Hamilton, Rachael Louise (2016) Colour in English: from metonymy to metaphor. PhD thesis http://theses.gla.ac.uk/7353/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Colour in English From Metonymy to Metaphor Rachael Louise Hamilton Submitted to the University of Glasgow for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy English Language School of Critical Studies College of Arts University of Glasgow © Rachael Louise Hamilton, May 2016 2 Abstract Colour words abound with figurative meanings, expressing much more than visual signals. Some of these figurative properties are well known; in English, for example, black is associated with EVIL and blue with DEPRESSION. Colours themselves are also described in metaphorical terms using lexis from other domains of experience, such as when we talk of deep blue, drawing on the domain of spatial position. Both metaphor and colour are of central concern to semantic theory; moreover, colour is recognised as a highly productive metaphoric field. Despite this, comparatively few works have dealt with these topics in unison, and even those few have tended to focus on Basic Colour Terms (BCTs) rather than including non-BCTs. This thesis addresses the need for an integrated study of both BCTs and non-BCTs, and provides an overview of metaphor and metonymy within the semantic area of colour. Conducted as part of the Mapping Metaphor project, this research uses the unique data source of the Historical Thesaurus of English (HT) to identify areas of meaning that share vocabulary with colour and thus point to figurative uses. The lexicographic evidence is then compared to current language use, found in the British National Corpus (BNC) and the Corpus of Contemporary American (COCA), to test for currency and further developments or changes in meaning. First, terms for saturation, tone and brightness are discussed. This lexis often functions as hue modifiers and is found to transfer into COLOUR from areas such as LIFE, EMOTION, TRUTH and MORALITY. The evidence for cross-modal links between COLOUR with SOUND, TOUCH and DIMENSION is then presented. Each BCT is discussed in turn, along with a selection of non-BCTs, where it is revealed how frequently hue terms engage in figurative meanings. This includes the secondary BCTs, with the only exception being orange, and a number of non-BCTs. All of the evidence discussed confirms that figurative uses of colour originate through a process of metonymy, although these are often extended into metaphor. 3 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 List of Tables 9 List of Figures 9 Acknowledgements 10 List of Abbreviations 11 Chapter 1: Introduction 12 Chapter 2: Literature Review 14 2.1 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy 14 2.1.1 Conceptual Metaphor 14 2.1.2 Conceptual Metonymy 16 2.1.3 The Domain Approach 18 2.2 Colour 21 2.2.1 Controversies in Colour Universals 22 2.2.1.1 Basic Colour Categories 22 2.2.1.2 Non-Hue Vocabulary 25 2.2.2 What is a Literal Use of Colour? 26 2.2.3 Extensions in Colour Meaning 27 2.2.4 Cross-Modal or Synaesthetic Metaphors 29 2.2.4.1 What is Synaesthesia? 29 2.2.4.2 Cross-Modal Metaphor 31 2.3 Methodologies in the Study of Figurative Language 33 2.3.1 Historical Analysis of Metaphor and Metonymy 33 2.3.1.1 Dictionary Evidence 35 2.3.1.2 Historical Thesaurus Evidence 37 2.3.2 Corpus Evidence 39 2.4 Conclusions and Research Questions 42 Chapter 3: Methodology 44 3.1 The Historical Thesaurus 45 3.1.1 Dating in the Historical Thesaurus 45 3.1.2 Structure of the Historical Thesaurus 47 3.1.3 Historical Thesaurus Analysis 49 3.1.3.1 Non-Metaphor 51 3.1.3.2 Metaphor 52 3.1.3.3 Metonymy 53 3.1.3.4 Additional HT Analysis 54 3.2 Corpora 55 3.2.1 Selecting the Corpora 56 3.2.2 Methodological Considerations of Corpora 56 3.3 Presentation of the Data 58 4 3.4 Thesis Structure 60 Chapter 4: Qualities of Colour 61 4.1 Colour in the Historical Thesaurus 61 4.2 Metaphors for Colour 62 4.2.1 Atmosphere and Weather 62 4.2.2 Ill-Health 64 4.2.3 Life 67 4.2.4 Order and Sequence 69 4.2.5 Emotion 72 4.2.6 Truth 75 4.2.7 Morality 78 4.3 Qualities of Colour Conclusion 84 Chapter 5: Cross-Modal Metaphor 86 5.1 Cross-Modal Analysis 86 5.2 Sound 88 5.2.1 Range 90 5.2.2 Volume 92 5.2.3 Agreement 95 5.2.4 Conclusion on Sound 96 5.3 Touch 96 5.3.1 Temperature 97 5.3.2 Strength 102 5.3.3 Weakness 104 5.3.4 Softness 105 5.3.5 Hardness 106 5.3.6 Conclusion on Touch 107 5.4 Dimension 108 5.4.1 Shape 108 5.4.2 Position 109 5.4.3 Movement 110 5.4.4 Conclusion on Dimension 111 5.5 Cross-Modal Metaphor Conclusion 112 Chapter 6: Primary Basic Colour Terms 114 6.1 Black 114 6.1.1 Legality 116 6.1.2 Slander 119 6.1.3 Depression 120 6.1.4 Disfavour 122 6.1.5 Supernatural 127 6.1.6 Anger 129 6.1.7 Moral Evil 130 6.1.8 Absence 131 6.1.9 Secrecy 132 5 6.2 White 133 6.2.1 Supernatural 134 6.2.2 Legality 135 6.2.3 Fear 136 6.2.4 Moral Purity 138 6.2.5 Blankness 141 6.2.6 Intensity 143 6.2.7 War 146 6.3 Red 147 6.3.1 Intensity 148 6.3.2 Blood 150 6.3.3 Importance 150 6.3.4 Anger 151 6.3.5 Bureaucracy 152 6.3.6 Warning 153 6.3.7 Relevance 156 6.3.8 Virility 156 6.3.9 Licentiousness 158 6.3.10 Politics 159 6.3.11 Guilt 160 6.3.12 Enjoyment 161 6.3.13 Debt 162 6.3.14 Blindness 162 6.4 Yellow 163 6.4.1 Age 164 6.4.2 Jealousy 164 6.4.3 Low Rank 164 6.4.4 Sensationalist 166 6.4.5 Warning 167 6.4.6 Cowardice 169 6.5 Green 170 6.5.1 Inexperience 171 6.5.2 Jealousy 172 6.5.3 Youth 174 6.5.4 Money 174 6.5.5 Environmentalism 176 6.5.6 Signal 177 6.5.7 Politics 178 6.6 Blue 179 6.6.1 Melancholy 180 6.6.2 Damage 182 6.6.3 Morality and Immorality 183 6.6.4 Faithfulness 185 6.6.5 Intellectual 186 6.6.6 Award 187 6.6.7 Distance 187 6 6.6.8 Anger 188 6.6.9 Aristocracy 188 6.6.10 Surprise 190 6.6.11 Censure 191 6.6.12 Value 191 6.6.13 Optimism 192 6.6.14 Innocence 193 6.6.15 Working Class 193 6.6.16 Old Age 194 6.7 Primary Basic Colour Terms Conclusion 195 Chapter 7: Secondary Basic Colour Terms and Non-Basic Colour Terms 197 7.1 Brown 197 7.1.1 Number 198 7.1.2 Deception 198 7.1.3 Serious Concentration 199 7.1.4 Taking Fire 199 7.1.5 Community 200 7.1.6 Half-and-Half 200 7.1.7 Annoyance 201 7.1.8 Servile Flattery 202 7.2 Purple 203 7.2.1 Moral Evil 204 7.2.2 Royalty 205 7.2.3 Elaborate Writing 206 7.2.4 Success 207 7.2.5 Politics 207 7.3 Pink 208 7.3.1 Excellent Condition 209 7.3.2 Homosexuality 210 7.3.3 Licentiousness 211 7.3.4 Politics 212 7.3.5 Enjoyment 213 7.3.6 Rejection 215 7.4 Orange 216 7.5 Grey 216 7.5.1 Age 217 7.5.2 Authority 218 7.5.3 Boring 219 7.5.4 Intelligence 220 7.5.5 Illegality 221 7.5.6 Vagueness 224 7.6 Non-Basic Terms 227 7.6.1 Scarlet 227 7.6.1.1 High Rank 228 7.6.1.2 Licentiousness 229 7 7.6.1.3 Embarrassment 230 7.6.1.4 Wickedness 231 7.6.1.5 Love 232 7.6.2 Gold 232 7.6.2.1 Eloquence 233 7.6.2.2 Popularity 233 7.6.2.3 Bribery 234 7.6.2.4 Sport 237 7.6.2.5 Special Treatment 237 7.6.3 Livid and Puce 238 7.6.4 Lavender 240 7.6.5 Rose 243 7.6.6 Peachy 245 7.6.7 Amber 246 7.6.8 Drab, Vanilla and Beige 247 7.6.9 Milky and Lily-Livered 251 7.7 Secondary Basic Colour Terms and Non-Basic Colour Terms Conclusion 252 Chapter 8: Conclusions 254 8.1 How does the general concept of colour lend itself to metaphor 255 and metonymy? 8.1.1 Source and Target 255 8.1.2 Cross-Modal Metaphor 256 8.1.3 How Are These Terms Used? 256 8.1.4 Metaphorically Motivated Polysemy 257 8.2 Which hue terms lend themselves to metaphor and metonymy 258 and in what ways? 8.3 In which semantic domains are colour metaphors and metonymies 260 particularly productive? 8.3.1 Economy 260 8.3.2 Clothing 261 8.3.3 Physical and Emotional Wellbeing 261 8.3.4 Political Colour 262 8.3.5 Morality 263 8.3.6 Problems with the Domain View 263 8.4 How do the processes of metaphor and metonymy interact in the 264 colour domain? 8.4.1 Metaphor and Metonymy Scale 265 8.4.2 Uncertain Motivations 266 8.5 Future Directions 267 8.6 Final Remarks 268 Bibliography 270 Appendix 1 – Old Mapping Metaphor Category Codes to New 286 Metaphor Map codes 8 List of Tables Table 4.2.1.a: Colour to Atmosphere and weather connection 62 Table 4.2.1.b: Atmosphere and weather to Colour connection 63 Table 4.2.2.a: Colour to Ill-health connection 64 Table 4.2.2.b: Ill-health to Colour connection 64 Table 4.2.3 Life to Colour connection 68 Table 4.2.4.a Order to Colour connection 70 Table 4.2.4.b Colour to Sequence connection 70 Table 4.2.5.a Colour to Emotion connection 72 Table 4.2.5.b Emotion to Colour connection 72 Table 4.2.6 Colour to Truth connection 75 Table 4.2.7.a Colour to Morality connection 78 Table 4.2.7.b Morality to Colour connection 79 Table 5.1 MM categories representing the senses 87 Table 5.2.a Sound to Colour figurative connections 89 Table 5.2.b Colour to Sound figurative connections 89 Table 5.3 Touch to Colour figurative connections 97 Table 5.4 Dimension to Colour figurative connections 108 Table 6.1 Figurative meanings of black in the HT and corpora 115 Table 6.2 Figurative meanings of white in the HT and corpora 133 Table 6.3 Figurative meanings