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Table Ofcontents Table ofContents DEDICATION 1 INTRODUCTION 5 Part I: From the Spanish conquest to Carolus Linnaeus 9 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 9 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION, AN OVERVIEW, ALONG WITH SOME GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 25 Overview 26 Geology 27 Climate 2g Vegetation 29 Coastal communities 29 Mangrove, lagoon, and riverine formations Forests and woodlands ^ Savannas ^ Natural Environmental Factors Causing Loss Of Biodiversity ^3 Antillean Orchid Diversity ^ ORCHIDS IN THE WORLD OF THE INDIGENOUS TRIBES AND DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST 35 COURTLY CIRCLES AND OLD AND NEW WORLD INSTITUTIONS FOR NATURAL KNOWLEDGE The ‘Scientific Revolution 38 Early Italian institutions 38 Spanish precursors 39 The city of Leiden’sHortus Academicus 39 The Baconian method 40 Aristocatic Italian Academies 41 Leopoldina - The German Academy of Sciences 42 The Royal Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge 45 The Jardin du Roiand the Parisian Academie Royale des Sciences 47 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences 50 The Russian Academy of Sciences 50 The Spanish Royal Academy of Medicine and Natural Science 51 Scandinavian Science Academies 52 The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 53 The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters 54 The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters 54 The Science Academy of Lisbon 54 The Royal Irish Academy 55 New academies in central and eastern Europe during the early nineteenth century 55 The Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning 56 The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 56 The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters 56 The Austrian Academy of Sciences 57 LEARNED INSTITUTIONS AND FIRST EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS IN THE ANTILLES DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 57 Combermere School 58 Codrington College 58 Harrison College 59 Wolmer's 59 St. Jago High School 60 Rusea's High School 60 EARLY BOTANICAL GARDENS AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN THE CARIBBEAN 60 Jardin Royal des Plantes (Port-au-Prince) 60 The Cercle des Philadelphes 61 The Royal Botanical Garden in Martinique 61 The Botanic Garden of Saint Vincent 61 Lansdown Guilding 62 Alexander Anderson 63 The Society for the Encouragement of Natural History and (Barbados) Useful Arts 63 The Bath Botanical Garden 63 The Sociedad Patriötica de La Habana 64 The Botanic Garden of Christiansted and the West Indian Institute 64 Julius von Röhr 64 BOTANICAL PIONEERS OF THE 1 7th CENTURY 65 Jean-Baptiste de Tertre 66 William Hughes, the American Physitian 67 Henry Barham and his Hortus Americanus 68 The chocolate connection (the era of Sir Hans Sloane) 69 James Harlow 71 Arthur Rawdon 71 James Reed 71 William Sherard 72 The orchids of Sir Hans Sloane 74 Foundation of the British Museum 77 Queen Mary’s Gardener and Royal Professor 78 The orchids of Leonard Plukenet 80 Paradisus Batavus 80 The King’s Botanist 81 Guy Crescent Fagon 81 Denis Joncquet 81 Orchids in the works of Charles Plunder 85 Johannes Burman 85 Priest and Engineer: Jean-Baptiste Labat 90 THE 1 8th CENTURY AND THE COMING OF AGE OF BOTANY 93 Waiting for Linnaeus 96 The Bahamas' first naturalist 97 Orchids in Catesby’s Natural History 100 William Houstoun and Kew’s first neo-tropical Orchid 102 Peter Collinson 102 John Martyn 102 Phillip Miller 102 Mary Delany 105 Jean-Baptiste Rene Poupee-Desportes 106 The last of the ‘Polynomials’ 107 Patrick Browne’s orchids 108 The Flora Leydensis Prodomus 110 Carl Nilsson Linnaeus 112 Part II: From the Age of Reason to Spain’s ‘Ominous Decade’ 115 SPURIOUS CHARACTERS 116 Lorenz Wenceslas Kerckhove 118 Olaus Kjoeping 119 Friedrich Wilhelm Nascher 119 Isidore Charles Sigismond Nee 120 Stanislas Henri de la Ramie 120 Edouard Sylvie 120 Gaston Louis Thibaudin 121 Charles Louis Auguste Wallerton 122 THE AGE OF REASON 122 John Bartram 124 Schönbrunn’s Imperial Collector 125 Orchids in the work of Nikolaus von Jacquin 127 Julius von Röhr (bis) 131 Christian Georg Andreas Oldendorp 132 The Linnean Dissertations 133 Carl Gustaf Sandmark 133 Gabriel Elmgren 133 William Wright 134 Philibert Commerson 135 Sir Joseph Banks 136 Henri de Ponthieu 138 The Richard-Dinasty 138 The great Olof Swartz 141 The West Indian orchids of Olof Swartz 151 REVOLT, REVOLUTION AND TRANSITION - 1776-1837 153 The American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) 153 The French Revolution (1789-1799) 155 The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) 157 The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) 159 The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814) 159 Europe after the Congress of Vienna of 1815 161 SUPPORTING ACTORS IN THE LAST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY (IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE) 163 Francis Masson 164 Francis Goldney 165 Thomas Dancer 165 Johann Wilhelm Crudy 166 Arthur Broughton 166 Samuel Fahlberg 168 Alexander Anderson 170 Paul Erdmann Isert 171 Bengt Anders Euphrasen 173 Hans West 174 James Edward Smith 176 Muriel Barrington 177 Claude Terrasson 177 William Bligh 177 Doctor Pflug 178 Pierre-Antoine Poiteau 178 Richard Anthony Salisbury 179 Nicolas-Thomas Baudin and Anselme Riedle 180 Andre Pierre Ledru 182 Felix Louis L'Herminier and Ferdinand Joseph L’Herminier 183 John Ryan 183 Michael-Etienne Descqurtilz andJean-Theodore Descourtilz 184 Spanish expeditions in the Era of Enlightenment 185 The expedition of Martin de Sesse and Jose Estevez to Cuba and Puerto Rico (1794-1799) 186 The Royal Commission to Guantanamo (1796-1802) 188 The journeys of Humboldt and Bonpland to Cuba (1800-1801; 1804) 192 Carl Ludwig Willdenow 193 Carl Sigismund Kunth 193 THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY 194 WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER AND HIS COLLECTORS 194 James Wiles 196 Christopher Smith 197 Henry Distin 198 Eduard Freiherr von Schack (‘Baron de Schack’) 199 Charles Sandbach Parker 200 Rev. James Waters 201 Johan Eric Forsström 201 Edward Nathaniel Bancroft 202 John Lunan 203 William Hamilton 203 Nicaise Augustin Desvaux 204 Francois Richard de Tussac 204 Carlo Luigi Giuseppe Bertero 204 The Loddiges Nurseries 208 Mr. Miller 210 John Henry Lance 210 Ralph Woodford and David Lockhart: the foundation of the Botanic Gardens and Herbarium in Trinidad 211 Etienne Marie Denisse 214 Franz Wilhelm Sieber and his collectors 216 Franz Kohaut 216 Franz Wrbna 216 MINOR COLLECTORS DURING THE FIRST TWO DECADES OF THE CENTURY 217 Peder Eggert Benzon 217 Albert Heinrich Riise 217 Peter Ravn 218 Christian Krauss 219 Georges Guerrard Samuel Perrottet 219 Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link and Christoph Friedrich Otto 220 Jacob Webbe Tobin 220 THE BOTANICAL GARDEN OF HAVANA 222 Mariano Espinosa 222 Alejandro Ramirez 222 Jose Antonio de la Ossa 222 Ramön Dionisio de la Sagra y Peris 222 Achille Richard 224 Pedro Alejandro Auber 224 Auguste Plee,‘naturaliste voyageur du Rot 225 OTHER ACTORS IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 226 George Don 226 Eduard Friedrich Poeppig 227 James Macrae 229 Hans Baltazar Hornbeck 229 Dr. James MacFadyen 230 Lansdown Guilding 231 Charles Mackenzie 233 Heinrich Wydler 233 Benedict Pawlowitsch Jäger 234 Carl August Ehrenberg 234 Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk 235 Auguste Salle 237 Captain Robert Shuttleworth Sutton and Sir Charles Lemon 238 James Dottin Maycock 238 Friedrich Ernst Ludwig Fischer 239 Swainson 239 Franz Andreas Bauer 240 Dr. Thomas Nicholson 241 Dr. John Imray 241 John Cambell Lees 242 Part III: The Golden Age of Antillean Orchidology 245 TIMES OF CHANGE 245 Political and social changes during the first two thirds of the 19th century 245 Great Britain 246 France 246 Spain 247 The Netherlands 248 Scandinavia 248 The West Indies and the abolition of slavery 249 The development of modern orchidology 250 Robert Brown 250 John Lindley 251 Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach 251 Robert Allen Rolfe 251 Dr. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward 252 COLLECTORS AND BOTANISTS IN THE ANTILLES (1835-1850) 253 George Ure Skinner 253 James Read 254 Jean Jules Linden 254 Nicolas Funck 255 Auguste Boniface Ghiesbreght 255 Louis Joseph Schlim 255 Dr. Gilbert Macnab 257 Anders Sandoe Orsted 258 George Beauchamp Knowles and Frederic Westcott 259 Domingo de Goicuria 259 Carl Friedrich Eduard Otto 260 Johannes Christoph Gundlach 261 Adolph Steinheil 261 Madame Rivoire 262 Beaupertuis 262 Friedrich Ernst Leibold 262 John Stevens Henslow 262 J. Hoskin 263 A. W. Lane 263 Karl Theodor Hartweg 264 Hendrik Johannes Krebs 265 William Purdie 266 The Moravian Brotherhood 267 Johann Christian Breutel 267 Heinrich Rudolf Wullschlaegel 268 Adolphe Wilhelm Bernhard Uhde 269 Edward Bradford 270 Nathaniel Wilson 271 Carl Julius Mayerhoff 273 Christian Jacob Wolle 274 Victor Theophile Gibollet 274 Richard Chandler Alexander Prior 274 Ferdinand Ignatius Xavier Rugel 275 Sir Joseph Paxton 276 THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 277 Charles Darwin and his theories on evolution 277 COLLECTORS AND BOTANISTS IN THE ANTILLES (1850-1870) 279 Hippolyte Pierre Maze 279 A Beau 279 Edmond Placide Duchassaing de Fontbressin 279 Minor collectors in the early 1850s 280 Charles Salle 280 Segretain 280 Louis Alexandre Prenleloup 280 Robert Guppy 280 Bernhard Friedrich Blauner 280 Charles Paulus Belanger 281 Franz Josst 282 Theodore Stanley Heneken 283 Jose Blain y Cervantes 283 Francisco Adolfo Sauvalle 284 Charles Wright 284 Hermann Crueger 287 Carl Wilhelm Leopold Krug 288 William Thomas March 289 William Cooper 289 Robert Mackenzie Cross 290 Henry Prestoe 290 August Heinrich Rudolf Grisebach 290 Ludwig Hahn 292 Heinrich Wawra Ritter von Fernsee 293 Charles Home 293 Agustin Stahl 293 Antoine Düss 294 Axel Theodor von Goes 296 Pierre Tranquile Husnot 296 Louis Picarda 296 LOCAL SCIENCE IN
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