Water Systems at Yasileh

ARAM, 23 (2011) 619-644. doi: 10.2143/ARAM.23.0.2959676

WATER SYSTEMS AT YASILEH

Prof. ZEIDOUN AL-MUHEISEN* (Yarmouk University)

Yasileh is located 9 km east of Irbid and 5 km west of ar-Ramtha, in northern Jordan. The site of Yasileh has an important geographical location since the area was a crossroad sfor the ancient trading routes between Southern Syria, Jordan and Palestine, in addition to the fact that the land in the surrounding area is very fertile and very well suited to agriculture. The Wadi ash-Shallalih area, including the site of Yasileh, a natural basin in which to collect rainwater where the annual rainfall for the Yasileh area has been esti- mated at between 400-500 mm. A sufficient supply of water was also ensured by cisterns cut into the rocky sides of Wadi Yasileh, as well as a spring located 1 km to the north of the site. Yasileh has a variety of water sources, storage and delivery systems including springs, reservoirs, wells, dams, tunnels and canals. Since 1988, ten campaigns have been carried out by the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology at Yarmouk University. Based on the results of the archaeological activities in the site headed by the author, this article will shed light on the water systems at Yasileh.

INTRODUCTION

The Yasileh site is located in Wadi ash-Shallalih, which represents the lower reaches of Wadi Warran (Schumacher 1890, 108). Wadi ash-Shallalih runs through the area between Hauran and ‘Ajlun and is fed by tributaries arising in the ‘Ajlun mountains; running west of the village of Suf, it continues north- ward to reach the area of ar-Ramtha, where it is known as Wadi Warran. Schu- macher reports that the wadi descends from as-Swait mountain, but dries up in the summer season, mentioning also that the surrounding area, which is characterized by calcareous rocks with some granite, is inhabited by nomads and that wild pistachio and oak are common in the area (Fig. 1). Schumacher followed the course of Wadi Warran, reporting that in summer it was covered in vegetation and that the water was only a little brook (Schu- macher 1890, 20). The Wadi ash-Shallalih basin, which passes through the Yasileh site is 6.5 km2. It is worth mentioning that both Irbid and Umm Qais

* Prof. Dr. Zeidoun al-Muheisen – Dean of the Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology – Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan, E-mail: [email protected].

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Fig. 1. A map of Jordan showing the site of Yasileh.

(Gadara) used to suffer from water shortages during the Roman period, which necessitated the drawing of water via tunnels from an area close to ar-Ramtha. In fact, the water used to be brought to Irbid and Umm Qais from Yasileh, which is well-served by water systems as it extends along Wadi ash-Shallalih (Fig. 2), the wadi itself being rich in water resources and particularly in springs such as “Nabe” al-Ma’alaqa (Fig. 3), ‘the hanging spring’, characterized by being relatively high up and very active (al-Muheisen 1992, 245-251). Yasileh is 5 km from ar-Ramtha and 9 km from Irbid and has a variety of water sources, storage and delivery systems including springs, reservoirs, wells, dams, tunnels and canals (al-Muheisen and Tarrier 1996, 185-196).

THE SITE

The pottery sherds from the excavated areas reflected a wide variety of forms and periods; the earliest sherds date back to the late Hellenistic period but are also evidenced through the Islamic periods (al-Muheisen 1994, 651-653), with a notable profusion of Roman and Byzantine sherds. This can be attributed to the prosperity and importance of the site during these periods, which is also known to have been documented at some of the other sites in Northern Jordan (al-Muheisen 1994, 29).

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Fig. 2. Plan of the water systems at Yasileh.

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Fig. 3. The spring of al-Ma’alaqa.

As for the geology of the site, we were able to distinguish three geological periods: During the Pleistocene there were basaltic flows and terrace graves: The Middle Eocene layers consist of chalky marl with chert layers, white, soft, upper chalky limestone with chert layers, a hard cherty limestone, dark gray to brown, and a lower chalky marly limestone, whitish to beige and soft. In the uppermost Cretaceous the rocks consisted of bituminous marl = (oil shale) dark gray to light gray with chert nodules and bands. Although Yasileh is located in an area where many surveys have been carried out, it does not appear to have been mentioned before the accidental dis- covery of a tomb in the spring of 1988 (Fig. 4), (al-Muheisen and Najjar 1994, 5-7); since then, however, ten campaigns have been carried out by the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology at Yarmouk University headed by the author (al-Muheisen 1989, 253-257). In addition to the necropolis, four main archaeological structures have been identified; two churches were brought to light in the southern and northern parts of the site, the first built on a terrace on the western bank of the wadi. A burial site consisting of a coffin made of large stone slabs was found in the northeastern corner of the church, and contained two male skeletons and a bone toggle from a monk’s mantle. According to various pieces of evidence, the church probably dates back to the middle of the fifthe or beginning of the sexth century AD. The second church, found during the last season, has a mosaic pavement dated to the year AD 528 (al-Muheisen and Tarrier 1996, 43).

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Fig. 4. Plan of tomb 1 at Yasileh.

Fig. 5. Plan of the wine press.

In area B located on the eastern bank, a large rock-cut wine press was uncovered (Fig. 5). The two-storey complex includes several rooms, with treading floors, vats and cisterns, as well as storage caves. On the same bank, below the wine press, an important structure was cleared, which building techniques as well as pottery sherds allowed us to date to the Hellenistic period (al-Muheisen and Tarrier 1992, 229).

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Fig. 6. Arial photo of Wadi Warran and the water reservoirs.

I- WATER RESERVOIRS

Reservoirs at Yasileh are hewn out of the natural rock and found on the lower slopes each side of Wadi Warran (Fig. 6), next to dwellings in the residential quarter of the site. Hewn from a matrix of hard calcareous rock and fed by rainwater during the winter, the reservoirs took different forms: rectangular, square, rounded, hemispherical, oval, and even as elongated tunnels. 22 reservoirs were identified, some in a poor state of preservation due to erosion and/ or being found full of stones and silt (al-Muheisen 1990, 459-462). Some reservoirs were supplied by tunnels carrying water from the wadi while others were connected to the wadi via rock-cut canals; many of these canals could not be completely identified as they were entirely silted up, but were dis- tinguishable at the point where they joined the reservoir or through an opening in the roof, particularly those reservoirs built on the sloping sides of the wadi. These installations have been skillfully hewn and the natural rock functions as a ceiling or roof to keep them free of soil and debris. This is particularly noticeable in reservoirs built on the gradient, some of which are entirely roofed with the upper part being rounded in shape but becoming rectangular as they penetrate deeper into the rock. This technique was used to maximize the capacity of the reservoir.

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RESERVOIR I Located on the western bank of Wadi Warran, this reservoir is hewn out of hard limestone rock; although ill-defined, it appeared to be rectangular in shape with overall dimensions of 3.5 m length (east-west), 3.3 m width (north- south) and 2 m depth, with a capacity of 23.1 m3, and would have filled auto- matically during the flood of Wadi Warran.

RESERVOIR II Identified west of the wadi some 3 m north of Reservoir I it is also hewn out of the hard limestone rock characteristic of the site, but is rounded in shape (1.55 m diameter). A sounding shaft (2 m ≈ 2 m ≈ 2 m) opened here showed that the reservoir is 2.5 m deep with 3.1 m3 overall capacity. The excavated fill yielded some potsherds and a filling tunnel was discovered.

RESERVOIR III This reservoir was located at the bottom of the eastern slope of the wadi and natural rocks were integrated into the roof to protect it from dirt. Hewn from the hard calcareous rock it is rectangular in plan (6.5 m ≈ 4.8 m ≈ 4 m) with an overall capacity of 124.8 m3. Remnants of a rock-carved canal are still evident on the southern side of the reservoir.

RESERVOIR IV This reservoir is located on the western slope, 4 m from a group of reservoirs on its southern side; rectangular in shape with overall dimensions of 3.6 m ≈ 1.4 m ≈ 2 m and a capacity of 10.08 m3, it was hewn from the hard local limestone rock.

RESERVOIR V Located on the western side about 5 m from Reservoir IV, it is cut out of the hard limestone rock ubiquitous in the area; hemispherical in shape with overall dimensions of 3.75 m ≈ 2.80 m ≈ 2.80 m, it had a capacity of 13.4 m3. Tool marks are still observable on the interior, and it used to be filled with water directly from the wadi during winter floods.

RESERVOIR VI This is situated on the western bank of the wadi some 50 m north of Reser- voir V. As in the case of the other reservoirs, the matrix was the local hard

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limestone rock. This installation is rectangular in shape (4.8 m ≈ 1.9 m ≈ 2.6 m) with a capacity of 23.7 m3. The rock formation here formed a natural roof, which may indicate pre-planning. The reservoir was supplied through a tunnel of which only the spout, set in the center, was preserved; the tunnel itself was destroyed by natural factors such as erosion.

RESERVOIR VII

Located on the western side of the wadi some 60 m from Reservoir VI, it is opposite the residential quarter of the site. This reservoir takes the shape of a cylindrical tunnel (4.8 m long, 2.25 m wide and 2.5 deep) and has a capacity 21.2 m3; tool marks are still evident. The reservoir was provided with water directly from Wadi Warran and through a secondary canal on the southern side.

RESERVOIR VIII

Located on the western side of the wadi in the cliff opposite the residential area of the site, it is some 7 m from Reservoir VII. The reservoir is nearly square in layout (5.3 m ≈ 5.1 m) and is 4 m in depth, with 108.12 m3. The reservoir has three niches cut out of the southern side with dimensions typically 0.75 m high, 0.3 m wide and 0.15 m deep, which could have been built to facilitate clearing or cleaning, or to let in light. An alternative explanation is that this installation had initially been intended as a tomb, but due to the hardness of the matrix was changed into a reservoir. Reservoir VIII is connected to a well on the northwestern side through an opening some 0.5 m in diameter. This well is cut out of hard limestone and is piriform in shape (3 m wide ≈ 2 m deep), with a rounded opening 0.6 m in diameter and an overall capacity of 9.4 m3. This aim of this subsidiary well was to maximize the amount of water channeled into Reservoir VIII during the winter rains; a recess in the northern side of this well was used for clearance purposes.

RESERVOIR IX

Located on the western side opposite the residential quarter, some 3 m north of Reservoir VIII, this reservoir has an asymmetrical outline and is rounded in shape (6.20 m long ≈ 4.80 wide ≈ 5.50 deep); at a depth of 2.2 m it becomes rectangular, probably to increase the capacity, which is 84.3 m3. Since there is no canal, it must have filled directly from the winter torrents in Wadi Warran.

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RESERVOIR X

Located on the western side of the wadi some 3 m from Reservoir IX, opposite the residential quarter of the site, the reservoir is rounded in plan (1.15 m in diameter ≈ 2.5 m deep) with 1.7 m3 capacity. This reservoir was filled by means of a tunnel bringing water from the wadi during winter.

RESERVOIR XI

Located on the western side of the wadi some 12 m north of Reservoir X, opposite the residential quarter of the site, Reservoir XI is roughly rectangular in shape (6.8 m ≈ 6.15 m ≈ 5 m) and has 209.1 m3 capacity. A rock-cut niche in the southern side could have been used for daily activities such as washing etc. and rocks were incorporated into the roof to prevent dirt and debris washing in, since it is located in a cliff face. An opening, 1.05m in diameter was cut in the northwestern side of the reservoir; this is a water inlet cut out of rock and it is 1.63 m long with a cylindrical bulge at the western end, probably to slow the rate of flow from Wadi Warran. No evidence was found of canals to direct water into the cistern, particularly since the course of the wadi had been changed due to the summer storm mentioned previously. Three recesses were uncovered in the interior of this reservoir, two on the southern side (each 0.55 m long ≈ 0.23 m wide and 0.1 m deep) and one on the northern side (0.48 m long ≈ 0.25 m wide ≈ 0.12 m deep), which may have been for illumination or for washing purposes. Another suggestion is that, as in the case of Reservoir XIII, this installation might have initially been intended to be a tomb, but due to the hardness of the rock was changed to a cistern.

RESERVOIR XII

Located on the western side of the wadi some 10 m north of Reservoir XI, this reservoir is rectangular in plan (3.80 m ≈ 3.30 m ≈ 2.20 m) with a 30.1 m3 capacity and a natural rock ceiling. At the extreme northwestern end was a rounded water inlet (1.1 m wide ≈ 0.8 m deep).

RESERVOIR XIII

Located on the western side of the wadi 30 m north of Reservoir XII, this reservoir is oval in shape (6.4 m maximum width, 6.15 m minimum width and 5.25 m deep) with a capacity of 1.8 m3, and it used to fill directly from the wadi. A sounding made in the reservoir uncovered some pottery sherds.

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RESERVOIR XIV Located on the eastern side of the wadi, this is rectangular (5.4 m ≈ 4.3 m ≈ 4 m) with a 92.88 m3 capacity.

RESERVOIR XV Located on the eastern side of the wadi some 6 m north of Reservoir X1V, this installation is hemispheric in plan (4.6 m ≈ 3.25 m ≈ 3.4 m) with 26.6 m3 capacity and is filled directly by winter rainwater. Tool marks are still observable on the interior.

RESERVOIR XVI Located also on the eastern side of reservoir XV, some 6 m further north, this reservoir is oval in shape (5.3 m ≈ 4 m ≈ 4.5 m) with a 50 m3 capacity. This reservoir used to fill with water during seasonal floods.

RESERVOIR XVII Located on the eastern side of Wadi Warran, 90 m north of Reservoir XVI and close to Church II, this reservoir is oval in shape (6.3 m maximum width, 5.1 m minimum width, 5 m deep) and has an overall capacity of 84.1 m3. The reservoir was supplied by water falling on the nearby mountain, and rocks were integrated to form a ceiling. Tool marks were seen on the interior of the reservoir.

RESERVOIR XX Located on the western side of the wadi some 60 m north of Church I, Res- ervoir XX has a rectangular opening (1.5 m ≈ 1 m) dug into the hard limestone rock some 0.4 m deep. On the western side of the opening are three rock-cut steps, used during cleaning or to fill jars; rope furrows appear on the northern side of the opening. The reservoir is nearly square in shape (6 m ≈ 5.70 m ≈ 5 m) with an overall capacity of 171 m3; no plaster was detected on the inside yet it was well polished; three rings 1.50 m apart were installed inside the reservoir and used as a scale to measure the water level. A small opening (0.45 m) was installed on the eastern side of Reservoir XX connecting it to a small piriform well from which water flowed into the reservoir. A sounding (2 m ≈ 2 m ≈ 1.8 m) made in the well showed a structure of shaped stones with mortar (0.85 m wide, 1.55 m long and 1.85 m high). The small well and the associated wall functioned as filters for the water before it was stored in the reservoir. At the bottom of the wall were two canals.

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RESERVOIR XXI Located on the eastern side of the wadi north of Reservoir V, it has an approximately. square opening (1.97 m ≈ 1.20 m ≈ 0.9 m deep) and is itself nearly square in plan (8.4 m ≈ 8 m ≈ 5.53 m deep), with an overall capacity of 359.52 m3. A canal opening appears at the southwestern end of the reservoir.

RESERVOIR XXII Located on the eastern side of the wadi 2.75 m north of Reservoir XVII, this reservoir has two openings opposite each other, one in the eastern and the other in the western side. The eastern opening is rounded (1 m in diameter and 0.55 m deep) with rope furrows appearing around it, while the western opening is rectangular in shape (1.65 m ≈ 1.0 m ≈ 0.4 m) and shows rope furrows on its western side. The reservoir itself is square in shape (6.3 m ≈ 6.25 m ≈ 5.28 m) with 207.9 m3 capacity. A tunnel supplying Reservoir XXI with water appears on the southeastern side of Reservoir XXII, while there are two canals on the western side. These canals 3.25 m apart conduct water to the reservoir from Wadi Warran and the surrounding rocky area; the southern canal was built of dressed stones with its floor made of rocks, while the northern canal is hewn out of rock with a roof built of stones. The length of these canals could not be determined due to accumulated soil. Inside the reservoir are three rings spaced 0.6 m apart used as scales to measure the water level, and two layers of plaster were identified on the interior: soft external (0.5 cm thick) and coarse internal (1 cm thick). It seems that the reservoir received water from the wadi which then passed to Reservoir XVII through a tunnel and finally to Reservoir XXII through a canal. Reservoir XXII is distinguished, however, by an inscription found on the eastern side. The inscription indicates that the reservoir belonged to a tribe, it being customary for tribes to have their own private water resources, and that an inscription was added during the Islamic era as indicated by the word Allah, possibly indicating that this was a public reservoir.

Table of Reservoirs

Res # Shape Length* Width* Depth* Capacity** I Rectangular 3.30 3.30 2 23.1 II Rounded 1.55 1.55 2.50 3.1 III Rectangular 6.50 4.80 4 124.8 IV Rectangular 3.60 1.40 2 10.08 V Hemispherical 3.75 2.80 2.80 13.4

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Res # Shape Length* Width* Depth* Capacity** VI Rectangular 4.80 1.90 2.60 23.7 VII Cylindrical Tunnel 4.80 2.25 2.50 21.2 VIII*** Square 5.30 5.10 4 108.12 IX Rounded 6.10 4.80 5.50 48.3 X Rounded 1.15 1.15 2.50 1.7 XI Square 6.80 6.15 5 209.1 XII Rectangular 3.80 3.30 2.40 30.1 XIII Oval 6.40 6.15 5.25 108 XIV Rectangular 5.40 4.30 4 92.88 XV Hemispherical 4.60 3.25 3.40 26.6 XVI Oval 5.30 4 4.50 50 XVII Oval 6.30 5.10 5 84.1 XX Square (plastered) 6 5.70 5 171 XXI Square 8.40 8 5.35 359.52 XX11 Square (plastered) 6.30 6.25 5.28 207.9 Total 1762.1

* In meters. ** Cubic meters. *** Attached to this reservoir is a piriform well (4.9 m3 capacity).

To conclude, the above table indicates that: 1. Twenty reservoirs were excavated around the site. 2. They varied in shape including oval, rounded, rectangular, hemi-spherical and square. 3. Reservoirs XXI, and XXII are the largest in terms of capacity and are also the only examples of reservoirs with plastered walls. Samples of these plasters were submitted to laboratory analysis. The two reservoirs are connected by means of a tunnel (Fig. 7). 4. Both the size and consequently the capacity of the reservoirs varied consi- derably.

II- WELLS

A well is an underground water reserve, usually man-made, dug below ground-level in a rocky area to collect rainwater. Wells have been known since antiquity and ancient settlements were almost always concentrated around a water source.

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Fig. 7. Plan of the tunnel connecting Reservoir XX1 with Reservoir XX11.

At Yasileh, wells were cut in rocky areas (Fig. 8) and on slopes using chisels and axes that made oblique strokes of various depths; in order to fill wells and increase the inflow of water, the surrounding high rocky areas were leveled and canals were hewn, while some wells were supplied by means of canals deliver- ing water from Wadi Warran. Wells dug adjacent to buildings were supplied with water collected from the rooves of structures, and this method is particularly noted in the area of Church II within the site. The locations of wells at Yasileh are carefully chosen and the wells themselves are huge and skillfully hewn; some were plastered on the interior to prevent leakage, lichens and other contaminant growths. These wells were intended to maximize rainwater collec- tion as drinking water for the population and their animals and for irrigation. Wells fall into three main varieties: 1. Piriform wells. 2. Square wells. 3. Parallogram wells (represented by a sole example).

Piriform wells are the most common at Yasileh, while square wells were concentrated along Wadi Warran. Following is a description of the excavated wells.

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Fig. 8. One of the Yasileh wells.

WELL I

Located on the western side of the wadi on a rocky hill opposite the excavated communal burial sites, this well is piriform in shape with a circular opening 0.75 m in diameter with rope grooves evident on the eastern side. Located in fertile arable land currently under cultivation by local villagers, the dimensions of the well are 5.85 m maximum width, 5.65 m minimum width, 5.25 m depth with a capacity of 90.8 m3. Well I has two layers of interior plaster, a thin layer over a coarse layer; water is supplied by a rock-cut canal, of which only 0.5 m could be traced.

WELL II

Located on the western side of the wadi some 60 m east of Church I and 5 m west of Well I, Well II has a piriform shape with a circular opening 0.4 m in diameter with rope grooves on the southern side. This well is located in fertile arable land currently under cultivation by local villagers. The well (2.5 m long and 2.5 m wide) with a capacity of 3.2 m3 has a 1 m deep stone ring (0.5 m above ground-level) left in the well as a scale by which to measure the amount of rainwater stored. Tool marks are observable on the interior, which showed no evidence of plaster.

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WELL III

Located on the western side of the wadi below Church I some 3 m north of Wells I and II, Well III has two openings; one on the eastern side (1.2 m ≈ 1.1 m)1 superimposing a tunnel cut out of rock, and the other in the western part of the well, some 2.1 m from the former opening. The western opening is rectangular (1.45 m ≈ 0.8 m) hewn in rock to a depth of 2.25 m, with rope grooves around the eastern side of the opening. Two holes, each 10 cm deep, on the northern and southern sides of the opening, may have been to stabilize a piece of wood holding the rope attached to a receptacle for drawing water, most likely made of animal skins. On the northern side of the same opening are circular cavities hewn at regularly spaced levels and representing a ladder, probably used to access the well for cleaning purposes. The well, which is still used by local people for watering animals and for irrigation, is approximately square in shape (5.5 m ≈ 5 m ≈ 4.3 m) with a smoothed interior and a capacity of 118.25 m3. This well is supplied with water from the wadi through a sole canal installed on the eastern side, which is connected via another canal to Well V.

WELL IV

Located on the western side nearly 3 m north of Well III, this well has an opening 1.75 m long, 1.05 m wide and 0.55 m deep. Well IV is constructed in a square plan (5.3 m ≈ 5.5 m ≈ 3.5 m) and has an overall capacity of 98.3 m3. This well has been polished although not plastered. On the southern side is a rock-cut, nearly-round opening, and a sounding made here showed a rock- carved canal connecting this well with Well III. A basalt mortar was found in the dirt within the canal. The well obviously used to fill with rainwater and water from the wadi during the winter floods.

WELL V

Located on the eastern side of the wadi, it has a rounded opening 1.1 m diameter constructed of dressed stones (average dimensions 0.6 m ≈ 0.25 m) and mortar, with rope grooves appearing on the western side. In the center of the northern side is a rock-cut canal which, from the inside, can be seen to receive water from Reservoir XXI that is in turn connected with Reservoir XXII through another canal.

1 Renewed with concrete by current inhabitants.

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Well V has a piriform shape, 6.5 m north-south, 6.51 m east-west and 4.85 m deep with an overall capacity of 101.5 m3. The interior is covered with two layers of plaster; a fine external layer 1 cm thick over a 1.5 cm thick layer.

WELL VI

Located on the eastern side some 18 m from Reservoir XXII to the south and some 1 m west of the residential quarter, the well has a rounded opening (0.44 m in diameter and 0.45 m thick); four knobs hewn around the mouth suggest that it had a cover. Well VI takes a square form (4.75 m ≈ 4.75 m ≈ 3 m) with an overall capacity of 67.7 m3. The well was filled with water falling on the surrounding rocky area, which was then channeled through a web of canals (6 cm average width and 4 cm average depth).

WELL VII

Located on the eastern side of the wadi some 15 m west of the residential area, the well has a rectangular opening (1.55 m ≈ 1.15 m) although the well itself is square (4.85 m ≈ 4.85 m ≈ 4.5 m); it has a capacity of 105.8 m3. An opening on the eastern side connects with an un-plastered stone canal which brought water from the residential area.

WELL VIII

Located on the western side of the wadi, Well VIII had a rounded opening 1.22 m in diameter protected from dirt by a stone wall. On the eastern side is a canal cut into the rock, covered with dressed stones, which carried water falling on the surrounding area to the well, since its distance and elevation made it impractical to supply it with water from the wadi. The well is piriform in plan (6.8 m ≈ 6.5 m ≈ 6.28 m) and has an overall capacity of 143 m3. The interior has two layers of plaster, a coarse layer 2 cm thick covered with a 1 cm fine external layer.

WELL IX

Located east of the Islamic cemetery, Well XI has a rounded opening 0.88 m in diameter. No rope marks were noted, yet there are two holes 10 cm deep, one on the southern and the other on the northern side of the opening, which possibly held a piece of wood to facilitate drawing water with ropes. The well takes a piriform shape (3.4 m maximum width, 3 m minimum width and 3 m deep) with a16 m3 capacity. On the eastern side of the well is a rock-cut canal used to collect water from the surrounding area.

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WELL X Located some 4 m east of Well IX, this well has a rounded opening 0.92 m in diameter and is surrounded by a 0.75 m high wall built of dressed stones (30 cm ≈ 20 cm) to prevent dirt getting into the well. On the eastern side are three rock-cut steps (0.15 m ≈ 0.25 m) used during cleaning operations. Rope grooves appear on the northern side of the well, whereas on the eastern side, north of the steps, there is a rock-carved canal to supply water from the wadi. The well is piriform in shape (4.95 m maximum wide, 4.8 m minimum wide and 5.5 m deep) with an overall capacity of 68.4 m3, and is not plastered.

WELL XI Located on the eastern side of the wadi to the south of a group of individual graves, this well has a circular opening (0.7 m in diameter) and is piriform in shape (3.5 m ≈ 3.5 m ≈ 3 m) with a 19.2 m3 capacity. What distinguishes this well is a tunnel 0.7 m wide on its northern side indicating that it is connected to another well, but it could not be located due to the accumulation of soil. The well, which used to store rainwater, is not plastered and rope grooves appear on the western side of the opening. The area around this well was used to pre- pare mud for graves during burial processes.

WELL XII Located on the eastern side of the wadi, Well XII is the sole example of a parallelogram well structure (2 m ≈ 1 m ≈ 1.9 m), and has a 38 m3 capacity. Local residents mentioned that this well had been used for rainwater storage up until 1990, yet it is completely silted up now.

WELL XIII Located on the western side of the wadi and known as Bir at-Tinih, ‘the Well of the Fig’, it has a rounded opening 1.24 m in diameter and is piriform from the inside (6.25 m north-south, 6.1 m east-west, and 6 m deep). The interior wall is covered with two layers of plaster: a coarse internal layer 1 cm thick and a fine external layer 0.5 cm thick. The well leaks heavily in winter.

WELL XIV Located on the western side of the wadi some 2 m east of Well XIII, this well has a rounded opening 0.9 m in diameter showing rope furrows on the eastern side; it is piriform in shape (4.75 m north-south, 4.5 m east-west and 44.7 m deep) with an overall capacity of 44.7 m3; plaster still adheres to the interior of the well.

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Wells discovered in the area of the wine presses The presses were uncovered on the eastern cliffs of Wadi Warran; cut out of rocks (Fig. 5), they are relatively large (50 m ≈ 17 m) and multi-system.

WELL XV

Situated west of the presses and hewn out of the hard limestone rock, this well has a square opening (0.78 m north-south and 0.75 m east-west) and is built of dressed stones ranging in length from 50 to 75 cm. The western and northern sides of the opening are preserved to a height of 1.6 m and the eastern and southern side to 0.8 m, with rope grooves on the southern side. The well is piriform in shape (8.05 m north-south, 7.26 m east-west and 6.2 m deep) and has a capacity of 189.7 m3. The well was supplied by two rock-cut canals 0.85 m apart on the eastern side of the opening, one 15 cm deep and 27 cm wide, the other 15 cm deep and 42 cm wide. The well is burnished on all four sides.

WELL XVI

Located south of the presses, the 0.9 m-diameter opening is covered with a circular basalt stone called ‘al-kharazeh’ (‘the bead’) which is 1.35 m in diameter. Rope grooves appear on the northern side of the opening and there are two rock-cut canals, one on the northern and one on the southern side. The well is piriform in shape (4.7 m east-west, 5.4 m north-south, and 4.5 m deep) with a 59.5 m3 capacity. The well contains four rings in the wall which functioned as a scale by which to measure the water level; the lowest is 1.7 m above the floor of the well, 0.6 m between this and the second ring, and 0.7 m between the second and third and also between the third and fourth (uppermost) ring. A fine layer of plaster (2 mm thick) covers the interior of the well.

WELL XVII

Located east of the presses, this well has a circular opening (0.54 m in diameter) hewn 0.45 m into the rock, and has rope furrows on the northern side. The well, not plastered, is piriform in shape (4.6 m east- west, 3.35 m north-south, and 2.95 m deep) with a 23.4 m3 capacity. This well was used to store water during winter and wine in summer: the latter function is indicated by a canal running from the press to the well. The well is also connected to other canals surrounding the press cistern.

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WELL XVIII Located east of the presses, this well has a canal installed on the western side to deliver water from the southern well. The well is accessed by means of two rock-cut steps (0.45 m ≈ 0.25 m) on the southern side of the 0.75 m ≈ 0.7 m square surrounding the opening. The well is 1.5 m north-south and 1.25 m east-west and piriform in shape (1.38 m east-west, 1.65 m north-south, 1.55 m deep) with a 1.8 m3 capacity.

WELL XIX Located north of the presses, this well is cut into soft limestone rocks and covered with two layers of plaster; an internal coarse one 1.5 mm thick and an external fine one, gray in color and 0.5 mm thick. The opening of this well is rounded (1.18 m in diameter) and, like the others at this site, is piriform in shape (5.4 m ≈ 5.4 m ≈ 6.42 m), and of 95.2 m3 capacity. The southern side of the well was partially destroyed due either to natural factors or reutilization, particularly during the Islamic era when this installation was used as dwellings. During the second season of excavations at the site, dipper juglets and jugs were uncovered within the well; the dipper juglets might have been used as wine measures, and therefore it is plausible that the well was used to store water in winter and wine in summer.

CHURCH II WELLS Church II is located in the area northwest of Wadi Warran, some 30 m from the residential area of the site. The Church follows a basilica layout consisting of a main hall divided by means of two rows of double-columns into three main parts. The church includes a central courtyard, northern nave, southern nave, apse, northern chamber, southern chamber and an entrance. In general, the church is rectangular in plan, built on a north-south axis.

WELL XX This well was found hewn in limestone rock underneath the eastern end of the northern nave of the church. It has an opening built of large and medium- sized dressed limestone (average dimensions 0.71 m ≈ 0.4 m), and orifices between boulders were filled with small stone chips (20 cm ≈ 15 cm). The opening itself is 0.5 m ≈ 0.4 m and is sunk 12 cm below ground. The interior plan of the well is piriform (2.1 m east-west, 1.95 m north- south, 2 m deep) and 5.5 m3 capacity. The well is currently being used by the local inhabitants.

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WELL XXI

Well XX (described above) is connected to a larger well outside the church complex Well XXI, which is piriform in plan (5 m in diameter, 3.5 m deep and 45.8 m3 capacity). On the eastern side of the well is a canal that used to bring water from the church roof, and four steps built within the well were used to facilitate cleaning and/or filing jars. The opening of this well is trap- ezoidal (0.57 m ≈ 0.55 m) and constructed of large dressed limestone blocks (0.8 m ≈ 0.3 m ≈ 0.06 m). The two wells (Well XX and Well XXI) are connected through a semicircular opening 0.55 m in diameter at the bottom of the wells, with water being filtered in Well XXI before being transmitted to Well XX.

WINEPRESS II WELLS Press II is located on the western side of Wadi Warran; it was being hewn out of the rock but was left unfinished and is somewhat smaller than the clutch discovered west of the wadi. Two wells were found at the entrance to this press.

WELL XXII Located east of the press, it is hewn out of rock and has a circular opening (0.7 m diameter, and 0.5 m deep) with a canal on its western side, of which only 0.6 m could be identified, and rope grooves on the eastern side. The interior of the well is piriform (5.96 m east-west, 6.06 m north- south, 4.5 m deep) and 85.1 m3 capacity. The interior is covered with a double layer of plaster; a coarse layer (2 cm thick) overlaid with a fine (1 cm thick) outer layer.

WELL XXIII Well XXII is connected through an opening (0.5 m wide) on its northern side with another well, piriform in shape (2 m ≈ 2 m ≈ 1 m), with 2.1 m3 capacity; the well is plastered on the inside and is currently being used by local farmers.

WELL XXIV This well, dug out of hard limestone, is located at the entrance of the press. It has a circular opening 0.6 m in diameter cut 1.7 m deep into the rock. The interior plan of the well is piriform (4.25 m east-west, 3.85 m north-south, 3.15 m deep) and of 23.5 m3 capacity. The interior is covered with a double layer of plaster, the interior one coarse (2 cm thick) and the outer one is fine (1 cm thick) and gray in color. The well used to be filled with rainwater.

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Table of Wells

Well # Plan Plaster Length* Width* Depth* Capacity** I Piriform ✓ 5.85 5.65 5.25 90.8 II Piriform 2.50 2.50 1.00 3.2 III Square 5.50 5.00 4.30 118.25 IV Square 5.30 5.30 3.50 98.3 V Piriform ✓ 6.50 6.15 4.85 101.5 VI Square 4.75 4.75 3.00 67.7 VII Square 4.85 4.85 4.50 108.8 VIII Piriform ✓ 6.80 6.50 6.18 143 IX Piriform 3.40 3.00 3.00 16 X Piriform 4.95 4.80 5.50 68.4 XI Piriform ✓ 3.50 3.50 3.00 19.2 XII Parallelogram 2.00 1.00 1.90 83 XIII Piriform ✓ 6.25 6.10 6.00 119.7 XIV Piriform ✓ 4.75 4.50 4.00 44.7 XV Piriform 8.05 7.26 6.20 189.7 XVI Piriform ✓ 4.70 5.40 4.50 59.8 XVII Piriform 4.60 3.35 2.90 23.4 XVIII Piriform 1.65 1.38 1.55 1.8 XIX Piriform ✓ 5.40 5.40 6.24 95.2 XX Piriform 2.10 1.95 2.50 5.5 XXI Piriform 5.00 5.00 3.50 45.8 XXII Piriform ✓ 6.06 5.96 4.50 85.1 XXIII Piriform ✓ 2.00 2.00 1.00 2.1 XXIV Piriform ✓ 4.25 3.85 3.15 23.5

* Meters. ** Cubic meters.

From the above table one may conclude: 1. 24 wells have been cleared at the Yasileh site, distributed along the side close to other structures and installations. 2. The layout of the wells varied, with a preference for the piriform. 3. The capacity of the wells differed, the largest being 189.7 m3. 4. Some of the wells were plastered and samples have been submitted for analysis.

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Fig. 9. Plan of the al-Ma’alaqa spring.

SPRINGS Springs result from natural, geological activity that causes disturbance and erosion of the earth’s crust whereby underground water-sources find their way to the surface.

AL-MA’ALAQA SPRING The chief spring at Yasileh, al-Ma’alaqa is located 1 km north of the site (Fig. 9). The spring has a 4 m long tunnel dug into the limestone characteristic of the site and encompasses a channel in the bottom of the tunnel, on either side of which are square blocks cut out of the rock. Although not very active, the spring is still running. On both sides of the 1.9 m-wide tunnel there is a path, and circular holes 10 cm in diameter in the walls used either as hand-grips to facilitate walking in the tunnel, or possibly to hold lamps. The Wadi ash-Shallalih area is rich in springs, several of which are found in the area preceding the Roman bridge, 0.5 km from ‘Ain al-Ma’alaqa. These springs (‘Aiun) include ‘Ain Saiah, ‘Ain ash-Shlaf, which provides the town of al-Mughair with water, ‘Aiun al-Misahaid (two springs with a tunnel connecting them), and ‘Ain ash-Shlaf situated in the area after the Roman bridge.

DAMS There is just one dam known at Yasileh built into the cliff on the southern side of Wadi al-Warran. The northern side of the dam was built of dressed limestone blocks and chips, while on both the eastern and western sides are

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three rock-hewn steps (0.8 m ≈ 0.5 m) to slow the flow of water during floods. Although the dam has mainly collapsed and only two courses remain standing, it is currently used by local farmers. Rocks on the eastern and western sides of the wadi course were used as a dam, which may indicate pre-planning of the location. The dam is 81.5 m long north-south, 10.5 m wide, 2.2 m high (deep) and of 1882.65 m3 capacity.

CONDUITS AND CANALS

Channels A channel is an artificial waterway made to facilitate transportation and distribution of water in agricultural lands and water installations. Two types of channel could be defined at Yasileh; rock-cut and stone-built. A sounding made in the eastern part of Reservoir XX during the seventh season at the site uncovered two channels, visible from inside the reservoir, which had brought water from the wadi.

Channel I This runs northwest-southeast, paralleling the wadi. This channel is 14 m long, 0.35 m wide and 3 cm deep. The southern part is hewn out of rock while the northern part, including the roof, is made of worked stone and has a rock floor.

Channel III This canal used to carry water to Well IV and was unearthed in a trench made on the southern side of the well opening. This channel runs in a north- south direction from Well III to Well IV. Channel III is rock-cut, 3 m long, 0.25 m wide and 0.17 m deep, and it is here that a basalt mortar was found. There is a rock-cut channel topped by a modern, cement-made opening on the eastern side of Well III.

Channel IV This channel runs north-south carrying water from Well V to Reservoir XXI. Channel IV is 17.6 m long, 0.3 m wide and 0.23 m deep with a rock floor, dressed-stone sides and stone roof.

Channel V This channel is associated with Well XVIII. These installations are located south of Press I, in the eastern cliff of the wadi. This channel is slightly tilted and runs in a south-north direction. Channel V, which is cut out of rock, is 2.75 m long, 0.35 m wide and 0.26 m deep. This channel has an extension in the rock on the northern side of the well opening; the extension (3.55 m long,

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0.27 m wide and 0.25 m deep) provides a channel surrounding the basin of the press and although the method of connection is unclear it was probably by means of a ceramic duct. The depth of the extension increases gradually to become 0.37 m at the opening, which may indicate that the extension was connected to the channel that encircles the press basin.

Channel VI This rock-cut channel bought water from the surrounding area to Well XVII, located on the eastern side of the press. Channel VI runs in an east- west direction and is 3.7 m long, 0.25 m wide and 10 cm deep.

Channel VII Surrounding the basin of the press on three sides to a height of 0.6 m, this rock-cut channel (5.25 m long, 0.2 m wide and 12 cm deep) receives water from the southern well and runs in an east-west direction then turns to the north and becomes the eastern part of the internal courtyard (6.95 m long, 0.56 m wide and 13 cm deep). At a distance of 3.85 m a rock-cut channel running to the east bifurcates from the main channel and ends in the well; the latter channel is 2.5 m long, 15 cm wide and 12 cm deep. This ‘subsidiary’ channel turns westward and runs in an east-west direction. On the eastern side it measures 5.45 m long, 0.28 m wide and 0.12 m deep. In its center is a circular aperture 8 cm in diameter probably used to supply the crushing basins with water, and it was probably constructed in this manner to reduce the amount of water entering the basin where the grapes were washed before being crushed.

Baptismal channel Stretching from the church, only the end of this channel could be defined as it was uncovered in a sounding. Two meters of the channel were cleared and revealed it to be rock-cut, 0.25 m deep and 0.3 m wide, with a probable overall length of 25 m. The baptismal channel runs in a west- east direction and ends in Wadi al-Warran, about 4 m north of Reservoir V; the channel was used to take away the waste water from baptisms and cleaning water from the church. It is noted that rock-cut channels are the most common in the Yasileh site, probably due to the soft calcareous rock which prevents water seepage. Chan- nels built of stone are characterized by the careful preparation and dressing of the stone and the bottom of the channel being rock, which prevented seepage.

Tunnels A tunnel is an underground passage that leads from one place to another allowing water to pass through it.

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Tunnel I

This tunnel is 3.2 m long and supplies Reservoir II with water from Wadi Warran. Tunnel I, which is cut out of hard limestone, stretches north-south and curves slightly eastward to ease the water flow to the reservoir. In section, the tunnel is seen to be round (0.9 m diameter) while the tunnel outlet is shaped like a horseshoe (0.95 m long, and 0.45 m wide).

Tunnel II

This tunnel is 3 m long, 0.4 m high and 0.5 m wide and supplies Reservoir X with water from Wadi Warran. Tunnel II, which is cut from hard limestone, stretches east-west and curves slightly toward the north, to ease the water flow into the reservoir. In section, the tunnel is round in shape (0.9 m diameter) and the outlet end is horseshoe-shaped (0.95 m long and 0.45 m wide). Tool marks are evident on the interior of the tunnel

Tunnel III

Connecting Reservoir XXI with Reservoir XXII (Fig. 10), this tunnel, cut out of hard limestone, is 2.15 m wide and 1.8 m high and still contains some water.

Fig. 10. Tunnel III connecting Reservoir XXI with Reservoir XXII.

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CONCLUSION

The archaeological excavations at Yasileh uncovered Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine settlements which continued to the Islamic periods as well. Through- out its history, Yasileh had a variety of water sources, storage and delivery systems including springs, reservoirs, wells, dams, tunnels and canals which allowed Irbid and Umm Qais to be supplied with water for many purposes of human use including watering animals and for irrigation. 20 reservoirs were excavated around the site. 24 wells were distributed along the side close to other structures and installations, in addition to other several water-supply installations. Most of those have been skilfully hewn of natural rock and managed with artificial materials such as plaster to prevent deterioration. The settlement pattern at Yasileh and diversity of water systems ensured the skilful interaction of its Yasilian residents with their surrounding environment and investment of its recources. Thus, based on its water resources, we can say that Yasileh and the surrounding area were well-suited to habitation and an agrarian-based population, due to readily available water sources from springs and rainwater reservoirs, fertile arable land and a mild climate. The people of Yasileh cultivated grains, vegetables, and in particular grapes for wine, as evidenced by the wine presses discovered at the site, and this was the most likely reason for people to have remained settled here for many centuries (al-Muheisen 1991, 341-346).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AL-MUHEISEN, Z. 1989. “Yasileh” ARAM Periodical, Vol. 4, 1-2, 253- 257 (Oxford). —, 1990. “Fouilles de Yasileh: La troisième campagne” Liber Annuus, XL, 459-462 (Jerusalem). —, 1991. “Yasileh: A New Site in Northern Jordan” ADAJ, XXXV, 341-346. —, 1992. “Le site de Yasileh et la Décapole” ARAM Periodical, Vol. 4, 1-2, 245-251 (Oxford). AL-MUHEISEN, Z. and TARRIER, D. 1992. “La nécropoloe de Yasileh et les tombeaux du Nord de la Jordanie” ARAM Periodical, Vol. 4,1-2, 229-244 (Oxford). —, 1993. “jordanie: Les èglises de Yasileh” Le Monde de la Bible, 84, 43 (Paris). AL-MUHEISEN, Z. 1994a. “La cinquième campagne à Yasileh” Liber Annuus, XLIV, 651-653 (Jerusalem). —, 1994b. “L’archéologie de la Période Helllénistique dans les nord de la Jordanie” Transeuphraténe, 8, 29-34 (Gabalda, Paris). AL-MUHEISEN, Z. and NAJJAR, M. 1994. “An Anthropological Study of the Human Remains from Yasileh: A Classical Site in Northern Jordan” Mu’tah Journal for Research and Studies, Humanities and Social Sciences, No. 2, 5-27. Mu’tah (Jordan). AL-MUHEISEN, Z. and TARRIER, D. 1996. “Les fouilles de Yasileh (Jordanie du Nord): le site et sa nécropole” Syria, LXXIII, 1-4, 185-196 (Paris). SCHUMACHER, G. 1890. Northern Ajlun within the Decapolis. Palestine Exploration Fund (London).

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