasis and investment is driven toward The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) infrastructural development of ICTs. There formulated the New Agricultural Extension has been an exponential growth pattern (2% Policy in 1996 and further updated in 2012, annual increase) of new social media users renamed as the National Agricultural in Bangladesh (Shohrowardhy & Hassan, Extension Policy (NAEP). The NAEP 2014). There are an estimated more than 21 emphasized structural and strategic reforms million current social media users in of DAE and highlighted the deployment of Bangladesh (Internet World Stats, 2017). electronic, virtual and online services for Facebook is the highest usage social media agricultural extension services (MoA, 2012). tool in Bangladesh accounting 99.3% usage. Therefore, interest in the use of virtual Besides, Twitter (0.34%), Tumblr (0.11%) knowledge and services is growing. and YouTube (0.09%) secured second, third Knowledge mobilization and networking are and fourth position (Stats Monkey, 2016). important elements of agricultural The current potential of social media is innovation− a process aimed at higher further exemplified by the 800government productivity, better adaptability and offices using social media for their progressive economic growth in agro-based departmental purposes (GoV, 2016). countries like Bangladesh (Swanson & Agriculture plays a key role in Rajalahti, 2010). As in other tropical Bangladesh’s development, contributing to countries, agricultural innovation in 20% of the nation’s GDP and accounting for Bangladesh requires effective collaboration the livelihoods of 80% of the population. and coordination among different actors of However, the agricultural sector agricultural development (Tropical continuously faces the challenges of Agriculture Platform, 2016). The recent securing food for 160 million people. As the policy i.e., NAEP focuses on collaboration, population growth swells the demand for partnerships among agri-stakeholders for food increases and the agricultural sector synchronizing extension services, and faces the burden of producing 0.3 million linking producers, entrepreneurs with tons more food to feed approximately two probable markets, consumers, and other million new faces every year (MoA, 2012).
133 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 actors in the agricultural value chain to Theoretical Framework support mutual learning (MoA, 2012). Information system (IS) researchers Social media augments quick used the behavioral intention model taken communication over geographic distances from social psychology as an essential through networking opportunities and theoretical groundwork to determine user collaboration among its users (Stanley, behavior (Swanson, 1982; Davis, Bagozzi, 2013). In recent years, social media is & Warshaw, 1989). The Theory of credited with supporting agricultural and Reasoned Action (TRA) proposed by rural development innovation processes, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) is a well- herein enabling interaction, knowledge researched behavioral intention model. sharing, and supporting agricultural According to the model, a person’s use of a development (EU SCAR, 2013). The system is determined by their behavioral important functions of social media for intention (BI) towards using the system. BI supporting agricultural innovation are, is informed by the person’s attitude (A) and specifically, peer-to-peer communication, subjective norms (SN) about the behavior. farmer-industry networking, and community Attitude (A) is conceptualized as a person’s engagement (Kaushik, Chowdhury, Hambly positive or negative feelings (evaluative Odame, & van Paassen, 2017; Saravanan, effect) about a specific behavior. Subjective Suchiradipta, Chowdhury, Hall, & Hambly norms (SN) epitomize a person’s perception Odame, 2015). Following the contemporary about the peer pressure to follow a certain policy and practices of ICTs and social behavior or not. media, DAE has prescribed its staff to uses Davis (1986) adopted TRA as a social media for their professional purposes. theoretical foundation to develop the Since 2014 extension agents of DAE have Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as been using social media to build and shown in Figure 1. TAM is a widely used maintain connections with colleagues and theoretical model for studying the adoption clients, share experience and activities in the of ICTs in the agricultural sector, such as the field, and follow up departmental notices use of ICTs by the Caribbean extension (DAEb, 2016; DAEc, 2016; MoA, 2016). officers (Strong, Ganpat, Harder, Irby, & Linder, 2014) or computer utilization for Purpose of the Study extension personnel in India (Sivakumar, Social media has been used as a new Parasar, & Anantharaman, 2013). The model means of communication among extension was used to study the acceptance of different agents of DAE in Bangladesh but there has ICTs tools such as email (Gefen & Straub, not been any systematic research on how 1997), online shopping (Vijayasarathy, extension agents have accepted and used 2004), e-government services (Carter & social media for professional purposes. Bélanger, 2005), and adoption of mobile This raises the question of if and how services (Wang, Lin, & Luarn, 2006; Meso, extension agents have accepted and used Musa, & Mbarika, 2005). social media to support various organizational activities. Therefore, this study aims to analyze acceptance and use of social media by extension agents of DAE.
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It has been extensively used for Sanzogni, & Sandhu, 2010; Al Ghaith, studying social media acceptance and use, 2015; Nah & Saxton, 2012; Rauniar, for instance, on Social Networking Sites Rawski, Yang, & Johnson, 2014; Nasri & (SNS) (Leng, Lada, Muhammad, Ibrahim, & Charfeddine, 2012). Amboala, 2011; Sago, 2013; Al-Ghaith,
Perceived Usefulness
(PU) Actual External Attitude toward Behavioral using (A) Intention (BI) to use (AU) variables use Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU)
Figure 1. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Davis (1989)
According to the model, Perceived 1997), acceptance of internet banking Ease of Use (PEoU) and Perceived (Ramayah & Suki, 2006), and social media Usefulness (PU) are considered as (Facebook) acceptance and use (Nasri & fundamental determinants of information Charfeddine, 2012; Al-Ghaith, 2015). technology acceptance and usage (Davis, Instrumentally, PEoU indicates that 1989). PEoU is “the degree to which a the less effort and time needed to perform a person believes that using a particular behavior with a certain tool, the more work system would be free of effort.” In the the individual can achieve with the same model, ease is conceptualized as “freedom amount of effort and time. As per previous from difficulty or great effort.” PEoU studies, PEoU has a significant and positive contributes to intention of behavior and effect on PU. The direct relationship usage of a system in two ways: self-efficacy between PEoU and PU was reported in and instrumentality. The easier it is to several studies, for example, internet interact with a system and to follow certain acceptance by undergraduate students in the behaviors, the more self-efficacy the system USA (Yi & Hwang, 2003), SNS acceptance will be perceived as having by the potential (Leng et al., 2011; Nasri & Charfeddine, users (Bandura, 1982). The relationship 2012; Al-Ghaith, 2015), personal digital between PEoU and attitude captures the assistance for adults in Germany (Arning & intrinsically motivating aspect of PEoU Ziefle, 2007), acceptance of short message (Davis, 1986). A significant positive service (Lu, Deng, & Wang, 2010), and use relationship between PEoU and A was of mobile-based ICTs (Meso et al., 2005). evident in number of studies, such as mobile The following hypotheses have been banking (Amin, Baba, & Muhammad, proposed based on the above studies: 2007), online shopping (Vijayasarathy, 2004), software use (Morris & Dillon,
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Hypothesis-1: PEoU has significant positive a significant effect on their behavioral influence on PU of social media. intention to use Mobile Banking (Amin et al., 2007). Hypothesis-2: PEoU has significant positive influence on A for social media Hypothesis-4: PU has significant positive influence on BI to use social media An individual forms positive attitude (A) towards the system if they evaluate the Attitude has been considered as a system with a positive output (Davis et al., cause for intention (Lu, Yu, Liu, & Yao, 1989). According to Davis (1989), PU is 2003). The attitude (A) and BI relation in defined as “the degree to which a person TAM depicts that all things being equal, believes that using a particular system would people have the intention to perform a enhance his or her job performance.” The behavior when they hold positive attitudes term ‘useful’ is conceptualized as a system towards the behavior. Cheng, Lama, and that can be used advantageously. A study on Yeung (2006) adopted TAM to understand foreseeing consumers’ intention to practice customers’ intention of adopting Internet online shopping found that consumers’ Banking in Hong Kong. They concluded perceived usefulness of the internet medium that Attitude is an intervening variable and to get information about products and clients’ attitude positively influenced their compare prices is positively associated with intention. Hence, for Tunisian university their attitudes towards online shopping students in a different study, attitude had the (Vijayasarathy, 2004). strongest effect on their Facebook use intention (Nasri & Charfeddine, 2012). Hypothesis-3: PU has significant positive influence on A for social media Hypothesis-5: A has significant positive influence on BI to use social media In TAM, the direct relationship of PU and behavioral intention (BI) illustrates According to TAM, computer usage that when people find the potentiality of is eventually determined by the BI of the increasing their job performance by using a user (Davis, 1989). Previous studies, for computer system, they form cognitive instance, Wireless Application Protocol appraisal. Thus they develop intention to use (WAP) adoption for mobile commerce in the desired computer system over and above Taiwan (Hung, Ku, & Chang, 2003), the feelings they have towards the behavior customers' intentions and usage of Short (Davis et al., 1989). Thus PU has been Message Services (SMS) in Singapore (Lai, found to be a potential driver to form BI 2004), and exploring the regulating effects towards a technology in both online and of gender in the intention of mobile chat offline context (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). service use (Nysveen, Pedersen, & Al-Ghaith (2015) executed TAM to Thorbjornsen, 2005) have concluded that conceptualize the usage of SNS and found intention has a positive effect on behavior that users’ perceived usefulness positively towards a technology. Ajzen (1991) influenced their behavioral intention to use mentioned that intention is considered as the SNS. Likewise, a research investigation on last antecedent of behavior. the acceptance of Mobile Banking by Malaysian clients elucidated that customers’ Hypotheis-6: BI to use has significant perceived usefulness of Mobile Banking had positive influence on AU of social media.
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Perceived Usefulness (PU) H3 H4
Attitude toward Behavioral Actual use using (A) Intention (BI) to (AU) H1 H5 use H6
Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU) H2
Figure 2. Hypotheses for TAM model
Methods formulated. In order to measure the The Comilla region was randomly constructs, a 5-point Likert scale for the selected out of fourteen agricultural regions items with response options ranging from in Bangladesh. This region comprises of strongly agree to strongly disagree was three districts: Comilla, Chandpur and adopted, the same methodology followed by Brahamanbaria. The sub-districts (called Nasri and Charfeddine (2012) and Leng et Upazilla) within a district are headed by al., (2011). Respondents indicated Actual Upazilla Agriculture Officers (UAO). The Use (AU) of social media by the number of sub-district consists of several blocks minute social media used per day. The AU headed by Sub Assistant Agriculture data were then categorized into six groups, Officers (SAAO). At first, each of the such as use of social media up to 30 minutes districts and sub-districts offices was per day, 31 to 60 minutes per day, 61 to 120 requested to identify staff who use social minutes per day, 121 to 180 minutes per day media. Thus, 523 staffs were identified as and more than 180 minutes per day. social media users. From that list, 25% of The study followed a mixed method strategy social media using staff (total 140) were i.e. combination of qualitative and randomly selected as respondents of the quantitative method. At first, informal and study. unstructured interviews were conducted to The items for each of the constructs obtain an overview of social media use. of the TAM model (PEoU, PU, A and BI) Informal discussion and participant were adopted from previous research that observations were conducted during established their validity and reliability professional events (e.g. weekly meeting of (Davis et al., 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, extension agents). Following this phase, a 1996). For this research the structure and structured questionnaire was prepared which meaning of those items were modified based included items for the constructs of TAM. on the research context and ultimately four The questionnaire was pre-tested with items for each of the constructs were fifteen (15) respondents. Based on the pre-
137 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 test, the chronologies of the questions were modified to ensure understanding and adjusted and phrasing of the questions was intended meaning of the respondents.
Figure 3. Red dot on a map of Bangladesh indincating the study locale
The research was conducted during and the FGD with frontline extension staff the period of August to November 2016. (SAAOs) was conducted at Muradnogor The researchers participated in every weekly Upazilla and. In addition, field notes were Upazilla agricultural meeting at the various collected during informal discussions, Upazillas. After the weekly meeting of a surveys and interviews. Thus, to ensure the particular Upazilla, the selected respondents validity of the data, triangulation of data were requested to take part in the survey. sources was implemented. Data from the district level officers was The quantitative survey data was collected based on individual appointment. analyzed using software from the Statistical Two focus group discussions (FGD) Package for Social Science (SPSS) version were conducted, one with administrative IBM SPSS statistics V-23. The responses of staff (from Agricultural Extension Officer, the items of TAM constructs (i.e. PEoU, PU, AEO to higher level officers) and the other A, BI) were coded as 1 for strongly disagree, with frontline staff (SAAOs). The FGD with 2 for disagree, 3 for neither agree or administrative staff was held at Deputy disagree, 4 for agree and 5 for strongly agree Director’s (DD) office of Brahamanbaria and the scores for each item were entered in
138 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 the software. Both descriptive and manually coded according to some themes, inferential (regression) statistical analyses such as usefulness, attitude, job were performed for all the constructs. The performance, resources, internet facility, data from informal discussions and focus skill and the codes were used according to group discussion (FGD) were recorded and their relevance to the findings of the transcribed. Then the transcriptions were research.
Figure 4. Red dots illustrating the different study locations (three districts of Comilla Region)
According to Wixom and Watson construct were included for analysis. Again, (2001), convergent validity is adequate convergent validity is also fulfilled when the when the item loading value is greater than constructs have an Average Variance 0.50. For the TAM model, two items from Extracted (AVE) value of at least 0.50 PEoU, one item from the PU and A (Wixom & Watson, 2001). Accordingly all constructs each were dropped due to their the constructs fulfilled the minimum AVE failure to load in their respective construct value ranged from 0.586 to 0.717 for the with greater than 0.50 values. Thus two TAM model (Table 1). items for PEoU, three items for PU and A construct each and four items for BI
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Table 1 Construct Reliability and Convergent Validity of TAM Constructs Constructs Items Factor Average Chronbach‘s Kaiser- loading variance alpha Myere- extracted Olkin (AVE) (KMO) Perceived PEoU1 0.862 Ease of Use PEoU2 0.803 0.717 0.705 0.50 (PEoU) Perceived PU1 0.711 Usefulness PU2 0.885 0.586 0.739 0.661 (PU) PU3 0.749 Attitude A1 0.763 towards Using A2 0.809 0.623 0.803 0.708 (A) A3 0.806 Behavioral IU1 0.880 Intention to IU2 0.825 0.716 0.850 0.780 use (BI) IU3 0.908 IU4 0.867
The Chronbach’s alpha of the TAM suggested a conservative approach where model constructs satisfy the minimum value AVE for each of the constructs is compared (0.70) as suggested by Bagozzi and Yi with the inter-construct correlation square of (1998) and ranged from 0.705 to 0.850 the associated constructs. Table 2 shows that (Table 1). Thus, all constructs demonstrate all the AVE values were greater than the an acceptable reliability level. To establish correspondent squared correlation value of the discriminant validity, Hair, Black, inter-constructs of the TAM model. Babin, Anderson, and Tatham (2006)
Table 2 AVE and Squared-correlation (n=140)* PEoU PU A IU PEoU 0.717 PU 0.165 0.586 A 0.154 0.462 0.623 BI 0.197 0.31 0.403 0.716 Note: * Diagonal shows the AVE and the values below the diagonal are values of correlation square
Findings and Discussion to become skillful at using social media” Of the items of Perceived Ease of (Table 3). Use (PEoU) “learning to use social media is Table 3 shows that the item of easy for me” received the highest score Perceived Usefulness (PU) that received the followed by the statement, “it is easy for me highest score was “I get various agricultural information from social media” and the
140 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 lowest scored item was “I can follow the received highest score were “I intend to use activities of my colleagues on social media”. social media for expressing my professional The statement “social media are activities to others” and “I intend to use effective means of presenting professional social media to get updated agricultural achievement” obtained the highest score information”. The statement that received among other items of Attitude towards the lowest score was “I intend to use social Using (A) and “Social media are helpful to media to get connected with people that get connected to different stakeholders” matter to me” (Table 3). received the lowest score (Table 3). The next construct was Behavioral Intention to use (BI) and the items that
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics of Statements Related to TAM Constructs Statements N M SD Perceived ease of use of SM Learning to use social media is easy for me 140 4.529 0.704 It is easy for me to become skillful at using social 140 4.229 0.771 media Perceived usefulness of SM I get various agricultural information from social media 140 4.407 0.586 Social media provide me opportunities to perform various professional activities 140 4.393 0.571 I can follow the activities of my colleagues on social 140 4.386 0.489 media Attitude toward using SM Social media are effective means of presenting professional achievement 140 4.321 0.603 Social media help navigating effective sources of agricultural information 140 4.200 0.590 Social media are helpful to get connected to different 140 4.143 0.685 stakeholders Behavioral intention to use SM I intend to use social media to get updated agricultural 140 4.321 0.626 information I intend to use social media for expressing my professional activities to others 140 4.336 0.531 I intend to use social media as a quick communication 140 4.286 0.732 tool I intend to use social media to get connected with people that matter to me 140 4.257 0.723
The last construct of the TAM model minutes per day”. The next highest is Actual Use (AU). Table 4 depicts that the proportion (25.0%) of the respondents used highest percentage (51.4) of DAE personnel social media “up to 30 minutes per day”. used social media between “31 to 60
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Table 4 Descriptive Statistics for Actual Use of SM Statements Frequency Percentage
Up to 30 minutes per day 35 25.0 31 minutes to 60 minutes per day 72 51.4 61 minutes to 90 minutes per day 15 10.7 91 minutes to 120 minutes per day 10 7.2 More than 120 minutes per day 8 5.7 Total 140 100.0
The Acceptance of Social Media by positive influence on PU. PEoU explained Agricultural Extension Workers 16.5 percent of variance (R²= 0.165) for PU The results of the hypotheses testing with co-efficient Beta (β) 0.406. The are shown in Figure 5. Hypothesis1 was findings indicate that the easiness to use tested by regressing PEoU on PU. PEoU social media is an influential factor for the had a moderate significant (p<0.001) respondents to perceive it useful.
Perceived Usefulness (PU) 1. R ² =0.165 0.624** 0.234**
Attitude toward Behavioral Actual use using (A) Intention (BI) (AU) 0.406** R²=0.478 to use R²=0.270 0.475** R ² =0.432 0. 520**
Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU) 0.138*
Figure 5. Hypotheses result of TAM model ((**p<0.001 and * p<0.05 significance level)
In the cases of hypotheses 2 and 3, constructs (PEoU, PU) were significant PU PEoU had significant (p<0.05) positive had a strong influence on A than PEoU in influence and PU had weak but significant forming a favorable attitude of agricultural (p<0.001) positive influence on Attitude (A) extension workers of DAE towards using towards social media. PEoU and PU social media. together explained almost half (47.8%) of For hypotheses 4 and 5, both PU and the variance (R²= 0.478) of Attitude (A) Attitude (A) had a significant (p<0.001) towards using social media. Although both positive influence on BI to use social media.
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PU and Attitide (A) together explained 43.2 SNS. In the last decade Bangladesh percent (R²= 0.432) variance of BI to use witnessed a significant advancement of social media. In case of hypothesis 6, BI to internet facilities and availability of use social media had a moderate (β=0.520) affordable Android smartphones. Mobile significant (p<0.001) positive influence on operating companies in Bangladesh are now AU of social media by extension agents. The offering affordable internet packages. finding indicate that 27.0 percent of variance Furthermore, there are now several Bengali (R²= 0.270) for AU was explained by BI to typing softwares for Android versions use social media. available in Google Play. Considering that The findings indicate an acceptance staffs of DAE have at minimum a Diploma of social media by agricultural extension degree, it should be easy for them to operate, workers of DAE to accomplish their command and type on social media given professional purposes. The hypotheses the above technological solutions. formulated for the TAM model were The professional usefulness of social supported in this research. The research media has formed favorable attitudes among findings confirm that PEoU instrumentally agricultural extension workers of DAE influenced PU of social media. Agricultural towards use of social media. They have extension workers of DAE considered that found social media to be a beneficial tool to use of social media for professional increase their job performance in line with purposes did not require much effort. They the task requirements. Senior officers have found that learning to use social media and started using social media to send short to become skillful at using it was easy for official notes and instructions to the them. A recent study in the United States frontline extension officers. This medium indicates that a significant relationship exist reduced barriers of communication in terms between agricultural communicators’ use of of physical distance and time. As a result, it Instagram and PEoU (Hawley, Hall, & enhanced timely execution of instructions. Chowdhury, 2018). Previous research on Furthermore, the senior officers of DAE the TAM model (Nasri & Charfeddine, often followed up with junior officers to get 2012; Leng et al., 2011; Rauniar et al., 2014) updates on their daily activities (e.g. field also concluded that PEoU is an important visits, demonstrations, trainings, meetings, predictor of PU for social media. etc.) via social media. Social media According to Davis (1986), the self- therefore served two purposes: for the junior efficacy function of PEoU influences A and field officers to articulate and towards using ICT tools. Literature demonstrate their performance and for the regarding the research on other ICTs senior officers to monitor the job activities acceptance showed mixed results in this and performance of their subordinates. aspect. For instance, the research of Nasri These findings are in line with Treem (2015) and Charfeddine (2012) for Social media who noted that social media provided an (Facebook) acceptance, Vijayasarathy account for individuals to assess the work of (2004) for online shopping, and Morris and others in organizations. Other studies on the Dillon (1997) for software use reported TAM model (Nasri & Charfeddine, 2012; significant influence of PEoU on A Vijayasarathy, 2004; Morris & Dillon, 1997) towards use of ICT tools. On the contrary, also confirmed the result that usefulness is a Leng et al., (2011) reported that PEoU of major determinant in forming attitudes SNS for university students in Malaysia had towards using ICT tools. no significant influence on A towards use of
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Conclusions, Implications and Strong et al., (2014) found that Caribbean Recommendations extension workers were more likely to use The acceptance of social media by ICTs to expand their professional agricultural extension workers is a knowledge and improve service delivery significant step for enhancing the than customary communication approaches. performance of the extension services of ICTs played a vital role in satisfying their DAE. The extension workers’ ease of using personal benefits (e.g. personal tasks, social media indicates that they require less knowledge, contact etc.) and increasing their effort in learning to use social media and to professional performance. Sivakumar et al., be skillful in using social media for (2013) concluded that the TAM model has professional purposes. Therefore, they have provided an essential management tool for been using it to reach out to a larger number extension managers in India to identify of clients and to collaborate with their perceptual complexities among their staff colleagues timely and effectively. and enable staff to use computer Furthermore, social media enabled them to technologies properly. readily share professional accomplishments The professional use and acceptance with their reporting officers and other of social media has to be augmented among colleagues. Social media, therefore, offered the DAE staffs. Initiatives should be taken to opportunities for extension agents to build encourage social media non-users of DAE network both within and beyond their staffs to be part of the virtual network of organizational circles. Enhancing inter- and social media users. It is necessary to offer intra- organizational networks and sharing various institutional supports for extension of experiences are essential elements for agents, for example, sharing the good supporting agricultural innovation and practice of social media in agricultural development (Tropical Agriculture Platform, extension, professional appreciation,, 2016). training, awareness building and Overall, the findings indicate highlighting benefits of social media use in potential use of social media in an ICT- professional practices. This research only based agricultural development strategy in used the typical constructs of the TAM Bangladesh. Concerning the use of ICT- model to explore the acceptance and use of based services for development in social media by the extension agents of Bangladesh, this research provides useful DAE. Other authors modified the model and insights into improving the extension service included other variables, such as perceived system. Social media has helped extension enjoyment and social influence. Therefore, service providers to perform professional based on the contexts, other pertinent activities better. It has offered a virtual external variables could be explored and window to share and disseminate included in the TAM model to achieve a agricultural information and learn from the more thorough and accurate explanation of accomplishments of other colleagues. acceptance. Furthermore, the online Although the research focused on the current networks of social media are sources of user use of social media on intra-organizational generated content, offering beneficial as activities and interactions (within DAE well as controversial and misleading staff), there are opportunities to support information. Further study should be conversations beyond the boundaries of conducted to analyze agricultural organizational circles and widen the network information and knowledge flows in social to reach other agricultural stakeholders. media and how to reduce negative
144 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 25, Issue 2 consequences while using the media for customers. Sunway Academic strengthening extension services. In addition Journal, 4, 1–12. to these, it would be interesting to Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2007). investigate why some DAE staffs did not Understanding age differences in accept social media and what support PDA acceptance and performance. systems might facilitate their use of social Computers in Human Behavior, media in professional practices. Social 23(6), 2904-2927. media was used for communication amongst http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2006. colleagues with little reference about use of 06.005 the media to improve communication with Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Y. (1998). On the farmers. Also, it is not evident that social evaluation of structural equation media enabled farmers to express their models. Journal of the Academy of needs. This issue deserves attention as Marketing Science, 16(1), 74-94. farmers will likely use social media Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy intensively in future. mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122- References 147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0003- Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned 066x.37.2.122 behavior. Organizational Behavior Carter, L., & Bélanger, F. (2005). The and Human Decision utilization of e-government services: Processes, 50(2), 179-211. Citizen trust, innovation and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0749- acceptance factors. Information 5978(91)90020-t Systems Journal, 15(1), 5-25. Al-Ghaith, W. (2015). Applying the http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- technology acceptance model to 2575.2005.00183.x understand social networking sites Cheng, T., Lama, D., & Yeung, A. (2006). (SNS) usage: Impact of perceived Adoption of internet banking: An social capital. International Journal empirical study in Hong Kong. of Computer Science And Decision Support Systems. 42(3), Information Technology, 7(4), 105- 1558-72. 117. Davis, F. D. (1986). A technology http://dx.doi.org/10.5121/ijcsit.2015. acceptance model for empirically 7409 testing new end-user information Al-Ghaith, W., Sanzogni, L., & Sandhu, K. systems: Theory and results. (2010). Factors influencing the (Doctoral dissertation, MIT Sloan adoption and usage of online School of Management). Retrieved services in Saudi Arabia. The from Electronic Journal of Information http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/15192 Systems In Developing Davis, F., Bagozzi, R., & Warshaw, P. Countries, 40(1), 1-32. (1989). User acceptance of computer http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1681- technology: A comparison of two 4835.2010.tb00283.x theoretical models. Management Amin, H., Baba, R., & Muhammad, M. Z. Science, 35(8), 982-1003. (2007). An analysis of mobile http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.35.8. banking acceptance by malaysian 982
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Company. Retrieved from communication technology in LDCs: https://wearesocial.com/special- The case of Sub-Saharan reports/digital-in-2017-global- Africa. Information Systems overview Journal, 15(2), 119-146. Lai, T. L. (2004). Service quality and http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- perceived value's impact on 2575.2005.00190.x satisfaction, intention and usage of Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). (2012). short message service National Agricultural Extension (SMS). Information Systems Policy (NAEP). Retrieved from Frontiers, 6(4), 353-368. http://dae.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/ doi:10.1023/b:isfi.0000046377.3261 files/files/dae.portal.gov.bd/page/dd7 7.3d d2be1_aeef_452f_9774_8c23462ab7 Leng, G. S., Lada, S., Muhammad, M. Z., 3a/National%20Agricultural%20Ext Ibrahim, A. A. H. A., & Amboala, T. ension%20Policy_(NAEP).pdf (2011). An exploration of social Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). (2016). networking sites (SNS) adoption in Office order -To be connected with Malaysia using technology Facebook group. Retrieved from acceptance model (TAM), theory of http://dae.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/ planned behavior (TPB) and intrinsic files/files/dae.portal.gov.bd/notices/9 motivation. Journal of Internet 21745a0_6cd8_4e8d_9e14_a931246 Banking and Commerce, 16(2), 1-27. 9db5b/2016%2008%2023%20facebo Lu, J., Yu, C., Liu, C., & Yao, J. E. (2003). ok%2031.pdf Technology acceptance model for Morris, M., & Dillon, A. (1997). How user wireless internet. Internet perceptions influence software Research, 13(3), 206-222. use. IEEE Software, 14(4), 58-65. doi:10.1108/10662240310478222 http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/52.595956 Lu, Y., Deng, Z., & Wang, B. (2010). Nah, S., & Saxton, G. (2012). Modeling the Exploring factors affecting Chinese adoption and use of social media by consumers' usage of short message nonprofit organizations. New Media service for personal communication. & Society, 15(2), 294-313. Information Systems Journal, 20(2), Nasri, W., & Charfeddine, L. (2012). An 183-208. exploration of facebook. com http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- adoption in Tunisia using technology 2575.2008.00312.x acceptance model (TAM) and theory Malone, P., Akbar, S. U., Bell, M., & Bohn, of reasoned action (TRA). A. B. (2013). Report on the status of Interdisciplinary Journal of ICT for agricultural extension in Contemporary Research in Business, Bangladesh. Retrieved from 4(5), 948-968. https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files Nysveen, H., Pedersen, P. E., & /resource/files/REPORT%20on%20I Thorbjørnsen, H. (2005). Explaining CT%20for%20Ag%20Extension%20 intention to use mobile chat services: Bangladesh%20- Moderating effects of gender. %20Dec%202012.pdf Journal of Consumer Marketing, Meso, P., Musa, P., & Mbarika, V. (2005). 22(5), 247-256. Towards a model of consumer use of doi:10.1108/07363760510611671 mobile information and
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Ramayah, T., & Suki, N. M. (2006). media/S_Stanley_2013_Final_Repor Intention to use mobile PC among t.pdf MBA students: Implications for Stats Monkey. (2016). Bangladesh social technology integration in the media usage statistics using mobile. learning curriculum. UNITAR e- Retrieved from Journal, 1(2), 1–10. https://www.statsmonkey.com/sunbu Rauniar, R., Rawski, G., Yang, J., & rst/21296-bangladesh-mobile-social- Johnson, B. (2014). Technology media-usage-statistics-2015.php acceptance model (TAM) and social Stern, N. H. (2007). The Economics of media usage: An empirical study on climate change: The stern review. Facebook. Journal of Enterprise Great Britain: Cambridge University Information Management, 27(1), 6- Press. 30. doi:10.1108/jeim-04-2012-0011 Strong, R., Ganpat, W., Harder, A., Saravanan, R., Suchiradipta, B., Irby, T. L., & Lindner, J. R. (2014). Chowdhury, A., Hall, K., & Hambly Exploring the use of information Odame, H. (2015). Social media for communication technologies by rural advisory services. Note 15. selected Caribbean extension Lindau, Switzerland: GFRAS. officers. The Journal of Agricultural doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.2850.6088 Education and Extension, 20(5), Sago, B. (2013). Factors influencing social 485-495. media adoption and frequency of doi:10.1080/1389224x.2014.927373 use: An examination of facebook, Swanson, B. E., & Rajalahti, R. (2010). twitter, pinterest and google+. Strengthening agricultural extension International Journal of Business and advisory systems: Procedures and Commerce, 3(1), 1-14. for assessing, transforming, and Shohrowardhy, H. S., & Hassan, H. K. evaluating extension systems. (2014). Students' perception of social Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. networking for academic purposes in Swanson, E. B. (1982). Measuring user Bangladesh. Management & attitudes in MIS research: A Marketing, 9(4), 459-470. Retrieved review. Omega, 10(2), 157-165. from doi:10.1016/0305-0483(82)90050-0 https://search.proquest.com/docview/ Treem, J. W. (2015). Social media as 1672630783?accountid=8330 technologies of accountability: Sivakumar, P. S., Parasar, B., Das, R. N., & Explaining resistance to Anantharaman, M. (2013). implementation within organizations. Determinants of computer utilization American Behavioral Scientist, by extension personnel: A structural 59(1), 53-74. equations approach. The Journal of doi:10.1177/0002764214540506 Agricultural Education and Tropical Agriculture Platform. (2016). Extension, 20(2), 191-212. Common framework on capacity doi:10.1080/1389224x.2013.803986 development for agricultural Stanley, S. (2013). Harnessing social media innovation systems: Conceptual in Agriculture. A report for the New background. Wallingford, UK: CAB Zealand Nuffield farming International. scholarship trust. Retrieved from Uddin, M. N. (2008). Agricultural extension http://www.nuffield.org.nz/uploads/ services in Bangladesh: A review
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study. Bulletin of Institute of Vocational and Technical Education, 5, 119-130. Retrieved from http://ir.nul.nagoya- u.ac.jp/jspui/bitstream/2237/12150/1/ p119-130.pdf Venkatesh, V. L., & Davis, F. D. (1996). A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test. Decision Sciences, 27(3), 451-481. doi:10.1111/j.1540- 5915.1996.tb00860.x Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science, 46(2), 186- 204. doi:10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926 Vijayasarathy, L. R. (2004). Predicting consumer intentions to use on-line shopping: The case for an augmented technology acceptance model. Information & Management, 41(6), 747-762. doi:10.1016/j.im.2003.08.011 Wang, Y., Lin, H., & Luarn, P. (2006). Predicting consumer intention to use mobile service. Information Systems Journal, 16(2), 157-179. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2575.2006.00213.x Wixom, B. H., & Watson, H. J. (2001). An empirical investigation of the factors affecting data warehousing success. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 17- 41. doi:10.2307/3250957 Yi, M. Y., & Hwang, Y. (2003). Predicting the use of web-based information systems: Self-efficacy, enjoyment, learning goal orientation, and the technology acceptance model. International Journal of Human- Computer Studies, 59(4), 431-449. doi:10.1016/s1071-5819(03)00114-9
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Manuscript Submission Guidelines
The JIAEE is the official refereed journal of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE).
General Requirements Microsoft Word files only may be submitted. All manuscripts must indicate the type of article—Feature; Commentary; Tools of the Profession and Book Review—on the title page of the manuscript. All articles must be submitted online at http://jiaee.expressacademic.org/login.php
Manuscripts cannot be published or be under consideration for publication in another journal. The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education (JIAEE) follows the standards set forth in the Publication Manual of the American Psychology Association (6th ed.). Online manuscript submission guidelines are posted at http://www.aiaee.org/guidelines.html. Authors must follow these formatting requirements prior to submitting manuscripts to the JIAEE.
Feature Articles A feature article reports the findings from a fully investigated study. Conceptual/Theoretical and Methodological manuscripts are also encouraged as submission for feature articles. A title page with manuscript title, authors’ names, institutions, and city/state/country is required. The manuscript must include an Abstract (a succinct idea of the article’s content) not exceeding 250 words, followed by 5-7 Keywords (selected from a list of topics available on the submission log on page), Introduction, Theoretical/Conceptual/Operational Framework, Purpose and Objectives, Methods, Findings/Results, Conclusion, Recommendations/Implications, and References, or similar appropriate headings. There is no fee charged for submitting a feature article. Feature articles cannot be longer than 20 double-spaced (12-point font) pages (not including title page) with one-inch margins on all sides, excluding references.
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