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Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing: Safety Tool Or Security Threat?

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Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing: Safety Tool or Security Threat? by Brian D. Green A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF LAWS (LL.M.) Institute of Air and Space Law McGill University Montréal, Québec December 2014 © Brian D. Green, 2014 Disclaimer Unless otherwise noted, the conclusions expressed herein are solely those of the author writing in his personal capacity. They are not intended and should not be construed to represent official ideas, attitudes, or policies of any agency of the United States Government. The author has used only information available to the public in the researching and presentation of this work. i Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without superb support from many people and institutions. I thank the Air Force Judge Advocate General’s (JAG) Corps for providing the opportunity to study at McGill University, including Lieutenant Colonels Kathryn Stengell and Daniel Olson for their letters of recommendation. I have also benefited greatly from the friendship, ideas, and comments of my JAG colleagues and debate partners in the program, Lieutenant Colonel Paul Dawson and Major Simone Davis. Major Sarah Mountin, our predecessor here, provided an outstanding orientation to the program and supplied many useful sources, as did Major Patrick Schwomeyer. Major Erik Mudrinich guided me to my topic, and provided amazing support towards my next Air Force assignment. Colonel (retired) James Rendleman provided a stellar final round of in-depth legal, technical, and historical feedback. Hearty thanks to you all! Along with Lieutenant Colonel Dawson, space moot court coach Andrea DiPaolo and fellow teammate Philippine Dumoulin provided invaluable insights into ITU regulations and public international law. Teaching Assistant Bethany Hastie and classmates Yu Takeuchi and Aleksandra Puścińska also provided valuable feedback on draft excerpts in class. Mr. Michel Bourbonnière of the Canadian Space Agency provided superb hospitality and insight into the application of the law of war in outer space. I sincerely appreciate the McGill Faculty of Law, Institute of Air and Space Law, and staff of Nahum Gelber Law Library for the wonderful teaching, resources, environment, and opportunities to learn. Merci beaucoup à Tante Donna et Scott Tankard, for translating my abstract into the French résumé! To my faculty advisor, Professor Ram Jakhu: thank you so much. It has been an honor and a privilege to learn space law from you in class and in our one-on-one and small-group discussions. Thank you for taking the time to review and comment on my drafts, and for your constant encouragement. Your recommendations helped to strengthen my thesis significantly. Finally, to my beloved wife Dol and our dear children Daniel, Samuel, and Sophia: thank you from the depths of my heart for your unending love, patience, and support. ii Abstract Space situational awareness (SSA), or practical knowledge about the space environment and human activities in it, has skyrocketed in importance as human use of outer space has expanded. When data that contribute to SSA, such as accurate and timely information on the positions of satellites, are shared internationally, it enhances space operators’ safety from accidental collisions such as the 2009 Iridium-Cosmos crash. However, the same information in the wrong hands could make satellites more vulnerable to intentional anti-satellite (ASAT) attack, which more and more States are able to launch. Both accidental and intentional satellite destructions can create clouds of fast-moving space debris that could threaten the future viability of human space activity. Therefore, States’ SSA data-sharing policies need to strike a proper balance between providing enough data to avoid accidents and providing details that expose it to the risk that enemies can use the information to successfully prosecute an ASAT attack. In light of this challenge, this thesis analyzes the history of ASAT threats and international SSA data sharing, existing treaties and laws concerning SSA data sharing, and proposals for improving SSA data sharing. It recommends that, in addition to adhering to existing treaties and promoting transparency and confidence-building measures, more States should implement an SSA data-sharing program similar to that of the United States. This program provides: (1) a public space object catalogue of moderate accuracy, with classified national security satellites screened out; (2) more detailed and accurate SSA data sharing via agreements with other States and commercial satellite owner-operators; and (3) warnings to any known satellite operator whenever a potential conjunction is detected. Enhanced international sharing can enhance space safety even while allowing States to limit distribution of sensitive data that might put their space assets at heightened risk of an ASAT attack. iii Résumé Le Space situational awareness (SSA), ou la connaissance situationnelle pratique sur l’environnement spatial et activités humaines dans l’espace, a connu un essor important avec le développement expansé de l’espace. Quand les données qui contribuent au SSA (en exemple des précisions sur les positions actualles des satellites) sont partagées internationalement, la sécurité des opérateurs spatiaux en est améliorée vis-à-vis des collisions accidentales comme le crash Iridium-Cosmos en 2009. Cependant, si ces mêmes données tombent entre de mauvaises mains, cela pourrait mettre les satellites en danger d’attaques intentionnelles anti-satellites (ASAT), car un nombre croissant d’États est en capacité de monter ce genre d’attaque. La destruction de satellites, accidentelles ou intentionnelles, génére des nuages de débris spatiaux qui se déplaçant à haute vitesse, et qui pourraient mettre en question la viabilité future de l’activité humaine dans l’espace. Par conséquent, il faut que les différents États politiques trouvent un équilibre concilient vis à vis le partage d’informations pour éviter les accidents, et à la fois limiter le partage des details qui pourraient faciliter des attaques ASAT de la part de leurs ennemis. À la lumière de ce défi, cette thèse fait une analyse portant sur l’histoire des menaces ASAT et du partage international d’informations SSA, sur les règles du droit international vis à vis le partage d’informations SSA, et sur plusieurs propositions visant à améliorer le partage international d’informations SSA. Par la suite, cette thèse recommande que les États continuant à adhérer aux traités actuels, et promouvoir des mesures de transparence et pour développer la confiance international. D’avantage plus les États pourraient mettre en oeuvre un programme de partage d’informations SSA semblable à celui des États-Unis. Ce programme prévoit: (1) un catalogue d’objets spatiaux publiques de précision raisonnable, sans satellites secrets, qui seront omis au intérêt de la sécurité nationale; (2) un partage d’informations SSA plus détaillé et plus iv exact, suite aux accords bilatéraux faits avec d’autres États et opérateurs du secteur privé; et (3) un programme pro-actif d’avertissement de collisions desservant tous les propriétaires d’objets spatiaux connus quand une conjonction potentielle est détectée. Ce système améliorera la sécurité spatiale tout en permettant aux États de garder secrètes des informations sensibles sur leurs satellites qui pourraient, le cas échéant, accroître le risque d’attaques ASAT contre leurs biens spatiaux. v Acronyms and Abbreviations ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile AFB Air Force Base AFSPC Air Force Space Command AGI Analytic Graphics, Inc. ASAT Anti-Satellite BBC British Broadcasting Company BMD Ballistic Missile Defense BR IFIC Bureau of Radiocommunications International Frequency Information Circular CFE Commercial and Foreign Entities COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space COSPAR Committee on Space Research CNN Cable News Network CSSI Center for Space Standards and Innovation CSpO Combined Space Operations DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DISA Defense Information Systems Agency DoD Department of Defense EMI Electromagnetic Interference ESA European Space Agency EU European Union EXA Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FOB Fractional-Orbital Bombardment GAO General Accounting Office GEO Geostationary Earth Orbit GEODSS Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Global Positioning System GSO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit GSSAP Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit GWU George Washington University HANE High-Altitude Nuclear Explosion HEMP High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit IADC Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ICBM Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile IGO Intergovernmental Organization ISON International Scientific Optical Network ISS International Space Station ITU International Telecommunication Union JAG Judge Advocate General JFCC SPACE Joint Functional Component Command for Space vi JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory JSpOC Joint Space Operations Center LEO Low Earth Orbit LOAC Law of Armed Conflict MEO Medium Earth Orbit MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NDAA National Defense Authorization Act NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command
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