BASIC COLOUR TERMS in ENGLISH an Examination of Their Use and Meaning in English Expressions

UNIVERSITEIT GENT

FACULTEIT LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE ______2006 – 2007

BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH An examination of their use and meaning in English expressions

Promotor: Verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Dr. M. Taverniers Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte voor het verkrijgen van de graad van licentiaat in de Taal- en Letterkunde: Germaanse talen,

door Loes Chielens

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. M. Taverniers and Prof. Dr. A-M. Vandenbergen for their advice on how to construct and develop this dissertation. I would also like to thank my family and friends who encouraged and supported me these last months.

Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 2 Aims of this study ...... 2 3 Survey of relevant literature...... 4 3.1 Metaphor, metonymy and simile ...... 4 3.1.1 Metaphor...... 4 3.1.2 Metonymy ...... 8 3.1.3 Simile ...... 11 3.2 Collocations and idioms...... 12 3.2.1 Collocations ...... 12 3.2.2 Idioms ...... 14 3.3 Basic Colour Terms ...... 18 4 Methodology...... 22 4.1 Collecting the data ...... 22 4.2 The analysis of meaning in the theory of cognitive linguistics...... 24 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms ...... 27 5.1 Classifying the data ...... 27 5.2 Black...... 34 5.2.1 NEGATIVE ...... 34 5.2.2 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 38 5.2.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 39 5.2.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 40 5.2.5 NATURE ...... 41 5.2.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 42 5.2.7 BODY ...... 42 5.2.8 DISEASES ...... 45 5.2.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 46 5.2.10 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 46 5.2.11 AS OPPOSED TO WHITE ...... 47 5.2.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 48 5.2.13 Conclusion ...... 48 5.3 White ...... 50 5.3.1 POSITIVE ...... 50 5.3.2 NEGATIVE ...... 51 5.3.3 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 53 5.3.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 55 5.3.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 55 5.3.6 NATURE ...... 56 5.3.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 57 5.3.8 BODY ...... 58 5.3.9 DISEASES ...... 60 ii

5.3.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 60 5.3.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 60 5.3.12 AS OPPOSED TO BLACK ...... 61 5.3.13 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 62 5.3.14 Conclusion ...... 63 5.4 Red ...... 65 5.4.1 POSITIVE ...... 65 5.4.2 NEGATIVE ...... 66 5.4.3 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 68 5.4.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 68 5.4.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 69 5.4.6 NATURE ...... 70 5.4.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 70 5.4.8 BODY ...... 71 5.4.9 DISEASES ...... 73 5.4.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 73 5.4.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 74 5.4.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 74 5.4.13 Conclusion ...... 75 5.5 Blue ...... 76 5.5.1 POSITIVE ...... 76 5.5.2 NEGATIVE ...... 76 5.5.3 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 77 5.5.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 78 5.5.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 78 5.5.6 NATURE ...... 79 5.5.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 79 5.5.8 BODY ...... 80 5.5.9 DISEASES ...... 81 5.5.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 82 5.5.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 82 5.5.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 82 5.5.13 Conclusion ...... 83 5.6 Green...... 84 5.6.1 POSITIVE ...... 84 5.6.2 NEGATIVE ...... 84 5.6.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 85 5.6.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 86 5.6.5 NATURE ...... 86 5.6.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 87 5.6.7 BODY ...... 88 5.6.8 DISEASES ...... 88 5.6.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 89 5.6.10 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS/OBJECTS ...... 89

iii

5.6.11 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 89 5.6.12 Conclusion ...... 90 5.7 Yellow ...... 91 5.7.1 NEGATIVE ...... 91 5.7.2 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 92 5.7.3 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 92 5.7.4 NATURE ...... 93 5.7.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 93 5.7.6 BODY ...... 93 5.7.7 DISEASES ...... 94 5.7.8 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 94 5.7.9 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 94 5.7.10 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 95 5.7.11 Conclusion ...... 95 5.8 Brown...... 96 5.8.1 POSITIVE ...... 96 5.8.2 NEGATIVE ...... 96 5.8.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 97 5.8.4 NATURE ...... 97 5.8.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 97 5.8.6 BODY ...... 98 5.8.7 DISEASES ...... 98 5.8.8 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 98 5.8.9 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 99 5.8.10 Conclusion ...... 99 5.9 Purple ...... 100 5.9.1 POSITIVE ...... 100 5.9.2 NEGATIVE ...... 100 5.9.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 101 5.9.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 101 5.9.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 101 5.9.6 BODY ...... 102 5.9.7 DISEASES ...... 102 5.9.8 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 102 5.9.9 Conclusion ...... 103 5.10 Pink...... 104 5.10.1 POSITIVE ...... 104 5.10.2 NEGATIVE ...... 104 5.10.3 RACE /ETHNICITY ...... 104 5.10.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 105 5.10.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 105 5.10.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 106 5.10.7 BODY ...... 106 5.10.8 DISEASES ...... 106

5.10.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING ...... 106 5.10.10 GENDER ...... 107 5.10.11 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 108 5.10.12 Conclusion ...... 108 5.11 Orange...... 109 5.11.1 HISTORY /POLITICAL ...... 109 5.11.2 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 109 5.11.3 DISEASES ...... 110 5.11.4 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 110 5.11.5 Conclusion ...... 110 5.12 Grey...... 111 5.12.1 NEGATIVE ...... 111 5.12.2 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 111 5.12.3 NATURE ...... 112 5.12.4 FABRIC /CLOTHING ...... 112 5.12.5 BODY ...... 112 5.12.6 DISEASES ...... 113 5.12.7 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS ...... 113 5.12.8 BETWEEN BLACK & WHITE ...... 113 5.12.9 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED ...... 114 5.12.10 Conclusion ...... 114 6 Conclusion...... 115 Dictionaries consulted ...... 117 References ...... 119 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions...... 122 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions ...... 163 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion...... 186 Appendix 4. The colour spectrum, with black and white added ..... 192

Typographical conventions

Citations: double quotes: “…”

Cognitive metaphors/metonymies: caps: LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Emphasis: bold face: emphasis

Examples: numbered: (1) , (2) , etc. in full text: italics: white lie

Meanings/significations: single quotes: ‘…’

Semantic classes: small caps: POSITIVE , NEGATIVE , NATURE , etc.

Abbreviations of consulted dictionaries

English dictionaries

CALD Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary CCEDAL Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners CDAE Cambridge Dictionary of American English DJ Dictionary of Jargon LDCE Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English OED Oxford English Dictionary HIDEL The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English NODE The New Oxford Dictionary of English WDI The Wordsworth Dictionary of Idioms TTEM Thesaurus of Traditional English Metaphors Dutch dictionaries

AKVH Als de kat van huis is...: 4000 spreekwoorden, gezegden en uitdrukkingen HSG Huizinga’s spreekwoorden en gezegden: herkomst, verklaring en vergelijking met Frans, Duits en Engels NSSUG Nederlandsche spreekwoorden, spreekwijzen, uitdrukkingen en gezegden SN Spreekwoordelijk Nederlands VDGW Van Dale Groot Woordenboek – Nederlands Engels VDHN Van Dale Hedendaags Nederlands VDIW Van Dale Idioom Woordenboek VZNT Verklarend Zakwoordenboek der Nederlandse Taal WNT Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal WUCKS Woordenboek van populaire uitdrukkingen, clichés, kreten en slogans

vii 1 Introduction

1 Introduction

I have a general interest in what can be expressed by language, especially the elaborate meanings that can be evoked by combinations of simple words and the use of expressions in general. When I read Dr. Taverniers’ list of possible topics for dissertations, I came upon the suggestion of examining colour terms in metaphors and idioms. It immediately appealed to me. Dr. Taverniers advised me to start by reading a doctoral dissertation by Anders Steinvall, English Colour Terms in Context (2002), to help me determine what I would do in my study. Prof. Dr. Vandenbergen further advised me on which approach I could follow and how I could structure my dissertation.

Steinvall’s work is a study on a collection of English colour terms in context with other linguistic units. His overall aim was to describe and analyse a number of aspects of the semantics of English colour terms within the framework of cognitive linguistics. These colour terms were looked at in an extensive language corpus, the Bank of English. Steinvall’s focus was on the processes involved when the meaning of colour terms is extended from the prototype. Although this study provides very important and useful insights, my interest leans more towards why certain colour terms are used in expressions and what meanings can be expressed by them.

My study is thus very different from Steinvall’s work. First of all, it is by no means as elaborate as Steinvall’s study is. Furthermore, his study is limited to English colour terms whereas I have included colour terms in English expressions as well as mentioned some Dutch expressions. Thirdly, Steinvall collected his data mainly from a language corpus, whereas my expressions were collected from several dictionaries. I have thus not extended from the prototype. Even though Steinvall’s study is based on colour terms in context, overall it remains a very theoretical work. My approach is more practical and focuses on the examination of the use and meaning of colour terms in a number of concrete expressions.

1 2 Aims of this study

2 Aims of this study

Once the data was collected and the approach determined, I proceeded with my study. The overall aim of my study is to examine the use and meanings of colour terms in English expressions. This entails that I will look at why a particular colour name is used to express a certain meaning and which meanings can be expressed by it . The colour terms occur in different linguistic structures. Several of these will be discussed since they can also shed a light on why a particular colour name is used and how the meaning is expressed.

I have mentioned that Steinvall’s study is not contrastive. Although my study cannot be seen as contrastive either, some Dutch expressions will be mentioned nonetheless. These Dutch examples are meant to give a fuller picture. My aim is not to fully discuss the Dutch data and compare these expressions to the English ones. Dutch expressions are mentioned as extra information where they are relevant. One reason for this is that much more English expressions were gathered, thus making it rather difficult to make a well-founded comparison between English and Dutch expressions. It appears that Dutch dictionaries do not include as many expressions with colour terms as English dictionaries (especially the Oxford English Dictionary , henceforth OED) do. Appendix 2, which includes the list of the gathered Dutch data, is thus mostly illustration. Appendix 1 however, the English data, is more elaborate and will be the focus of my study, which is based on the examination and discussion of a large number of the expressions in this list.

Since the number of collected English expressions is rather high, not all of the gathered expressions can be discussed. I have selected what I felt were relevant, important or interesting examples. These are personal choices. This also implies that not every single possible meaning that can be expressed by a particular colour name is discussed. However, I have tried to select and discuss examples that express salient and relevant meanings that are evoked by the use of a certain colour name.

2 2 Aims of this study

This dissertation has the following structure. Chapter 3 , Survey of relevant literature , is a way of contextualising my study. The theoretical framework set out in this chapter fits in with cognitive linguistics. As mentioned, my focus is not on the linguistic structure in which the colour terms occur. However, they can nonetheless be important in figuring out why colour terms are used and which meanings are expressed by them. I will therefore review the concepts of metaphor, metonymy, simile, collocation and idiom. An example of metaphoric use is the green eye . Metonymical expressions include examples such as a pink or bluestocking . A lot of similes occur as well, for example white as milk . Collocations include examples such as black coffee . An expression that can qualify as an idiom is red herring . The discussion of these concepts will be followed by an explanation on the eleven basic colour terms as distinguished by Berlin & Kay (1969). These eleven basic colour terms are the only ones taken into account in my study.

In chapter 4 , Methodology , I will first elaborate on how I collected the data used in my study. I will then explain the two perspectives in the analysis of meaning in the theory of cognitive linguistics and say which one I will be using.

Chapter 5 contains the largest part of this dissertation: The use and meaning of basic colour terms . I will first explain how I classified the gathered data. This classification is necessary to make a further interpretation possible. This will be followed by the actual discussion of the use and meaning of the eleven basic colour terms in English expressions. This discussion is based on the examination of concrete expressions and follows the classifications that I made. Black and white will be discussed first. These two colour terms take up a considerable part of this chapter. Then red, blue, green and yellow are examined. The last colour terms to be discussed are brown, orange, pink, purple and grey. Their discussion is not as elaborate as that of the other colour terms.

3 3 Survey of relevant literature

3 Survey of relevant literature

In this chapter, I will review some of the most important literature on the subjects of metaphor, metonymy, idioms, collocations and basic colour terms. I have included a small chapter on similes as well, since this type of expression occurs quite often in the data used in my study. This chapter is by no means meant to give a full account of what can be found on the subjects mentioned above. The amount of literature treating these subjects is vast, so I decided to limit the discussion to the most salient theories and well- known authors. Some of the information has become so standard that it may even seem redundant. However, I have included what I think is necessary to get a theoretical framework in which I can situate my further study.

3.1 Metaphor, metonymy and simile

3.1.1 Metaphor

But the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor (Poetics 1459a); ordinary words convey only what we know already; it is from metaphor that we can best get hold of something fresh (Rhetoric 1410b) (Aristotle, in Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 190)

Ricoeur (1994: 3) said that Aristotle defined metaphor for the entire subsequent history of Western thought, on the basis of a semantics that takes the word or the name as its basic unit. Long before Ricoeur, and long after him, numerous scholars have done research on and studied the concept of metaphor. There is now so much to say about the subject that it is hard to know where to begin. An extensive discussion of the concept of metaphor and its history can be found in Metaphor and Metaphorology: A selective genealogy of philosophical and linguistic conceptions of metaphor from Aristotle to the 1980s by Taverniers (2001). I will nevertheless try to point out some of the most important aspects regarding metaphors. A starting point could be the definition given in the OED:

A figure of speech in which a name or descriptive word or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogous to, that to which it is literally applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression. Cf. METONYMY n., SIMILE n. (OED)

4 3 Survey of relevant literature

The OED suggests there are similarities between metaphor and metonymy and metaphor and simile. Although essentially they are different kinds of processes, some similarity between metaphor and metonymy can be seen. Metonymy and simile will be explained in 3.1.2 and 3.1.3.

As Kövecses (1986: 8-9) explains, there exists a vast literature on metaphors, which contains a large number of rival theories in which two main trends can be distinguished. One trend views metaphor as a linguistic means of describing certain preexisting similarities between two things in the world. This can be called the “traditional or classical view” of metaphor. The other major trend is the “interactional view”, which emphasises that in many cases metaphors are conceptual devices used for understanding or creating reality, rather than merely describing it. Kövecses’ three case studies about the concepts of love, anger and pride, clearly favour the latter view.

This latter view became standard through the work of Lakoff and Johnson, mainly through the publication of Metaphors we live by (1980), but also through The Body in the Mind (Johnson 1987) and Women, fire and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind (Lakoff 1987). My study will follow the cognitive approach as set out by them. Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 270) explain that metaphor theory is a central subdiscipline of the field of cognitive linguistics, which seeks to provide explanatory foundations for conceptual systems and language in the general study of the brain and the mind. Cognitive linguistics is one of the few current theories of linguistics to have given a place to the body in the mind, thought, meaning and reason. One of the most important points made by Lakoff and Johnson is the following:

The primary function of metaphor is to provide a partial understanding of one kind of experience in terms of another kind of experience. This may involve preexisting isolated similarities, the creation of new similarities, and more. (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 154)

Metaphorical use essentially is “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 5). These two “things” are conceptual domains . These domains are conceptual because metaphor is not merely a matter of language, it is a matter of conceptual structure. Furthermore, conceptual structure is not merely a matter of the intellect – it involves all the natural dimensions of our experience, including aspects of our sense experiences: colour, shape, texture, sound, etc. (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 235). The conceptual metaphor is seen as “the 5 3 Survey of relevant literature key sticking point” in Metaphors we live by (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 273). The conceptual domains show a relationship of mapping between them: one domain is mapped onto another. These domains are called the source domain and the target domain (Taverniers 2001: 127). A source domain is mapped onto a target domain, or in other words, a target domain is understood in terms of a source domain (Taverniers 2001: 140). What will be projected upon the target domain is aspects which belong to our cultural knowledge of the source domain, “commonplaces” associated with the source domain (Taverniers 2001: 184). Furthermore, the mapping from a source onto a target domain is partial. If it were not so, one concept would actually be the other (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 13). Which elements from the cultural knowledge of the source domain get picked up to play a role in the mapping, depends upon the interaction between the two different domains (Taverniers 2001: 185). Lakoff and Johnson formulate it as follows:

In a metaphor, there are two domains: the target domain, which is constituted by the immediate subject matter, and the source domain, in which important metaphorical reasoning takes place and that provides the source concepts used in that reasoning. Metaphorical language has literal meaning in the source domain. In addition, a metaphoric mapping is multiple, that is, two or more elements are mapped to two or more other elements. Image-schemata structure is preserved in the mapping – interiors of containers map to interiors, exteriors map to exteriors; sources of motion to sources, goals to goals, and so on. (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 265)

Because the source domain is used to come to an understanding of a target domain, the source domain itself must be easily understood. Source domains therefore mostly are image-schematic concepts (Taverniers 2001: 184). An image-schema is a “recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience” (Johnson 1987: xiv). Johnson gives the VERTICALITY schema as an example. It emerges from our tendency to employ an UP-DOWN orientation in picking out meaningful structures of our experience (Johnson 1987: xiv). This schema can be summarised as ‘up is good’ and ‘down is bad’. Other well-known schemata are the CONTAINER schema, the PATH schema, the BALANCE schema, etc. (Johnson 1987: 126). Pauwels and Simon-Vandenbergen (1995) give a list of the most pervasive schemata and further explain their use with regard to linguistic action. Johnson argues that we need a pattern to order our actions, perceptions, and conceptions. He defines an image schema as “a recurrent pattern, shape, and regularity in, or of, these ongoing ordering activities” (Johnson 1987: 27). 6 3 Survey of relevant literature

These patterns emerge as meaningful structures for us chiefly at the level of our bodily movements through space, our manipulation of objects, and our perceptual interactions (Johnson 1987: 29).

Certain concepts are structured almost entirely metaphorically. Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980: 85) example is LOVE: LOVE IS A JOURNEY, LOVE IS A PATIENT, LOVE IS A PHYSICAL FORCE, etc. Kövecses (1986: 5) mentions the metaphor LOVE IS A NUTRIENT. He explains how Lakoff and Johnson claim that the primary function of metaphor is to understand difficult, complex, abstract, or less clearly delineated concepts. This works by trying to understand such a concept (LOVE, for example) in terms of another, less complicated, physical, or more clearly delineated concept (for example, NUTRIENT). The concept we try to understand (LOVE) is called the target domain, and the concept which is used for this purpose (NUTRIENT) is called the source domain. Examples of this metaphor are He hungered for love , She’s starved for affection , He thrives on love , etc. Thus metaphor has as its primary function the cognitive role of understanding one concept in terms of another.

An important remark on the use of image schemata for metaphorisation was made by Pauwels and Simon-Vandenbergen. This remark is very relevant to my study, as the expressions that are discussed sometimes depend on very specific domains of experience.

[T]he image schematic approach to metaphorisation is essential, both for establishing links between metaphorical expressions originating within a particular domain and for generalising over domains. However, some metaphors seem to work only on this most general level, while others, though ultimately based on image schemata, depend more directly on very specific domains of experience. (Pauwels and Simon-Vandenbergen 1995: 67)

Kövecses (1987: 118-119) makes a distinction between primary and secondary metaphorisation. The former, in which the source domain is more physical than the target domain, is motivated by the cognitive function of understanding the more abstract in terms of the more concrete. This is possible because physical domains usually have a clearer structure than abstract domains. However, by virtue of structuring abstract domains in terms of metonymies and metaphors (which involve physical domains), we also get a fairly clear understanding of the abstract domains. These abstract domains that are structured and understood in this way can in turn be used to structure and

7 3 Survey of relevant literature understand further the physical domains that were originally employed to structure and understand the abstract ones. Kövecses calls this process “secondary metaphorisation”. His example of a primary metaphor is ANGER IS A STORM, the secondary metaphor is A STORM IS AN ANGRY PERSON. Such a secondary metaphor would have a more literary flavour and thus there is less emphasis on the cognitive function of understanding. Nevertheless, the processes of primary and secondary metaphorization can be seen as mutually enriching our understanding of the world. Domain A is used to understand domain B and consequently B can be used to understand A. Thus, expressed in purely cognitive terms, metaphors help us to understand and grasp certain aspects of reality (Taverniers 2001: 184).

In his study, Kövecses (1986: 120) shows that the structure of at least some concepts can be seen as having four parts: a system of conceptual metonymies, a system of conceptual metaphors, a set of related concepts and one or maybe more prototypical cognitive models with their several variants. He does not claim however, that all concepts have this level of complexity. Lakoff and Johnson already included the point Kövecses makes here:

[…] it seems to me that it is mostly abstract, less clearly delineated concepts that are elaborately structured in terms of metaphors and metonymies, and that familiar and relatively clearly structured concepts, which typically denote physical phenomena, would lack these (metaphorical and metonymical) aspects of conceptual structure. […] This difference in the structure of abstract and concrete concepts follows naturally from the cognitive functions of metaphor and metonymy as explained by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). Since metaphors and to a lesser degree also metonymies are primarily used for the purposes of understanding less clearly- structured domains in terms of more clearly-structured domains, we do not so much need metaphors and metonymies in the comprehension of more clearly- structured areas of experience. (Kövecses 1986: 120)

In sum, “[m]etaphor is one of our most important tools for trying to comprehend partially what cannot be comprehended totally: our feelings, aesthetic experiences, moral practices, and spiritual awareness” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 193).

3.1.2 Metonymy

The explanation of metonymy also fits into the cognitive framework as used by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). Metonymy means we are using one entity to refer to another that is related to it. The best known example of this is “The ham sandwich is

8 3 Survey of relevant literature waiting for his check” in which ham sandwich refers to the customer who ordered this sandwich (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 35).

The OED defines metonymy as:

Rhetoric. (A figure of speech characterized by) the action of substituting for a word or phrase denoting an object, action, institution, etc., a word or phrase denoting a property or something associated with it; an instance of this. In extended use: a thing used or regarded as a substitute for or symbol of something else. Also (esp. in Linguistics and Literary Theory): the process of semantic association involved in producing and understanding a metonymy. Because the association involved in metonymy is typically by contiguity rather than similarity, metonymy is often contrasted with metaphor. (OED)

Again, as with the definition of metaphor, the link between metaphor and metonymy is mentioned in the OED. Lakoff and Johnson (in Taverniers 2001: 138) also show attention for this link by explaining there are two domains in a metaphor: the target and the source domain. Metonymical models can actually be seen as special cases of metaphorical ones: similar to metaphors, where a source domain stands for a target domain, in a metonymy a part stands for a whole or another element with which this part forms a whole. In a metonymy however, there is only one domain: the immediate subject matter. So there is only one mapping here; typically the metonymic source maps to the metonymic target (the referent) so that one item in the domain can stand for the other (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 265). In both cases, one entity is being used to refer to another. However, metaphor and metonymy are different kinds of processes. Whereas metaphor is principally a way of conceiving one thing in terms of another and has understanding as its primary function, metonymy primarily has a referential function. It allows us to use one entity to stand for another. Nevertheless, metonymy also serves the function of providing understanding (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 36). Metonymy is also like metaphor in that it is not just a poetic or rhetorical device. Metonymic concepts are part of the ordinary, everyday way we think and act as well as talk (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 37). Thus, the structure of a metonymy can be represented as … STANDS FOR … whereas that of metaphor would be … IS … This latter representation is supported by Ricoeur’s (1994: 7) explanation of the ‘place’ of metaphor, which cannot be applied to metonymy. This ‘place’ is neither the name, nor the sentence, nor even discourse, but the copula of the verb to be . The metaphorical ‘is’ at once signifies both ‘is not’ and ‘is like’.

9 3 Survey of relevant literature

Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 265) mention that “in both cases there is a conceptual mapping which has a reflection in language: a linguistic expression with meaning A expressing meaning B”. However, as mentioned, metaphor and metonymy essentially entail different processes. In the afterword of Metaphors we live by as printed in 2003, Lakoff and Johnson clearly explain the difference between the two:

[O]ne must determine how the expression is used. Do the two domains form a single, complex subject matter in use with a single mapping? If so, you have metonymy. Or, can the domains be separate in use, with a number of mappings and with one of the domains forming the subject matter (the target domain), while the other domain (the source) is the basis of significant inference and a number of linguistic expressions? If this is the case, then you have metaphor. (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 267)

According to Steinvall (2002: 53), the difference resides in the conceptual distance between target and source. Metaphor is mapping between domains, whereas metonymy is a process which operates within a conceptual domain. The difference also lies in the ability of metonymy to focus more specifically on certain aspects of what is being referred to (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 37). In fact, the grounding of metonymic concepts is in general more obvious than is the case with metaphoric concepts, since it usually involves direct physical or causal associations (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 39).

Another important aspect of metonymic concepts is that they emerge from correlations in our experience between two physical entities (e.g., part for whole, object for user) or between a physical entity and something metaphorically conceptualised as a physical entity, e.g., the place for the event, the institution for the person responsible (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 59).

Markert and Nissim (2003: 176) also mention some interesting characteristics of metonymies. One of these is that metonymic readings are very systematic. For example, location names can be productively used to refer to an associated event. Linguistic studies therefore postulated conventionalised metonymic patterns that operate on semantic classes. A well-known pattern is that of place-for-institution. Examples are The White House isn’t saying anything or Paris is introducing shorter skirts this season (Lakoff 1987: 77). Other patterns include place-for-event, object-for-people, place-for- inhabitants, place-for-product, etc. My study will include the pattern colour-for-person. Examples of this are a red , a pinko , a black , a blue . In these metonymies, a person with

10 3 Survey of relevant literature a certain skin colour or political opinion is referred to as a whole by the colour of their skin or the colour associated with certain political opinions.

3.1.3 Simile

The OED defines a simile as “a comparison of one thing with another, esp. as an ornament in poetry or rhetoric” (OED). We can already see here that similes are usually associated with poetic use. The dictionary also refers to the use of the word in the sense of likeness, resemblance and similarity.

In poetry, similes are described as explicit comparisons, indicated by words such as ‘as’, ‘like’, ‘as … as’, ‘more… than’ (Buelens et al. 2003: 20). Because they are usually seen in a poetic context, similes appear not to be elaborated on in most grammar books. Simile can be contrasted with metaphor, which in poetry is described as an implicit comparison, as the transfer of meaning on the basis of a similarity (Buelens et al. 2003: 20).

To Aristotle, metaphor was superior to simile even though both concern a transference of one term onto another, on the basis of analogy. Aristotle found the simile less attractive because it is longer than metaphor and does not say outright that ‘this’ is ‘that’. In his view, metaphor is not only more lively than simile, it is also more instructive (Taverniers 2001: 43). Nevertheless, since they elaborately make use of colour terms, many similes are also included in my study.

11 3 Survey of relevant literature

3.2 Collocations and idioms

3.2.1 Collocations

A collocation, as well as an idiom, is generally defined as a multi-word expression. The definition in the OED runs as follows:

The action of setting in a place or position, esp. of placing together with, or side by side with, something else; disposition or arrangement with, or in relation to, others; the state of being so placed. Frequently applied to the arrangement of words in a sentence, of sounds, etc. Linguistics. The habitual juxtaposition or association, in the sentences of a language, of a particular word with other particular words; a group of words so associated. (OED)

The OSTI-report by Sinclair, Jones and Daley (2004: 20) represents the earliest empirical research into collocation, as it was one of the first examinations of a body of language for collocational information. It involves innovative techniques such as the use of computers in linguistics and the compilation of the world’s first electronic corpus of spoken language (Sinclair et al. 2004: xiv). Several types of texts were under investigation: “the spoken text”, written English in the “Brown University text”, scientific language in “the scientific text” and two literary texts referred to as the “synthetic texts” (Sinclair et al. 2004: 18). Collocation is defined as “the co-occurrence of two items in a text within a specified environment”. Furthermore, a distinction is made between two types; significant collocation and casual collocation. The former is a regular collocation between two items, such that they co-occur more than their respective frequencies, and the length of text in which they appear, would predict. The latter refers to a “non-significant” collocation (Sinclair et al. 2004: 10). Sinclair et al. (2004: 10) also introduce the terms node and collocate. The node is defined as an item of which the total pattern of co-occurrence with other words is under examination. A collocate is any one of the items which appears with the node within the specified span. The span has to be understood as the amount of text within which collocation between items is said to occur. There is no difference in status between node and collocate. Word A can be a node and word B one of its collocates, but when word B is studied as a node, word A will be one of its collocates. This approach is very different from my study, but Sinclair et al. nevertheless contribute a great deal to the general interpretation of collocations, whether they are found in corpora or in dictionaries. Dictionaries actually

12 3 Survey of relevant literature do include a wide variety of collocations. A number of these can be found in my study, such as go/turn green , see red , etc.

Collocations are a combination of lexical words which frequently co-occur (in texts). Examples are little + baby, small + amount, make + (a) + mistake (Biber et al. 2002: 455). Collocation refers to the relationship between two or more independent words which commonly appear together. Adjectives like broad and wide , for example, are similar in meaning, but occur in very different collocations: e.g. broad accent, broad agreement, broad daylight, broad grin, broad shoulders, etc.; wide appeal, wide area, wide experience, wide interests, wide margin, etc. (Biber et al. 2002: 18). Collocation is thus used in the sense of ‘the company words keep’. Words generally co-occur in groups that conform to grammatical and semantic usage. While the majority of collocations in a language are ad hoc, some are habitual, they recur. These habitual co- occurrences, along with idioms, exemplify the idiom principle (Fernando 1996: 250). I will elaborate on this principle in 3.2.2.

Kövecses (1986: 129-130) refers to collocation or collocability as “the problem of which words can combine with a given word”. He distinguishes the term from polysemy by explaining that polysemy involves the different senses of a word, whereas collocation involves the set of different words that a particular word can combine with. According to Kövecses, the basic issue concerning collocation is how we can characterise the mechanism by which a certain word selects a set of other words as ‘collocational partners’? The answer then, would depend on which school of linguistics one belongs to.

The Firthian school maintains that collocation is a matter of lexical items and not a matter of the meanings of lexical items, although the set of collocations a word has forms a part of, or is one level of the meaning of that item. That is, this school correctly recognizes that one item collocates with a number of other items and that this is an important aspect of meaning, but offers no explanation of the mechanism that may govern the selection of some items rather than others. (Kövecses 1986: 130)

The other approach maintains

[…] that word A can collocate with word B if a feature ‘c’ found in the meaning of word A is also present in the meaning of word B or the feature ‘c’ can be transferred from A to B without causing a clash of features in B. (Kövecses 1986: 130)

13 3 Survey of relevant literature

Kövecses (1986: 131) appears to prefer the first school because he finds the second approach an inadequate and ad hoc way of handling collocation. His claim is that “the collocational range of a word is in part determined by which other concepts the word (more precisely, the corresponding concept) is used to conceptualise”. Collocation thus involves the way in which our conceptual system functions and is not limited to the semantic properties of individual words (Kövecses 1986: 135).

3.2.2 Idioms

The OED defines an idiom as

A form of expression, grammatical construction, phrase, etc., peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of a language, and often having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one. (OED)

Fernando (1996: 1) argues that idioms are hardly marginal in English. They are often non-literal, but not always. She sums up the most frequently mentioned features of idioms:

1. Compositeness: idioms are commonly accepted as a type of multi-word expression ( red herring, make up, smell a rat, the coast is clear , etc.)

2. Institutionalisation: idioms are conventionalised expressions, conventionalisation being the end result of initially ad hoc , and in this sense novel, expressions.

3. Semantic opacity: the meaning of an idiom is not the sum of its constituents. In other words, an idiom is often non-literal.

As mentioned above, idioms, as well as collocations, are generally described as multi-word expressions. They are sequences of orthographic words that function as a single grammatical unit (Biber et al. 2002: 18). Fernando (1996: 4) mentions the objection by Makkai to requiring an idiom to have at least two independent lexical items since that excludes expressions consisting of one free form and one or more bound forms added by affixation. Makkai explains that the grammar provides adequate decoding rules for such types. Such forms however are not relevant in my study so I will not elaborate on this objection and follow the standard definition of an idiom as a fixed expression with a meaning that cannot be determined from the individual parts. Examples are kick the bucket, or verb expressions such as fall in love or make up (one’s) mind. 14 3 Survey of relevant literature

The boundary between idioms and freely chosen combinations is not always clear (Biber et al. 2002: 457). Fernando (1996: 12) mentions semi-idioms, a term used to point to the difficulty of drawing a sharp dividing line between idioms and non-idioms. Idiomaticity does not appear in the same degree in all multi-word expressions. These expressions can range from those that qualify as pure idioms through semi-idioms to various types of collocations with marginal idiomatic status (Fernando 1996: 16). This gradation calls for a scale of idiomaticity. Even though my study is based on attested examples collected from several dictionaries, it can still be difficult to determine whether an expression qualifies as a freely chosen combination or as a habitual collocation. Habitual co-occurrence produces idiomatic expressions and most examples have become conventionalised. However, only those expressions which become conventionally fixed in a specific order and lexical form, or have only a restricted set of variants, acquire the status of idioms and are recorded in idiom dictionaries (Fernando 1996: 31). This process of conventionalisation can be explained as arising from the peculiar uses of particular words, and also particular phrases or turns of expression which, from long usage, have become stereotyped in English (McMordie, in Fernando 1996: 9). Conventionalisation can also be seen through the Saussurian langue/parole dichotomy, as was done by Roberts:

[I]ndividual creativity ( parole ) becomes in time part of the common system of elements ( langue ) that comprise a language. Every idiom is the result of a personal innovation at a particular point in time. An expression created in this way could then be adopted by the community, an institutionalization, to become part of the vocabulary of that speech community. (Roberts, in Fernando 1996: 18 [italics original])

It is clear that there are no clear border-lines on the scale of idiomaticity. Idiomatic status does not necessarily entail that an expression can qualify as an idiom. Deciding which expression qualifies as a habitual or even conventionalised co- occurrence and which expression has full idiomatic status is not easy to determine. An example like black coffee may illustrate this. It occurs in most dictionaries as a fixed multi-word expression. However, Fernando (1996: 30) argues it cannot be an idiom since it is relatively unrestricted in its adjectival and nominal variants. Apart from black coffee , there also are expressions such as white coffee , strong coffee , Irish coffee , etc. However, there is still some limitation when it comes to the adjectives that can be combined with coffee . Coffee can for example be strong , but not powerful , it can be Irish , but not British (Fernando 1996: 36). So not all word combinations showing 15 3 Survey of relevant literature idiomaticity can be considered idioms, many are conventional ad hoc collocations. To qualify as an idiom, the expression has to be an indivisible unit whose components cannot be varied or varied only within definable limits. The words of an idiom are usually not recombinable (Fernando 1996: 30). Black coffee would thus appear to be a conventional collocation rather than an expression with full idiomatic status on the scale of idiomaticity.

I have already mentioned the term semi-idiom. Apart from this subclass, there are two more subclasses within idioms: pure idioms and literal idioms. Fernando (1996: 38) defines pure idioms as a type of conventionalised, non-literal multi-word expression, such as spill the beans , which does not literally refer to the activity described. The often quoted example red herring also qualifies as a pure idiom. Pure idioms have lost the meaning of their constituent words over time. An external meaning is imposed on the unit as a whole. The literal meaning refers to the use of pickled herrings being used to throw hounds off the scent in a fox hunt whereas the present signification can be described as ‘something which is used to deliberately draw attention away from the truth or from what is important in a situation’, ‘decoy’, ‘misleading diversion’ (Fernando 1996: 115-116).

The second subclass, semi-idioms, has one or more literal constituents and at least one with a non-literal subsense. Lexical variation may appear in some semi-idioms; for example with blue in the sense of ‘obscene’, which can co-occur with film , joke , etc. Another well-known example of an expression that can qualify as a semi-idiom occurring in my study is white lie . It is a multi-word expression, which has become conventionalised. Also, the meaning is not the sum of its constituents. White lie includes a non-literal and a literal component, but the overall meaning is clearly non-literal and thus figurative. It is semantically opaque, as are pure idioms. There is also no such thing as a red lie or a grey lie , so the components appear not to be variable. The third subclass, literal idioms, is less semantically complex than pure and semi-idioms but meets the salient criterion for idioms; invariance or restricted variation (Fernando 1996: 36).

According to Fernando (1996: 42), short expressions that are easily remembered are the commonest. There are no idioms that consist of more than two subordinating clauses, which explains why an original expression such as draw/trail a red herring

16 3 Survey of relevant literature across the path/track was shortened to the idiom red herring . This truncated form has become the norm (Fernando 1996: 51).

To Roberts (in Fernando 1996: 18), idioms are idioms because they are peculiar to one language in contrast to another and as such serve as a mirror of its cognitive design accounting for interlingual differences in usage. This is similar to the claim made by Sinclair et al. (2004: 92), who refer to idioms as phrases which cannot be translated literally into another language. Other definitions of an idiom given in this work are: “a sequence of words in a fixed order, occurring very commonly in the language”, “words in collocation in an invariable grammatical form and/or relationship”, “words in a grammatical relationship which would not be correct for other words of the same general class” and “a phrase with a meaning and pattern of collocation which would not be expected from the meaning of its constituent parts” (Sinclair et al. 2004: 91-92).

17 3 Survey of relevant literature

3.3 Basic Colour Terms

In his study, Steinvall (2002: 15) talks about research accepting the general basis of the well-known Berlin & Kay theory and research that rejects the whole premise of their theory. Since the findings of Berlin & Kay are widely accepted today I will not talk about the research that rejects the premise. Steinvall provides plenty of information on the dichotomy. My study can thus be placed within the framework of the Basic Colour Theory as worked out by Berlin & Kay in Basic color terms: their universality and evolution (1969).

As Steinvall mentions (2002: 16), Berlin & Kay argued that total arbitrariness in the way languages segment the colour space is a gross overstatement. They argued that there was an underlying pattern of universality. First of all, not all colour terms have equal status; there are basic colour terms, and such a term can be defined by a few criteria. These criteria include that a basic colour term is monolexemic ( green rather than dark green or grass-coloured ), that its signification is not included in that of any other colour term ( scarlet for example, is contained within red ), that its application is not restricted to a narrow class of objects ( blond for example, is restricted to hair) and that it must be psychologically salient for the informants, it must be common and generally known (like yellow as opposed to saffron ). Even though the notion of basic colour terms had long been a working assumption in linguistics and anthropology, it had not been properly defined until now (Steinvall 2002: 16, Lakoff 1987: 25).

Another important axiom set forth by Berlin & Kay is that there is an internal gradation in colour categories which makes it possible to isolate a focus of the category, a best example (Steinvall 2002: 16). Or as Lakoff (1987: 26) puts it, colour categories have central members. Since these focal colours are universal, comparisons across languages are possible. The Kay-McDaniel theory even claims that colours are not objectively “out there in the world”, independent of any beings. On the contrary, colour concepts are embodied, as focal colours are partly determined by human biology (Lakoff 1987: 29). This point is taken up by Kövecses (1986: 136). He mentions how Berlin & Kay found that, in the domain of colour, there are certain focal points which people find easier to identify than nonfocal areas. The linguistic terms corresponding to the focal points are then called “basic colour terms”.

18 3 Survey of relevant literature

A third axiom includes the terms hue, lightness or brightness and saturation as the three dimensions that fully describe the denotatum of a colour term (Steinvall 2002: 16). These terms however will not be relevant in my study. The reason for this is that hue, brightness and saturation do not appear to contribute to the meaning of a colour term as used in several expressions.

There are eleven basic colour terms, or BCTs. Non-basic colour terms can be categorised as elaborate colour terms or ECTs. My study will only focus on the eleven BCTs, thus information on ECTs would be of little relevance. Plenty of information and explanation on ECTs can be found in Steinvall’s study (2002).

No language appears to have more than eleven BCTs. Furthermore, these BCTs are ordered hierarchically. Berlin & Kay found that BCTs occur in a fixed order in a language and reduced this process to a typology of seven stages (Steinvall 2002: 18), as can be seen in this scheme:

I II III IV V VI VII PURPLE

WHITE GREEN GREEN PINK and RED or and BLUE BROWN ORANGE BLACK YELLOW YELLOW GREY

Table 1: Typology of seven stages

Because there are eleven BCTs, the number of possible basic colour term- vocabularies is 2048 (2 11 ). However, Berlin & Kay found that in reality there are only twenty-two (Steinvall 2002: 18, Willems 2003: 37-38):

1) white – black 2) white – black – red 3) white – black – red – green 4) white – black – red – yellow 5) white – black – red – green – yellow 6) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue 7) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown 8) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink 9) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – purple 10) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – orange 11) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – grey 12) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – purple 13) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – orange 14) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – grey 15) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – purple – orange 19 3 Survey of relevant literature

16) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – purple – grey 17) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – orange – grey 18) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – purple – orange 19) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – purple – grey 20) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – orange – grey 21) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – purple – orange – grey 22) white – black – red – green – yellow – blue – brown – pink – purple – orange – grey

This implicates that if a language should only have three basic colour terms in its vocabulary, those will be white, black and red. If there are four, it will be white, black, red and green (or yellow), and so forth. English, as well as Dutch, are stage VII languages, and show pattern 22 in their vocabulary.

Hardin (2005: 75-76) explains that what differentiates basic terms from the rest of the stock of colour words is that the former are used by all native speakers. They are used more consistently than non basic terms and with greater consensus. These criteria have been shown to segregate eleven basic terms from the rest of the colour terms in a variety of languages that have well-developed colour vocabularies. English and Dutch can thus be seen as examples of languages with such well-developed colour vocabularies.

Hardin offers some interesting insights into colour categorisation. This is useful, since a theory of categorisation is basic to any theory of cognitive structures. It explores the way we organise our experience into kinds (Johnson 1987: 191). Steinvall (2002: 38) summarised the gist of categorisation in cognitive linguistics:

• Categorisation is a mental phenomenon through which we organise our understanding of the world. • Categorisation is grounded in our bodily experience of the world. • Categorisation creates cognitive categories or concepts which are typically complex structures. • Concepts can be viewed as forming networks of any complexity in which the nodes can represent prototypes, extensions and schemas of any order. • Cognitive categories are dynamic and under constant elaboration through our interaction with the real world. • The repeated activation of certain categories or structures will entrench these and make them more salient from a cognitive point of view.

Based on evidence for nativism in colour categorisation, Hardin (2005: 73) distinguishes elementary colours from secondary basic terms within the eleven basic 20 3 Survey of relevant literature colour terms. There are four chromatic colours of unique hue, which means these colours have no other colours as perceptual components. As opposed to these unique colours, there are binary colours, which perceptually contain constituents of other colours. Examples are orange and purple. The four unique colours are red, blue, green and yellow. Hardin then adds the fundamental achromatic colours black and white to these four and calls the six distinguished colours the “Hering elementary colours”. The binary colours, or secondary basic colours are represented after stage V and thus include brown, purple, pink, orange and grey (Hardin 2005: 83). They can actually be described by combinations of the names of the Hering elementary colours. Brown for example, is a blackened yellow (or orange). Most modern languages add the secondary basics to the primary basics and thus reach a stock of eleven basic colour terms (Hardin 2005: 75).

The notion that colour can affect a person’s mood and behaviour is widespread and has attracted attention in a variety of disciplines within psychology. Because if colours have emotional connotations, then one might expect colour to affect a wide range of everyday behaviours (Marks 1996: 45). One of these everyday behaviours can be said to be language, and thus the use of colour terms in language would evoke various emotional connotations. My study will focus on the use and connotations of the eleven basic colour terms in English expressions.

21 4 Methodology

4 Methodology

I would like to explain how I went about in collecting the data used in my study. Furthermore, I will elaborate on the onomasiological and semasiological perspective and explain which of these perspectives I will be following.

4.1 Collecting the data

The initial idea was to examine the use of colour terms in metaphors in everyday language and to make a comparison between English and Dutch examples. I started by consulting Google, as is done quite frequently nowadays in linguistic research. However, I quickly came to the conclusion that to collect colour terms in metaphorical expressions, Google was not the way to go. When I typed in a colour name, e.g. red , numerous results were found by the search engine, but most of the uses of red that occurred were purely literal. The examples that would be useful for my research, like red herring , reoccurred frequently after only a few pages. The number of useful results that can be collected in this way did not seem large enough to me. Consulting corpora is another method to collect every-day language use. However, I assumed that the number of examples of colour terms used in a non-literal way would not be very numerous either. I therefore chose to abandon these methods and to focus on examples collected from several dictionaries.

Another choice that had to be made was which colour terms I would include in my research. Including all colour terms is not possible, so I followed the above mentioned division made by Berlin & Kay in Basic color terms: their universality and evolution (1969) between basic colour terms and elaborate colour terms. I focused on the eleven basic colour terms, which are – in alphabetical order – black, blue, brown, green, grey, orange, pink, purple, red, white and yellow. It may come as no surprise that most of the data include the colour terms white and black, since these are the two most basic (achromatic) colours.

Furthermore, I decided to not only include metaphors and idioms, but to incorporate metonymies, collocations, similes, and other interesting expressions using basic colour terms as well. By no means do I claim to have put together an exhaustive list of expressions using one of the eleven basic colours terms that occur in the 22 4 Methodology consulted dictionaries. I have made several selections regarding which data I would include or exclude. This is why this will not be a quantitative study. Literal uses such as brown rice were not included. Another restriction I made concerns basic colour terms used to designate the names of food, animals, plants, fruits, minerals and chemical substances, which are very frequent. Examples of this are green dolphin , red birch or blue metal . These were also excluded, even though an example like purple-back , referring to a humming bird, qualifies as a metonymy. Parasynthetic combinations such as black-tailed , blue-bloused , green-boughed , grey-crowned , pink-tipped , etc. were also excluded. As mentioned in the OED, their number may be increased indefinitely, and they may have derivatives. Basic colour terms used as prefixes of other colours to indicate a shade or qualify the names of other colours were also excluded.

I focused mainly on the online OED to gather the English data. To achieve a more complete picture, I consulted several other dictionaries, among which the Thesaurus of Traditional English Metaphors (henceforth TTEM). Most of the English examples were gathered from the OED and the TTEM. I have not taken into account differences between British English, American English, Australian English, etc. In the case of the Dutch data, the WNT, or Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal , did not offer as many examples as the OED did. I consulted several other Dutch dictionaries, but had to include a number of more specialised dictionaries to collect an amount of data that would be substantial enough. While gathering the data, I decided to focus on the English examples and abandoned the idea of a thorough comparison with the Dutch expressions. A list of all the consulted dictionaries can be found at the end of this thesis, under Dictionaries consulted.

23 4 Methodology

4.2 The analysis of meaning in the theory of cognitive linguistics

There are two perspectives of meaning in cognitive linguistics: an onomasiological and a semasiological one. I will first briefly explain these two perspectives and then say which one I will be using.

The onomasiological perspective takes a concept as its starting point. It is concerned with how this concept can be expressed or codified. Questions of synonymy, hyponymy and levels of representation are of prime interest here according to Steinvall (2002: 56). Taverniers (2006: 328) mentions the onomasiological perspective as the alternative, complementary perspective to the semasiological one. The starting point with the onomasiological perspective is a certain meaning. The central question here is: how is or can this meaning be expressed?

The semasiological perspective takes a linguistic form as its starting point. It is concerned with the extension and delimitation of it. Steinvall (2002: 56) argues that questions regarding prototypes, polysemy, vagueness and homonymy are to be dealt with from this point of view. The definition given by Taverniers (2006: 328) describes the semasiological perspective as having a particular form or expression as the starting point. The central question is: what kinds of meanings are or can be expressed by this form? In this perspective, metaphor is based on a variation between different meanings expressed by the same form.

Steinvall (2002: 56) links these two perspectives to the speaker-hearer situation. The speaker’s view in a conversation is the onomasiological perspective because he or she has to determine how best to dress a particular thought. The speaker starts with a concept, or, more vaguely, an idea and can choose to refer to it in a number of ways. This perspective is thus related to the ideas of sense and reference because we can denote the referent through a number of different expressions, each with a different sense. From a cognitive perspective, this phenomenon is frequently analysed in terms of construal, in terms of the way we choose to view a particular situation or entity (Steinvall 2002: 59-60). In contrast to the speaker, the hearer has a semasiological perspective. He or she will have to find the best interpretation of a presented form (Steinvall 2002: 56).

24 4 Methodology

Steinvall (2002: 57) mentions the problem of vagueness and ambiguity in his discussion of the semasiological perspective and in this respect talks about monosemy, polysemy and homonymy. He also argues that polysemy is only a marginal problem in the case of basic colour terms. The reason for this is inherent in the definition of basic colour terms since one of Berlin and Kay’s original criteria explicitly eliminates all cases of polysemous terms (Steinvall 2002: 59).

Steinvall (2002: 62) further claims that in a wide sense it can be argued that the onomasiological perspective is concerned with lexical fields. He gives a definition of such a lexical field, i.e. “a collection of words that all name things in the same conceptual domain”. However, Berlin and Kay were interested in the structure of the conceptual domain “COLOUR”, not as much in the designation of colour terms (the lexical field).

A representation of the onomasiological perspective with its relevant terminology is given by Steinvall:

Figure 1: The onomasiological perspective (Steinvall 2002: 63)

The grey circle represents the idea that the speaker wants to express. The rectangles represent predications of different levels of specificity. The two smallest rectangles are almost synonymous and include the particular idea to be expressed. The growing size of these rectangles illustrates a hyponymy structure (Steinvall 2002: 62). Hyponymy is used here for any kind of inclusion relation (Steinvall 2002: 60). Applied to the domain

25 4 Methodology of colour terms, coloured could represent a superordinate term, red a basic level term and scarlet and crimson could be hyponyms (Steinvall 2002: 63).

However, this is not the focus of my study. Instead, my study will follow the semasiological perspective. I will take the linguistic form, the colour name, as a starting point. I will then look what kinds of meanings are or can be expressed by particular basic colour terms in several English expressions. That metaphor is based on a variation between different meanings expressed by the same form – in this case, the same colour name – follows from this semasiological perspective.

26 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.1 Classifying the data

After gathering the data, as explained in chapter 4.1, the next issue was classifying the data. I want to make clear from the start that my classification is purely practical. Several choices I made are open to discussion, but I will try to explain as clearly as possible why I grouped certain examples and why I made the categorisations that I did. I will illustrate this with some English examples.

There are formal as well as semantic differences in the data. As mentioned, I included metaphors as well as metonymies, collocations, idioms and similes. These are the semantic differences. The data also include several formal differences. There are noun-groups ( black economy ), preposition-groups ( in the black ), adjectives used as nouns ( a black ), etc. Neither the semantic nor the formal differences are made clear by the classification. However, I will explain many examples in further chapters and where relevant, I will elaborate on their semantic meaning.

Furthermore, the borderline between literal and figurative use of a colour name is not always clear. Examples like black coffee and white coffee can illustrate this. We could perceive the colour name black in black coffee as fairly literal, since coffee without milk appears to have a somewhat black colour. However, white coffee , referring to coffee with milk added, can hardly be seen as having a white colour. In reality, both black and white coffee have a degree of a brown colour. This is why I would argue that both colour terms black and white in the above mentioned expressions are used in a figurative rather than a literal way.

Once I gathered all the data from the dictionaries, I started by grouping examples that used a particular colour name in the same meaning. For example, black books and black mark can be put together since both clearly designate something negative. Besides the excluded examples referring to plants and animals, there are numerous other examples referring to nature in general. These could also be grouped together in a semantic class called NATURE . However, not all examples have a clear-cut meaning so I had to try and retry grouping the data until fewer and fewer examples remained uncertain or unclassified. For example, during the process of grouping the data, I also 27 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms tried out a semantic class named RELIGION . Many examples such as black friar , black as the devil , the purple or red-hat could fit in here. However, most of these refer to clothing so I decided to abandon this class and regroup the examples in other semantic classes.

The semantic classes used in my study are:

1. POSITIVE

2. NEGATIVE

3. RACE /ETHNICITY

4. HISTORY /POLITICAL

5. QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

6. NATURE

7. FABRIC /CLOTHING

8. BODY

9. DISEASES

10. PRINTING /INK /WRITING

11. COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

12. AS OPPOSED TO BLACK , AS OPPOSED TO WHITE or BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE

13. GENDER

14. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED These semantic classes are not meant to be the definitive way of classifying the data. I would like to stress this point: they are a practical categorisation to make a further interpretation possible. The reality is far more complex, and, as mentioned above, there are no clear-cut borders between the semantic classes. This is illustrated most clearly by examples that fit in more than one class, like white-hearted , white- livered or blue nose . These particular examples fit in not fewer than three categories –

NEGATIVE , QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS and BODY – since they denote a negative quality with reference to the body. There are quite a few examples that fit in more than one semantic class. These are all put in italics in the list of English expressions, which can be found in Appendix 1. Exceptions are examples like a pinko , which occurs in two classes: HISTORY /POLITICAL and QUALITIES /MENTAL

CHARACTERISTICS . However, this example is not put in italics because the expression designates a different meaning in the two semantic classes. 28 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

My categorisation needs further explanation. Although most of the semantic classes occur with each colour name, some are quite specific. For example, a semantic class like GENDER only occurs with the colour name pink. AS OPPOSED TO BLACK only occurs with white, AS OPPOSED TO WHITE only with black and BETWEEN BLACK AND

WHITE is restricted to the colour name grey. The other semantic classes are more general but they do need some explaining as well.

The semantic classes POSITIVE and NEGATIVE occur with most of the basic colour terms. However, POSITIVE does not occur with black, yellow, orange and grey.

NEGATIVE does not occur with orange. I would like to stress that these semantic classes are very heterogenic. With the colour name black for example, NEGATIVE includes examples referring to the devil or to meanings such as ‘danger’, ‘secrecy’, ‘unofficial’, etc. Furthermore, sometimes the colour in itself designates something negative, whereas sometimes it is the expression as a whole that has a negative meaning. An example of this is grey and green make the worst medley . Grey in this sense refers to old as opposed to green, referring to young. So grey in itself is not negative here. However, the expression in which the colour name is used clearly is. In cases like this, I decided to classify the expression in the semantic class NEGATIVE . Another example like this is whitewash . It is classified as NEGATIVE because the action referred to entails something illegal.

RACE /ETHNICITY is a more straightforward class. It occurs with the basic colour terms black, white, red, blue, yellow and pink. Examples are a black , a white man , a red , a blueman , a yellow-man , a pink . Other less obvious examples still referring to ethnicity are white meat , white-bread , a black plum is as sweet as a white , etc.

The next semantic class is HISTORY /POLITICAL . It includes data referring to historical events as well as data referring to policital views. Examples are Black September , blue , Brown-shirt , better dead than red , Orangeism , etc. Only yellow and grey did not provide examples of this.

QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS could also be seen as a heterogenic semantic class. A range of different types of qualities as well as mental characteristics are grouped here. So an example like a bolt from/out of the blue is included here because it refers to the quality of ‘unexpectedness’. An example referring to a mental

29 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms characteristic – ‘jealousy’ – is the green-eyed monster . Only brown and orange appear not to be used in this respect.

In the semantic class NATURE I grouped expressions referring to objects or phenomena that occur in nature under a particular colour. These objects or phenomena include comparisons with animals, fruits, objects, the weather, etc. Expressions referring to animals, plants, fruits, minerals and chemical substances were not excluded because the basic colour terms are not used to designate their names. Straightforward examples are a black sheep , white as salt , rose-red , green as emerald , etc. An example like black as snow – in London is more complex. However, I decided to include it in this semantic class because snow in the city often does end up looking rather black. Red-bird is also included here because it does not refer to a bird, but to a type of drugs. Purple, pink and orange are not used in this respect. An example like pink elephant is not included in this semantic class because there is no such thing as a pink elephant in nature. The same is true for black gold , referring to oil. Although the oil – metaphorically referred to as gold – is black, gold does not appear in nature under a black colour.

FABRIC /CLOTHING includes all data referring to particular clothing items or fabric in general. A lot of metonymies can be found here, such as black gown , whitecoat, redcap, bluestocking , Green Beret, Brown-shirt , grey cloak , etc.

In the semantic class BODY , I grouped all examples referring to the human body. This reference can be literal, by mentioning a part of the body, as in black bile , white knuckle , blue blood , the green eye , yellow-livered , grey hair , etc. The reference can also be made to a state of the body as in black and blue , white about the gills , to see red , go/turn green , brown as a berry , purple with rage , go pink , etc. Only orange did not provide examples referring to the body.

The semantic class DISEASES is a special case. I have included it because I found it striking that every basic colour name, one more productively than the other, is used to designate diseases. Although many of the examples refer to diseases of the human body,

I chose to categorise them only in DISEASES , and not in BODY . The reason being that this particular class is only meant to point out that basic colour terms are used in naming diseases.

30 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

All data providing a link with the field of paper, writing and printing are categorised in PRINTING /INK /WRITING . The basic colour terms that are used designate either the colour of the paper or the colour of the letters. An example like black literature may seem to refer to race, in analogy with black studies , black theology , etc. However, the meaning of this expression is “that printed in ‘black letter’” (OED). Black letter is a name for the form of type used by the early printers, as distinguished from the “Roman type”, which subsequently prevailed (OED). An example like greens also fits in this class, as green is the colour of the paper of (American) money. Other examples include pink slip , in the red , the Yellow Pages , etc. This semantic class occurs with the basic colour terms black, white, red, blue, green, yellow and pink.

COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS for the most part includes similes. The expressions literally refer to the colour of the object mentioned in the comparison.

Many, but certainly not all of these examples also occur in the semantic class NATURE , such as black as night , white as a lily , red as a lobster , blue as a bilberry , green as the sea , yellow as gold , brown as mahogany , grey as a possum , etc. Again, I cannot claim to have made an exhaustive list of this type of expression. There are numerous examples and furthermore, new examples can be made everyday. In my study, these comparisons can be found with the basic colour terms black, white, red, blue, green, yellow, brown, and grey.

Quite straightforward are the semantic classes AS OPPOSED TO WHITE , AS OPPOSED

TO BLACK and BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE . The first one is only used with black, the second only with white, and the third only with grey. Black coffee can be seen as opposed to white coffee , like a white hat as opposed to a black hat . I also placed expressions like the blackest thorn bears the whitest blossom or two blacks do not make a white here, where black and white are used as opposites in the expression itself.

BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE includes examples where grey refers to the zone between black and white, like grey market , which is not quite black, but definitely not white either.

GENDER only occurs with pink. The four examples that fit here are used either with reference to homosexuality ( pink pound and pink triangle ) or with reference to women ( pink-collar and pink lady ).

31 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

I tried to classify as many of the data as possible, however, certain examples will not fit in with others. All examples that did not fit in any of the above classes ended up in UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED . It is the last, and very heterogenic semantic class used in my study.

It should also be mentioned that, from a metaphorical point of view, these semantic classes divide the target domain. The colours can thus be seen as the source domain. For example, in the case of the colour name green, green is the source domain, and nature is its recipient.

The remainder of this chapter will have the following structure. I will start by discussing the colour terms black and white, as these are the most basic. This will be followed by the discussion of red. Black, white and red are the three predominant colour terms within the eleven BCTs and provided most of the data. It should come as no surprise that the discussion of these colour terms will be notably more extensive than the discussion of the remaining colour terms in the following chapters. These chapters will deal with the rest of the six Hering elementary colours; blue, green and yellow. The discussion of the five remaining basic colour terms: brown, orange, pink, purple and grey is situated after the discussion of the Hering elementary colours.

Within each chapter dealing with a particular colour name, I will give the definition and refer to the general associations of this colour name as can be found in the OED. This is a good starting point to move on to the different meanings as shown by the semantic classes. Since not all of the data is equally interesting regarding meaning as well as regarding linguistic structure, I will select some remarkable and interesting expressions and discuss the meaning of the used colour term. As mentioned, these are personal choices. The discussion is focused on why a particular colour name is used. When relevant, Dutch equivalent expressions will also be mentioned. However, the focus remains on the English expressions so there is no elaborate comparison between the English and the Dutch data.

The examples that are used are all accompanied by a reference to the dictionary in which they were found. These sources are given between brackets, abbreviated. A list of these abbreviations can be found at the beginning of this dissertation as well as at the end, under Dictionaries consulted. When an expression was found in the Oxford English

32 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Dictionary as well as in other dictionaries, “(OED)” was used as the reference. The same can be said for the Dutch examples, i.e. that the expressions which occurred in the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal as well as in other dictionaries, were accompanied by “(WNT)” as their reference.

All of the English data can be found in Appendix 1, the Dutch data in Appendix 2. Examples that are used in the discussion are numbered, and mentioned in the text. A surveyable list of all these examples can also be found in Appendix 3. Appendix 4 includes a colour spectrum accompanied by white and black. White is the reflection of all light, thus the reflection of all the colours in this spectrum, whereas black is characterised by the absence of all light. This spectrum accompanied by white and black is meant as a visual support with the given definitions of the colours.

33 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.2 Black

In a literal sense, the OED describes black as “[t]he proper word for a certain quality practically classed among colours, but consisting optically in the total absence of colour, due to the absence or total absorption of light, as its opposite white arises from the reflection of all the rays of light”. Figuratively then, black can refer to any member of a dark-skinned race or to various negative meanings. These negative meanings occur as early as the late sixteenth century and most likely new examples are created every day. They include ‘having dark or deadly purposes’, ‘malignant’, ‘pertaining to or involving death’, ‘deadly’, ‘baneful’, ‘disastrous’, ‘sinister’, ‘macabre’, ‘foul’, ‘iniquitous’, ‘atrocious’, ‘horribly wicked’, ‘indicating disgrace, censure, liability to punishment’, ‘clouded with sorrow or melancholy’, ‘dismal’, ‘gloomy’, ‘sad’, ‘boding ill’, etc. The dictionary does not appear to give any positive association with black. It is in fact the opposite of bright and hopeful. It should come as no surprise that expressions with the colour name black designating a positive meaning were not found.

5.2.1 NEGATIVE

The negative associations of black can be linked to the fact that the colour name refers to darkness. One possible explanation for this is given by Meier and Robinson (2005: 239-240), who talk about the link between affect and perception. Related to the stimulus brightness, for example, they mention that social and physical rewards are more prevalent during the daytime. By contrast, humans are not well equipped to deal with potential dangers in the darkness. In their view, it is not surprising that bright perceptual input becomes linked with positive affect, whereas dark perceptual input becomes linked with negative affect. These perceptual experiences of darkness and light are often used in metaphorical language, common metaphors often pair affect with perceptual experiences. Such associations occur in metaphors regardless of whether one examines evaluations, moods, or emotional behaviour. Meier and Robinson give the example of Satan versus Jesus considering evaluation and brightness: the epitome of evil, Satan, is known as the “prince of darkness”, whereas Jesus, the essence of goodness, is known as the “light of the world”. This claim can be supported by the expressions used in my study. Although no associations between Jesus and the colour white can be found in the dictionaries, there are several examples concerning the devil as black, some of which are given here: 34 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(1) Black Prince (OED)

(2) the devil is not as black as he’s painted (TTEM)

(3) although I am black, I am not the devil (TTEM)

(4) black as the devil (TTEM)

(5) black as the dule’s hoof (TTEM)

Furthermore, Meier and Robinson (2005: 242) mention that multiple distinct religions pair goodness with brightness. This implies that the opposite is associated with darkness, or more specifically: black. Empirical evidence actually supports the point that such associations are culturally universal. However, the opposition of dark and light does not only appear in examples referring to religion. On the contrary, black is often contrasted with white in numerous other domains. Examples will be discussed under AS

OPPOSED TO WHITE (for black) and AS OPPOSED TO BLACK (in the case of white).

Another example of the link between affect and perceptual experiences in metaphorical language that is given by Meier and Robinson (2005: 239) concerns mood states. A day filled with happiness is referred to as a “bright day”, whereas an extended period of sadness or depression is characterised as a “dark time”. This idea of sadness and gloom is present in examples such as:

(6) it looks black (TTEM)

(7) a black mood (CCE)

(8) look on the black side (CCE)

As mentioned before, this semantic class is very heterogenic. Apart from examples referring to the devil and to a general state of sadness or depression, there are also expressions referring to something negative in the sense of ‘secrecy’ or having to hide something. These expressions include:

(9) blackmail (OED)

(10) black market (OED)

35 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(11) black economy (OED) 1

Example (9) refers to any payment that is extorted by intimidation or pressure by unprincipled officials, critics, journalists, etc. upon people who they can help or injure. This payment is usually extorted by threats or pressure, especially by threatening to reveal a discreditable secret (OED). Examples (10) and (11) both refer to ‘illicit trading’ (OED). Remarkably, a well-known expression such as example (10), with derivatives such as black marketeer (OED) and black marketeering (OED), has not even been in use for over a century. The expression as well as its derivatives can be translated into Dutch maintaining the same meaning.2 The OED traces the earliest uses of the expression back to the earlier half of the twentieth century. The use of the colour name black has thus evolved from designating something negative in general 3 to a more specific meaning of an illegitimate activity. Ohtsuki (in Steinvall 2002: 193) goes so far as to claim that black in the sense of ‘illegal’ in example (10), should be viewed as conceptually derived via a very advanced chain from the initial meaning of ‘darkness’. This chain includes the following steps: darkness night sleep death hell devils/demons/satan evil/badness/impurity illegality. Even though they may not be realised, in Ohtsuki’s view, these steps would be theoretically necessary as intermediate steps in deriving other senses. Steinvall correctly points out that this is not psychologically reasonable. There is no reason to believe the meaning of ‘illegality’ is derived via ‘hell’. Instead, the above mentioned explanation given by Meier and Robinson in which brightness and darkness are contrasted seems much more plausible. As the negative associations of black seem to be universal, it would be reasonable to assume there is a universal experience at the basis of this. One such experience is night, with a salient characteristic of darkness:

Blackness is associated with darkness/night. And darkness/night typically evoke fear in people: one cannot see what goes on, and one feels threatened. In other words, darkness/night is perceived as malevolent, and its outstanding characteristic, blackness, is metaphorically transferred to malevolent events, deeds and characters. (Kikuchi and Lichtenberk, in Steinvall 2002: 205)

1 This expression also occurs under RACE /ETHNICITY . However, the meaning is very different. 2 These translations are zwarte markt , zwarthandelaar and zwarte handel drijven (WNT). 3 An example of such an early general negative meaning can be found in blacksome , signifying ‘of black character’, thus referring to a negative personality. It has been recorded as early as 1597 (OED).

36 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

The theory of conceptual embodiment as defined in Women, fire and dangerous things fits in with this explanation as it points to the necessity of experiencing one’s environment in order to fully grasp properties of categories.

Conceptual embodiment: The idea that properties of certain categories are a consequence of the nature of human biological capacities and of the experience of functioning in a physical and social environment. It is contrasted with the idea that concepts exist independent of the bodily nature of any thinking beings and independent of their experience. (Lakoff 1987: 12)

Another very interesting expression using black in a negative meaning occurs in the semantic classes NEGATIVE and NATURE . It can be literally translated into Dutch, and carries the same meaning there. The expression referred to is:

(12) black sheep (OED)

Example (12) is a metaphor, and thus the negative association of the colour name black (which is the source domain) is applied to the target domain, the animal. However, the target domain also adds to the meaning since sheep are seen as rather docile, helpless animals. The animal thus metaphorically refers to a docile and helpless person. However, black can also be interpreted rather literally here as the colour of the animal, since the origin of the expression makes clear just why this colour has acquired such a negative connotation here. The TTEM mentions that the black sheep of the family refers to a member of that family who is disgraceful. The negative meaning of the metaphor would originate from the fact that black wool was cheaper than white. It is therefore a fair flock that has no black sheep 4 (TTEM). The HSG offers two alternative origins. The image could come from the story of Genesis, where Jacob removed the black sheep from the herd or it could originate in the Roman use of sacrificing black sheep to the underworld. The WUCKS mentions the superstition surrounding black animals and refers to a black sheep and a black cat.5 Whichever of these is correct does not really matter, it is obvious that all of them include the black sheep as something undesirable.

4 Referring to a happy society without bad members (TTEM). 5 This black cat interestingly enough does not appear in any of the consulted dictionaries.

37 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.2.2 RACE /ETHNICITY

The earliest use of black in this respect can be traced back to the ninth century (OED) 6. Black is used here to refer a person of ‘black’ skin: an African Negro, an Australasian Negrito, or another member of a dark-skinned race. It can even be used loosely to refer to non-European races, who are little darker than many Europeans (OED). This semantic class includes straightforward examples such as:

(13) a black (OED)

(14) black is beautiful (OED)

Example (13) is a very clear case of a part-whole metonymy: the skin colour of a person is used to refer to this person as a whole. Steinvall (2002: 197) describes this relationship as a “salient attribute which stands for the entire category”. This metonymy also appears in example (14) although at first sight this expression may be interpreted literally as ‘the colour black is beautiful’. This interpretation would have been the only one before the 1960s, when the expression became a slogan asserting pride in Blackness and Black self-awareness (OED). Example (14) could thus be seen as an idiom since the signification in this multi-word expression is different from the grammatical or logical interpretation. Other expressions including the above mentioned original metonymy are:

(15) black economy (OED) 7

(16) black studies (OED)

(17) black velvet (OED)

Example (17) is metonymical because black refers to a person with a black skin colour (in this case, a woman). Velvet is used metaphorically to refer to the skin of this woman. Similar grammatical structures can be found in the Dutch data:

(18) een zwarte school (VDIW)

(19) het zwarte werelddeel (VDIW)

(20) zwart ivoor (WUCKS)

6 This is far more early than the use of white in connection with race and ethnicity. See 5.3.3. 7 As mentioned, the meaning of this expression is very different from example (10).

38 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Example (20) also occurs in English, literally translated as black ivory (OED) 8, and has a grammatical structure very similar to black velvet (example (17)). Both the English and the Dutch version of example (20) refer to the same thing: African Negro slaves as an object of commerce (OED). This expression is even more interesting than (17), which as a whole still refers to the skin of a person. This cannot be said of (20). Although black is still used in the same sense, ivory does not refer to the skin. Rather, it is used metaphorically to refer to the slaves as very valuable. Dutch also expresses this meaning of ‘valuable’ through another expression with the same grammatical structure:

(21) het zwarte goud (WUCKS)

However, the English equivalent of this expression, black gold (example (30)), carries a very different meaning, which will be discussed under NATURE . Steinvall (2002: 194) makes a very important remark about the metonymical and metaphorical status of expressions including colour terms, i.e. that ultimately, all cases of figurative use of colour terms go back to metonymic processes in which some experience 9 is linked to a contiguous colour. In this view, metaphorical mappings can only be of a secondary nature, there must have been a metonymic process first.

An example like (22), referring to a police van that is usually black and is used for transporting prisoners, might seem out of place here. However, it fits in since this type of van was named after Maria Lee, a powerful black woman from Boston who ran a sailor’s boarding house, and often helped the police to make arrests (TTEM).

(22) Black Maria (TTEM)

5.2.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL

One of the most important examples in this semantic class expresses the political view that can be linked to Mussolini’s fascist party whose uniform consisted of black shirts.

(23) blackshirt (OED)

8 This expression is classified under RACE /ETHNICITY . 9 “Experience” would have to be understood very generally here, including for example the experience of perceiving the skin colour of a person.

39 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Example (23) can thus be used metonymically to refer to members of this party. By extension, anyone supporting fascist ideas can be named a blackshirt or even a black (OED). The expressions also occur in Dutch:

(24) zwarthemd (WNT)

(25) een zwarte (WNT)

Originally, the use of black for the uniforms was not meant as something negative. However, because people came to associate it with a political view that they could not support, we again find black with a very negative meaning in these expressions. Another example of this negative association can be found in Dutch: een zwarte (WNT) is also used to refer to someone who collaborated during the war.

Examples (26) and (27) use black in combination with an expression of time to indicate something bad happened at that particular time. This pattern also occurs in Dutch, as can be seen in example (28).

(26) Black Monday (NODE)

(27) Black September (OED)

(28) zwarte zondag (SN)

5.2.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

These expressions can be linked to the meanings of black concerning ‘clouded with sorrow’, ‘melancholy’, ‘dismal’, ‘gloomy’ and ‘sad’. Whereas expressions such as green with envy or red with anger can be seen as referring to the facial colour of a person experiencing those emotions (Steinvall 2002: 179), this cannot be said for black.

A possible explanation for an expression like (29), meaning ‘to frown’ or ‘to look angrily’ (OED), can be found with Maalej (2004: 66). He mentions a similar expression: to go black . Maalej explains the presupposition that before anger the world was brighter in the experiencer’s eyes, which would suggest the conceptual metaphor BEING ANGRY IS SEEING DARK.

(29) to look black (OED)

40 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.2.5 NATURE

As mentioned earlier, this semantic class includes expressions referring to objects or phenomena that occur in nature under a particular colour. As gold does not occur under a black colour in nature, an expression such as in example (30) cannot be classified in this semantic class.10 Nevertheless, the explanation of its meaning is relevant here.

(30) black gold (OED)

An important remark however, is that example (30) has a different meaning than the above mentioned use of the Dutch expression het zwarte goud (example (21)). It is rather similar however to the other use of example (21) in Dutch, i.e. when it refers to coal, as both oil and coal are – black – raw materials found in nature that are seen as valuable. Both expressions (21) and (30) use gold metaphorically to refer to something – people as a commodity, coal, or oil – as valuable. Black is added since it can be seen as the most salient feature of the valuable phenomenon. Thus, the metonymical relationship SALIENT ATTRIBUTE FOR THE CATEGORY applies here. So far, when I have mentioned Dutch equivalents for English expressions, they had the same meaning as their English translations. However, in this case, I would argue that (21) 11 and (30) are culturally 12 specific examples.

The expression in example (31) cannot be interpreted as a metonymy, since SALIENT PROPERTY FOR THE CATEGORY does not apply here. Black in black swan literally refers to the colour of the animal, but there is nothing literal about the meaning of the expression. As the occurrence of a black swan in nature is extremely rare, the expression is used metaphorically to refer to something very rare, or even non- existent.

(31) black swan (TTEM)

10 Black gold can be found under UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED . 11 Even when understood as referring to coal. 12 I will not elaborate on the meaning of culture here as my focus is on the use of basic colour terms. However, I am fully aware of the difficulties of speaking of two different cultures here. An alternative formulation might be “two different language communities”.

41 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.2.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Black clothing is often worn as a sign of mourning, for instance in example (32). It can be associated with death and thus with funerals and undertakers, as illustrated in examples (33) and (34). It is also used to refer to religion or as a sign of learnedness in expressions such as examples (35) and (36). These are all metonymic expressions.

(32) black silk (OED)

(33) black job (OED)

(34) blackmaster (OED)

(35) black-coat (OED)

(36) black gown (OED)

Another interesting part-whole metonymy can be found in example (37). The expression derives from the Hollywood convention of depicting the villain in a black hat (TTEM). This can be linked to Meier and Robinson’s remark on American film characters. They note that these characters are often dressed in black if they are evil and white if they are good. 13 They also mention what has already been suggested in this chapter, i.e. that being in a dark place is and has been depicted as undesirable (Meier and Robinson 2005: 242).

(37) black hat (TTEM)

5.2.7 BODY

A straightforward part-whole metonymy with black metaphorically referring to its general negative association, in this case a foul-mouthed person, can be found in example (38):

(38) black-mouth (OED)

13 Thus an evil character or a black hat can be seen as the opposite of a good character or a white hat .

42 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

However, two of the most important examples in this semantic class are (39) and (40).

(39) black-choler (OED)

(40) black bile (OED)14

Here, the famous conceptual metaphor THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR THE EMOTIONS can be applied (Kövecses 1986: 14). To fully understand this, I will explain the medieval theory of the four humours since it has a high explanatory force in the investigation of the conceptualisation and metaphorisation of concepts such as anger (Taverniers 2001: 162), or in this case, melancholy. Although this theory is mentioned in several other studies, I find it meaningful to elaborate on it here, as other examples in my study can also be linked to this theory of the four humours.

As mentioned by Taverniers (2001: 162), Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 6) explain how the human organism is regulated by four “humours” or “vital fluids”. On the psychological level, the four humours define four prototypical temperaments, each of which are determined by the constitutional predominance of one of the four vital fluids. More importantly (at least for my study), each of these humours can be associated with a particular colour. The following scheme is based upon the representation given by Taverniers (2001: 163), the article by Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 6) and the scheme by Styan (2003: 59).

14 Dutch includes the expression zwartgallig (WNT) , which is also mentioned by Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 13).

43 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Humour which is in Temperament Characteristics Colour excess

Anger, irascibility, spite, Yellow bile Choleric Yellow anger, pride

Gloomy, fearful, Black bile Melancholic Black sullenness, woe

Placid, unmoved, apathy, Phlegm Phlegmatic White tedium

Optimism, passion, Blood Sanguine bravery, stubbornness, Red mirth, courage, lust

Table 2: The medieval theory of humours - the psychological level

On the physiological level then, a disequilibrium of the fluids causes temporary diseases. These are described in bodily, biological terms a well as in psychic terms (Geeraerts and Grondelaers 1991: 6). The examples given by Geeraerts and Grondelaers include an overproduction of yellow bile, which may be indicated by the patient’s vomiting bile or by dreaming of fire. Another example refers to an excess of blood, which shows up in the redness of the skin and swollen veins as well as in carelessness and a certain degree of recalcitrance.

Furthermore, there is a systematic correlation between the human, anatomical microcosm and the macrocosm, which was believed to be built up from four basic elements (Geeraerts and Grondelaers 1991: 6). The following scheme is again based upon the representation given by Taverniers (2001: 163), the article by Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 7) and the scheme by Styan (2003: 59).

Humour Element Features Colour

Yellow bile Fire Warm and dry Yellow Black bile Earth Cold and dry Black Phlegm Water Cold and wet White Blood Air Warm and wet Red

Table 3: The medieval theory of humours - correlation microcosm & macrocosm

44 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

The theory of the four humours was reflected in works of art in medieval times and it also played a major role in everyday life. An illustration of the theory in art, more specifically literature, can be found with Ben Jonson, a playwright from the sixteenth and seventeenth century. He endeavoured to endow each character with a particular humour, qualifying as a broad trait of a personality. The body of man was seen as a microcosm, and just as the world was made up of four elements, so the body was made up of four humours (Styan 2003: 59). The role in everyday life is illustrated by various words in contemporary languages,15 which are called “relics” by Geeraerts and Grondelaers. Because of these relics, it is very likely that the theory of the four humours lies at the basis of our conceptualisation of anger – or melancholy – through metaphors (Taverniers 2001: 164). As mentioned above, the metaphor at the basis of this conceptualisation is: THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR THE EMOTIONS. Thus, examples (39) and (40) are metaphors for a melancholy temperament: the body contains the emotion evoked by black bile.

5.2.8 DISEASES

This semantic class is quite straightforward. Usually, some part of the body (of a human or of an animal) colours black as a consequence of the disease referred to, as is the case in examples (41) and (42).

(41) black tongue (OED)

(42) black tooth (OED)

Example (43) is more complex. The OED mentions that the epithet black is of unknown origin. However, since the devastation caused by this disease – also referred to as the Great Pestilence or Oriental Plague – was so massive, it is not unlikely that black was used to emphasise just how awful the consequences of this disease were. The use of capitals also contributes to this emphasis. The same can be seen in Dutch, where the expression in example (43), referring to the plague, also includes black.

(43) Black Death (OED)

15 Such as zwartgallig in Dutch.

45 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(44) de Zwarte Dood (VDHN)

5.2.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

As could be expected, black in this semantic class refers to ink. The origin of example (45) can be traced back to the practice of recording credit items and balances in black ink (OED). The expression also evokes its opposite, in the red (example (183)), and refers to the colour that was conventionally used to indicate debit items and balances in accounts. Both expressions originated in the early twentieth century, when this practice of recording credit or debit in a particular colour was common (OED).

(45) in the black (OED)

Another example referring to the habit of writing something in a particular colour of ink can be found in example (46). Again, there is a complementary example referring to the opposite meaning of this example. The type of day in this expression is inauspicious as opposed to the day in red-letter day (example (130)). The former type of day is printed in black ink on the calendar, whereas the latter refers to the custom of marking the saints'-days in the calendar with red letters (OED).

(46) black letter day (OED)

5.2.10 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

This semantic class consists entirely of similes, all of which were collected from the TTEM. The expressions are explicit comparisons of the colour name black with animals and various objects, indicated by ‘as’. In most of the data, black is used quite literally, referring to objects that in themselves have a black colour or appear under the colour black in nature:

(47) black as guttermud (TTEM)

(48) black as soot (TTEM)

(49) black as a crow (TTEM)

(50) black as a mazzard (TTEM)

Examples like (51), (52) and (53) could be seen in the dark versus light dichotomy as mentioned above, although there is no reason to assume that darkness is linked with

46 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms negative affect here. Rather, these expressions are straightforward comparisons between a colour and a phenomenon in nature that can be perceived as having that colour.

(51) black as blindness (TTEM)

(52) black as night (TTEM)

(53) black as midnight (TTEM)

5.2.11 AS OPPOSED TO WHITE

Still linked to PRINTING /INK /WRITING , but very much in its place here, is example (54). The effect of the expression lies in the contrast between black and white. The first colour, as mentioned before, refers to ink whereas the second colour refers to the colour of paper, on which the ink will end up. The contrast between black and white is also evoked in example (55). However, the meaning here is very different. Example (54) can be used when something is required in writing or in print whereas example (55) includes the difference between black and white to stress opposite views. Both expressions occur in Dutch as well. In the equivalent expression of example (54), example (56), the preposition refers even more literal to the origin. A similar expression to example (55) in Dutch is example (57).

(54) in black and white (OED)

(55) black and white (TTEM)

(56) zwart op wit (VDIW)

(57) iets zwart-wit stellen (VDIW)

The expressions in examples (54) and (55) can be classified as idioms since they are institutionalised multi-word expressions. However, they are not pure idioms, as semantic opacity cannot be fully applied here. They are in fact good examples of the need for a scale of idiomaticity as proposed by Fernando (1996: 16).

Example (58) is used to refer to a smith who works in iron or black metal. This expression thus includes a metonymy of the kind SALIENT PROPERTY FOR THE

47 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

CATEGORY, as black is used to refer to the whole of metals that have a black colour. The person who works with this material is then added to the metonymy.

(58) blacksmith (OED) 16

5.2.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

There are no general patterns of meaning in this semantic class, since it is a conglomerate of all expressions that could not be classified elsewhere. This does not mean that there are no interesting or remarkable expressions here. Example (59) for instance can be explained by the brightness versus darkness opposition as mentioned above. Furthermore, it is similar to the already mentioned conceptual metaphor, BEING ANGRY IS SEEING DARK (Maalej 2004: 66). However, in this case, it would be LOSING CONSCIOUSNESS IS SEEING DARK. When the person was conscious, the world was still bright. It became dark, or black, after the loss of consciousness.

(59) to black out (OED)

The meaning of the idiom in example (60) is quite well-known, it refers to a navigational instrument in an aeroplane. What might be less known is that its meaning was extended to denote any automatic apparatus performing intricate functions (OED). Semantic opacity was not yet fully present in the original meaning as such a navigational system actually has the form of a black box. However, non-literalness can be seen as a salient feature of the idiom with its extended meaning.

(60) black box (OED)

5.2.13 Conclusion

I have given several examples referring to the general negative associations of the colour black. These associations appear to be culturally universal and are actually grounded in perceptual experience, as shown by Meier and Robinson. There are numerous examples of the negative associations, of which only a few have been discussed here. Others include black list (OED), black flag (OED), black babbling

16 The same structure can be found in the expression for a smith who works in tin or white metal: whitesmith (OED).

48 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(OED), sing the black psalm (TTEM), etc. Dutch examples with a negative association include zwarte ziel (VDHN), de zwarte lijst (VDHN), een zwarte dag (VDHN), etc. Another important meaning that can be expressed by black lies in the reference to the skin colour of an African Negro, an Australasian Negrito, or another member of a dark- skinned race, as illustrated in RACE /ETHNICITY . Most of the expressions concerning historical or political phenomena use black in a negative connotation. The same can be said for QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS . Some negative associations can be explained historically. NATURE includes several straightforward examples indicating the natural colour of objects or phenomena. Nevertheless, this semantic class also includes interesting expressions such as the discussed examples black swan (TTEM) and black sheep (OED), the latter of which was discussed under NEGATIVE . Black in expressions referring to fabric and clothing can usually be linked to death and mourning. With regard to BODY , the medieval theory of the four humours proved to be a very helpful tool to explain expressions such as black bile (OED) or zwartgalligheid (WNT). Several diseases have the colour black in their name. In the field of printing, ink and writing, it is no surprise that black refers to the colour of ink. The number of comparisons with animals and objects is quite numerous. Black is also often used in contrast with white. Nevertheless, several – nonetheless interesting – expressions remained uncertain or unclassified.

49 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.3 White

White is the opposite of black in all respects. It can be situated at the opposite side of the colour spectrum and thus reflects all the rays of light as opposed to totally absorbing them. The OED defines white as the colour of snow or milk, “having that colour produced by reflection, transmission, or emission of all kinds of light in the proportion in which they exist in the complete visible spectrum, without sensible absorption, being thus fully luminous and devoid of any distinctive hue”. Figuratively, white can be applied to ethnic types with light complexion, as distinguished from black, red or yellow. According to the OED, these ethnic types chiefly include European people. White also carries figurative meanings such as ‘free from malignity or evil intent’, ‘beneficent’, ‘innocent’, ‘harmless’, ‘morally or spiritually pure or stainless’, ‘spotless’, ‘unstained’, ‘highly prized’, ‘precious’, ‘dear’, ‘beloved’, ‘favourite’, ‘pet’, ‘darling’, ‘fair-seeming’, ‘specious’, ‘plausible’, etc., all of which can be interpreted as positive and seen in contrast with the negative associations of black.

5.3.1 POSITIVE

Just as the negative associations of black are related to darkness, the positive associations of white can be linked to brightness. I have already mentioned the explanation on the link between affect and perception by Meier and Robinson. However, I will repeat the relevant findings of their theory here. First, the link between brightness and positive affect results from the fact that social and physical rewards, which can include social interaction or food, are more prevalent during the daytime. The perceptual experience of brightness often occurs in metaphorical language linked to a positive affect. Such associations occur in metaphors regardless of whether one examines evaluations, moods, or emotional behaviour. Furthermore, multiple distinct religions pair goodness with brightness, leading to the assumption that such associations are culturally universal. Meier and Robinson (2005: 244) also mention several studies in which the empirical evidence supports this assumption. Summarising their work on affect and brightness, Meier and Robinson concluded that behavioural studies with young children establish that there is an early appearing tendency to link positive evaluations to white objects regardless of race.

50 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Clear examples of the positive associations can be found in the following expressions:

(61) white lie (OED)

(62) white propaganda (OED)

(63) white boy (OED)

(64) het witte kind (WNT)

All of these expressions show the same linguistic structure. They can be classified as pure idioms since they are conventionalised multi-word expressions and their meaning cannot be derived from the sum of the constituents. Example (61) uses white in the sense of ‘harmless’. Although a lie is generally not considered as something positive, the use of white in combination with lie actually renders a meaning of ‘falsehood rendered venial or praiseworthy by its motive’ (OED). The same can be said for example (62). Propaganda in itself can be seen as carrying a rather negative connotation of being ‘deceitful’, which disappears in combination with white, now defining it as ‘truthful’. Example (63) could at first sight also be interpreted in a context of RACE /ETHNICITY . However, it is used to designate a ‘favourite, pet, or darling boy: a term of endearment for a boy or (usually) man’ (OED). The expression white-haired boy refers to the same meaning. However, white boy is not a shortened version of white- haired boy , as the former already occurs at the end of the sixteenth century whereas the latter appears in the twentieth century. Remarkably enough, white boy can also carry a more negative meaning, it is also a ‘name adopted by or applied to the members of various illegal, rebellious, or riotous associations’ (OED). A similar expression to example (63) exists in Dutch, as can be found in example (64). The linguistic structure is similar and white is again used to add a positive connotation, referring to someone who is lucky.

5.3.2 NEGATIVE

After the explanation on the link between the perception of brightness and white, it may seem illogical that white is also used with negative meanings. Nevertheless,

51 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms several expressions were found that do. One of these is example (65). However, it is quite complex. Not only can it be seen as opposed to blackwash (OED),17 the expression in itself can refer to a rather positive meaning as well as to a negative action. Furthermore, there is a derived expression, as shown in example (66).

(65) whitewash (OED)

(66) wash whiter than white (TTEM)

The positive meaning than can be expressed by example (65) can be defined as ‘represent as favourably as possible; disguise faults; attempt to clear a discredited person’ (TTEM). The explanation of the Dutch equivalent, example (67), also appears to give a positive interpretation to the expression, as it refers to forgiving someone for their sins (WNT). It is this meaning that can be contrasted with blackwash , which signifies ‘to blacken the character of, to asperse, calumniate’ (OED).

(67) witwassen (WNT)

At first sight, even the OED supports the positive interpretation of example (65). However, a note stresses that the definition ‘to give a fair appearance to’, ‘to free, or attempt to free, from blame or taint’, ‘to cover up, conceal, or gloss over the faults or blemishes of’ has various shades of meaning and should actually be interpreted as implying a false appearance of good. This brings us to the expression shown in example (66).18 The TTEM defines its meaning rather negatively as ‘make someone out to be incredibly pure and innocent, exaggerate their virtues’. Finally, the well-known meaning of example (65) is undoubtedly negative: ‘to clear a bankrupt or insolvent by judicial process from liability for his debts’. The Dutch expression geld wit wassen (AKV) is explained as ‘legalising profits that were not declared to the tax authorities’. Such profits occur in expressions like zwart geld verdienen (AKH) or zwart werken (AKH). Another negative meaning is added by the TTEM, referring to defeat in a game, originally baseball, when the win is so decisive that the losers failed to score.

17 Blackwash can be found with black, under NEGATIVE . 18 This expression was influenced by soap powder advertisements, as was the Dutch equivalent expression witter dan wit (SN).

52 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Examples (68), (69) and (70) also occur in NATURE . However, their explanation is relevant here. Example (68) is a sign of cowardice. The explanation for this association is historical. The TTEM links it to the tradition that James II fled from the Battle of the Boyne on a white horse. 19 Example (69) also shows a sign of cowardice. According to Wikipedia, a white feather as a symbol of cowardice comes from cockfighting and the belief that a cockerel sporting a white feather in its tail is likely to be a poor fighter. As pure-breed gamecocks do not show white feathers, its presence indicates that the animal in question is an inferior cross-breed. The expression in example (70) shows another negative association of the colour white as it is applied to a person of mean or despicable character. These three institutionalised multi-word expressions all qualify as idioms in which the non-literal meaning is dominant.

(68) white horse (TTEM)

(69) white feather (OED)

(70) white mouse (OED)

Example (71) is one of the final expressions that can be explained through the darkness versus brightness dichotomy. It refers to a night when it is never properly dark. This meaning can be extended to ‘a sleepless night’. The effect is thus achieved through combining night , with a salient feature of darkness, with the brightness of the colour white. This expression can again be qualified as an idiom, although maybe not a pure idiom since its meaning may be partly derived through the sum of its constituents.

(71) white night (OED)

5.3.3 RACE /ETHNICITY

As can be expected, white provided numerous examples with reference to race and ethnicity, just as black did. An important remark however, is that black was used far more early with reference to race than white was. As mentioned earlier, black appeared in this sense as early as the ninth century, whereas white came to designate ‘a person of a race distinguished by light complexion’ only in the seventeenth century. A possible

19 This expression is very different from white horses (OED), which can be found under NATURE and refers to a crested wave (OED).

53 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms explanation for this lies in the cliché that white 20 people were considered the standard and thus this skin tone did not need a specific name. Anything differing from that skin tone was considered ‘coloured’. However, white was already used to refer to fairness of complexion as early as the tenth century. This use was rather poetic and remained common well into the seventeenth century. It is now rare. Thus, white can be applied to those of ethnic types, chiefly European or of European extraction, characterised by light complexion and as distinguished from black, red, yellow, etc. (OED).

The expression in example (72) is quite interesting. As it has a positive meaning, it might be interpreted similar to white lie (example (61)), white propaganda (example (62)) and white boy (example (63)). However, the honourable character of the man referred to was derived in the nineteenth century from the “conventional association with one of European extraction” (OED). White is thus not really used metaphorically, rather, it can be seen as a metonymy in which white is the salient feature of the category.

(72) white man (OED)

Examples (73), (74) and (75) are names given to white people by people who themselves can be considered black. Examples (73) and (74) are “contemptuous names given in America by blacks to white people of no substance” (OED). The expression in example (75) is applied by Australian natives to a white man, as opposed to black fellow ,21 which is used by these white men to refer to an Australian aboriginal (OED). Similar to example (72), these expressions are also metonymies in which white is seen as the salient feature of the category.

(73) poor white folks (OED)

(74) poor white trash (OED)

(75) whitefellow (OED)

20 The skin tone of the “European race” can hardly be seen as white, a more fitting colour to describe it would probably be pink. Example (342) illustrates such use of pink. However, it is clear that white came to be used to refer to the skin tone of “uncoloured” people and thus also as the opposite of black. 21 This expression can be found with black, under RACE /ETHNICITY as well as under AS OPPOSED TO WHITE .

54 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.3.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL

According to the OED, white has been specially associated with royalist and legitimist causes from the 17th century onwards. The meaning of ‘legitimist’ may be derived from the above mentioned general positive associations of white. Hence, using white linked to one’s cause could be meant to evoke these associations. However, there is no immediate evidence for this hypothesis. Historically, the OED mentions three groups of people who used white as their political colour. First, in Italian history, somewhere in the fourteenth century, the Neri (black) stood opposite the Bianchi (white). Second, during the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth century, a white rose was the badge, emblem or symbol of the House of York, as in example (76).22 Thirdly, during the Russian Civil War in the earlier half of the twentieth century, any of the armies that opposed the Bolsheviks were associated with the colour white, as can be seen in example (77) and (78). Both these expressions can also be used to refer to counter-revolutionary forces in the civil war in Finland in 1918.

(76) white rose (OED)

(77) white Army (OED)

(78) white Guard (OED)

In recent times, white has been applied to certain constitutional or anti- revolutionary or strongly conservative parties and the policy for which they stand (OED). Some Dutch expressions in this respect are examples (79) and (80).

(79) het witte leger (VZNT)

(80) een witte terreur (VZNT)

5.3.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

I will not elaborate on the expressions mentioned in this semantic class since their explanation is much more relevant under BODY .

22 A red rose was the emblem of the rival House of Lancaster.

55 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.3.6 NATURE

Expressions combining white with something that occurs in nature under that colour are white horse (example (68)), white feather (example (69)) and white mouse (example (70)). The association of white with day as opposed to night, which is associated with black, occurs in white night (example (71)). All these have already been explained above, under NEGATIVE .

Many of the expressions mentioned here are similes, and also occur in

COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS , such as:

(81) white as milk (TTEM)

(82) white as a lily (TTEM)

(83) white as a swan (TTEM)

A very interesting expression can be found in example (84). It can be seen as an idiom since it is an institutionalised, multi-word expression and the meaning is not the sum of its constituents. The expression was classified here since elephants can occur in nature under a white colour, they are a rare albino variety of elephant which is highly respected in some Asian countries (OED). Thus, white in this case literally refers to the colour of the animal. However, the overall meaning of the expression should be interpreted figuratively, and can be seen as rather negative. The elephants are considered a ‘useless though expensive object’ (Fernando 1996: 238). The idiom was derived from the story that the kings of Siam were accustomed to make such an animal a present for courtiers who had rendered themselves obnoxious, in order to ruin the recipient by the cost of its maintenance (OED). Its meaning can thus be extended to ‘a burdensome possession’ (TTEM) or ‘an object, scheme, etc., considered to be without use or value’ (OED).

(84) white elephant (OED)

This expression is a great example to illustrate that the meaning of an idiom – in my study idioms with basic colour terms – cannot be understood by analysing the associations of the colour name and trying to apply them to the other word in the expression. Understanding the meaning of an idiom thus very often requires encyclopaedic knowledge . This explanation also applies to similar idioms such as black sheep (example (12)), black swan (example (31)), white horse (example (68)), 56 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms white feather (example (69)) and white mouse (example (70)). More such idioms can be found in further chapters as well, for instance blue movie (example (199)), yellow journalism (example (275)), purple prose (example (324)) and a pink elephant (example (348)).

The following expressions can be explained as metaphors:

(85) white-ant (OED)

(86) white-anter (TTEM)

(87) have white ants (in your billy-can) (TTEM)

Similar to white elephant (example (84)), white is used to refer to the colour of the animal. The source domain in these metaphors is a type of insect, with a salient characteristic of being destructive. This is mapped onto the target domain, which can be any person to whom one would want to assign this salient characteristic. The metaphor in example (86) is thus used to refer to ‘a saboteur’ (TTEM). Furthermore, this salient characteristic is also used in example (87), which refers to someone who becomes exceedingly foolish, implying loss of sanity, sense, or intelligence (TTEM, OED). This metaphor can be linked to an Australian myth about white ants affecting a person’s sanity and intelligence by destroying parts of the brain (TTEM).

The expressions in example (88), and in the Dutch examples (89) and (90) are very similar to example black swan (example (31)), where black is used in combination with an animal that rarely occurs under that colour in nature. Similar to black in example (31), white literally refers to the colour of the mentioned animals, but there is nothing literal about the meaning of the expression. They are metaphors for phenomena that rarely, or never, occur.

(88) white crow (OED)

(89) witte raaf (VDIW)

(90) witte valk (WNT)

5.3.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING

This semantic class for the most part includes part-whole metonymies, referring to persons ‘clothed or arrayed in white’, for example nuns or monks who belong to an

57 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms ecclesiastical order distinguished by wearing a white habit (OED). Examples are (91) and (92). Expressions not related to religion can be found in examples (93), (94) and (95). This type of expression is also common in Dutch, see examples (97), (98) and (99).

(91) white nun (OED)

(92) white munk (OED)

(93) white tie (OED)

(94) white-hat (OED)

(95) white-collar (OED)

(96) witteboord (WNT)

(97) witrok (WNT)

(98) een witte jas (VDIW)

(99) de witte das uithangen (HSG)

Example (95) can be explained further. Not only is it a part-whole metonymy since the white collar refers to the whole person who wears this type of clothes with a white collar, it is also a metaphor for a man engaged in non-manual work: a clerical or administrative worker (TTEM). 23 The equivalent expression also exists in Dutch, as in example (96) (WNT). This metaphorical interpretation also provides a negative meaning, it can be applied to a person who takes advantage of the special knowledge or responsibility of his position to commit non-violent, often financial, crimes, as well as to the crime itself (OED). Example (99) is similar. Witte das is a metonymy for a minister, as it refers to the little neck piece and thus is a distinctive part of his clothing. The expression alludes to someone who acts as a minister, as a moralist (HSG).

5.3.8 BODY

Although the above mentioned theory of the four humours links phlegm to the colour white and to characteristics such as apathy and tedium, these rather negative associations do not appear in any of the studied examples. A common interpretation of

23 These white-collar workers can be contrasted with blue-collar workers, see example (219).

58 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms white with respect to BODY is the application of the colour to illness marked by pallor or the reference to a pale skin, especially when caused by fear or another emotion (OED). This meaning is often expressed hyperbolically through similes, as in example (100), or in the Dutch example (101).

(100) as white as a sheet (OED) 24

(101) zo wit als een lijk (SN)

Example (102) also occurs under POSITIVE with the meaning of ‘pure-hearted’ or ‘saintly’ (OED). However, in this semantic class, both examples (102) and (103) refer to someone who is cowardly.

(102) white-hearted (OED)

(103) white-livered (OED)

The explanation of these expressions is linked to the amount of blood that is present in the mentioned organ. A heart or liver that lacks blood would become less red, and thus more pallid, or white. This logic is also present in an expression such as example (104), which metaphorically refers to ‘draining completely of resources’ or ‘to draw or extort money from’ (OED). Example (105) can also be explained through a lack of blood. The expression is applied to something that causes fear or suspense of such intensity that the knuckles become white because of an anxious grip (OED), causing the blood to disappear temporarily from the knuckles. It is as a metonymy for a person experiencing or showing such fear.

(104) to bleed white (OED)

(105) white-knuckle (OED)

Not all expressions in this semantic class have a negative meaning. Example (106) actually refers to the general positive associations of white: ‘innocence’, ‘honesty’ and ‘without guilt’ (TTEM).

(106) with white hands (TTEM)

24 This expression is classified under COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS , not under BODY . However, I mentioned it here because of its meaning.

59 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.3.9 DISEASES

As with black, some part of the body colours white as a consequence of the disease referred to. With humans, the part of the body that appears white is usually the skin, as in example (107). Examples (108) and (109) were named after Black Death (example (43)) and refer to tuberculosis.

(107) white jaundice (OED)

(108) white death (OED)

(109) white plague (OED)

5.3.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

The expressions in this semantic class have one thing in common. They refer to paper and use white to refer to the salient characteristic of this material. In example (110), the salient attribute of the material is used for the name of the object. It can therefore be classified as a metonymy. Example (111) is also a metonymy, since the expression refers to an official document which is printed on white paper (OED).

(110) the White Pages (CALD)

(111) white paper (OED)

The expression in example (112) should be mentioned since, contrary to the other expressions in this semantic class, white is used here to refer to the colour of ink as opposed to the colour of the paper. It refers to a document printed in white on a dark ground. Its meaning can be seen as the opposite of example (54).

(112) white-print (OED)

5.3.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

The similes mentioned here can be, and often are, used as a reference to someone’s facial colour as extremely pale. These explicit comparisons include expressions such as the above mentioned as white as a sheet (example (100)) or example (113). Other examples such as (114) and (115) include quite conventional associations of animals or objects with their colour:

(113) white as a ghost (OED)

60 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(114) white as ivory (TTEM)

(115) white as a dove (TTEM)

5.3.12 AS OPPOSED TO BLACK

White can be contrasted with black in two ways. Either white and black occur within the same expression or one of the two colours is mentioned but still evokes the contrast with the other, absent colour. Expressions belonging to the first type are the already discussed in black and white (example (54)) and black and white (example (55)) and the following examples (116) and (117).

(116) to call white black (OED)

(117) two blacks do not make a white (TTEM)

The effect of these expressions thus again lies in the contrast between the two colours. Example (116) uses white and black chiefly because of their opposite status and does not imply any other meaning attached to the colour terms. Example (117) on the other hand evokes the traditional ‘good versus bad’ associations of white and black, the former implicating ‘right’ whereas the latter implicates ‘wrong’. It can thus be seen as a metaphorical expression with a meaning that can be formulated as ‘two wrongs do not make a right’ (TTEM).

Expressions of the other type, in which only one of the two colours – in this case white – is mentioned, can be found in the following examples.

(118) white coffee (OED)

(119) White English (OED)

(120) white list (OED)

(121) white-mail (OED)

These expressions use white as opposed to black in three different meanings. Regarding example (118), Steinvall mentions that white would not be designated to coffee had it been presented in the context of a colour chart. Thus, white is actually stretched outside its normal boundaries (Steinvall 2002: 116), to establish the opposition with black coffee (OED). The expression came into use in the twentieth century, whereas black coffee is much older. As mentioned before, different words can be placed before coffee , so because this opposition between white and black is possible, neither 61 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms can be seen as full idioms, they lean more towards conventional collocations. Example

(119) also fits in with RACE /ETHNICITY . White is used metonymically here to refer to people with white skins, thus referring to ‘the English of white speakers’ (OED) as opposed to Black English (OED). Examples (120) and (121) can both be seen in the “white is good” versus “black is bad” dichotomy. Example (120) refers to ‘a list of people or things considered acceptable’, which is the opposite of black list (OED),25 referring to ‘a list of persons who have incurred suspicion, censure, punishment, who are undesirable for employment, habitual drunkards, etc.’ (OED). Blackmail (example (9)) has been mentioned as a negative expression and example (121) is actually defined by applying a positive twist to this expression: ‘to seize or appropriate like blackmail , but for a good purpose’ (OED).

5.3.13 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

As with black, and every other following colour name for that matter, there are no general patterns of meaning in this semantic class. Some interesting expressions that can be found here include the following:

(122) big white telephone (OED)

(123) pot the white (TTEM)

(124) white mass (OED)

Example (122) refers to a lavatory bowl, of which two salient features are its colour, white , and the fact that it can be seen as a big object. Telephone metaphorically refers to this big white object, the lavatory bowl. According to the TTEM, talk into the big white telephone , which means ‘to vomit into a toilet’, is derived from the sound that goes with this action. This sound is described ‘like trying to convey something over a distance’ (TTEM), an action that can be linked to the use of a telephone. A variant of this expression is to talk to Ralph/God on the big white telephone (OED). Another interesting metaphor is the expression in example (123). It originally derives from the game of billiards, so white metonymically refers to the white ball in this game. To pot

25 This expression is classified with black, under NEGATIVE .

62 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms this ball has become a metaphor for ‘having intercourse with a woman’ (TTEM). 26 Example (124) refers to the first mass by a young priest (OED). White is used here with associations of purity and innocence, which are common in the Roman Catholic Church (WNT). Example (125) is similar to the pattern mentioned in Black Monday (example (26)), Black September (example (27)) and zwarte zondag (example (28)). These used black to designate that something bad happened at a particular time. In the case of example (125), you could say that white is used with a positive association, at least from a religious point of view, as it is used in the context of Easter, referring to the seventh Sunday after this Holy day (OED). Again, the same pattern, with the same meaning, occurs in Dutch, see example (126).

(125) White Sunday (OED)

(126) Witte Zondag (WNT)

Another interesting association of white is its use in the context of silver. It might be argued that these expressions could be classified under NATURE , as silver could be perceived as having a rather white colour. However, I would argue to place examples (127) and (128) here, especially since the use of white in association with silver can be contrasted with the use of red in association with gold, which can hardly be seen as occurring with a red colour in nature. The use of red in association with gold is illustrated in example (193). The expressions in examples (127) and (128) respectively refer to ‘silver money’ or ‘silver coins’ and to ‘rent payable in silver money’ (OED).

(127) white money (OED)

(128) white rent (OED)

5.3.14 Conclusion

As the opposite of black, the general associations and connotations of white are very much positive. The theory of Meier and Robinson showed that these positive associations too are grounded in perceptual experience. However, some rather negative

26 Pocket the red , another metaphor derived from the game of billiards, also has a sexual connotation in its meaning: ‘penetrate sexually’ (TTEM). The expression is classified under UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED with the colour name red.

63 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms meanings are expressed by white as well. The most significant of these is the allusion to cowardice, which is discussed in the semantic class BODY . White is linked to a lack of blood here. In RACE /ETHNICITY I mentioned that white was first used to refer to a ‘fair’ or pale skin. Later on, in contrast with “coloured” people, white came to designate ‘a person of a race distinguished by light complexion’. And just as black can be used derogatory by white people to refer to any member of a dark-skinned race, so black people have employed white in derogatory expressions. HISTORY /POLITICAL provides examples historically and politically linking white to a ‘legitimist cause’. Although in

NATURE , the examples mostly include white as a salient feature of an object or an animal and thus literally refer to its colour, many of them are not straightforward metonymies. In fact, some interesting expressions can be found with this structure, such as the discussed metaphors white elephant and white ant . They are an illustration of the need for encyclopaedic knowledge in deciphering the meaning of the expressions.

FABRIC /CLOTHING mostly provided examples of part-whole metonymies, which can then be used as metaphors, such as white-collar . As can be expected, in the case of

PRINTING /INK /WRITING , white refers to the colour of paper, with the exception of white- print . COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS includes straightforward comparisons as well as comparisons referring to someone’s facial colour as extremely pale. When white is used as the opposite of black, two types of expression are possible. Either white and black occur together in one expression, or white occurs alone, nevertheless evoking the contrast with black. The uncertain and unclassified examples again provide some interesting associations.

64 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.4 Red

In his research on compounds and classifying phrases in the OED, Steinvall (2002: 113) found that this third basic colour name has a privileged status among the chromatic terms because it occurs more than three times as often in compounds and classifying phrases than any other chromatic term. Even though he included literal as well as non-literal uses of red, his remark nevertheless confirms the statement made before about black, white and red being the three most basic colour terms and thus providing most of the data used in my study.

The OED defines red as: “having, or characterized by, the colour which appears at the lower or least refracted end of the visible spectrum, and is familiar in nature as that of blood, fire, various flowers and ripe fruits” (OED). Red is also used in various non- literal meanings, some of which are: ‘of people who have, or are regarded as having, a reddish skin’, ‘anarchistic’, ‘revolutionary’, ‘communist’, etc. These will be discussed under RACE /ETHNICITY and HISTORY /POLITICAL .

As opposed to the colour terms black and white, there is no perceptual evidence suggesting that red is generally perceived as having either negative or positive associations. However, since the number of examples in NEGATIVE is far more numerous than the number of examples in POSITIVE , there does seem to be a tendency towards rather negative associations.

5.4.1 POSITIVE

Red does not appear to be a colour that is commonly associated with positive things. Only a few expressions were found that do:

(129) up she comes and the colour’s red (TTEM)

(130) red-letter day (OED)

(131) red carpet (OED)

(132) red carpet treatment (OED)

Example (129) was derived from the game of roulette and refers to a sudden improvement, ‘a big snag has been removed’ (TTEM). The expression in example (130) will be discussed under PRINTING /INK /WRITING . This leaves us with the very common

65 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms and well-known expressions in example (131) and (132). Example (131) is a pure idiom. Fernando (1996: 62) argues that the literal meanings of the words making up the idiom are still partly operative. The same could be said for idioms such as white horse (example (68)), white feather (example (69)) and white mouse (example (70)). There is still a possibility that someone would use these idioms literally, i.e. not as idioms. However, even the common meaning of an expression like example (131) has strong symbolic overtones. So even when someone literally refers to a red carpet, it evokes the symbol of respect and deference. This interpretation is supported by the definition of red carpet given in the OED: ‘the carpet of this colour traditionally laid down on formal occasions to greet important visitors’. Nevertheless, the idiomatic meaning of ‘a ceremonial welcome or lavish reception’ (OED) is the dominant one (Fernando 1996: 62-63). Example (132) can thus be defined as ‘being received with deferential ceremony’ (TTEM). Furthermore, these idiomatic meanings of ‘especially good treatment’ and ‘respectful or deferential reception and attention’ hold whether a red carpet is present or not (Fernando 1996: 65). This rather positive association evolved culturally, there does not seem to be any ‘natural’ or ‘experiential’ basis for it.

The same can be seen in Dutch. Positive associations of red were only found in the here mentioned equivalent expressions of examples red-letter day (example (130)), red carpet (example (131)) and red carpet treatment (example (132)). Examples (133) and (134) will also reappear under PRINTING /INK /WRITING .

(133) met een rode letter in den almanak aangetekend staan (NSSUG)

(134) dat mag wel met een rode letter in de krant (SN)

(135) de rode loper uitleggen voor iets/iemand (VDIW)

5.4.2 NEGATIVE

As limited as the positive associations of red are, all the more expressions can be found including red and designating something negative. Two of the most well-known expressions can be found in examples (136) and (137). The derivative expressions of the latter are mentioned in examples (138), (139) and (140).

(136) red alert (OED)

(137) red light (OED)

66 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(138) see the red light (OED)

(139) carry three red lights (TTEM)

(140) red-light (TTEM)

The idioms in examples (136) and (137) refer to ‘danger’. The former is well- known as a warning of danger. It is used as an instruction to be prepared for an emergency but it can also refer to a state of readiness for an emergency (OED). The meaning of example (137) was derived from a warning light, especially as used in instructing traffic to stop (OED). The idiomatic meaning can thus be defined as ‘a sign of danger’, ‘a warning’, ‘a signal to pause or desist in some course of action or thought’ (OED). Furthermore, when one realises this danger is ahead, the expression in example (138) can be used. Examples (136) and (138) still use red in a rather general negative meaning of ‘danger’, whereas examples (139) and (140), which are obviously derived from example (136), are more specific. The metaphor in example (139) is used to refer to someone who is ‘drunk and incapable’ (TTEM). Example (140) occurs when someone is “stopped”, or ‘dismissed from employment’ (TTEM). Another expression using red in a rather general meaning of danger is example (141), its Dutch equivalent can be found in example (142).27

(141) red flag (OED)

(142) rode vlag (WNT)

The structure in examples (143) and (144) is similar to the above mentioned examples red alert (example (136)) and see the red light (example (138)). A well- known object that occurs in everyday life 28 has a red colour and carries a negative association. Besides literally referring to the – coloured – object, an expression can also include this object in a figurative way. The idiom which is thus created can then be extended to create other expressions including the original idiom. These derived expressions do not have to designate the exact same thing as the original idiom did, but the meanings are usually similar. Examples (143) and (144) can be defined as ‘to

27 Both expressions also occur in HISTORY /POLITICAL , although with a very different meaning. 28 There is no need to assume that football or any other type of sports is a part of everyday life like traffic is. The use of red cards can nevertheless be seen as common, even cultural, knowledge.

67 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms boycott or disallow’, ‘to exclude’ (OED), which is derived from the exclusion of a player from the field by the showing of a red card. The Dutch equivalents can be found in examples (145) and (146).

(143) red card (OED)

(144) to be red carded (CCEDAL)

(145) de rode kaart (VDHN)

(146) een rode kaart krijgen (AKVH)

5.4.3 RACE /ETHNICITY

As with white and black, red can be used metonymically to refer to a person with a ‘red’ skin colour. OED mentions that especially North American Indians are regarded as having a reddish skin. Examples are (147), (148), (149) and (150). This association also occurs in Dutch, as in example (151), which is the equivalent of example (150).

(147) a red (OED)

(148) Red Indian (OED)

(149) red children (OED)

(150) red-hide (OED)

(151) roodhuid (WNT)

5.4.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL

Red can be associated with ‘anarchistic’ and ‘revolutionary’ politics, as in example (152), referring to a ‘socialist or communist revolution’ (OED). As mentioned before, black can be used in a political context to refer to a fascist point of view. Red on the other hand is often linked to communist politics. Especially China and the U.S.S.R. are mentioned in this respect, in expressions such as examples (153), (154) and (155). The same associations can be found in Dutch, as in examples (157) and (158), which are the equivalent expressions of examples (155) and (156).

(152) red revolution (OED)

(153) Red China (OED)

(154) Red Terror (OED)

68 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(155) red peril (OED)

(156) better dead than red (OED)

(157) het rode gevaar (VDGW)

(158) liever dood dan rood (VDIW)

The association with ‘radical left-wing’ opinions is also present in an example such as (159). This is actually quite an interesting expression. Red can be seen as metaphorically referring to left-wing opinions whereas diapers is a part-whole metonymy for a child. Its meaning is defined as ‘designating or relating to the children of radical left-wing parents’ (OED).

(159) red-diaper (OED)

Example (160) metonymically refers to the Union Jack. It can also be used metaphorically, to refer to someone who is ‘patriotic’ and ‘devoted to the service of Britain’ (OED).

(160) Red, White and Blue (OED)

Furthermore, red is also conventionally used in map-making to represent British territories (OED). 29

5.4.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

Expressions using red to refer to a quality or a mental characteristic are anything but numerous. Two expressions can be found in examples (161) and (162). The former refers to being ‘stark mad’, ‘completely mad’, ‘furious’, ‘distracted’ (OED). The latter is a reference to ‘looking flushed with anger, drink or indignation’ (TTEM). Both appear to make a link between red and blood, thus designating a mental characteristic.

This link will be further explained with other examples in BODY .

(161) red-wood (OED)

(162) red about the gills (TTEM)

29 Pink can also be used in this respect. See 5.10.4.

69 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.4.6 NATURE

Red can be used to describe the sky or the sun, and also occurs in the context of dawn or sunset. It can hence also be used with reference to the east (OED). Apart from the numerous examples using red in a simile, which also occur in COMPARISON WITH

ANIMALS /OBJECTS , there are some other interesting expressions as well.

In example (163), the consequence of a type of wind is mentioned in the expression, this wind causes the leaves of trees to ‘shrivel and turn red’ (OED). Example (164) is a metaphor for a type of drug. Red is used metonymically here, since a tablet of this type of drug is coloured red. Another use of red, which has actually already been mentioned, and will be mentioned again, can be found in example (165). Red is used to refer to dark-coloured meat such as beef or lamb and can thus be linked to blood and be contrasted with white meat , such as chicken or veal, which is not as dark-coloured as the red meat .

(163) red wind (OED)

(164) red bird (OED)

(165) red meat (OED)

Finally, the pure idiom in example (166) should be mentioned here as well. I have already mentioned that the literal meaning of this phrase refers to the use of pickled herrings being used to throw hounds off the scent in a fox hunt. However, as it is an idiom, this literal sense was imposed with an external meaning thus making it impossible to derive the meaning – ‘to attempt to divert attention from the real question’ (OED) – from the constituents (Fernando 1996: 115-116).

(166) red herring (OED)

5.4.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Many of the expressions here are metonymies. Example (167) refers to a cardinal who wears a red cap, example (168) to a student of St. Andrews University and example (169) to a soldier wearing a red coat. Example (170) also uses red metonymically, as it designates a mass at which red vestments are worn by the priest (OED).

(167) redcap (OED)

70 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(168) red-gown (OED)

(169) red coat (LDCE)

(170) red mass (OED)

The expression in example (171) is similar to black velvet (example (17)). Red can be seen as the salient feature of the object metaphorically referred to as flannel: the tongue. Interestingly enough, red rag , which occurs in example (172), can also be used metaphorically to refer to the tongue (OED). However, it is not used with this meaning here. As bulls are reputed to be angered by red cloths (TTEM), both example (172) and its equivalent Dutch expression in example (173) refer to ‘a source of extreme provocation or annoyance; something which excites violent indignation’ (OED).

(171) red flannel (OED)

(172) like a red rag to a bull (OED)

(173) als een rode lap op een stier (VDIW)

5.4.8 BODY

Red is often used in the context of the human body. It can be applied to the cheeks, the complexion and the lips, as a natural healthy colour (OED). Furthermore, the hair of both men and animals can be described as being red. When applied to the human body, it is often linked with blood and strong qualities such as ‘virile’, ‘vigorous’, ‘full of life’ and ‘spirited’ (OED) as in example (174). Red can also refer to the face being temporarily suffused with blood, especially as the result of some sudden feeling or emotion (OED). Many examples in this semantic class use red as referring to blood, and it is often linked to strong emotions, particularly shame, as in example (175), and anger, as in examples (176) and (177).

(174) red-blooded (OED)

(175) red face (OED)

(176) to see red (OED)

(177) red mist (OED)

The TTEM defines example as (176) ‘to become infuriated’. Its explanation is that an enraged man sees a red mist , as in example (177), before his eyes. Example (177) is defined by the OED as ‘the apparent physiological effect of a rush of blood to 71 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms the head in anger or excitement, represented as an impediment to vision’. This brings us to the connection between red and the emotion of anger as explained by several scholars such as Lakoff (1987) and Kövecses (1986). Especially to go red and red with anger have been discussed in detail. The OED mentions red with anger in quotes with the adverb “mad” but the expression does not get a separate entry in any of the studied dictionaries. However, it is made clear that there is a connection between red and this emotion.

An explanation for this link lies in the fact that the conceptual metaphors and metonymies that are used in understanding anger are motivated by our physiology. Our concept of anger is embodied via the autonomic nervous system (Lakoff, in Maalej 2004: 55). Two important metaphors in this respect are: THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR THE EMOTIONS and ANGER IS HEAT. Furthermore, the general metonymic principle as formulated by Kövecses (1986: 12-13) is highly relevant here: THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION. These physiological effects include body heat, blood pressure and redness in the face and neck area as a major effect of anger. Such redness can then metonymically indicate anger. Thus a part of the body used for conceptualisation is also actually physiologically affected (Maalej 2004: 51). This interpretation is supported by the medieval theory of the four humours. Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 19-20) mention that anger correlates with higher skin temperature, whereas fear correlates with a decrease. Furthermore, blood is a humour in itself, but is said to carry the other four humours through the body as well. Blood can thus refer to the mixture of the four humours as it circulates through the body. Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1991: 15) argue it is therefore not surprising that the warming up – with redness as its effect – that causes anger may be metonymically said to involve the entire mixture.

Example (178) was classified here since red actually refers to the colour of the mentioned body part, the eyes . The OED mentions that red can be applied to eyes when they are bloodshot or inflamed, especially with weeping. The TTEM defines the meaning of this expression as ‘having red eyes from weeping, or bloodshot from weariness etc.’ This association can also be found in Dutch, as in example (179).

(178) sew the eyes with red thread (TTEM)

(179) roodgeweend (WNT) 72 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.4.9 DISEASES

Red occurs in diseases of plants, animals and humans. In the case of human disease, it is applied to various diseases marked by evacuation of blood or cutaneous eruptions (OED). An example of this is (180). Example (181) was already mentioned under FABRIC /CLOTHING . However, here it refers to a pig that is affected by swine fever or another disease accompanied with redness of the skin (OED). An example of a disease in plants is (182), referring to a disease of strawberries caused by a fungus (OED).

(180) red atrophy (OED)

(181) red soldier (OED)

(182) red core (OED)

5.4.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

As with black, red refers to the colour of ink in this semantic class. Example (183) is the opposite of in the black (example (45)) and refers to the colour of ink which was used to indicate debit items and balances in accounts (OED). When someone is in the red , they are in debt or losing money. Example (184) then indicates that someone is in credit, making a profit (OED). This example more or less equals example (45). The equivalent Dutch example to the expression in example (183) can be found in example (185).

(183) in the red (OED)

(184) out of the red (OED)

(185) in de rode cijfers staan (VDIW)

Another use of red to mark something as negative can be found in the following examples. In example (186), the object – with a red colour – which is used to mark something as ‘erroneous’ or ‘unacceptable’ (OED) is also used to refer to the action as a whole. Example (187) also carries a rather negative association; ‘isolate into a category, often for a pay-freeze or redundancy purposes’ (TTEM). The TTEM also explains that the marking with red ink of features on a list or plan gives emphasis to those items that are for inclusion or exception.

(186) red-pencil (OED) 73 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(187) red-circle (TTEM)

The following examples have already been mentioned under POSITIVE . However, I have mentioned them here as red is used to refer to the colour of ink. Example (130) is the opposite of black letter day (example (46)) and was derived from the custom of indicating saint’s-days or church festivals in the calendar by red letters (OED). Its meaning can thus be extended to any ‘memorable, fortunate, or especially happy day’ (OED). The equivalent Dutch expressions in examples (133) and (134) also refer to an occasion that is particularly special.

(130) red-letter day (OED)

(133) met een rode letter in den almanak aangetekend staan (NSSUG)

(134) dat mag wel met een rode letter in de krant (SN)

5.4.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

It is clear by now that one of the most salient comparisons of red with a phenomenon is the association with blood. The simile in example (188) is one of the only explicit comparisons mentioned in the definition of red in the OED. Others are example (189) and (190). As can be expected, the “main simile” also occurs in Dutch, as in example (191).

(188) red as blood (OED)

(189) red as fire (OED)

(190) red as a rose (OED)

(191) zo rood als bloed (SN)

5.4.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

One of the most interesting expressions here is example (192). However, there does not seem to be a clear reason why red was used. It might be linked to the use of red in fierce emotions, thus transferred to anything of a vigorous quality. In this case it is used to express ‘enjoying oneself flamboyantly’ (OED).

(192) to paint the town red (OED)

74 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

The following expression, example (193), is used to refer to ‘gold coins’ (OED). The association of gold with the colour red is not uncommon. In fact, this association can be accompanied by the association of silver with white, as was mentioned above and illustrated by white money (example (127)) and white rent (example (128)).

(193) red ones (OED)

5.4.13 Conclusion

Similar to black and white, red also provided numerous expressions in which this colour name is used figuratively. However, as opposed to black and white, there is no perceptual evidence linking red to either positive or negative associations. The number of expressions found for these two semantic classes does suggest a tendency towards negative connotations. The positive associations that were found seem to be culturally developed. The same could actually be said for most of the negative associations. These include references to ‘danger’, ‘prohibition’, etc. Again similar to black and white, red can also be used to refer metonymically to a person with a ‘red’ skin. From a historical or political point of view, the most common meaning in which red is used is with reference to communist politics. In NATURE , the first link of red with blood was mentioned. It appears that this is actually one of the most salient associations of the colour name red. Red as blood is also one of the only similes that is mentioned in the definition of red in the OED. The link with blood was also found in QUALITIES /MENTAL

CHARACTERISTICS , DISEASES , COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS , and of course, in

BODY . I have referred to the conceptual metonymy THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION, which links red with emotions such as shame and anger. FABRIC /CLOTHING did not provide any surprises. Red is used metonymically, referring to the colour of certain garments or fabrics. Another important reference evoked by the use of red, is to a colour of ink. This appears to be another salient association. I would argue that the most salient references that can be made by the use of red in a figurative expression are linked with blood, and thus with ‘vigorousness’ in general, the reference to ink and some general negative associations such as ‘danger’ or ‘prohibition’.

75 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.5 Blue

The OED is remarkably more concise in its definition of this colour name, as opposed to the elaborate definitions that are given on especially black and white, and also on red. Furthermore, unlike the above mentioned colours, the place of blue in the colour spectrum is not given, it is only said to be “one of the colours of the spectrum; of the colour of the sky and the deep sea; cerulean” (OED).

5.5.1 POSITIVE

Positive associations of blue seem to be rather rare. However, blue does have one very positive figurative meaning, as in ‘faithful, staunch and unwavering’ (OED), see examples (194) and (195). The origin of this association is unsure. The OED mentions the link with the blue of the sky, but questions this at the same time. The TTEM offers another explanation for the positive meaning of blue in example (195). The original reference of blue could be to butcher’s blue aprons which do not show the bloodstains, thus leading to the meaning of ‘true constancy will never betray’ (TTEM).

(194) true blue (OED) 30

(195) true blue will never stain (TTEM)

5.5.2 NEGATIVE

The following examples (196) and (197) use blue in a context of affairs, circumstances or prospects that appear ‘dismal’, ‘unpromising’ or ‘depressing’ (OED). The latter of these has a more specific meaning of ‘extreme nervousness’ or ‘tremulous dread’ (OED). Example (198) is used to designate ‘depression of spirits’ (OED). Blues is short for blue devils , referring to ‘baleful demons’ (OED), which would explain the negative meaning here.

(196) a blue look-out (OED)

(197) to look blue (OED)

(198) the blues (OED)

30 This expression can also be used in a political context, see example (206).

76 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Other negative associations of blue can be found in the following expressions. Example (199) is an idiom using blue to refer to a film, a joke, etc. as ‘showing or mentioning sexual activity in a way that offends many people’ (CALD). 31 In Dutch, blue is also used with this ‘indecent’ connotation, as in example (200). Example (201) is also an idiom, referring to ‘a law prohibiting certain activities, such as shopping on a Sunday’ (NODE). This negative association could be derived from the use of blue in example (202), referring to ‘severe Puritanical laws’. The association of blue with Puritan views is not uncommon, cf. blue-nosed (example (211)).

(199) blue movie (CALD)

(200) blauwe foto’s (WUCKS)

(201) blue law (NODE)

(202) blue laws (OED)

5.5.3 RACE /ETHNICITY

Only two expressions were found in this respect. Example (203) refers to a black man whereas example (204) is a nickname for a native of Nova Scotia.32 It is unclear why this latter example uses blue. Interpreting example (203) as a metonymy does not seem possible, as it would be very difficult to argue that the skin colour of a person of a dark race can be perceived as blue. However, this expression was derived from bloman, in which “blo” refers to a blackish blue colour (OED). In Dutch, blue is used derogatory to refer to someone from Indonesia, as in example (205).

(203) blueman (OED)

(204) blue-nose (OED)

(205) een blauwe (VDHN)

31 Pink can also be used referring to something as ‘indecent’. See 5.10.2. 32 It can also refer to a person who is excessively Puritanical (OED). The excessiveness of Puritanical views is also linked with blue in blue laws (example (202)) and blue-nosed (example (211)).

77 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

5.5.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL

The NODE mentions blue as ‘politically conservative’. The use of blue here can be linked to its association with ‘constancy or unchangingness’, hence ‘faithful, staunch and unwavering in one's faith, principles, etc.’ (OED). The expression in example (206) can be understood in this respect.

(206) true blue (OED)

The use of blue in example (207) is with allusion to the use of the colour to represent a country or coalition's own military forces in maps, models, or war-gaming exercises. It refers to ‘friendly fire’, to an accidental clash between elements of an army's own forces or with those of its allies (OED).

(207) blue-on-blue (OED)

5.5.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

As mentioned before, blue is the characteristic colour of the sky. When something falls from this vast blue area, it can be quite ‘unexpected’, as in example (208). Example (209) also uses blue referring to the sky, thus designating something at a far distance, or even unknown (HIDEL). 33 The OED also mentions the blue as ‘the desert’. Blue can thus be used metonymically to refer to the sky. This cannot be said for the desert, as blue is not its salient feature. Nevertheless, the metaphorical meaning of ‘the unknown’ remains intact.

(208) out of the blue (OED)

(209) into the blue (HIDEL)

The expression in example (210) is used to refer to something ‘sensational’. This meaning is derived from the use of a blue light on the stage for a weird effect (OED). When a flame is burning pale, the OED describes it as ‘blue’, which explains the link with fire.

(210) blue fire (OED)

33 Because blue refers to the sky, both examples (208) and (209) also occur in the semantic class NATURE .

78 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Example (211) is also qualified under BODY . It refers to Puritanical, strict morals. The association of blue with Puritans was already mentioned in blue laws (example (202)). According to the TTEM, this idiom has its origin in the Spartan lifestyle of the Puritan settlers in the eighteenth century, which was exemplified by the colour of their noses in winter.

(211) blue-nosed (TTEM)

5.5.6 NATURE

Blue in this semantic class is often used to refer to a phenomenon that is either very seldom or non-existent in nature. The former is illustrated by example (212), which refers to something that rarely occurs. Example (213) is a metaphor for anything rare or unheard of (OED). Similar meanings are expressed by similes such as examples (214) and (215).

(212) once in a blue moon (TTEM)

(213) blue dahlia (OED)

(214) rare as a blue rose (TTEM)

(215) rare as a blue diamond (TTEM)

5.5.7 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Blue can be applied to companies of troops distinguished by wearing blue, such as the Dutch troops of William III or the troops of the French Republic of 1792 (OED). Referring to the colour of their uniforms, the expression in example (216) metonymically designates policemen, sailors or American Federal troops (OED).

(216) men in blue (OED)

Another use of blue with respect to clothing can be found in example (217). This metonymy refers rather depreciatively to ‘women who have literary tastes’, who are ‘literary and learned’ (OED). It was derived from the women in a literary society in

79 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

Venice in the fifteenth century, who were distinguished by their blue stockings (TTEM). This metonymy exists in Dutch also, see example (218).34

(217) bluestocking (OED)

(218) blauwkous (WNT)

Example (219) is the opposite of white-collar (example (95)). It metonymically refers to a person wearing a blue overall and metaphorically designates manual, industrial and shop floor workers (TTEM, OED). The Dutch expression is given in example (220).

(219) blue-collar (OED)

(220) blauwe boorden (VDIW)

5.5.8 BODY

Example (221) is a very well-known idiom. However, I find it arguable that this expression “captures phenomena that are prominent in the collective consciousness”, as Fernando formulated it (1996: 35). Its meaning, ‘that which flows in the veins of old and aristocratic families’ (OED) might be quite well-known, its origins are not. From the eighth until the fifteenth century, Spain was ruled by the Moors. Numerous mixed marriages took place, which led to the mixture of the pale skin colour of the Spanish people with that of the dark Moors. Only a few families, mainly in the province of Castilia, proudly claimed never to have been contaminated by Moorish or any other foreign admixture and managed to maintain their pale, white skin (HSG, OED). Thus, the expression was originally used to signify the blue veins of these Spanish families showing through their white skins in contrast with the invisibility of those of the Moors (Fernando 1996: 35). This original link with old and aristocratic families was extended and the expression can now be used to refer to any person of aristocratic birth, regardless of colour. The Dutch expression can be found in example (222).

(221) blue blood (OED)

34 This is not the opposite of a white-stocking , which is classified under FABRIC /CLOTHING with the colour name white. It is similar, in that it is also a metonymy for someone who wears stockings of a particular colour. However, figuratively, white-stocking is applied to a horse with white legs (OED).

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(222) blauw bloed hebben (VDIW)

The following expression signifies ‘put all one’s efforts into doing something to no avail’ (NODE). Its structure can be compared to to see red (example (176)). Again, the metaphor THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR THE EMOTIONS and the general metonymical principle of THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION can be applied. In the case of anger, as in example (176), the container is filled with intense heat producing steam and creating pressure. However, here the pressure in the container is kept back (Kövecses 1986: 14-16), leading to a bluish discolouration of the face.

(223) do something until one is blue in the face (NODE)

The colours in example (224) are seen as the result of beating, bruising or pinching (OED). On the skin, the injuries caused by these actions can appear to be somewhat black and blue. The combination of these colours can be linked to “blo”, which is used in the expression blueman (example (203)), and refers to a blackish blue colour that can also be applied to the colour of bruises (OED). However, the Dutch equivalent expression, in example (225), does not mention black. 35

(224) black and blue (OED)

(225) iemand bont/blond en blauw slaan (NSSUG/SN)

5.5.9 DISEASES

The mentioned diseases all refer to blueness of the skin caused by the circulation of imperfectly oxygenated blood (OED). One of these diseases is example (226).

(226) blue jaundice (OED)

35 The combination of bont or blond with blauw in Dutch appears to be for the purpose of alliteration.

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5.5.10 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

The expression in example (227) mentions a blue, or ‘lead’, 36 pencil which is used chiefly in marking corrections, obliterations, and the like (OED). This expression metonymically refers to the action that is performed with this object: censoring.

(227) to blue-pencil (OED)

5.5.11 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

Some of these similes can be more than just an explicit comparison. Example (228) for instance incorporates the negative association of blue as mentioned above with the blues (example (198)): ‘depression of spirits’. Example (229) can be applied to someone who is ‘blue with cold’ or to ‘conservative politics’ (TTEM).

(228) blue as a badger (TTEM)

(229) blue as a whetstone (TTEM)

5.5.12 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

I have mentioned that lead is perceived as being blue. Example (230) incorporates this in a metaphor referring to a bullet.

(230) blue pill (OED)

Encyclopaedic knowledge is not necessary to grasp the meaning of the expression in example (231). As blue snow is something that cannot occur in nature, the meaning of ‘do the impossible’ should come as no surprise.

(231) rain blue snow (TTEM)

Examples (232) and (233) are remarkable. The English expression can refer to the Monday before Lent, as well as to a Monday that is spent in dissipation by workmen (OED). This last meaning is also mentioned by the WNT with regard to example (233). However, as this Monday is not spent on ‘serious occupations’, the Dutch expression is also used to designate a very short period of time (WNT).

36 Lead is commonly seen as having a blue colour, cf. blue pill (example (230)).

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(232) Blue Monday (OED)

(233) blauwe maandag (WNT)

5.5.13 Conclusion

Blue is much less straightforward than black, white, or even red. Nevertheless, negative associations, such as ‘depressed’ or ‘indecent’, seem to dominate over positive ones. Regarding race, the use of blue is rather limited and more difficult to motivate than in the case of black or white. From a political point of view, blue is used in its sense of ‘constancy’, thus referring to conservative politics. The qualities that can be put forward by expressions including blue range from ‘unexpectedness’ over ‘sensational’ to ‘Puritanical’. Apart from the salient reference to the sky, blue also occurs in several other expressions regarding nature, mainly referring to phenomena that are rare.

FABRIC /CLOTHING does not offer any surprises, blue is mostly used in metonymies here.

The examples that were discussed in BODY as well as DISEASES suggest that, similar to red, an important association of blue is the link with blood. Another common link, blue as the colour of lead, was found in PRINTING /INK /WRITING and in one of the unclassified examples. The comparisons with objects and animals proved to be more than just explicit comparisons, as they incorporate the above mentioned associations of blue.

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5.6 Green

The OED defines green as: “[t]he adjective denoting the colour which in the spectrum is intermediate between blue and yellow; in nature chiefly conspicuous as the colour of growing herbage and leaves”. This definition already points to the most salient association of green: the link with nature. Green is thus used to refer to ‘verdure’, ‘vegetation’, or in short: ‘greenery’. This rather literal association can be extended to numerous figurative uses. Meanings that can be expressed include: ‘young and tender’, ‘youthful’, ‘full of vigorous life’, ‘flourishing’, ‘fresh’, ‘new’, ‘recent’, ‘full of vitality’, ‘virility’, but also: ‘unripe’, ‘immature’, ‘undeveloped’, ‘inexperienced’, ‘simple’, ‘gullible’. Another important meaning expressed by the use of green is: ‘supporting environmentalism’.

5.6.1 POSITIVE

The positive associations of green can often be placed opposite some of the negative associations of red. Example (234) is used in traffic to indicate that one is free to proceed. The figurative use of the idiom can be explained as ‘to give permission to proceed on a course of action’ (OED). It is the opposite of red light (example (137)). The same expression can be found in Dutch, as in example (235). Green is used to indicate ‘permission’, which is also opposed by red, when used in the sense of prohibition. Example (236) also illustrates the meaning of ‘permission’, referring to an international insurance document required by motorists taking their cars abroad or to a permit issued by the U.S. Government, enabling a foreign national to live and work permanently in the United States (OED). However, this meaning cannot quite be seen as the opposite of red card (example (143)), which nevertheless indicates prohibition, but in a very different context.

(234) (to give) the green light (OED)

(235) iemand het groene licht geven (SN)

(236) green card (OED)

5.6.2 NEGATIVE

An interesting expression can be found in example (237). It refers to the practice of purchasing enough shares in a firm or trading company to threaten a take-over,

84 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms thereby forcing the owners to buy them back at a premium in order to retain control of the business (OED). The origin of the expression lies in the combination of two other expressions, both including a colour name as well: blackmail (example (9)) and greenback (example (263)). This neologism was applied by commentators and journalist who saw the practice of corporate raiders for what it was: blackmailing a company into handing over money – or greenbacks – by using the threat of a takeover (Wikipedia).

(237) greenmail (OED)

Example (238), which also occurs in QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS and

BODY , refers to ‘jealousy’ and can thus be interpreted as negative. This expression is in fact another example of the need for encyclopaedic, or in this case even literary, knowledge. The green eye is a shortened version of the green-eyed monster , which is used as the personification of jealousy and was first mentioned by Shakespeare in his plays Othello and The Merchant of Venice (OED). The association of green with jealousy was also taken up in Dutch, see example (239). Jealousy, or envy, also occurs in an expression such as green with envy .37 Its origin lies in the belief that someone’s facial colour can turn green due to sickness 38 or certain emotions.

(238) green eye (OED)

(239) groenogig (WNT)

5.6.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL

As mentioned above, green can be used to indicate support for environmentalism, especially as a political issue (OED). Example (240) can be used metonymically to refer to a person who is an environmentalist. Example (241) refers to Ireland. Because of the vast green landscapes, green is used as its emblematic colour. Furthermore, green was adopted as the distinctive colour of the nationalist party. This can be contrasted with

37 This expression is often cited by scholars, for example by Fernando (1996: 133). However, it does not occur as a separate entry in any of the consulted dictionaries. 38 See green jaundice (example (262)).

85 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms other countries, where the colour green in the political landscape is linked with environmentalism.

(240) a green (OED)

(241) the Green Island (OED)

5.6.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

Green is very often used in the sense of ‘youthful’, as in examples (242) and (243). The former refers to someone who is in the period of youthful growth or vigour (OED). The latter is remarkable: green is added to old age , thus transferring the meaning of this old age to ‘old in years, though not in experience’ (TTEM). Example (244) expresses that one might appear like a green cabbage, implying ‘simplicity’ or ‘gullibility’. However, this person is ‘less of a fool than might be assumed’ (OED). The expression in example (245) refers to ‘an ignoramus’ or ‘a simpleton’ (OED). The TTEM explains that the use of green in this expression was derived from the name given to young oxen with new or “green” horns, thus applied to a ‘raw’, ‘inexperienced’, ‘unknowing’ person.

(242) in the green (OED)

(243) green old age (TTEM)

(244) to be not as green as one is cabbage-looking (OED)

(245) greenhorn (TTEM)

5.6.5 NATURE

It should come as no surprise that most of the expressions including green refer to nature in some way. Interesting expressions can be found in the following examples. Example (246) refers to ‘an officially designated belt of open countryside in which all development is severely restricted, usually enclosing a built-up area and designed to check its further growth’ (OED). The association made here between green and the pure, untouched nature needs no further explanation. This association is also present in the figurative meaning of example (247), which can refer to a way that is well covered with verdure but is also a metaphor for ‘the pleasant path’ (OED).

(246) green belt (OED)

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(247) green way (OED)

Green in the sense of ‘fresh’ or ‘new’ can be linked to the fact that new plants or new grass in nature has this colour. Example (248) evokes the greenness of the grass and combines this with the figurative meaning of something that is recent, as it refers to someone who is just buried. A similar expression exists in Dutch, example (249). The use of green here does appear to be more literal. It refers to the grass, without the meaning of ‘recent’. The following expression, in example (250) also evokes the greenness of new plants, and can literally refer to signs of growth or renewal in nature. Figuratively, it is applied to indications of ‘economic recovery following a period of recession’ (OED).

(248) green in earth (OED)

(249) onder de groene zoden liggen (VDIW)

(250) green shoots (of recovery) (OED)

5.6.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING

The green gown which is mentioned in examples (251) and (253) is a metaphor for the grass. The expression in example (251) refers to someone who lies buried (TTEM), and is thus similar to green in earth (example (248)) and the Dutch onder de groene zoden liggen (example (249)) and example (252), whereas example (253) designates the following: ‘to roll a woman, in sport, on the grass so that her dress is stained with green’ (OED). More importantly, this green gown is a metaphor for the loss of virginity.

(251) get on the green gown (TTEM)

(252) onder het groene laken liggen (SN)

(253) to give a woman a green gown (OED)

A straightforward part-whole metonymy can be found in example (254). It is used to refer to a woman who remains unmarried and was derived from the Scottish custom whereby the older maiden sister wore green garters on her younger sister’s wedding day (TTEM). Another metonymy occurs in example (255), referring to a member of the British, and later the American, Army Commandos (OED).

(254) wear green garters (TTEM)

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(255) Green Beret (OED)

5.6.7 BODY

The OED explains that green can be used to refer to a ‘pale, sickly, or bilious hue, indicative of ill-humour, or sickness’. Green can thus be used with reference to the complexion, as was suggested in 5.6.2. Examples (256) and (257) are illustrations of this. Besides sickness, a good health can also be expressed by green, as in example (258). However, green is not used with reference to the complexion here. Rather, it is used in its common associations of ‘full of vitality’ and ‘full of vigorous life’. The bones are a metonymy for the human body, which is in a ‘green’, or healthy condition.

(256) green and pale (OED)

(257) to look green about the gills (LDCE)

(258) to keep the bones green (OED)

The following expression, in example (259), includes a part-whole metonymy. It refers to someone who is unusually successful in making plants grow (OED). Needless to say these plants are referred to by the colour green.

(259) to have green fingers/a green thumb (OED)

Another interesting expression that includes green and refers to the body can be found in example (260). Green is used to define the wound as ‘recent’, ‘fresh’, ‘unhealed’ and ‘raw’ (TTEM).

(260) a green wound is soon healed (TTEM)

5.6.8 DISEASES

The disease in example (261) refers to a disease in tomatoes which causes a failing to ripen in the fruits (OED), thus remaining green. The disease in example (262) has already been hinted at in 5.6.2. Someone who is affected with this type of jaundice is said to have a green hue in the complexion (OED).

(261) greenback (OED)

(262) green jaundice (OED)

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5.6.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

The most important association here is with money. Examples (263), (264) and (265) all refer to money. The expressions originate in the U.S., as it is the American dollar that is printed on green paper. Example (266) is used to refer to counterfeit greenbacks (OED).

(263) greenback (OED)

(264) greens (OED)

(265) the green stuff (LDCE)

(266) green goods (OED)

5.6.10 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

Apart from some straightforward comparisons, such as example (267), green can also be used in the above mentioned associations, as in examples (268) and (269). The expression in example (268) refers to someone who is ‘foolish, but only by reason of simplicity and inexperience’ (TTEM). Example (269) uses green to express ‘inexperience’ (TTEM).

(267) green as emerald (TTEM)

(268) green as duckweed (TTEM)

(269) green as a gourd (TTEM)

5.6.11 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

The following expressions do not seem to use green in any of the above mentioned common associations. Example (270) refers to sexual activity (NODE), which might be linked to the healthy aspect of green, but there is no evidence for this. Example (271) originates in rhyming slang. The expression refers to ‘the stage’, which rhymes with “greengage” (OED).

(270) one’s greens (NODE)

(271) on the green (OED)

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5.6.12 Conclusion

First and foremost, green is the colour commonly associated with nature. Even though the data were classified into the various semantic classes, most of the expressions actually use green with reference to nature in some way. When green is used in a positive meaning of ‘permission’, it can often be contrasted with red in the sense of ‘prohibition’. Apart from the link with ‘jealousy’, negative associations are quite rare. Following from the association with nature, green can be used in a political context to refer to Ireland or to ‘environmentalism’. The link with nature also provides the meaning of ‘youthful’, one the qualities that can be expressed by green. Other qualities or mental characteristics include ‘vitality’, ‘inexperience’, ‘immaturity’,

‘gullibility’. FABRIC /CLOTHING includes straightforward metonymies as well as expressions which at first sight appear to be nothing more than straightforward metonymies but actually refer to nature as well. With regard to the body, green is mainly used to indicate sickness. It can again also refer to nature, or to the meaning of

‘recent’ when referring to a wound. In PRINTING /INK /WRITING , green is mainly used to refer to money. Comparisons with animals or objects can be straightforward or include one of the figurative meanings of green. Some examples do not seem to fit in with any of the above mentioned associations, which is why they were classified in

UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED .

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5.7 Yellow

In the OED, yellow is defined as “the colour of gold, butter, the yolk of an egg, various flowers, and other objects; constituting one (the most luminous) of the primary colours, occurring in the spectrum between green and orange”. Figurative meanings of yellow include ‘craven’, ‘cowardly’, ‘jealous’ and ‘sensational’ (OED).

Yellow is generally perceived as a happy colour, as opposed to black, which is regarded as somber (Marks 1996: 44). However, the expressions that were found did not include a single positive association.

5.7.1 NEGATIVE

Yellow can be used to refer to ‘danger’, as in example (272). It is very similar to red alert (example (136)) since it is also used as an instruction to be prepared for an emergency, or to refer to an initial state of readiness to cope with an emergency (OED).

(272) yellow alert (OED)

The expression in example (273) is similar to red card (example (143)), which indicates ‘exclusion’. Both types of cards are used in sports. Example (273) is used to caution a player or member of the coaching staff for an infringement of the rules by showing a yellow card. The use of the expression can be extended beyond sports (OED). Dutch includes the same idiom, see example (274).

(273) yellow card (OED)

(274) gele kaart (VDIW)

Another rather negative association of yellow occurs in examples (275) and (276). Yellow here refers to newspapers and writers of newspaper articles of a recklessly or unscrupulously sensational character. Encyclopaedic knowledge is necessary to understand why yellow is used. The origin of the link between yellow and ‘sensational’ can be traced back to 1895, when a number of the New York World included a cartoon in which a child in a yellow dress – “The Yellow Kid” – was the central figure. This yellow dress was an experiment in colour-printing and was designed to attract purchasers (OED).

(275) yellow journalism (OED)

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(276) yellow newspaper (OED)

5.7.2 RACE /ETHNICITY

Yellow can be applied to people who have a naturally yellowish skin or complexion, as in example (277). It is often used to refer to persons of Asiatic, especially Oriental, origin. In the U.S., it can also be applied to refer to persons of mixed white and black origin (OED). The idiom in example (278) is used to denote a supposed danger that the Asiatic peoples will overwhelm the white, or overrun the world (OED). The same expression can be found in Dutch, as in example (279).

(277) yellow-man (OED) 39

(278) yellow peril (OED)

(279) het gele gevaar (VDIW)

5.7.3 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

Apart from the above mentioned quality ‘sensational’, yellow is most often used to designate ‘jealousy’ or ‘cowardice’. Example (280) can be used to refer to the disease yellow jaundice (example (292)) as well as to indicate jealousy. The link between this disease and the quality of ‘jealousy’ originated in the first half of the seventeenth century, around the same time when green was linked with ‘jealousy’ (OED). In Dutch, the two colours can be used within the same expression, as in example (282). Example (281) is also used to refer to someone who is jealous. ‘Cowardice’, another negative mental characteristic, is expressed in examples (283) and (284).

(280) yellows (OED)

(281) to wear yellow hose (OED)

(282) groen en geel zien van nijd/jaloezie (VDIW)

(283) yellow streak (OED)

(284) yellow-bellied (OED)

39 This expression can also be used metaphorically to refer to a ‘yellow silk handkerchief’ (OED).

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5.7.4 NATURE

I have already mentioned gold in the metaphorical expression black gold (example (30)). Gold can be perceived as red, as in red ones (example (193)). However, the only colour in nature resembling gold is yellow, as in example (285). The metaphor in example (286) is used as a contemptuous appellation for gold (OED). Example (287) also includes a metaphor. Here, the process of aging is compared with that of leaves in nature, which turn yellow as they age.

(285) yellow as gold (TTEM)

(286) yellow dirt (OED)

(287) yellow leaf (OED)

5.7.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Example (288), which is also referred to as yellow badge (OED), refers to the badge of identification – a piece of yellow cloth – which the Nazis required Jews the wear. The expression in example (289) is a metonymy, referring to the winner of a cycle race, especially the Tour de France. The Dutch expression can be found in example (290).

(288) yellow star (OED)

(289) yellow yersey (OED)

(290) gele trui (WNT)

5.7.6 BODY

As mentioned, yellow can be used to indicate the colour of the complexion, be it with reference to race, as in yellow-man (example (277)), because of age, as in yellow leaf (example (287)) or from disease, as in yellow jaundice (example (292)). The qualities of ‘jealousy’ and ‘cowardice’ were discussed above. However, there is one more interesting expression explaining the link between yellow and ‘cowardice’: example (291). It can be linked to the medieval theory of the four humours. The expression was derived from the old notion that a pale liver was caused by a lack of bile or choler and that a person with such a deficiency would be faint-hearted (OED), and thus cowardly.

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(291) yellow-livered (OED)

5.7.7 DISEASES

I have already mentioned variants of the disease mentioned in example (292), which designates a morbid condition caused by obstruction of the bile. One of the characteristics of this disease is yellowness of the skin (OED). Variants refer to other types of discolouration of the skin, such as white jaundice (example (107)), blue jaundice (example (226)) and green jaundice (example (262)). Example (293) refers to a disease of wheat, which can be perceived as being yellow.

(292) yellow jaundice (OED)

(293) yellow rust (OED)

5.7.8 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

Example (294) refers to the classified section of or supplement to a telephone directory, listing firms, products, and services (OED). As the pages on which this is printed are yellow, the expression in this example is a metonymy. In Dutch, it is known as de gouden gids .40 Example (295) is also a metonymy. It is used to designate a type of woven paper that is in fact rather white in colour, but is nevertheless named yellow (OED).

(294) the yellow pages (OED)

(295) yellow wove (OED)

5.7.9 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

This semantic class includes several similes, such as examples (296), (297) and (298). None of the expressions in this semantic class seem to have figurative meanings that can be associated with yellow elsewhere.

(296) yellow as butter (TTEM)

(297) yellow as a duck’s foot (TTEM)

40 This expression does not occur in any of the consulted dictionaries. However, I have mentioned it because it illustrates the link between gold and yellow as mentioned in yellow as gold (example (285)).

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(298) yellow as saffron (TTEM)

5.7.10 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

Two expressions were found that could not be classified elsewhere. Example (299) refers to ‘yellow earthenware or stoneware’ (OED). It is not clear why yellow is used in example (300), which refers to a union of workers who favour free enterprise and are usually opposed to strike action (OED).

(299) yellow ware (OED)

(300) yellow union (OED)

5.7.11 Conclusion

Contrary to what might be expected, yellow is not used with positive associations in figurative language. Negative meanings on the other hand do appear to be common.

They include ‘danger’, ‘caution’ and ‘sensational’. With regard to RACE /ETHNICITY , yellow can be used to indicate a person of Oriental origin, who is believed to have a yellow complexion. The expressions in QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS fit in with the general negative interpretation of yellow, referring mostly to ‘jealousy’ and

‘cowardice’. These qualities are linked to BODY and DISEASES , which provided another link between yellow and the complexion. Yellow can also be seen as similar to the colour of gold in NATURE . Metonymies are again common in FABRIC /CLOTHING and also occurred in PRINTING /INK /WRITING . COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS includes several straightforward similes.

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5.8 Brown

The OED defines brown as: “[t]he proper name of a composite colour produced by a mixture of orange and black (or of red, yellow, and black), and varying greatly in shade according to the proportion of the constituents, as a red brown, yellowish brown, dark brown. Brown is the colour produced by partial charring or carbonization of starch or woody fibre, as in toasted bread or potatoes, peat, lignite, withered leaves, etc.” Figuratively, brown can be used to mark something as ‘gloomy’ or ‘serious’ (OED).

5.8.1 POSITIVE

Brown is rarely used with a positive connotation. However, some examples were found that entail a positive meaning. Example (301) refers to a benevolent spirit or goblin (OED), although it is not clear why brown is used here. The expression can also metonymically indicate a member of the junior section of the organization known as the ‘Girl Guides’ (OED). Brown is then derived from the colour of their uniform. 41 Example (302) appears to be derived from this last association. Its meaning can be described as: ‘recognition, albeit jocular, of someone’s achievement or virtuous behaviour’ (TTEM).

(301) brownie (OED)

(302) brownie points (TTEM)

5.8.2 NEGATIVE

Negative associations of brown are easier to find. One of the most common expressions including brown can be found in example (303). It is used to designate ‘a state of mental abstraction or musing’ or ‘serious reverie, thoughtful absent- mindedness’. A slightly negative meaning of ‘idle or purposeless reverie’ (OED) can also be applied. This ‘serious’ meaning is one of the only ones that is mentioned in the definition of brown in the OED. Example (304) is derived from ‘to do thoroughly’ and has a rather negative meaning of ‘deceive’ (OED). The use of brown is explained by the

41 The expression with this different meaning is also classified under FABRIC /CLOTHING .

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OED as a substitute for ‘thoroughly’, which can be linked to brown in a context of roasting. Example (305) can also be interpreted negatively. The brown literally refers to the brown-coloured mass of a flock of game-birds (OED). When someone fires or shoots into this mass without singling out a bird, this is indiscriminate (OED). The chances of a hit are very slim, which leads to the meaning: ‘fail completely’ (TTEM). Another negative association can be found in example (306), which refers to being ‘bored’, ‘fed-up’ or ‘disgusted’.

(303) brown study (OED)

(304) to do brown (OED)

(305) shoot into the brown (TTEM)

(306) browned off (OED)

5.8.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL

The expression in example (307) also occurs in FABRIC /CLOTHING and is a metonymy referring to the uniform that was worn by Nazis. Brown is associated with Nazi-sympathies in Dutch as well, as in example (308).

(307) Brown-shirt (OED)

(308) bruine sympathieën (VDGW)

5.8.4 NATURE

The expression in example (309) is used to indicate rum in tea (TTEM). Rum, a liquor with a somewhat brown colour, is metaphorically referred to as milk , when it is extracted from a brown cow . Example (310) refers to a hazel-nut – which is brown – when it is ripe and ready to eat, and can be used metaphorically to indicate a generous person (TTEM).

(309) milk from the brown cow (TTEM)

(310) brown-leamer (TTEM)

5.8.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Apart from Brown-shirt (example (307)), brown occurs in a few other metonymies as well. Both examples (311) and (312) use brown as the colour of a

97 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms uniform. Example (311) refers to a soldier, or collectively to the army, whereas example (312) is used to indicate an officer employed to enforce parking regulations (OED).

(311) brown job (OED)

(312) brown bomber (OED)

5.8.6 BODY

The OED mentions brown as a racial characteristic. However, no expressions were found that use brown in such a context. 42 Brown does not have to refer to an ethnic characteristic, it can also be applied to someone who is sunburnt or suntanned, as in example (313). The expression in example (314) is used to designate ‘a sycophant’ (OED). It is derived from “the implication that servility is tantamount to having one's nose in the anus of the person from whom advancement is sought” (OED).

(313) brown as a berry (OED)

(314) brown-nose (OED)

5.8.7 DISEASES

Diseases including brown use this colour to indicate a characteristic of the disease. Example (315) refers to a disease of stored apples and pears characterised by internal brown decay (OED). Example (316) can be applied to various diseases of plants and trees characterised by browning and decay (OED).

(315) brown-heart (OED)

(316) brown rot (OED)

5.8.8 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

Brown is used in a number of straightforward explicit comparisons, such as examples (317) and (318).

(317) brown as mahogany (TTEM)

42 It appears that this association is fully covered by black in figurative language.

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(318) brown as a partridge (TTEM)

5.8.9 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

The expression in example (319) is very similar to yellow ware (example (299)), and refers to a common kind of pottery (OED). The use of brown in example (320) derives from the type of material that was used to make the musket referred to as Brown Bess : a brown walnut stock (OED). Furthermore, the gun was originally referred to as Brown Musket (OED) but was renamed Bess . This could be a reference to Queen Elizabeth I of England and would thus fit in with the military custom of giving guns (or airplanes) a girl’s name. However, there is no evidence for this theory (Wikipedia). The expression in example (320) is a metaphor for ‘serving as a soldier’ (TTEM).

(319) brown ware (OED)

(320) hug Brown Bess (TTEM)

5.8.10 Conclusion

Brown is not the most common colour in figurative language. It appears that negative connotations are more common than positive ones. These negative meanings include ‘serious’ (in the context of ‘idle reverie’) or ‘bored’. However, it is very difficult to draw any general conclusions on figurative meanings of this colour name. Some interesting expressions can be found nonetheless. Brown can for example be used in expressions referring to the complexion. It also occurs as the colour of the Nazi- uniform and similar to all other basic colour terms, it is used to name certain diseases. Brown is also used with regard to nature and in comparisons with animals or objects.

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5.9 Purple

The OED mentions three definitions of purple. First, purple, or “Tyrian purple”, is “that of the dye obtained from species of gastropod molluscs ( Purpura and Murex ), which was actually a crimson”. This type of dye was very expensive, so that only the aristocracy or the highest ranks of the clergy could afford them. In the Middle Ages, purple was used to indicate “many shades of red”. Nowadays, it is applied to “mixtures of red and blue in various proportions, usually containing also some black or white, or both, approaching on the one side to crimson and on the other to violet”. Figurative meanings of purple can be linked to the first definition, and include ‘imperial’, ‘royal’, ‘gorgeous’ and ‘splendid’ (OED).

5.9.1 POSITIVE

According to the OED, the positive associations of examples (321), (322) and (323) can be linked to the qualities of the colour purple: “bright-hued, brilliant, splendid, gaudy, gay” (OED). All three of these expressions refer to a brilliant or ornate passage in a literary composition (OED). Steinvall (2002: 194) disagrees with the explanation of the OED. In his view, these expressions derive their meaning from the association of purple with the domain of royalty, thus making the link with ‘brilliant’ and ‘splendid’.

(321) purple patch (OED)

(322) purple passage (OED)

(323) purple piece (OED)

5.9.2 NEGATIVE

Interestingly, the CALD mentions example (324) with a negative connotation. Its meaning is defined as ‘describing a piece of writing which is complicated or sounds false because the writer has tried too hard to make the style interesting’ (CALD). The only other expression with a negative meaning that was found is example (325). It refers to ‘receiving or inflicting a painful dismissal, a cruel jilting or a degrading insult’ (TTEM). The TTEM explains its origin as coming “from the idea of penetrating the rectum with a painful object”.

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(324) purple prose (CALD)

(325) get/give the (purple) shaft (TTEM)

5.9.3 HISTORY /POLITICAL

Example (326) is an Irish party name for one who has reached a certain degree or rank in the ‘Orange’ system (OED), it is the same as Orange-man (example (366)).

(326) purple-man (OED)

5.9.4 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

The most important expression here is example (327). This can be said of a child of an imperial or royal reigning family. However, its use can also be extended to a noble or wealthy family, or to the highest or most privileged rank of any organisation (OED). It can in fact be used to refer to anyone in a highly privileged situation (TTEM). The expression was originally used to refer to a member of the imperial family at Constantinople, who were reputedly born in a purple chamber.

(327) born/cradled in the purple (OED)

5.9.5 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Purple is the colour traditionally associated with religion as well as with royalty. The OED mentions purple with reference to the distinguishing dress of emperors, kings, consuls, and chief magistrates, who were the only people that could afford clothing dyed in purple. It is also the colour of imperial and royal mourning. Example (328) is a metonymy referring to ‘a cardinal’ or ‘the rank of a cardinal’, but it can also refer to ‘imperial, royal, or consular rank, power, or office’ (OED). The collocation in example (329) arose when “pall” lost its original meaning of ‘purple cloth’ and began to be used in the sense of ‘rich clothing’ (OED).

(328) the purple (OED)

(329) purple and pall (OED)

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5.9.6 BODY

Red as well as blue have already been mentioned with reference to blood. It appears that purple can also be used in this respect, as in example (330). To see red (example (176)) and red mist (example (177)) include red referring to anger. I have already explained why red was used in these expressions. 43 The same explanation can be applied to example (331). As suggested by its definition, ‘dark red in the face because of anger’ (CALD), it is a strengthened form of the association of red with anger. The same expression exists in Dutch, as in example (332). As opposed to the English expression black and blue (example (224)), referring to bruises as black and blue, Dutch uses purple and blue, as in example (333).

(330) the purple (OED)

(331) purple with rage (CALD)

(332) paars zien van woede (SN)

(333) iemand paars en blauw slaan (WNT)

5.9.7 DISEASES

Two expressions using purple to refer to diseases are mentioned in examples (334) and (335). The former is a swine fever. The latter can be applied to fevers attended with purplish cutaneous eruptions (OED).

(334) purples (OED)

(335) purple fever (OED)

5.9.8 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

Example (336) is a metaphor for a cheap Italian red wine (OED). The use of purple might be linked to the colour of the drink. Another metaphor can be found in example (337), referring to the drug LSD (OED). 44

(336) purple death (OED)

43 See 5.4.8. 44 Another metaphor referring to this drug can be found in orange sunshine (example (372)).

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(337) purple haze (OED)

5.9.9 Conclusion

The meanings ‘gorgeous’, ‘splendid’ and ‘brilliant’ have their origin in the association with the expensive purple clothing of royalty and cardinals. Another link with royal descent was shown in QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS . Negative associations are very rare. Similar to red and blue, purple can also be used to refer to blood. Only a few diseases have purple in their name.

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5.10 Pink

The OED defines pink as “[a] colour intermediate between red and white; a pale red, sometimes with a slight purple tinge”. Figurative uses of the term can be found in the following semantic classes.

5.10.1 POSITIVE

In example (338), pink is used to indicate ‘excellent health or spirits’ (OED). Pink could be seen as referring to a pink skin, thus indicating health. However, it is also likely that the use of pink here was derived from the general meaning of pink as ‘the most excellent example of something’, ‘the embodiment or model of a particular quality’ (OED), as in example (339). The expression in example (340) illustrates another positive use of the colour, indicating ‘delight’ and ‘overcome with pleasure or amusement’ (OED).

(338) in the pink (OED)

(339) the pink (OED)

(340) to tickle pink (OED)

5.10.2 NEGATIVE

I have already mentioned the use of blue with a meaning of ‘indecent’ in blue movie (example (199)). Pink can be used in a similar way, designating something as ‘vulgar’ or ‘indecent’. When used to refer to a movie, the use of pink defines it as ‘sexually suggestive, mildly pornographic’ (OED).

(341) pink (OED)

5.10.3 RACE /ETHNICITY

The use of pink with regard to race is illustrated in the following expressions. Examples (342) and (343) originate in African-American language and are used, usually derogatory, to refer to a white person, often a woman. They can also refer to a light- skinned black woman. Example (344) is a metaphor for a black person who is friendly towards white people, or who desires sexual relations with them (OED).

(342) a pink (OED)

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(343) a pink toe (OED)

(344) pink chaser (OED)

5.10.4 HISTORY /POLITICAL

In a political context, pink can be seen as a toned down version of red. Example (345) refers to a person whose political views are left of centre, though usually considered to be less extreme than those of someone who is considered red . Example (345) is thus used to indicate a person who is a ‘liberal or moderate socialist’ (OED). Also similar to red is the use of pink to represent a British colony or dominion on a map. An expression such as in example (346) has the following meaning: ‘to expand British territory’ (OED).

(345) a pinko (OED)

(346) to paint the map pink (OED)

5.10.5 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

The expression in example (347) already appeared in the previous semantic class. However, here it is used to designate someone who is ‘intoxicated’ or ‘drunk’ (OED). The following two expressions both refer to something that cannot occur in nature. Example (348) is thus used to refer to something that is ‘extraordinary’ or ‘impossible’. Both examples (348) and (349) are used to indicate a ‘characteristic hallucination supposedly experienced by a drunk or delirious person’ (OED). 45

(347) a pinko (OED)

(348) a pink elephant (OED)

(349) a pink rat (OED)

45 Steinvall argues that pink does not carry any figurative meaning in itself here. Its meaning has to be construed as literal, but this very act forces us to make a figurative reading of the entire noun phrase (2002: 188).

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5.10.6 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Examples (350) and (351) are both metonymies. The former refers to ‘a jobber’s clerk’ (OED) whereas the latter is used to refer to fox-hunters, who wear a scarlet hunting coat.

(350) pink button (OED)

(351) pink-coated (OED)

5.10.7 BODY

Example (352) is used to refer to a person’s complexion as ‘creamy skin with pink cheeks’ (OED). The expression in example (353) also refers to a pink complexion, especially from blushing. However, the figurative meaning refers to qualities such as ‘young’, ‘inexperienced’ and ‘naive’ (OED)

(352) pink and white (OED)

(353) pink-faced (OED)

5.10.8 DISEASES

The disease mentioned in example (354) is characterised by pinkness of parts of the body (OED). Example (355) also refers to a discolouration of a part of the body, in this case a part of the eye: the conjunctiva (OED).

(354) pink disease (OED)

(355) pink-eye (OED)

5.10.9 PRINTING /INK /WRITING

Several things can be printed on pink-coloured paper. Example (356) designates a newspaper that is traditionally printed on pink paper, especially a sporting edition (OED). Example (357) refers to a list of stocks and shares, which is printed on pink paper (OED). Any of various notices, certificates, etc. that are originally or typically printed on pink paper can be referred to by the expression in example (358). The most well-known of these notices is one of dismissal from employment or office (OED).

(356) pink ‘un (OED)

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(357) pink sheet (OED)

(358) pink slip (OED)

5.10.10 GENDER

The OED mentions ‘homosexual’ as one of the meanings of pink. It can also be used for anything of or relating to homosexuals or homosexuality, such as example (359), which refers to ‘the perceived spending power of homosexuals as a group’ (OED). Example (360) can be compared to yellow star (example (288)). This triangular piece of pink cloth was sewn on to the clothing of homosexual men in Nazi concentration camps to identify them. It is now used as a symbol indicating support for homosexual freedom and rights (OED). The Dutch expression can be found in example (361).

(359) pink pound (OED)

(360) pink triangle (OED)

(361) de roze driehoek (VDGW)

The metonymy in example (362) was probably derived from similar expressions such as white-collar (example (95)) and blue collar (example (219)). It is used to designate employment that is traditionally associated with women, or workers who are engaged in such employment, such as nursing, hairdressing, secretarial work, etc. Steinvall (2002: 214) explains this example as a part-whole metonymy similar to that of uniforms, but taken one step further. However, there is an important difference since it does not concern an official uniform here, but some prejudiced idea of typical clothing. The use of pink in example (363) could also originate in the colour of a uniform as it refers to a female voluntary worker in a hospital. However, there is no evidence to support this theory.

(362) pink-collar (OED)

(363) pink lady (OED) 46

46 This expression can also be used to refer to a cocktail usually consisting of gin, egg white, and grenadine (OED) and can be found in UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED .

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5.10.11 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

The expression in example (364) should be mentioned as it might be interpreted similar to the above mentioned a pinko (example (345)): as a toned down version of red. However, even though pink is used here instead of the more common red, this does not entail any difference in meaning, which remains: ‘to enjoy oneself flamboyantly’ or ‘to go on a boisterous or exuberant spree’ (OED).

(364) to paint the town pink (OED)

5.10.12 Conclusion

Positive associations of pink designate meanings such as ‘the best example of something’, ‘perfection’ or ‘delight’. With a negative meaning, the use of pink can be compared to that of blue, indicating ‘indecency’. Another use of pink can be applied to the complexion, referring to race, health or certain diseases. Politically, pink can be seen as a toned down version of red, still indicating views that are left of centre.

Characteristics of drunkenness can also be indicated by pink. PRINTING /INK /WRITING includes expressions with regard to the colour of the paper. One of the most salient associations of pink seems to be the link with GENDER , referring either to women or to homosexual people.

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5.11 Orange

Orange is defined by the OED as “[a] bright reddish-yellow colour like that of the skin of a ripe orange; any one of a number of shades occupying the region between red and yellow in the spectrum”. Figurative uses of orange are very limited.

5.11.1 HISTORY /POLITICAL

The most salient associations of orange can be found in this semantic class. Orange is the colour of the royal line of the Netherlands as well as of Protestantism, mostly in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Northern America (OED). Both associations can be found in example (365), which refers to a supporter of the House of Orange in the Netherlands as well as to a person who espouses Protestant political principles and the Protestant cause, especially in Northern Ireland (OED). This latter meaning is also present in example (366), which can also be referred to by purple-man (example (326)). In Dutch, Irish Protestants can be named by example (367). Several expressions exist in Dutch that refer to the House of Orange in the Netherlands, such as examples (368) and (369).

(365) Orangist (OED)

(366) Orange-man (OED)

(367) Oranjist (WNT)

(368) Oranjegezind (WNT)

(369) een oranjeklant zijn (AKVH)

5.11.2 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Only one expression includes orange with reference to fabric. Example (370) indicates a ‘kind of wide baize’, which is a coarse woollen stuff chiefly used for linings, coverings, curtains, etc. (OED).

(370) orange-list (OED)

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5.11.3 DISEASES

The only disease that was found with orange is example (371), referring to a brain fungus.

(371) orange jelly-sprout (OED)

5.11.4 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

The metaphor in example (372) indicates a type of LSD in the form of an orange tablet (OED). Example (373) includes a metonymy, in which orange is used to refer to the robes of members of a former cult known chiefly for its belief in sexual freedom (OED).

(372) orange sunshine (OED)

(373) Orange People (OED)

5.11.5 Conclusion

With regard to the figurative use of orange, only one general association can be found, designating either the House of Orange in the Netherlands or Protestantism in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Northern America.

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5.12 Grey

Grey is “[t]he adjective denoting the colour intermediate between black and white, or composed of a mixture of black and white with little or no positive hue; ash- coloured, lead-coloured”. (OED). Since grey does not occur in the visible spectrum, it could actually be interpreted as ‘uncoloured’. It can also be used figuratively to indicate ‘not bright or hopeful’, ‘dismal’, ‘gloomy’, ‘sad’ or ‘depressing’ (OED). Positive associations were not found.

5.12.1 NEGATIVE

The expression in example (374) is used to refer to a person or company making a possibly hostile counter offer for a company already facing a hostile takeover bid (NODE). An even more clear illustration of the negative use of grey can be found in example (375). Its meaning can be described as ‘go to the bad’, ‘follow evil’, ‘adopt a hopeless policy’ or ‘lead a cheerless life’ (TTEM). The OED mentions that the expression can also be used to refer to a ‘dull’, ‘anonymous’ or ‘faceless’ person. This meaning is also present in grey flannel suit (example (383)). Example (376) combines grey with green to indicate the contrast between youth and old age. The meaning of this expression is negative, referring to the perceived bad combination of an old and a young person in marriage (TTEM).

(374) grey knight (NODE)

(375) gang/go a grey gate (TTEM)

(376) grey and green make the worst medley (TTEM)

5.12.2 QUALITIES /MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

As mentioned above, grey is the opposite of green in terms of reference to age. The grey head in example (377) designates somebody with a grey head of hair, thus referring to someone who is old. This expression signifies ‘to grow old in’, hence ‘to be well versed or experienced in’ (OED). A similar expression exists in Dutch, as in example (378).

(377) grow grey-headed in (OED)

(378) ergens in grijs worden (VDHN)

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5.12.3 NATURE

In example (379), grey is used in the sense of ‘uncoloured’, thus implying there is no difference in colour between the cats , or: ‘differences in appearance are essentially unimportant’ (TTEM). The TTEM also mentions that this expression is often used in a sexual context. The metaphor in example (380) is used to refer to a wife who rules her husband (TTEM).

(379) all cats are grey in the dark (TTEM)

(380) the grey mare is the better horse (TTEM)

5.12.4 FABRIC /CLOTHING

Grey is commonly used to refer to the habit of monks or friars, as in example (381). A similar reference can be found in example (382). This expression was first applied to François Leclerc du Tremblay, who was also known as Père Joseph and wore a grey habit. He was the confidential agent of Cardinal Richelieu, who wore a red habit (Wikipedia). The expression can be extended to describe someone who wields real though not titular control (OED). Another use of grey referring to clothing can be found in example (383), which metaphorically refers to a person with ‘conservative’, ‘bureaucratic’ and ‘conformist’ attitudes. It can also indicate a ‘lack of individuality’ (OED), which fits in with the use of grey as ‘uncoloured’.

(381) Grey friar (OED)

(382) grey eminence (OED)

(383) grey flannel suit (OED)

5.12.5 BODY

Grey can be used by black people to refer to white-skinned persons. Example (384) illustrates another use of grey, referring to the colour of the brain. This expression can thus refer to ‘a person’s intelligence’ (CALD). The Dutch equivalent is example (385). The most common association of grey however, is with the hair colour of elderly people. This grey hair is often figuratively interpreted as ‘mature’ and ‘experienced’, which can be seen as opposite meanings of green. However, in expression (387), and the similar expression in Dutch in example (388), grey hair is seen as a sign of old age, which can be seen as an indication that a person does not have a long time left to live. 112 5 The use and meaning of basic colour terms

(384) grey cells/matter (OED)

(385) de grijze cellen (VDHN)

(386) go/turn grey (CALD)

(387) grey hairs are death’s blossoms (TTEM)

(388) grijze haren zijn kerkhofsbloemen (SN)

5.12.6 DISEASES

Example (389) refers to a disease in oats that is characterised by grey spots on leaf-blades (OED).

(389) grey speck/leaf (OED)

5.12.7 COMPARISON WITH ANIMALS /OBJECTS

The comparison of grey with glass in example (390) may seem odd at first. However, it originates in the fact that medieval glass was seldom quite clear (TTEM). Other uses of grey in similes are more evident, as in example (391).

(390) grey as glass (TTEM)

(391) grey as a possum (TTEM)

5.12.8 BETWEEN BLACK & WHITE

Grey is often used in the place of black to indicate a less extreme form of an activity, object, etc. (OED). Such expressions can be found in examples (392) and (393), indicating respectively a less severe form of a black out (example (59)) and of a black market (example (10)). Example (393) can also be described as ‘any unofficial or unorthodox trading which, although legal, may be considered unethical’ (OED). Example (394) was named after blackmail (example (9)) and indicates ‘a cunning scheme involving a threat by the defence to expose government secrets unless charges are dropped’ (OED). Example (395) uses grey in the sense of an ‘intermediate area’. This area is located between two opposing positions, which could be seen as black and white. Furthermore, the area between black and white can also be used to refer to a residential area which is inhabited without segregation by people of differing ethnic backgrounds (OED).

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(392) grey-out (OED)

(393) grey market (OED)

(394) greymail (OED)

(395) grey area (OED)

5.12.9 UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED

Grey in example (396) seems to have some of the qualities of black, as it more or less refers to something ‘secret’: documentary material which is not commercially published or publicly available, such as technical reports or internal business documents (OED). Example (397) is used to indicate something that is unburnished (OED).

(396) grey literature (OED)

(397) in the grey (OED)

5.12.10 Conclusion

Situated between black and white and not a part of the visible colour spectrum, grey can evoke meanings such as ‘not bright or hopeful’, ‘dismal’, ‘gloomy’, ‘sad’, ‘depressing’, ‘cheerless’, ‘dull’ and ‘anonymous’. Apart from these rather negative associations, grey is also used to indicate old age, by referring to the hair colour of elderly people. This use can be extended to indicate ‘experience’. It can thus be contrasted with green. The use of grey as ‘uncoloured’ occurred in NATURE as well as in

FABRIC /CLOTHING , where it can be extended to indicate ‘lack of individuality’. The literal position of grey between black and white can also be used figuratively, as in

BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE , referring to less severe forms of expressions with black.

114 6 Conclusion

6 Conclusion

My aim in this dissertation was to look at why a particular basic colour term is used to express a certain meaning and which meanings can be expressed by it.

I first set out a theoretical framework, following cognitive linguistics, in which my study could be situated. Even though my focus was not on the linguistic structure in which the colour terms occur, they nonetheless proved useful in figuring out why certain basic colour terms are used and which meanings are or can be expressed by them. These linguistic structures include metaphor, metonymy, simile, collocation and idiom. The main idea of metaphor is understanding one kind of thing in terms of another. In the case of metonymies, it is usually a salient characteristic which stands for the whole. Similes are explicit comparisons, indicated by words such as “as”. Collocations and idioms are multi-word expressions. When collocations are habitual, they exemplify the idiom principle. Idioms are institutionalised and are often non-literal. However, there is a need for a scale of idiomaticity. I have also elaborated on the premise of Berlin & Kay on the eleven basic colour terms, which are at the centre of my study.

Starting from these eleven basic colour terms, I gathered a collection of English expressions from several dictionaries. I did the same for Dutch, but realised along the way that a thorough comparison with the English expressions would not be possible. The Dutch data should therefore be seen as extra information and illustration. No general conclusions can be made about these expressions. Furthermore, I have followed a semasiological perspective, which takes a particular form or expression as the starting point. I have then looked at what kinds of meanings are or can be expressed by this form, the basic colour term. The classification in semantic classes was a first step in looking at which meanings occur with the basic colour terms. In further analysis, I tried to explain expressions in detail and thus look at why a certain colour term is used and which meanings are or can be expressed. These explanations at times included a closer look at the linguistic structure of the expression.

I have illustrated that the meaning of many of the expressions can be derived from an innate or cultural knowledge about colours and their associations. For example, the “black is bad” versus “white is good” dichotomy appears to be culturally universal and 115 6 Conclusion innate. However, encyclopaedic knowledge is necessary with examples where the meaning expressed by the use of a colour term does not depend on intuitive knowledge or knowledge about the occurrence of a colour in nature.

To conclude, I will repeat some of the most important meanings that can be expressed by the eleven basic colour terms in the examined English expressions. I have shown that the most salient associations expressed by the use of the colour term black can be linked to darkness and include various negative meanings such as ‘illegal’ or ‘malignant’. Another important use is the reference to ethnicity, designating a person of a dark race. It is also commonly used as the opposite of white. Since it is the opposite of black, white is the colour of brightness, and thus of positive meanings such as ‘innocent’ or ‘free from malignity or evil intent’. However, some negative use of the colour term was found as well, most importantly with reference to ‘cowardice’. As with black, the use of the colour with regard to race and ethnicity is very important. Showing a tendency towards negative associations, red is the colour used to indicate ‘danger’. It is also used to refer to political views that are left of centre, mainly ‘communism’. The colour term can also indicate race. Another very important association of red is with blood, thus explaining many expressions that refer to the body. Besides being the colour of constancy and thus of politically conservative views, blue is also used to express negative meanings such as ‘depressed’ or ‘indecent’. A link with blood was found as well. Green is first and foremost the colour of nature. This association can be extended to express meanings such as ‘youthful’, ‘inexperienced’, ‘gullible’ or ‘supporting environmentalism’. ‘Jealousy’ can also be expressed by the use of this colour term. Similar to red, yellow is also used to refer to ‘danger’. Other negative meanings include ‘sensational’, ‘jealousy’ and ‘cowardice’. This colour name also occurs in expressions referring to race. Brown is not common in figurative language, but can be used to express negative meanings such as ‘bored’ or ‘deceive’. Derived from an expensive type of dye, purple is used to refer to royalty or high members of the clergy and to indicate meanings such as ‘gorgeous’ or ‘splendid’. This colour name can also be linked with blood. Pink is the colour used to indicate ‘perfection’, but also ‘inexperience’ and ‘indecency’. This colour terms is used to refer to gender as well. Only one general association was found regarding orange . Situated between black and white, grey can be seen as ‘uncoloured’ and ‘dull’ or ‘anonymous’. Besides these negative associations, it is also the opposite of green when used to refer to ‘maturity’ and ‘experience’.

116 Dictionaries consulted

Dictionaries consulted (with abbreviations)

ENGLISH

Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary , Second Edition, Elizabeth Walter, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. [CALD]

Cambridge Dictionary of American English , Sidney I. Landau, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. [CDAE]

Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners , Third Edition, John Sinclair, Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers, 2001. [CCEDAL]

Dictionary of Jargon , Jonathan Green, London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. [DJ]

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English – The Living Dictionary , Fourth Edition, Della Summers, Harlow : Longman, 2005. [LDCE]

Oxford English Dictionary online . [OED]

The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language – international edition , William Morris, Boston: American Heritage Publ. Co., 1973. [HIDEL]

The New Oxford Dictionary of English , Judy Pearsall, New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1998. [NODE]

The Wordsworth Dictionary of Idioms , E.M. Kirkpatrick and C.M. Schwarz, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd, 1993. [WDI]

Thesaurus of Traditional English Metaphors , Second Edition, P.R.Wilkinson, London: Routledge, 2002. [TTEM]

DUTCH

Als de kat van huis is... : 4000 spreekwoorden, gezegden en uitdrukkingen , Martha Cazemier en Hubert van Marum, Leidschendam: Kemper conseil publishing, 2005. [AKVH]

Huizinga’s spreekwoorden en gezegden: herkomst, verklaring en vergelijking met Frans, Duits en Engels , Baarn : Tirion, 1994. [HSG]

Nederlandsche spreekwoorden, spreekwijzen, uitdrukkingen en gezegden , Vierde Druk, F.A. Stoett, Zutphen: W.J. Thieme & Cie, 1923-1925. [NSSUG]

Spreekwoordelijk Nederlands , Jan Meulendijks en Bart Schuil, Baarn : Tirion, 1998. [SN]

Van Dale Groot Woordenboek – Nederlands Engels , Derde Druk, W. Martin, Utrecht/Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie, 1999. [VDGW]

117 Dictionaries consulted

Van Dale Hedendaags Nederlands op CD-ROM , P.G.J. van Sterkenburg, Utrecht/Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie BV, 1991. [VDHN]

Van Dale Idioom Woordenboek , Hans de Groot, Utrecht/Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie, 1999. [VDIW]

Verklarend Zakwoordenboek der Nederlandse Taal , Eenentwintigste druk, M.J. Koenen, Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1969. [VZNT]

Het Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal op CD-Rom , Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie, AND Publishers, Rotterdam, 2000. [WNT]

Woordenboek van populaire uitdrukkingen, clichés, kreten en slogans , Tweede editie, Marc de Coster, Den Haag: SDU Uitgevers, 2002. [WUCKS]

118 References

References

Books and articles

BERLIN, Brent, KAY, Paul

1969 Basic color terms: their universality and evolution , Berkeley: University of California press.

BIBER, Douglas, CONRAD, Susan and LEECH, Geoffrey

2002 Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English , London: Longman.

BUELENS, G., EECKHOUT, B., VERSLUYS, K.

2003 An Introduction to Poetry , Universiteit Gent.

FERNANDO, Chitra

1996 Idioms and Idiomaticity , Oxford: Oxford University Press.

GEERAERTS, Dirk and GRONDELAERS, Stef

1991 Looking Back at Anger: Cultural Traditions and Metaphorical Patterns , Leuven: KUL, Departement Linguïstiek. (= Preprints van het department linguïstiek, 133).

HARDIN, Clyde

2005 Explaining Basic Color Categories. In: Cross-Cultural Research , Vol. 39 No. 1, 72-87.

JOHNSON, Mark

1987 The Body in the mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

KÖVECSES, Zoltán

1986 Metaphors of anger, pride, and love , Amsterdam: Benjamins. (= Pragmatics and Beyond, VII: 8).

LAKOFF, George

1987 Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

119 References

LAKOFF, George and JOHNSON, Mark

1980 Metaphors we live by , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

MAALEJ, Zouhair

2004 Figurative Language in Anger. Expressions in Tunisian Arabic: An extended View of Embodiment. In: Metaphor and symbol , 51-75.

MARKERT, Katja and NISSIM, Malvina

2003 Corpus-Based Metonymy Analysis. In: Metaphor and symbol , 175- 188.

MARKS, Lawrence

1996 On Perceptual Metaphors. In: Metaphor and symbolic activity , 39-66.

MEIER, Brian and ROBINSON, Michael

2005 The Metaphorical Representation of Affect. In: Metaphor and symbol , 239-257.

PAUWELS, Paul and SIMON-VANDENBERGEN, Anne-Marie

1995 “Body Parts in Linguistic Action: Underlying Schemata and Value Judgements”. In: GOOSSENS, Louis, PAUWELS, Paul, RUDZKA- OSTYN, Brygida, SIMON-VANDENBERGEN, Anne-Marie and VANPARYS, Johan: By Word of Mouth. Metaphor, Metonymy and Linguistic Action in a Cognitive Perspective , Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 35-69. (Pragmatics and Beyond, 33).

RICOEUR, Paul

1994 [1978] The Rule of Metaphor. Multi-disciplinary studies of the creation of meaning in language , London: Routlegde. Translated from of La métaphore vive by Robert Czerny (1975, Paris: Editions du Seuil).

SINCLAIR, John M., JONES, Susan and DALEY, Robert

2004 English Collocation Studies: The OSTI Report , Chippenham: Antony Rowe Ltd.

STEINVALL, Anders

2002 English colour terms in context . (Skrifter från moderna språk, 3.) Umeå: Umeå Universitet: Institutionen för moderna språk.

STYAN, J.L.

2003 Drama. Guide to the Study of Plays , New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

120 References

TAVERNIERS, Miriam

2001 Metaphor and Metaphorology: A selective genealogy of philosophical and linguistic conceptions of metaphor from Aristotle to the 1980s . (Studia Germanica Gandensia Libri, 1.) Gent: Academia Press. 2006 Grammatical metaphor and lexical metaphor: different perspectives on semantic variation . Neophilologus 90 (2): 321-332.

WILLEMS, Klaas

2003 Inleiding tot taal- en tekststructuren, Universiteit Gent.

Internet sources

Colorful spectrum simulation, D.S. Krolls. (13/12/2004) (25/7/2007)

Nederlandsche spreekwoorden, spreekwijzen, uitdrukkingen en gezegden, F.A. Stoett. (24/07/2007)

Oxford English Dictionary online. (28/07/2007)

Wikipedia. (28/07/2007)

121 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

I. BLACK 1. NEGATIVE - black flag - black humour, black joke - black books - black list - to be in the/in any one’s black books - black-leg - black economy - blackmail - to put the black (on a person) - black rent - black broadcasting - black Friday - to black - black boding - black art - black-artist - black-artship - blacken - black spot - blackguard - blacksome - black list - black mark - black hole - black house - black look - black looks - black babbling - be as black as one is painted - paint a black picture of sth/sb - it looks black - to put up a black - blackball, black-bean - black-leg, to blackleg it - Black Prince - the devil is not as black as he’s painted - although I am black, I am not the devil - sing the black psalm - paint a black picture/prospect - not as black as he’s painted - however black the kettle, there is always a lid to fit it. - the pot calls the kettle black - black arse quoth the pot to the cauldron - you can’t rub on a black pot without getting 122 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

black on you - black as Newgate - black sin, black as sin

- black market - black as the devil - black as the devil’s/Old Harry’s/Old Nick’s nutting-bag/nutting-poke - black as the devil’s croust-box - black as the dule’s hoof - black as the Duke/Earl of Hell’s black riding boots/waistcoat - black as the inside of the devil’s waistcoat pocket - black as Humber - black as Hades - black as hell - black as a boggart - black as a witch - look as black as a wet Friday - to look black, he/she looks black - blackly - black mood - look on the black side - black dog - blush like a black dog - the black bull’s trodden on him - ride the black donkey - black shee - black-choler - black bile - black and blue - a black eye, to black (a person’s) eye - black’s his/your eye - black’s my eye - black is the white of my eye - to say black is anyone’s eye - lie till one is black in the face - black-mouth - every bean has its black - blackwash - a black dress man - Black Museum - black propaganda 2. RACE /ETHNICITY - a black - Black is beautiful - Black Africa - black code - black economy - Black Muslim

123 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- Black Nationalism - Black Panther - black power - black studies - black theology - black velvet - blackamoor - black belt - blackbird, blackbirder, blackbirding - black bottom - black boy - black-face - black man - blackness - blacky - black tracker - black foot - Black Jew - black ivory - Black Maria - Black Sash - work like a black - run like a black - washing the blackamoor (white) - could sell boomerangs to the blacks - sick as a blackfellow’s dog

- black fellow - lilies are whitest in a blackamoor’s hand - a black plum is as sweet as a white 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - a black - black-and-tannery - Black September, Black Septembrist - black-neb - blackshirt - Black Watch - Black rubric - Black Monday

- Black Museum - the gentleman in black velvet! 4. QUALITIES /MENTAL - to look black, he/she looks black CHARACTERISTICS - blackly - black mood - look on the black side - black dog - blush like a black dog - the black bull’s trodden on him - ride the black donkey 5. NATURE - after black clouds, clear weather

124 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- look as bauld/bald as a black-faced wedder/wether - black-coated workers - the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice - back of/beyond/this side of the black stump - raven-black - the black cow’s milk - have the black dog on your back - like butter in the black dog’s hause - it is hard driving a black pig in the dark - the black ox has trodden on my foot - black swan - undergrowth too thick for a black snake to wriggle through - the black bear of Arden - it would be hard to follow a black dockt sow through a burnt muir this night - not care/give/worth the bristle of a swine dark as black hogs - it is a fair flock that has no black sheep

- black squall - black sheep - black dog - blush like a black dog - the black bull’s trodden on him - ride the black donkey - a black hen can lay a white egg - every bean has its black - black as night - black as midnight - black as thunder - black as a thundercloud - black as snow – in London - black as ebony - black as a mazzard - eyes black as mazzards - black as a mourning weed - as fond as a bass and as black as a bleg - black as a bullace - black as a coot - black as a sloe/sloes/sloon - black as a tulgy - black as Alaskan sealskin - black as a crow - dark as a stack of black cats - black as an ousel

125 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - a black - black silk - blackmaster - black work - black job - black-apronry - black-coat - black gown - blackrobe - black friar - black hood - black tie - black belt - the raven said to the rook ‘stand away, black coat!’ - the way to keep a man out of the mud is to black his boots

- black hat - the gentleman in black velvet! - black as a shoe - black as your hat - a black dress man 7. BODY - cannot say black’s his nail/eye/eyebrow

- black-choler - black bile - black and blue - a black eye, to black (a person’s) eye - black’s his/your eye - black’s my eye - black is the white of my eye - to say black is anyone’s eye - lie till one is black in the face - black-mouth - black as Toby’s arse 8. DISEASES - black arm - black disease - black pod - black quarter - black rot - black rust - black scab - black scour - black stripe - black tongue - black-leg - black spot - black water - black tooth

126 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- black death 9. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - to be in the black - black literature - black-letter - black letter day - black step

- black as ink - black as the inside of a man who drank a bottle of ink - in black and white 10. COMPARISON WITH - black as the aister ANIMALS /OBJECTS - black as a burnt log - black as a collier’s sack - black as the stock/habern - black as the hake up the chimney - black as the crook - black as coal/coal-black/black as a cob - black as a skep - black as soot - black as a tinker/tinkler - black as a tinker’s pot - black as pitch/pick, pitch-black - black as blindness - black as the ace of spades/ten of clubs - black as a bag - black as guttermud - black as jet - black as a turf-rick toad - black as a well

- black as sin - black as the devil - black as the devil’s/Old Harry’s/Old Nick’s nutting-bag/nutting-poke - black as the devil’s croust-box - black as the dule’s hoof - black as the Duke/Earl of Hell’s black riding boots/waistcoat - black as the inside of the devil’s waistcoat pocket - black as Humber - black as Hades - black as hell - black as a boggart - black as a witch - look as black as a wet Friday - black as night - black as midnight - black as thunder

127 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- black as a thundercloud - black as snow – in London - black as ebony - black as a mazzard - eyes black as mazzards - black as a mourning weed - as fond as a bass and as black as a bleg - black as a bullace - black as a coot - black as a sloe/sloes/sloon - black as a tulgy - black as Alaskan sealskin - black as a crow - dark as a stack of black cats - black as an ousel - black as a shoe - black as your hat - black as Toby’s arse - black as ink - black as the inside of a man who drank a bottle of ink 11. AS OPPOSED TO WHITE - black coffee - blacksmith - black acre - black and white - two blacks do not make a white - there is no wool so white but a dyer can make it black - the blackest thorn bears the whitest blossom

- black market - black fellow - black squall - black is the white of my eye - a black hen can lay a white egg - a black plum is as sweet as a white - lilies are whitest in a blackamoor’s hand - blackwash - black hat - in black and white - black propaganda 12. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - black sanctus - go into a black hole - black gold - Black Rod - black fasting - black bomber - black box - black heat - black canon

128 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- black-figure - black light - black liquor - to black out - black strap - black stump, this side of the black stump - necessity is coal-black - shine like the bristles of a blacking brush - black jack rides a good horse - black lad Monday - it’s looking black over the wife’s mother’s - the richer the cobbler the blacker his thumb - blacksnake - the smith and his penny are both black

129 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

II. WHITE 1. POSITIVE - white - whiteness - white hope - white knight - white ribboner - white son - to mark with a white stone - white man - whiten - white information - that was very white of you - whiter than white - white war - white lie - white witch - to white-witch - white flag - white boy - whitestone days/days marked by a white stone - hit/shoot nigh the white - a fool’s bolt may sometimes hit the white - white light - mount a white charger

- white market - whitewash - whitewasher - white-hearted - white-mail - white magic - white list - white-hat, white hat - the blackest thorn bears the whitest blossom - a white hen’s chick - a son of the white hen - to the raven her own chick is white - white as whalebone/whale’s bone - white-haired boy - with white hands - have more white in his eye - white as a loan-soup - white propaganda 2. NEGATIVE - white rage / terror - white stuff - white telephone - white van man - off-white - white boy - make white broth of … 130 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- your tricks are sewed with white thread - blow white wind in his lug - wash whiter than white

- whitewash - whitewasher - white night - white feather - show the white feather - a whited/whitewashed sepulchre - every crow thinks its own bird whitest - crow thinks its own bird white craw thinks it own chick whitest - white horse - buy a white horse - the white dog bites him - white-ant - white-anter - have white ants (in your billy-can) - want the calf with the white face - whitefish - white hen’s chick - acts the white hen - white elephant - white mouse - show the white rabbit-scut - he made many a white hedge black - white-hearted - white-liver, -livered - to bleed white - white-knuckle, white knuckle - give the white foot - black is the white of my eye - has more cheek than a white man! - white meat - another white shirt will finish him - white-shoe - white-collar 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - a white man - poor whites - poor white folks - poor white trash - poor-white-folksy/trashy - white(s)-only - white slave - white man - White Africa - White Australia - white backlash - white chauvinism

131 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- white dominion - White Father - white flight - white folks - White Highlands - White Hun - white jazz - white Negro - white nigger - White Moors - white racism, racist - white settler - white slave - white supremacy - white trash - white-dominated - white-bread - the white man’s burden - the white man’s grave - whitewashed American/Yank/Yankee - whitey - white hunter - white-bread

- whitefellow - a black plum is as sweet as a white - white meat - has more cheek than a white man! - White English 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Red, White and Blue - white - White Army - White Guard - white rose - White Terror - white house - from log cabin to White House - Whitehall - White Rajah - white squadron 5. QUALITIES /MENTAL - at white heat CHARACTERISTICS - white-hearted - white-liver, -livered - white about the gills 6. NATURE - white land - white out - white water - white bait - white lightning

132 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- walsh as the white of an egg - white flowers on the fisherman’s garden - lily-white - lily-whites - ye breed o’ the leek, wi’ a white head and a green tail - a hen that lays away should have a white nest- egg - blind as a white cat with a blue eye - deaf as a white cat - the (white) ewe - white horses - save something for the man that rides on the white horse - spit for the white horse - the whiter the cow, the surer it is to go to the altar - white crow - a crow is no whiter for being washed

- white squall - white night - a whited/whitewashed sepulchre - a black plum is as sweet as a white - the blackest thorn bears the whitest blossom - white feather - show the white feather - white elephant - white mouse - every crow thinks its own bird whitest - crow thinks its own bird white craw thinks it own chick whitest - to the raven her own chick is white - want the calf with the white face - whitefish - show the white rabbit-scut - acts the white hen - a son of the white hen - a white hen’s chick - white-ant - white-anter - have white ants (in your billy-can) - buy a white horse - white horse - the white dog bites him - white elephant - white as whalebone/whale’s bone - white as snow/driven snow/drip - white as salt - white as whey

133 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- white as float-whey - white as milk - white as curds - white as a lily - white as nep/nip - white as moss-crop - white as a bean - white as a dove - white as a fish - white as a flock of sheep - white as wool - white as a swan - (turned) as white as a haddock in the gills - white as a hound’s tooth - white as ivory - white as a live terrier - white as a whale’s tooth - white as whales bone - white as a mawk 7. FABRIC /CLOTHING - white tie - white wedding - White Sister - white nun - white monk - white-choker - white-cloak - white-hood - stand in white sheets - whitecoat - a small stain will smear white stockings - white ball - white-folding - white bonnet - white-favoured - whitecap - white work/white embroidery - white ensign - white wings - white-wig - white-stocking - white-shoe

- white-hat - white hat - white-shoe - there is no wool so white but a dyer can make it black - another white shirt will finish him - white-collar - white-collar workers

134 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- white as a clout - white as a kerchief - white as plucking - white as a pillow - white as a shroud - white as a sheet - white as a cloth 8. BODY - white matter - white tissue - to spit white - to whitetooth - go white - white-out - look like a whitewashed wall - white-haired - white-skin - white cell/corpuscle - white-face

- have more white in his eye - with white hands - white-haired boy - white about the gills - white-hearted - white-liver, -livered - to bleed white - white-knuckle, white knuckle - give the white foot - white as a baby’s arm 9. DISEASES - white blood - white fingers - white jaundice - white flood - white gangrene - white flux - white haw - white scour - white swelling - white softening - white death - white plague - whitepox - white rot - white rust - white scourge - white-comb - white-blood disease - white-leg 10. COMPARISON WITH - white as arsenic ANIMALS /OBJECTS - white as a doll

135 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- looks as white as a flick of new bacon - white as a ghost/spirit - white as lime - white as a pudding clout - white as a statue - white as a tallow candle - white as a witch - white as silver - white as glass - white as flour - white as a neap

- white as a loan-soup - white as snow/driven snow/drip - white as salt - white as whey - white as float-whey - white as milk - white as curds - as white as lilyflower, white as a lily - white as nep/nip - white as moss-crop - white as a bean - white as a dove - white as a fish - white as a flock of sheep - white as wool - (turned) as white as a haddock in the gills - white as a swan - white as a hound’s tooth - white as ivory - white as a live terrier - white as a whale’s tooth - white as whales bone - white as a mawk - white as whalebone/whale’s bone - white as a clout - white as a kerchief - white as plucking - white as a pillow - white as a shroud - white as a sheet - white as a cloth - white as a baby’s arm 11. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - the white - white line - white paper - white-print - white-backed/white-rigged - white post

136 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- youth and white paper take any impression - the White Pages

- in black and white - white letter 12. AS OPPOSED TO BLACK - whitesmith - white acre - to call white black - to turn white into black - white coffee - white note - black and white - two blacks do not make a white

- whitefellow - white market - whitewash - white list - white squall - white hat - white-mail - white magic - White English - white letter - there is no wool so white but a dyer can make it black - a black hen can lay a white egg - a black plum is as sweet as a white - the blackest thorn bears the whitest blossom - black is the white of my eye - he made many a white hedge black - white propaganda 13. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - a white - white fuel - white noise - white baker - white goods/whitewear - white sale - white room - white stock - white way - white-label - white powder - white pizza - white-hot - white land - white heat - white money - white rent - white gold

137 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- white mass - whiter than white - white-exceeding - white meter - white steep - White Van Man - white window - White Sunday - white mule - pot the white - white sergeant - take the white road - big white telephone - to talk to Ralph/God on the big white telephone - talk into the big white telephone

138 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

III. RED 1. POSITIVE - up she comes and the colour’s red

- red carpet - red carpet treatment - red-letter day 2. NEGATIVE - red board - red card - to be red carded - red channel - red tape - red flag - red alert/red warning - red light - carry three red lights - see the red light - red-light - hunt the fox down the red lane - the Red Queen syndrome - red-etin/eitin/aitin, red eten - nary/not a red cent - not care/give/worth a red cent - red fire-hot/red-hot - wouldn’t touch…with a red-hot poker! - a red-hot ember is easily rekindled - put together/sewn with a red-hot needle and burning thread - gape against a red-hot oven

- red-hunting - red-baiting - red-mad/red-wood - like a red rag to a bull - red herring, to draw a red herring across the track - red cock - the red cock will crow on his house - red-handed, catch red-handed - red in tooth and claw 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - a red - Red Indian - red man/men - red skin - red children - red-hide - Red Paint 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Red, White and Blue - red revolution - red flag - Red Arrow 139 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- red flag - Red Branch - Red Brigade/Brigader - red-cooking - red menace - red peril - reds under the bed - better dead than red - Red Prince - red star - Red Terror - Red Chamber - Red Tory/Toryism - Red Army - red belt - Red China - Little Red Book - red cross - red squadron - red-diaper - a redbrick university

- red-hunting - red-baiting 5. QUALITIES /MENTAL - red-sensitive CHARACTERISTICS - red-mad/red-wood - red as a lubber-cock/turkey-cock/a turkey- cock’s jowls - red about the gills, red round the gills - to see red - red-blooded 6. NATURE - red rain - red wind - red rot - the redder the fruit the higher it hangs - the reddest apple may have a worm in it - red-bird - red fog - red mare - red steer - red onion - red meat - to shoot/sport the red - neither fish nor flesh nor good red herring - a red pig for an ackon/acorn! - has a face like the Red Lion of Brentford

- red as fire - red as a rose

140 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- red as a lubber-cock/turkey-cock/a turkey- cock’s jowls - red as the chollers of a bubbly-jock - turned as red as a turkey-cock snotterbob - red cock - the red cock will crow on his house - red herring, to draw a red herring across the track - red as a beetroot - red as (a/the) (h)ep(ps) - red as the Rising Sun at Bromford - face as red as a pianet/pynat/piney - red as a peenie/piney - red as rubies - red as fields of heather on fire/a heather-hill - red as raw beef - red as Martlesham Lion - red as rud/raddle 7. FABRIC /CLOTHING - red riband/ribbon - red-hat - red-cowl - redcap - has seen redcap - you shall have the red cap - red friar - red clout - red coat - red-jacket - red-laced jacket - the lass in the red petticoat - red shoes syndrome - red flag at the mast-head - red duster - red ensign - red banner - red soldier - red-gown - red judge - red flannel - hope and a red rag are baits for men and mackerel - red mass - red leather

- red carpet - red carpet treatment - like a red rag to a bull - red as a petticoat 8. BODY - red face - red-arse

141 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- red-beard - red blood cell/corpuscle/red cell - red reflex - red spot - red-blind - red-raw - red mist - sew the eyes with red thread

- red-blooded - red about the gills, red round the gills - to see red - red-handed, catch red-handed - red as a blister - red as a hunter’s face - red as blood - cheeks as red as da feet o’ a shalder in da ebb- stanes - red in tooth and claw 9. DISEASES - red atrophy - red softening - red core - red leg - red soldier - red-water - red rot 10. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - in the red - out of the red - red book - red-pencil - red-circle

- red-letter day 11. COMPARISON WITH - red as a brick ANIMALS /OBJECTS - cute as a (speckled pup pulling a) red wagon - drunk as a little red wagon

- red as a lubber-cock/turkey-cock/a turkey- cock’s jowls - red as fire - red as a rose - red as a beetroot - red as (a/the) (h)ep(ps) - red as the Rising Sun at Bromford - face as red as a pianet/pynat/piney - red as a peenie/piney - red as rubies - red as fields of heather on fire/a heather-hill - red as a cherry - red as a ferret

142 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- red as a fox - red as a herring - red as a lobster - (nose as) red as a partan’s tae - dead as a red lobster - red as raw beef - red as Martlesham Lion - red as rud/raddle - red as the chollers of a bubbly-jock - turned as red as a turkey-cock snotterbob - red as a petticoat - red as a blister - red as a hunter’s face - cheeks as red as da feet o’ a shalder in da ebb- stanes - red as blood 12. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - Red Rover - red lane - Red Cross - Red Crescent - Red Centre - red ball - red route - red-light district - to paint the town red - red box - red-ripe - red fire - red heat - red-hot - red ones - pocket the red - red figure - red mason - red potter - red pill - red planet - red stock - red sable - red ball - red biddy/Red Ned - red-line

143 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

IV. BLUE 1. POSITIVE - true blue - true blue will never stain - true as Coventry blue - blue-chip - blue-chip investments

- blue eyed boy 2. NEGATIVE - to burn blue - a blue look-out - a blue movie - till all is blue, by all that’s blue - blue murder - scream/yell blue murder - to blue - to come off bluely - to forget the blue bag - three blue beans in one blue bladder - lives up to her blue china - to make the air turn blue - to fly the blue pigeon - blue law

- to look blue - the blues - blue devils - blueness - (do something until one is) blue in the face - blue laws - blue funk/fear - in a blue funk - blue nose, blue-nosed - to blue-beat - black and blue 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - blueman - blue-nose 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Red, White and Blue - blue - clear blue water - the Dark Blues - the Light Blues - to win his blue - to be a Blue - an old Blue - Blue Squadron - true blue - blue on blue

- blue laws - blue as a whetstone 144 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

5. QUALITIES /MENTAL - blue fire CHARACTERISTICS - blue and better blue

- to look blue - the blues - blue devils - blueness - blue nose, blue-nosed - (do something until one is) blue in the face - blue funk/fear - in a blue funk - out of the blue - bolt from the blue - into the blue - blue about the gills - blue as a badger - blue as a needle 6. NATURE - blue moon - once in a blue moon - the blue - blue blanket - blue band - blue water - blue-washed - blue dahlia - blue duck - fly the blue pigeon - buzzing around/rushing about like a blue-arsed fly

- out of the blue - bolt from the blue - into the blue - rare as a blue rose - rare as a blue diamond - blue as a whetstone - blue as a badger - blue as the sky - blue as a bilberry - blue as a mazzard - blue as a blaver - blue as a leah stone - blue/hard as whinstone 7. FABRIC /CLOTHING - men in blue - blue boy - Blue Force - blue apron - blueshirt - blue jacket - bluebottle

145 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- blue coat - blue-coat boy - blue-stocking - blueism - blueness - blue-collar - blue-collar workers - blue-cap - blue mantle - blue ribbon - Blue Peter - blue point - not care/give/worth an aglet of a blue point/brass button/button - give a dad with the blue bonnet - blue shirt at the mast-head 8. BODY - to blue - blue eye - blue-eye - blueness - blue blood - blue-eyed - blue-tongue - blue rinse

- (do something until one is) blue in the face - to blue-beat - black and blue - blue eyed boy - blue nose, blue-nosed - blue in the face - blue about the gills 9. DISEASES - blue baby - blue disease - blue jaundice - blue comb 10. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - blueprint - blue-pencil - blueback - blue book 11. COMPARISON WITH - blue as wad ANIMALS /OBJECTS - rare as a blue rose - rare as a blue diamond - blue as a whetstone - blue as a needle - blue as the sky - blue as a bilberry - blue as a mazzard - blue as a blaver

146 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- blue as a leah stone - blue/hard as whinstone - blue as a badger 12. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - rain blue snow - blue pill - blue ruin - (to talk a( blue streak - blue-domer/domeism/domeist - blue measure - blue-water school - Blue Monday - Blue Nun - Blue Train - blue-plate - put a knot in bluey - put clear blue water between… - take the blue road

147 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

V. GREEN 1. POSITIVE - (to give) the green light - green card, green carder - Green Channel - their memory stays green - he’s too green to burn

- green way/ gate - in the green tree - green rushes, strew green rushes for this stranger - flourish like a green bay-tree - green shoots (of recovery) - greening 2. NEGATIVE - greenmail - grey and green make the worst medley - rub of the green - shit green - green spit - wigs on the green

- you see no green cheese but your teeth water - thinks/believes the moon is made of green cheese - he’d make you believe the moon’s made of green cheese - the green eye - the green-eyed monster 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - green - the Green Island, Green Erin 4. QUALITIES /MENTAL - green CHARACTERISTICS - greenhorn - in the green - green old age - greener - greenly - green man - greenness - greenery-yallery - have a hoar head and a green tail (ye breed o’ the leek, wi’ a white head and a green tail) - to be not as green as one is cabbage-looking - to see anything green in (one’s) eyes

- the green eye - the green-eyed monster - you see no green cheese but your teeth water - thinks/believes the moon is made of green cheese 148 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- he’d make you believe the moon’s made of green cheese - green wood makes a hot fire - green gaislin - look green about/around the gills - green head - to have green fingers/a green thumb - green-fingered - green as a yellow cabbage - green as a gourd - green hand 5. NATURE - greenery - greenhew - green in earth - green road - green-jerkin - green revolution - green soil - green-stuff - greens - green belt - greenie - greening - green acre - greenmans - green pound - green manure - green plot - greenhouse - green ray/green flash - greenhouse, the greenhouse effect - green audit - greenfield - green apples are better than none - two dry sticks will kindle a green one - faraway hills look green - set fire to a green gorse bush - through reaching for the green blade of grass the mare was drowned - for if they do this in a green tree, what shall be done in the dry? - praise the ripe field, not the green corn - it is ill praising/prizing of green barley - get green malt in floor - sleep at Mrs Green’s/with Mrs Green - the grass is always greener on the other side of the hedge - distant fields look greener - goose-turd green

149 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- green way/gate - in the green tree - green rushes , strew green rushes for this stranger - greenwash - flourish like a green bay-tree - green shoots (of recovery) - greening - green gaislin - green wood makes a hot fire - green as the sea - green as a bennel - green as grass - green as duckweed - green as a leek - green as a lizard - green as emerald - look as green as West India pickles 6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - Green Beret - Green Jackets - greenhorn - greeny - green curtain - green baize - green-sleeves - get a green bonnet - put on the green waistcoat - wear green garters - green table - green gown - to give a woman a green gown - get a green gown - get on the green gown 7. BODY - green and wan - green and pale - to keep the bones green - green hide - green-stick - to look green - go/turn green - a green wound is soon healed

- the green eye - the green-eyed monster - look green about/around the gills - to have green fingers/a green thumb - green-fingered - green head - green hand 8. DISEASES - greenback

150 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- green sickness - green jaundice - green gill 9. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - green-book - green goods - green paper - greens - the green stuff - greenback - greenback party, greenbacker, greenbackism 10. COMPARISONS WITH - green as bottle-glass ANIMALS /OBJECTS - green as a gooseberry - green as May

- green as a yellow cabbage - green as a gourd - green as the sea - green as a bennel - green as grass - green as duckweed - green as a leek - green as a lizard - green as emerald - look as green as West India pickles 11. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - green gold - green - one’s greens, get his/her greens - putting-green - bowling-green - on the green - green-room - green-charge - green field(s) - green cross - Green Line - Green Linnets - green-shaving - green-staff - go to the green-room - land of green ginger - thraw the wand/widdy/wuddy while it is green

151 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

VI. YELLOW 1. NEGATIVE - yellow light - yellow alert - yellow warning - yellow card - yellow rain - yellow line - double yellow line - yellow flag - yellowed

- yellow peril - yellow newspaper - yellow journal - yellow writer - yellow press - yellow journalism - yellow streak - the sear and yellow leaf - yellow dog - yellow dog fund - yellow-belly, yellow-bellied - yellow-livered 2. RACE /ETHNICITY - yellow-man

- yellow peril 3. QUALITIES /MENTAL - yellow CHARACTERISTICS - yellow-hammer - yellowness - yellows - yellow union

- yellow newspaper - yellow journal - yellow writer - yellow press - yellow journalism - yellow streak - yellow dog - yellow about the gills - wear yellow hose/stockings/breeches - yellow-belly, yellow-bellied - yellow-livered 4. NATURE - yellow leaf - yellow dirt

- yellow as gold - yellow as a gollan/gollin/gowlan - yellow as a meadow-bout - yellow as a paigle 152 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- yellow as a ragweed - yellow as a crow-flower - yellow as a pumpkin - yellow as saffron - yellow as a quince - yellow as train - yellow as the guilde - yellow as a kite’s foot - yellow as a duck’s foot - the sear and yellow leaf 5. FABRIC /CLOTHING - yellow badge - yellow star - yellow belt - yellow jacket - yellow jersey - grin like a fox eating yellow-jackets

- wear yellow hose/stockings/breeches 6. BODY - yellow tissue - yellow spot

- yellow-belly, yellow-bellied - yellow-livered - yellow about the gills 7. DISEASES - yellow typhus - yellow atrophy - yellow evil - yellow plague - yellow fever - yellow Jack - yellow sickness - yellow sought - yellow rust - yellows - yellow jaundice 8. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - the yellow pages - yellowback - yellow book - yellow wove 9. COMPARISON WITH - yellow as butter ANIMALS /OBJECTS - yellow as a guinea/a golden noble

- yellow as gold - yellow as a gollan/gollin/gowlan - yellow as a meadow-bout - yellow as a paigle - yellow as a ragweed - yellow as a crow-flower - yellow as a pumpkin - yellow as saffron 153 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- yellow as a quince - yellow as train - yellow as the guilde - yellow as a kite’s foot - yellow as a duck’s foot 10. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - yellow ware

154 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

VII. BROWN 1. POSITIVE - brownie - do it up brown - brownie points

- brown-leamer/brown-shiller 2. NEGATIVE - brown study - to brown - to fire/shoot into the brown - to do brown - browned off - brown someone off - to brown - done brown

- brown-nose - brown-noser 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Brown-shirt - brown-shirted 4. NATURE - nut-brown - have a suck at the brown cow - milk from the brown cow

- brown as a berry - brown-leamer/brown-shiller - brown as a twitchbell - brown as a partridge - brown as mahogany - brown as a chasten 5. FABRIC /CLOTHING - brown job - brown belt - brown-sleeve - brown-bomber - brownie

- Brown-shirt - brown-shirted 6. BODY - brown tubes - the brown hair is not heavier than the white

- brown as a berry - brown-nose - brown-noser 7. DISEASES - brown-heart - brown rot - brown rust 8. COMPARISON WITH - brown as a berry ANIMALS /OBJECTS - brown as a twitchbell - brown as a partridge - brown as mahogany 155 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- brown as a chasten 9. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - brown goods - brown-out - brown bastard - brown stout - brown house - brown ware - brown Holland - brownfield - Brown Bess - hug Brown Bess - married to Brown Bess - brown Betty - speak up, Brown, you’re through - it is good to eat your brown bread first

156 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

VIII. PURPLE 1. POSITIVE - purple patch - purple patchery - purple patchwork - purple passage - purple piece - to sub the purple 2. NEGATIVE - get/give the (purple) shaft - purple prose 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - purple-man - purple meeting 4. QUALITIES /MENTAL - the purple CHARACTERISTICS - born/cradled in the purple - purple airway/zone

- purple in the face - purple with rage 5. FABRIC /CLOTHING - the purple - purple and pall - purple-coat 6. BODY - the purple - visual purple

- purple in the face - purple with rage 7. DISEASES - purple - purples - purple rash - purple fever 8. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - purple heart/haze - Purple Heart - purple death

157 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

IX. PINK 1. POSITIVE - the pink - to tickle pink - the pink of perfection

- in the pink 2. NEGATIVE - pink

- get the pink slip 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - a pink - pink toe - pink chaser 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - a pink/pinko

- to paint the map pink 5. QUALITIES /MENTAL - a pink/pinko CHARACTERISTICS - pink elephant - pink rat

- pink-faced 6. CLOTHING - pink button - pink-coated

- pink triangle - pink-collar 7. BODY - pink and white - to pink -go pink

- in the pink - pink-faced 8. DISEASES - pink disease - pink fever - pink-eye 9. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - pink paper - pink ‘un - pink sheet - pink slip

- get the pink slip - to paint the map pink 10. GENDER - pink pound - pink lady

- pink triangle - pink-collar 11. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - a pink - to pink ‘em - to paint the town pink - strike me pink! 158 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

- to swear pink - hunting pink - pink noise - pink tea - pink feast - pink saucer - pink spot - pink wash - pink lady

159 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

X. ORANGE 1. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Orangist - Orangeism - Orangeman - orangize - Orange Order - Orange Day - Orange Parade - Orange Procession 2. FABRIC /CLOTHING - orange-list 3. DISEASES - orange jelly-sprout 4. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - Orange Badge - orange book - Orange People - orange lightning - orange sunshine - orange paste

160 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

XI. GREY 1. NEGATIVE - grey knight - ‘get on your own side, go, grey pate!’

- gang/go a grey gate - grey and green make the worst medley 2. QUALITIES /MENTAL - gang/go a grey gate CHARACTERISTICS - grey-headed, grow grey-headed in 3. NATURE - the grey of the morning - grey wethers - all cats are grey in the dark - the grey mare - the grey mare is the better horse - blood shows on a grey horse - grey yoads - the fox may grow grey but never good - a grey goose - grey hen - aback-o’-behint, where the grey mare foaled the fiddler - not care/give/worth a (grey) groat - England were but a fling, save for the crooked stick and the grey-goose wing

- grey as a possum - grey as a badger - grey as an ass-cat - grey as grannum’s cat 4. FABRIC /CLOTHING - Grey friar - grey eminence - greyback - grey goods - grey cloak - grey parson - greyers - grey russet - grey cloth - he was scant o’ grey cloth that soled his hose wi’ dockens 5. BODY - grey hair - grey-haired - grey hairs are death’s blossoms - greybeard - go/turn grey - grey cells/matter

- grey-headed, grow grey-headed in - grey and green make the worst medley 6. DISEASES - grey speck/leaf 7. COMPARISON WITH - grey as glass 161 Appendix 1. Basic colour terms in English expressions

ANIMALS /OBJECTS - grey as the inside of a pewter dish - grey as old Grissle

- grey as a possum - grey as a badger - grey as an ass-cat - grey as grannum’s cat 8. BETWEEN BLACK & WHITE - grey-out - grey area - greymail - grey market

- the grey economy 9. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - grey parson - grey powder - grey slag - grey stock - in the grey - greywork - grey groat - grey sour - grey steep - grey literature

162 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

I. ZWART

1. NEGATIVE - zwartkijker, zwartkijkerij - zwartziener - alles zwart inzien - alles door een zwarte bril zien - zwartgallig - zwartboek - iemand of iets zwart afschilderen - iets met een zwarte kool tekenen - een zwarte bladzijde in de geschiedenis - een zwart gat - de pot verwijt de ketel dat hij zwart ziet - de oven verwijt de schoorsteen dat hij zwart is - liegen dat men zwart ziet - de zwarte lijst - zwarte sneeuw zien - op zwart zaad zitten - een zwarte ziel - een zwarte dag - zwarte humor - zwart rijden - zwarthandelaar, zwarte handel drijven, iets zwart verhandelen - de zwarte markt - zwarte lonen - zwart geld verdienen - zwart werken - zwart betalen - zwart verdienen - zwarte weduwe - zwarte zondag - zwarte, zwarterik - de duivel is zo zwart niet als men hem afschildert - men maakt de duivel altijd zwarter dan hij is

- zwartgalligheid - het boze hart maakt alles zwart - zwartmaken - iets zwart-wit stellen - het zwarte schaap - het zwarte beest, met het zwarte beest op de rug zitten/fietsen - het is een witte hond met een zwarten 2. RACE /ETHNICITY - zwartsmoel

163 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- zwartvoet - zwarte - zwartin - zwartjan - zwartje - het zwarte werelddeel - het zwarte goud - zwart ivoor

- een zwarte school - de zwarte hond hebben - zo zwart zien als een Moor 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - een zwarte - zwartgoed

- zwarte brigade - zwarthemd 4. NATURE - de vos wilde de zwarte kip niet - de zwarte hennen leggen witte eiers, maar een vuile moeder kweekt zelden reine dochters - een zwarte kat is een slecht voorteken - er is geen koe zo zwart, of er zit wel een vlekje aan - er loopt een zwart schaap onder - zwarte kip

- hij doet gewis als Maarten: die gaf drie zwarte schapen voor een wit - het zwarte schaap - het zwarte beest, met het zwarte beest op de rug zitten/fietsen - het is een witte hond met een zwarten - de zwarte hond hebben - zo zwart als de nacht - zo zwart als een raaf - zo zwart als een tor - zo zwart als roet - zo zwart als kool 5. FABRIC /CLOTHING - zwartgerokte - zwartrok - zwartverver - zwartzuster - zwartekousenkerk - zwarte - in het zwarte zijn - zwarte - zwartgejast - zwartgerokt - zwartwerker

164 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- zwartgekleed - zwarte mis - in het zwart - de zwarte brigade/garde - het zijn niet allen monniken, die zwarte kappen dragen - menig bruiloftskleed is met zwarte baai gevoerd

- zwarte brigade - zwarthemd 6. BODY - zwart van den honger zijn (of zien) - het wordt je zwart voor de ogen - zwarte kringen onder de ogen hebben - zwart onder de ogen zijn - zwart zien van magerheid

- zwartgalligheid - het boze hart maakt alles zwart 7. DISEASES - zwarthauw - zwartsel - zwartrot - zwartsmoel - zwartwaterkoorts - zwartziekte - zwartzucht - zwartbenigheid - zwartstip - de Zwarte Dood - zwarte koorts 8. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - in de zwarte cijfers zitten - zo zwart als inkt

- zwart op wit - iets zwart op wit willen hebben 9. COMPARISON WITH - zo zwart als een plaat ANIMALS /OBJECTS - zo zwart als git - zwart zien als een molik

- zo zwart als de nacht - zo zwart als een raaf - zo zwart als een tor - zo zwart als roet - zo zwart als kool - zo zwart zien als een Moor 10. AS OPPOSED TO WHITE - zwarte koffie - zwarterik - zwart-witdenker - zwarte kunsten - zwarte magie 165 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- wie anderen zwart maakt, blijft zelf niet wit - zwart geen wit noemen - wit zwart noemen - zwart wit noemen - wit vergelijken met een zwarte kleurstof - wit zwart en zwart wit noemen - wit en zwart zweren - iemand wijsmaken dat wit zwart is - wit noch zwart aanzien - het zwart niet van het wit kunnen onderscheiden - eer zou men het wit in het zwart veranderen, het zwart in het wit zetten, stellen - iemand in het wit noch in het zwart mogen - slapen van het zwarte in het witte - alleen wit en zwart kennen - iemand wit of zwart maken - van wit zwart maken

- een zwarte school - iets zwart-wit stellen - zwartmaken - hij doet gewis als Maarten: die gaf drie zwarte schapen voor een wit - het is een witte hond met een zwarten - zwart op wit - iets zwart op wit willen hebben 11. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - het zwarte goud - zwartdag - zwartgat - zwart - het ziet zwart van de mensen - de zwarte bende - het zwarte koor - zwart zijn gelijk een schouwvager - opnieuw het zwarte garen uitvinden - wie niet zwart is, hoeft zich niet te wassen

166 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

II. WIT 1. POSITIVE - witte staf - witwassen - wit lachen - het witte kind - wittebroodskind - wit zijn met - ergens wit zijn - wit maken - het wit treffen - witwerk - het is witte flip tussen hen - witte kameraden

- de witte vlag - witte vaan, wit vaandel - een wit voetje hebben bij iemand - veel wit in de ogen hebben - iemand beminnen als het wit van zijn ogen - de prins op het witte paard 2. NEGATIVE - witvoet - op den witvoet rijden - een wit voetje proberen te halen bij iemand - iets wit schilderen - witte jood - met iets niet wit zijn - niet wit zijn - je zult wit zijn/varen - witstok - het wit missen - witte roede - witte benzine/pomp - geld wit wassen - witten - witte wijven - de witte sloper - een witte neus nemen/geven - de witte dood - al te wit is gauw vuil - den witten man aan iemand hebben

- veel te wit wordt later zwart - nauwelijks het wit voor het zwart kennen - het is een witte hond met een zwarten - teveel wit in de ogen hebben - de witte dood - zwart geld wit maken - zie ik zo wit? 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - witte - een Moor wit willen wassen 167 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- een witte school 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - het witte leger - een witte terreur 5. QUALITIES/MENTAL - hij heeft zin noch wit CHARACTERISTICS - wit zien - wit om de neus zijn/worden 6. NATURE - witte steenkool - witte uil - een witte raaf - een witte valk - een witte kip - witte boon - de velden zijn wit om te oogsten - draagt nieuwjaarsmaand een sneeuwwit kleed, dan is de zomer zeker heet - ik wil de witte hen niet, zei de vos, omdat hij ze niet krijgen kost - men noemt geen koe blaar, of ze heeft wat wits - witte paarden eisen/kosten veel stro - zijn de bomen om Kerstmis wit van sneeuw, ze zijn in de lente wit van bloemen

- het is een witte hond met een zwarten - de witte dood - de zwarte hennen leggen witte eiers, maar een vuile moeder kweekt zelden reine dochters - de prins op het witte paard - hij doet gewis als Maarten: die gaf drie zwarte schapen voor een wit - zo wit als sneeuw 7. FABRIC /CLOTHING - witrok - witzuster - witjas - witgedast - witgehandschoend - witte gilde - witte broeder - witte juffer/vrouw, wit wijf - een witte jas - witteboordencriminaliteit - witteboordencultuur - witteboord, witteboordendrager, witteboordman - witte vloed - de witte das uithangen - de witte rok maakt de molenaar niet - zo wit als een doek

168 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- het witte doek - Sint-Katrien heeft dikwijls een witte mantel - Aprilletje zoet, geeft nog wel eens een witte hoed - Sint-Barbara gaat met haar wit kleed naar het bal

- de witte vlag - witte vaan, wit vaandel - zo wit als een doek 8. BODY - witbek - witbekken - witbesneeuwd - witbol/wittebol - witharig - wittekop - witogen - witscheet/bleekscheet - witte vrouw, witje - witheer - een witte lever hebben - witte neger - wit (op)blikken - witbestorven - witvaal - blank en rood/wit en rood - witjes - Een witten tand vertrekken - witte vrouw - witte vloed, in het wit drijven - wit wegtrekken - wit om de neus worden van iets - spierwit - ’t is een man met een witte lever - hij gunt hem het wit in het oog niet - bij een groen gezelschap dient een witte baard - een mop met een witte baard

- een wit voetje hebben bij iemand - veel wit in de ogen hebben - iemand beminnen als het wit van zijn oogen - wit zien, wit om de neus zijn, wit om de neus worden - zie ik zo wit? - teveel wit in de ogen hebben - zo wit als een lijk 9. DISEASES - witoog - witschimmel - witsnot

169 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- witziekte - witte heilige - witte krauwage - witte plekken - witte puist - witte schurft - witte krauwage - wit zeer - witte borstel - witte diarree - wittemond 10. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - witdruk - wit papier - witregel - op het wit laten brengen - witboek - witte plekken op de landkaart

- zwart op wit hebben 11. COMPARISON WITH - zo wit als een beeld ANIMALS /OBJECTS - zo wit als een muur - zo wit als krijt

- zo wit als sneeuw - zo wit als een lijk - zo wit als een doek 12. AS OPPOSED TO BLACK - zwart geen wit noemen - wit zwart noemen - zwart wit noemen - wit vergelijken met een zwarte kleurstof - wit zwart en zwart wit noemen - witte kunsten - wit en zwart zweren - iemand wijsmaken dat wit zwart is - wit noch zwart aanzien - het zwart niet van het wit kunnen onderscheiden - eer zou men het wit in het zwart veranderen, het zwart in het wit zetten, stellen - iemand in het wit noch in het zwart mogen - slapen van het zwarte in het witte - alleen wit en zwart kennen - iemand wit of zwart maken, iemand wit of zwart maken - van wit zwart maken - witte koffie - wit en zwart - alleen wit en zwart kennen - van wit zwart maken

170 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- een witte school - veel te wit wordt later zwart - nauwelijks het wit voor het zwart kennen - het is een witte hond met een zwarten - zwart geld wit maken - de zwarte hennen leggen witte eiers, maar een vuile moeder kweekt zelden reine dochters - zwart op wit hebben - hij doet gewis als Maarten: die gaf drie zwarte schapen voor een wit 13. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - Witte Donderdag - Witte Zondag - witgeld - witpenning - witgoed - witbuik - witgloeiend, witheet - witkeuvel - wit - witgloeiend - wittebroodsweken - witvrouw - witte staf/stok - witte film - de witte loper - witte fiets - witteboekenmarkt - witte plekken op de landkaart - witjes lachen - het Witte Huis - witgekuifde jongen - de witte motor - die niet wit en wilt worden, moet uit de molen blijven - een groene Kerstmis, een witte Pasen - groene kerstdag, witte Pasen - Sint-Jakobs witte wolkjeslucht, voorspelt de wintersneeuw als vrucht - Sint-Katrien komt in het wit - witter dan wit

171 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

III. ROOD 1. POSITIVE - de rode loper uitleggen voor iets/iemand

- met een rode letter in den almanak aangetekend staan - dat mag wel met een rode letter in de krant 2. NEGATIVE - rode vlag - de rode kaart - iemand de rode kaart tonen, een rode kaart krijgen - met rode koppen tegenover elkaar staan - over de rooie gaan - geen rooie cent/duit - de rode lantaarn dragen - een rode kam hebben - het rode dorp - onder de rooie pannen - over de rooie gaan/jagen - met een rood paspoort weggestuurd worden, hij ging met een rood paspoort de laan uit

- rood op de graat zijn - als een rode lap op een stier - den roden haan in iets steken, de rode haan laten kraaien - in de rode cijfers zitten/staan/komen - rood staan 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - het rode ras - roodhuid 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - rood - rode vlag - het rode gevaar - een rooie rakker - liever dood dan rood - het rode leger - het rode boekje - rood zijn/stemmen - de rooie vrouwen

- rood op de graat zijn 5. NATURE - avondrood, morgenrood, ochtendrood - groene kersen worden rood - Avondrood, mooi weer aan boord/boot. Morgenrood, water in de sloot - des avonds rood, des morgens weer aan boord - door de rode zee gaan - groene krieken worden rood, kleine kinders worden groot 172 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- hij grijnst als de duivel tegen het morgenrood - morgenrood brengt water in de sloot - Nieuwjaars morgenrood, spelt grote en kleine nood - rood om de zon, regen in de ton - ’s avonds het luchtje rood, ’s morgens water in de sloot

- als een rode lap op een stier - den roden haan in iets steken, de rode haan laten kraaien - zo rood als een kollebloem - zo rood als een biet - zo rood als een bietenkroot - zo rood als een kalkoen - zo rood als een kalkoense haan - zo rood als een kreeft - zo rood als een kroot - zo rood als een pioen - zo rood als een biet 6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - het zijn al geen dokters, die rode mutsen dragen - iemand een rood hemdrok aantrekken - de rode draad

- als een rode lap op een stier 7. BODY - roodkakig, roodwangig - roodblozend, rood worden - roodgeweend - rood worden tot achter zijn oren - schaamterood - het eerbaar rood - wit en rood - rood en bleek worden - roodbekken - rood aanlopen - met rode oortjes - de rode vlag hangt uit - de rode racewagen staat voor de deur - rode regen - rood zijn - de rooie emmer hebben - de rode Russen op bezoek hebben - de rooie loop hebben - een rooie pieper hebben - rood haar en elzehout zijn op geen goede grond gebouwd - rood zien alsof hij de hel geblazen had - een kleur/kop als een rooie boei krijgen

173 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- knalrood zijn - rode baard, duivels aard - rood haar met een spitse kin, daar steekt de duivel in

- zo rood als bloed 8. DISEASES - roodhond - rode koorts - rodeloop - roodoog - roodvonk 9. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - roodgeletterde religie

- in de rode cijfers zitten/staan, rood staan, in de rode cijfers komen - met een rode letter in den almanak aangetekend staan - dat mag wel met een rode letter in de krant 10. COMPARISON WITH - zo rood als bloed ANIMALS /OBJECTS - zo rood als een kollebloem - zo rood als een biet - zo rood als een bietenkroot - zo rood als een kalkoen - zo rood als een kalkoense haan - zo rood als een kreeft - zo rood als een kroot - zo rood als een pioen - zo rood als een biet 11. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - roodgloeiend - voor de rode deur moeten gaan/komen - voor de rode deur staan - voor de rode komen - iemand voor de rode deur hebben/nemen - een rooie rug - heden rood, morgen dood - van de rooie pan leven - van de rooie pan - rooie pan - uit de rode pan eten - van het rooie - geen rooie rotmoer - het rode spook - een rode kam krijgen - met de rode bezem vegen - mooi rood is niet lelijk - tast geen rood ijzer aan, of spuw erop

174 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

IV. BLAUW 1. POSITIVE - blauwliggen 2. NEGATIVE - blauwbek - blauwmuts - blauwvinger - blauwen - blauwtje - een blauwtje lopen - zich blauw betalen aan iets, betalen dat je blauw ziet - zich blauw ergeren - een blauwe boon - blauwe foto’s - de blauwe trappen geteld hebben - ik zou je blauwblazen - een blauwe boodschap - een moderne blauwbaard - dat is een sprookje van Blauwbaard

- een blauwe scheen krijgen of lopen - blauw zijn - zijn vingers blauw tellen - zo stom als blauwe zalf - iemand bont/blond en blauw slaan - blauw oog - blauwe plek - iemand een blauw oog slaan 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - een blauwe - blauwe hap 4. QUALITIES /MENTAL - zo stom als blauwe zalf CHARACTERISTICS 5. NATURE - de blauwe hemel - bekend zijn als de bonte hond met de blauwe staart - blauwe duiven krijgen blauwe jongen - is de hemel al te blauw, spoedig wordt hij dan weer grauw - kerk houden onder Gods blauwe hemel - zo blauw als een lei - blauwe vogel 6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - blauwkous - blauwkiel - meer blauw op straat - de stad blauwverven - blauwhelm - blauwe boorden - als de hemel valt, hebben we allemaal een blauwe slaapmuts op - als de lucht valt, krijgen we allemaal een blauwe slaapmuts op 175 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- van de blauwe knoop zijn, lid van de blauwe knoop zijn - blauwe begijn - blauwe blazer - een blauwe boer - blauwe mogge - Sint-Michiel schuwt de strooien hoed en ook de blauwe kiel - Sint-Michiel verbiedt de witte broek en blauwe kiel - de blauwe vaan 7. BODY - blauwschijter - blauwbekken - blauw aanlopen - blauw van de kou - blauwigheid - blauwsel - blauw bloed hebben - een blauwe neus halen

- blauw zijn - zijn vingers blauw tellen - een blauwe scheen krijgen of lopen - iemand bont/blond en blauw slaan - blauw oog - blauwe plek - iemand een blauw oog slaan 8. DISEASES - blauwoog - blauwzucht - blauwschuit 9. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - blauwdruk 10. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - blauwzuur - een blauwe maandag - het staat er blauw van de rook - blauwblauw, iets blauw blauw laten - de blauwe zone - het blauwe oog - blauw zijn gelijk een schalie - blauwe weduwe - een blauwe boodschap - in het donker blauwen

176 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

V. GROEN 1. POSITIVE - een groene golf - het groene licht krijgen, het licht op groen zetten , iemand het groene licht geven - de groene zijde 2. NEGATIVE - iemand groen op het lijf vallen - niet groen zijn op iets - met de groene op zijne rug zitten

- zijn koren groen eten 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - het groene eiland 4. QUALITIES /MENTAL - groen CHARACTERISTICS - ontgroening - groenheid - groentje - groenen - groente - zich groen en geel ergeren - rijp en groen - groen lachen - een oude bok lust ook nog wel een groen blaadje

- groenoogig - groen en geel zien van nijd/jaloezie - hij is nog groen achter de oren - zo groen als gras 5. NATURE - lentegroen - wintergroen - groente - groenkoper/verkoper, groenmand, groenmeid, groenboer, groenman/groenvrouw, groenmarkt, … - groenen - kamergroen - groenstrook - groensysteem - groenvoorziening - groenpacht - het Groene Hart - onder de groene zoden liggen/rusten - de groene revolutie - groene zone - groene kersen worden rood - een groene haring eten - nog veel groen hout in het bos hebben - groen zijn gelijk porei - groene krieken worden rood, kleine kinders worden groot - daar is het gras groener 177 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

- de groene wei - het geitje huppelt in het groen, en zo zal ook haar jonge doen - het groene hout - Oktober met groene blaan, duidt een strenge winter aan - op Tiberius na de noen worden alle velden groen - van groen hout gemaakt zijn dat door de zon krom getrokken is - zijn erwtjes reeds in het groen gegeten hebben

- groene vingers hebben, een groene hand, een groene duim - zijn koren groen eten - de groene deken - het groene laken - onder het groene laken liggen 6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - groenrok - groeneroede

- de groene deken - het groene laken - onder het groene laken liggen 7. BODY - het werd hem groen en geel voor de ogen - werken dat je groen en geel ziet

- groenoogig - groen en geel zien van nijd/jaloezie - hij is nog groen achter de oren - groene vingers hebben, een groene hand, een groene duim 8. DISEASES - groenoog 9. COMPARISON WITH - zo groen als gras ANIMALS /OBJECTS 10. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - groene kaart 11. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - het groenlopen - groentijd - groenen - groenwerker - een groene weduwe - de groene tafel - als zij dit doen aan 't groene hout, wat zal aan 't dorre geschieden? - rijp en groen lezen - bij een groen gezelschap dient een witte baard - een groene Kerstmis, een witte Pasen - Kerstmis in een groen kleed houdt voor 178 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

Pasen sneeuw gereed - zit op Kerstmis de kraai nog in het klavergroen, op Pasen zal hij het in het sneeuwveld doen - het lijkt wel snert, als het maar groen was

179 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

VI. GEEL 1. NEGATIVE - geelogen - zich groen en geel ergeren - geel zien van nijd - gele kaart 2. RACE /ETHNICITY - het gele ras

- het gele gevaar 3. HISTORY /POLITICAL - het gele gevaar 4. NATURE - zo geel als een citroen - zo geel als goud - zo geel als saffraan 5. FABRIC /CLOTHING - gele trui 6. BODY - het werd hem groen en geel voor de ogen - groen en geel zien van nijd/jaloezie - werken dat je groen en geel ziet 7. DISEASES - geelziekte - geelzucht - de gele koorts 7. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - een geeltje krijgen 9. COMPARISON WITH - zo geel als een citroen ANIMALS /OBJECTS - zo geel als goud - zo geel als saffraan 10. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - gele rakker, gele ridder, geel spa met slagroom, goudgele rakker - je gele vethaar in Hongkong - er is maar een greintje saffraan nodig om een hele hutspot geel te maken

180 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

VII. BRUIN 1. POSITIVE - een bruin leven(tje) 2. NEGATIVE - bruinwerker - bruinkierwerker - ze bruin bakken - het bruine monster

- een bruine arm halen - dat kan Bruin niet trekken 3. RACE /ETHNICITY - bruinet 4. HISTORY /POLITICAL - bruine sympathieën

- Bruinhemd 5. NATURE - bruintje

- dat kan Bruin niet trekken 6. FABRIC /CLOTHING - Bruinhemd 7. BODY - zich bruin laten bakken - bruine jongens - bruine stukken - (een stuk) aan zijn bruine trui breien - het bruine monster - bruin stallen - bruin de Beer op stal zetten - een bruine beer draaien - bruine jongens wegbrengen - bruin koppen - een bruinvis lanceren - het bruine oog

- een bruine arm halen 8. DISEASES - bruindoek - bruine 9. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - bruinwerk - de koffie is bruin - een bruin café - het bruine monster - hij weet van de bruine - wie geen wit brood heeft, doe het met bruin - het ziet er bruin uit

181 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

VIII. PAARS 1. NEGATIVE - iemand paars en blauw slaan - paars aanlopen (van woede) - paars zien van woede 2. BODY - paarsbelopen - paars van de kou zien - pimpelpaars zien - zich paars lachen

- iemand paars en blauw slaan - paars aanlopen (van woede) - paars zien van woede

182 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

IX. ROZE 1. POSITIVE - iets zien in rozentint - iets zien in rozenkleur/rozentint - alles door een roze bril zien - iets rooskleurig voorstellen 2. BODY - rozenkaak, rozenwang - rozenlip, rozenmond - rozen 3. GENDER - de roze driehoek - roze revolutie

183 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

X. ORANJE 1. HISTORY /POLITICAL - Oranjegezind - Oranjist - Oranjekokarde, Oranjelint, Oranjestrikje, Oranjevaan, etc. - Oranjehemd - een oranjeklant zijn 2. BODY - de Oranjevlag laten waaien 3. PRINTING /INK /WRITING - Oranjeboek

184 Appendix 2. Basic colour terms in Dutch expressions

XI. GRIJS 1. NEGATIVE - grijzen - grijzen - met iets grijzen - het te grijs maken - dat is al te grijs - grijze gehaktbal

- men vindt veel grijzen, maar weinig wijzen 2. QUALITIES /MENTAL - in een grijs verleden CHARACTERISTICS - de grijze oudheid - ergens in grijs worden - groen van jaren, grijs van zeden

- door de ouderdom wordt de wolf grijs 3. NATURE - grijsheid

- zo grijs als een duif 4. BODY - grijzen - grijsaard - grijsbaard - grijze haren krijgen van iets - de grijze cellen - grijs haar, wijs haar - zorg maakt grijze haren - grijze haren groeien op geen zotte bollen - grijze haren zijn kerkhofsbloemen - zich ergens geen grijze haren over maken

- men vindt veel grijzen, maar weinig wijzen 5. COMPARISON WITH - zo grijs als een duif ANIMALS /OBJECTS 6. BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE - grijs rijden - het grijze circuit - de grijze zone 7. UNCERTAIN /UNCLASSIFIED - een plaat grijs draaien - de grijze middelmaat - grijze markt - de grijze golf - de grijsheid is een sierlijke kroon - het is toch grijs ook - vergrijsd zijn in de dienst

185 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(1) Black Prince (OED) (35) black-coat (OED) (2) the devil is not as black as he’s (36) black gown (OED) painted (TTEM) (37) black hat (TTEM) (3) although I am black, I am not (38) black-mouth (OED) the devil (TTEM) (39) black-choler (OED) (4) black as the devil (TTEM) (40) black bile (OED) (5) black as the dule’s hoof (TTEM) (41) black tongue (OED) (6) it looks black (TTEM) (42) black tooth (OED) (7) a black mood (CCE) (43) Black Death (OED) (8) look on the black side (CCE) (44) de Zwarte Dood (VDHN) (9) blackmail (OED) (45) in the black (OED) (10) black market (OED) (46) black letter day (OED) (11) black economy (OED) (47) black as guttermud (TTEM) (12) black sheep (OED) (48) black as soot (TTEM) (13) a black (OED) (49) black as a crow (TTEM) (14) black is beautiful (OED) (50) black as a mazzard (TTEM) (15) black economy (OED) (51) black as blindness (TTEM) (16) black studies (OED) (52) black as night (TTEM) (17) black velvet (OED) (53) black as midnight (TTEM) (18) een zwarte school (VDIW) (54) in black and white (OED) (19) het zwarte werelddeel (VDIW) (55) black and white (TTEM) (20) zwart ivoor (WUCKS) (56) zwart op wit (VDIW) (21) het zwarte goud (WUCKS) (57) iets zwart-wit stellen (VDIW) (22) Black Maria (TTEM) (58) blacksmith (OED) (23) blackshirt (OED) (59) to black out (OED) (24) zwarthemd (WNT) (60) black box (OED) (25) een zwarte (WNT) (61) white lie (OED) (26) Black Monday (NODE) (62) white propaganda (OED) (27) Black September (OED) (63) white boy (OED) (28) zwarte zondag (SN) (64) het witte kind (WNT) (29) to look black (OED) (65) whitewash (OED) (30) black gold (OED) (66) wash whiter than white (TTEM) (31) black swan (TTEM) (67) witwassen (WNT) (32) black silk (OED) (68) white horse (TTEM) (33) black job (OED) (69) white feather (OED) (34) blackmaster (OED) 186 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(70) white mouse (OED) (107) white jaundice (OED) (71) white night (OED) (108) white death (OED) (72) white man (OED) (109) white plague (OED) (73) poor white folks (OED) (110) the White Pages (CALD) (74) poor white trash (OED) (111) white paper (OED) (75) whitefellow (OED) (112) white-print (OED) (76) white rose (OED) (113) white as a ghost (OED) (77) white Army (OED) (114) white as ivory (TTEM) (78) white Guard (OED) (115) white as a dove (TTEM) (79) het witte leger (VZNT) (116) to call white black (OED) (80) een witte terreur (VZNT) (117) two blacks do not make a white (TTEM) (81) white as milk (TTEM) (118) white coffee (OED) (82) white as a lily (TTEM) (119) White English (OED) (83) white as a swan (TTEM) (120) white list (OED) (84) white elephant (OED) (121) white-mail (OED) (85) white-ant (OED) (122) big white telephone (OED) (86) white-anter (TTEM) (123) pot the white (TTEM) (87) have white ants (in your billy- can) (TTEM) (124) white mass (OED) (88) white crow (OED) (125) White Sunday (OED) (89) witte raaf (VDIW) (126) Witte Zondag (WNT) (90) witte valk (WNT) (127) white money (OED) (91) white nun (OED) (128) white rent (OED) (92) white munk (OED) (129) up she comes and the colour’s red (TTEM) (93) white tie (OED) (130) red-letter day (OED) (94) white-hat (OED) (131) red carpet (OED) (95) white-collar (OED) (132) red carpet treatment (OED) (96) witteboord (WNT) (133) met een rode letter in den (97) witrok (WNT) almanak aangetekend staan (98) een witte jas (VDIW) (NSSUG) (99) de witte das uithangen (HSG) (134) dat mag wel met een rode letter (100) as white as a sheet (OED) in de krant (SN) (101) zo wit als een lijk (SN) (135) de rode loper uitleggen voor iets/iemand (VDIW) (102) white-hearted (OED) (136) red alert (OED) (103) white-livered (OED) (137) red light (OED) (104) to bleed white (OED) (138) see the red light (OED) (105) white-knuckle (OED) (139) carry three red lights (TTEM) (106) with white hands (TTEM) 187 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(140) red-light (TTEM) (177) red mist (OED) (141) red flag (OED) (178) sew the eyes with red thread (TTEM) (142) rode vlag (WNT) (179) roodgeweend (WNT) (143) red card (OED) (180) red atrophy (OED) (144) to be red carded (CCEDAL) (181) red soldier (OED) (145) de rode kaart (VDHN) (182) red core (OED) (146) een rode kaart krijgen (AKVH) (183) in the red (OED) (147) a red (OED) (184) out of the red (OED) (148) Red Indian (OED) (185) in de rode cijfers staan (VDIW) (149) red children (OED) (186) red-pencil (OED) (150) red-hide (OED) (187) red-circle (TTEM) (151) roodhuid (WNT) (188) red as blood (OED) (152) red revolution (OED) (189) red as fire (OED) (153) Red China (OED) (190) red as a rose (OED) (154) Red Terror (OED) (191) zo rood als bloed (SN) (155) red peril (OED) (192) to paint the town red (OED) (156) better dead than red (OED) (193) red ones (OED) (157) het rode gevaar (VDGW) (194) true blue (OED) (158) liever dood dan rood (VDIW) (195) true blue will never stain (159) red-diaper (OED) (TTEM) (160) Red, White and Blue (OED) (196) a blue look-out (OED) (161) red-wood (OED) (197) to look blue (OED) (162) red about the gills (TTEM) (198) the blues (OED) (163) red wind (OED) (199) blue movie (CALD) (164) red bird (OED) (200) blauwe foto’s (WUCKS) (165) red meat (OED) (201) blue law (NODE) (166) red herring (OED) (202) blue laws (OED) (167) redcap (OED) (203) blueman (OED) (168) red-gown (OED) (204) blue-nose (OED) (169) red coat (LDCE) (205) een blauwe (VDHN) (170) red mass (OED) (206) true blue (OED) (171) red flannel (OED) (207) blue-on-blue (OED) (172) like a red rag to a bull (OED) (208) out of the blue (OED) (173) als een rode lap op een stier (209) into the blue (HIDEL) (VDIW) (210) blue fire (OED) (174) red-blooded (OED) (211) blue-nosed (TTEM) (175) red face (OED) (212) once in a blue moon (TTEM) (176) to see red (OED) 188 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(213) blue dahlia (OED) (248) green in earth (OED) (214) rare as a blue rose (TTEM) (249) onder de groene zoden liggen (VDIW) (215) rare as a blue diamond (TTEM) (250) green shoots (of recovery) (216) men in blue (OED) (OED) (217) bluestocking (OED) (251) get on the green gown (TTEM) (218) blauwkous (WNT) (252) onder het groene laken liggen (219) blue-collar (OED) (SN) (220) blauwe boorden (VDIW) (253) to give a woman a green gown (221) blue blood (OED) (OED) (222) blauw bloed hebben (VDIW) (254) wear green garters (TTEM) (223) do something until one is blue in (255) Green Beret (OED) the face (NODE) (256) green and pale (OED) (224) black and blue (OED) (257) to look green about the gills (225) iemand bont/blond en blauw (LDCE) slaan (NSSUG/SN) (258) to keep the bones green (OED) (226) blue jaundice (OED) (259) to have green fingers/a green (227) to blue-pencil (OED) thumb (OED) (228) blue as a badger (TTEM) (260) a green wound is soon healed (TTEM) (229) blue as a whetstone (TTEM) (261) greenback (OED) (230) blue pill (OED) (262) green jaundice (OED) (231) rain blue snow (TTEM) (263) greenback (OED) (232) Blue Monday (OED) (264) greens (OED) (233) blauwe maandag (WNT) (265) the green stuff (LDCE) (234) (to give) the green light (OED) (266) green goods (OED) (235) iemand het groene licht geven (SN) (267) green as emerald (TTEM) (236) green card (OED) (268) green as duckweed (TTEM) (237) greenmail (OED) (269) green as a gourd (TTEM) (238) green eye (OED) (270) one’s greens (NODE) (239) groenogig (WNT) (271) on the green (OED) (240) a green (OED) (272) yellow alert (OED) (241) the Green Island (OED) (273) yellow card (OED) (242) in the green (OED) (274) gele kaart (VDIW) (243) green old age (TTEM) (275) yellow journalism (OED) (244) to be not as green as one is (276) yellow newspaper (OED) cabbage-looking (OED) (277) yellow-man (OED) (245) greenhorn (TTEM) (278) yellow peril (OED) (246) green belt (OED) (279) het gele gevaar (VDIW) (247) green way (OED) (280) yellows (OED) 189 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(281) to wear yellow hose (OED) (317) brown as mahogany (TTEM) (282) groen en geel zien van (318) brown as a partridge (TTEM) nijd/jaloezie (VDIW) (319) brown ware (OED) (283) yellow streak (OED) (320) hug Brown Bess (TTEM) (284) yellow-bellied (OED) (321) purple patch (OED) (285) yellow as gold (TTEM) (322) purple passage (OED) (286) yellow dirt (OED) (323) purple piece (OED) (287) yellow leaf (OED) (324) purple prose (CALD) (288) yellow star (OED) (325) get/give the (purple) shaft (289) yellow yersey (OED) (TTEM) (290) gele trui (WNT) (326) purple-man (OED) (291) yellow-livered (OED) (327) born/cradled in the purple (OED) (292) yellow jaundice (OED) (328) the purple (OED) (293) yellow rust (OED) (329) purple and pall (OED) (294) the yellow pages (OED) (330) the purple (OED) (295) yellow wove (OED) (331) purple with rage (CALD) (296) yellow as butter (TTEM) (332) paars zien van woede (SN) (297) yellow as a duck’s foot (TTEM) (333) iemand paars en blauw slaan (298) yellow as saffron (TTEM) (WNT) (299) yellow ware (OED) (334) purples (OED) (300) yellow union (OED) (335) purple fever (OED) (301) brownie (OED) (336) purple death (OED) (302) brownie points (TTEM) (337) purple haze (OED) (303) brown study (OED) (338) in the pink (OED) (304) to do brown (OED) (339) the pink (OED) (305) shoot into the brown (TTEM) (340) to tickle pink (OED) (306) browned off (OED) (341) pink (OED) (307) Brown-shirt (OED) (342) a pink (OED) (308) bruine sympathieën (VDGW) (343) a pink toe (OED) (309) milk from the brown cow (344) pink chaser (OED) (TTEM) (345) a pinko (OED) (310) brown-leamer (TTEM) (346) to paint the map pink (OED) (311) brown job (OED) (347) a pinko (OED) (312) brown bomber (OED) (348) a pink elephant (OED) (313) brown as a berry (OED) (349) a pink rat (OED) (314) brown-nose (OED) (350) pink button (OED) (315) brown-heart (OED) (351) pink-coated (OED) (316) brown rot (OED)

190 Appendix 3. A list of examples used in the discussion

(352) pink and white (OED) (377) grow grey-headed in (OED) (353) pink-faced (OED) (378) ergens in grijs worden (VDHN) (354) pink disease (OED) (379) all cats are grey in the dark (TTEM) (355) pink-eye (OED) (380) the grey mare is the better horse (356) pink ‘un (OED) (TTEM) (357) pink sheet (OED) (381) Grey friar (OED) (358) pink slip (OED) (382) grey eminence (OED) (359) pink pound (OED) (383) grey flannel suit (OED) (360) pink triangle (OED) (384) grey cells/matter (OED) (361) de roze driehoek (VDGW) (385) de grijze cellen (VDHN) (362) pink-collar (OED) (386) go/turn grey (CALD) (363) pink lady (OED) (387) grey hairs are death’s blossoms (364) to paint the town pink (OED) (TTEM) (365) Orangist (OED) (388) grijze haren zijn (366) Orange-man (OED) kerkhofsbloemen (SN) (367) Oranjist (WNT) (389) grey speck/leaf (OED) (368) Oranjegezind (WNT) (390) grey as glass (TTEM) (369) een oranjeklant zijn (AKVH) (391) grey as a possum (TTEM) (370) orange-list (OED) (392) grey-out (OED) (371) orange jelly-sprout (OED) (393) grey market (OED) (372) orange sunshine (OED) (394) greymail (OED) (373) Orange People (OED) (395) grey area (OED) (374) grey knight (NODE) (396) grey literature (OED) (375) gang/go a grey gate (TTEM) (397) in the grey (OED) (376) grey and green make the worst medley (TTEM)

191 Appendix 4. The colour spectrum, with black and white added

Appendix 4. The colour spectrum, with black and white added (based on Krolls: 2004)

192